CONTRIBUTION OF BRAIN HEMISPHERES

IN LEARNING BEHAVIOUR

BY

SOMESUNDRAM KRISHNAN
22 MAY 2014

1.0 BASIC ANATOMY AND FUNCTION OF THE HUMAN BRAIN

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 The brain is one of the most complex and magnificent organs in the human body.
Our brain gives us awareness of ourselves and of our environment, processing a
constant stream of sensory data. It controls our muscle movements, the secretions of
our glands, and even our breathing and internal temperature. Every creative thought,
feeling, and plan is developed by our brain. The brains neurones record the memory of
every event in our lives.

In fact, the human brain is so complicated that it remains an exciting frontier in

the study of the body; doctors, psychologists, and scientists are continually
endeavouring to learn exactly how the many structures of the brain work together
intricately to create our powerful human mind.

The anatomy of the brain is complex due its intricate structure and function. This
amazing organ acts as a control centre by receiving, interpreting, and directing sensory
information throughout the body. The brain and spinal cord are the two main structures
of the central nervous system. There are three major divisions of the brain. They are the
forebrain, the midbrain, and the hindbrain.

The human brain serves many important functions ranging from imagination,
memory, speech, and limb movements to secretion hormones and control of various

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organs within the body. These functions are controlled by many distinct parts that serve
specific and important tasks.

Cerebrum - the largest part of the brain. It is the centre for thought and
intelligence. It is divided into right and left hemispheres. The right controls
movement and activities on the left side of the body. The left controls the right
side of the body. Within the cerebrum are areas for speech, hearing, smell, sight,
memory, learning and motor and sensory areas.

Cerebral cortex - the outside of the cerebrum. Its function is learning, reasoning,
language and memory.

Cerebellum - lies below the cerebrum at the back of the skull. Its functions are to
control voluntary muscles, balance and muscle tone.

Medulla - controls heart rate, breathing, swallowing, coughing and vomiting.

Together with the pons and the midbrain, the medulla forms the brainstem that
connects the cerebrum to the spinal cord.

2.0 THE HUMAN BRAIN AND EDUCATION

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 In recent years educators have explored links between classroom teaching and
emerging theories about how people learn. Exciting discoveries in neuroscience and
continued developments in cognitive psychology have presented new ways of thinking
about the brain-the human neurological structure and the attendant perceptions and
emotions that contribute to learning. Explanations of how the brain works have used
metaphors that vary from the computer (an information processor, creating, storing, and
manipulating data) to a jungle (a somewhat chaotic, layered world of interwoven,
interdependent neurological connections).

Scientists caution that the brain is complex and, while research has revealed some
significant findings, there is no widespread agreement about their applicability to the general
population or to education in particular. Nevertheless, brain research provides rich
possibilities for education and reports of studies from this field have become popular topics in
some educational journals. Enterprising organisations are translating these findings into
professional development workshops and instructional programs to help teachers apply
lessons from the research to classroom settings.

2.1 OPPORTUNITIES FOR LEARNING

Most neuroscientists believe that at birth the human brain has all the neurons it
will ever have. Some connections, those that control such automatic functions as
breathing and heartbeat, are in place at birth, but most of the individual's mental circuitry
results from experiences that greet the newborn and continue, probably, throughout his
or her life. How and when neural connections are made is a topic of debate. Some
researchers believe the circuits are completed by age five or six. Other studies extend
the period of development from birth to the later elementary school years. Still others
argue that nerve connections can be modified throughout life with new connections
forming perhaps even late in life. For educators who subscribe to the first view,
programs and activities aimed at preschoolers (e.g., Head Start or Sesame Street)
increase in importance. The second perception supports offering complex subjects
much earlier in the curriculum than has been traditional. The third encourages efforts for
lifelong learning.

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 The links between learning, the number of neural connections, or the time frame
for development of those connections are not clearly understood. In the case of sight,
evidence suggests that after a critical development period vision is severely stunted or
fails altogether. For musical learning, some researchers have found that the longer
someone plays an instrument the more cortex will be dedicated to controlling the finger
movements needed to play it. Exposure to music and development of spatial reasoning
(skills that can be transferred to mathematical understanding) seem to be connected.

These and other findings encourage educators and parents to expose very
young children to a variety of learning experiences-providing blocks and beads to
handle and observe, talking to the child, playing peek-a-boo. The NCTM Curriculum and
Evaluation Standards encourage teachers of kindergarteners to let students work with
patterns; sort, count, and classify objects; use numbers in games; and explore
geometric shapes and figures. It is not too early to engage such young children in
discussions about patterns, beginning data analysis, sequencing, and number sense.
The introduction of a second language is best attempted in these early years as well. In
fact, some researchers look to the first year of life as the best "window of opportunity"
for accelerated learning.

2.2 EMOTIONS AND THE MIND

Educators may find the most useful information in research that focuses less on
the physical and biochemical structure of the brain and more on the mind-a complex mix
of thoughts, perceptions, feelings, and reasoning. Studies that explore the effects of
attitudes and emotions on learning indicate that stress and constant fear, at any age,
can circumvent the brain's normal circuits. A person's physical and emotional well-being
are closely linked to the ability to think and to learn effectively. Emotionally stressful
home or school environments are counterproductive to students' attempts to learn.
While schools cannot control all the influences that impinge on a young person's sense
of safety and well-being, classrooms and schools that build an atmosphere of trust and
intellectual safety will enhance learning. Letting students talk about their feelings can
help them build skills in listening to their classmates' comments. Finding ways to vent

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emotions productively can help students deal with inevitable instances of anger, fear,
hurt, and tension in daily life.

2.3 MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

Another popular interpretation of research on human learning is based on
Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences. First published in 1983, Gardner's
Frames of Mind presented a vision of seven intelligences (linguistic, logical-
mathematical, spatial, bodily- kinaesthetic, musical, interpersonal, interpersonal) that
humans exhibit in unique and individual variations. An antidote to the narrow definition
of intelligence as reflected in standardised test results, Gardner's theories have been
embraced and transformed into curricular interpretations across the country.

Many teachers instinctively respond to the notion that students learn and excel in
a variety of ways, and believe that a classroom that offers an array of learning
opportunities increases the likelihood of success for more students. Gardner himself,
however, counsels against widespread application of his theory to every learning
situation. All concepts do not lend themselves to every variation of Gardner's list and
attempts to present every lesson in seven different modes pushes the theory beyond its
practical usefulness. These profiles also should not be used as diagnostic indicators of
a student's talents. Just as students are not fully right-brained or left-brained, they
should not be defined by their predilection for one or more of Gardner's categories. The
goal of education is to encourage the development of well-rounded individuals.

3.0 BRAIN HEMISPHERES

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3.1 LEFT HEMISPHERE
In 97% of the population language is represented in the left hemisphere, with
little if any contribution from the right hemisphere. Only three in one hundred people will
have significant right hemispheric representation of speech functions; of those three,
two will have significant bilateral representation of speech, with only one individual
having right hemisphere dominance. It is known that early brain injury (the earlier the
better, but generally before the age of about 4), is associated with transference of
language function to the spared hemisphere. With increasing age and gradual
lateralization and anatomical fixation of speech functions to the left hemisphere, less
and less flexibility remains.

The areas involved in the central organisation of language, which is man's most
advanced capability, are appropriately the most advanced and latest developed
neocortical zones. It is not too surprising that this highest function would localise in the
most advanced regions and further still that this function would tend to utilise the
greatest expanse of advanced cortex, which happens to be, in most, localised on the
left. The above is interesting but grossly speculative.

"Why are some functions only represented on one side of the brain?" might be
the next question. No one has proposed a fully satisfactory answer to this teleological
question. It is possible that this is for efficiency, such that language function does not
have to occupy similarly large areas on both sides of the brain (leaving more cortex for
other functions). However, this is speculative. Man appears to be, with rare exception,
the only animal with significant lateralization of such an important function (some birds
apparently have lateralization of their singing capabilities).

Handedness correlates fairly closely with language dominance. Ninety percent of

the population is right-handed; of 1,000 right-handed people only one will be right
hemisphere dominant for speech; overwhelmingly, to be right-handed is to be left
brained for language. Ten percent of the population is left-handed; 7 of 10 left-handed
individuals are left-brain dominant for speech, essentially breaking down the nice

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speech-handedness correlations seen in right-handed individuals. The remaining 3 left-
handers will be those with either bilateral representation of speech (2) or with right
hemisphere dominance (1). Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) has added
the capability to study regional metabolic activities in the brain, which is adding to and
corroborating past findings determined by traditional methods

For practical purposes it is worth noting that the majority of patients with
dysphasia will have a combination of both expressive and receptive dysfunctions (called
global dysphasia). This is because the majority of patients who are dysphasic are so
because of cerebral infarction and the infarction, usually patchy, involves the middle
cerebral artery territory, which encompasses both language areas as well as the
pathway connecting them, the arcuate fasciculus Damage to the arcuate fasciculus can
disconnect the area of the brain that comprehends language (Wernicke area) from the
area that is generating language (Broca area). This would abolish the ability to repeat a
complex phrase, since the comprehension of the phrase could not be transmitted to the
area generating the words.

An even more unusual "disconnection syndrome" occurs when the areas around
the primary language areas are damaged, leaving the primary language areas intact
This "disconnects" the language areas from the rest of the cortex, which is contributing
to the thought processes that are then being expressed through the primary language
areas. Such individuals would be able to repeat, but would have problem spontaneously
generating meaningful language.

Damage to the entire corpus callosum can cause a very striking disconnection
syndrome (sometimes termed "split brain"), although it may not be observed unless the
proper functions are tested. One of the most striking features of the fully expressed
"split brain" is the inability to verbally tell you what an article is, if it is placed in the left
hand (assuming left hemisphere dominance and that the patient is prevented from
looking at it). Additionally, this individual will be unable to understand written language if
the writing is presented only to the left visual field. This material reaches only the right
hemisphere and cannot be transferred to the left or verbal hemisphere, for
interpretation.

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 A rather striking and frequently-quoted example is that of the woman with corpus
callosum transection who snickered when a risqu picture was presented to her left
field. When asked why she laughed, her left hemisphere answered, "It's a funny test."
When the picture was flashed into the right visual field, and therefore seen by the left
hemisphere, the patient quipped "You didn't tell me I was going to have to see this kind
of a picture." During the first presentation of the picture, the right hemisphere saw the
picture and laughed. The left hemisphere rationalized that the laugh must have been
because the test was funny. From the above it is obvious that the right and left cerebral
hemispheres, to some degree, are able to function as two separate individuals if
disconnected.

In addition to having visual transfer problems, transection of the corpus callosum

will prevent transfer of auditory verbal commands from the left hemisphere to the right.
Commands to do chores with the left hand will therefore be carried out imperfectly or
not at all.

These examples and the observation of the patient with a split brain pulling the
pant leg up with the right hand and down with the left (as if the right and left
hemispheres were in competition) reinforce the assumption of a partial schizo
cerebration which comes to light only when the major connection, the corpus callosum,
is destroyed. It is noteworthy that there may be other connections between the left and
right hemisphere, especially if damage to the corpus callosum occurs early in life (such
as agenesis).

3.2 RIGHT HEMISPHERE

The right hemisphere must be considered functionally inferior to the left since it
lacks significant speech representation. Therefore it has been termed the "non-
dominant" hemisphere. However, certain functions do tend to localize to the right
hemisphere. For example, the ability to recognize loss of function, visuospatially
oriented perception and behavior, and musicality all appear to be predominantly
functions of the right cerebral hemisphere. Also, the ability to generate verbal inflections
and to detect tone of voice appears to be localized to the right hemisphere.

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 The patient with severe right hemispheric dysfunction (e.g., subsequent to
infarction, trauma, hemorrhage, or tumor) will manifest rather obvious deficits in
elementary hemispheric functions: s/he will have a hemiweakness, hemisensory
depression, and various abnormalities of cranial nerve function. These deficits are not at
all surprising based on cortical localization. However, particularly if the non-dominant
parietal lobe is involved, the capacity to acknowledge or recognize loss is severely
impaired; for example, the patient may not know that there is anything wrong and
therefore will deny the allegation that there is a deficit. When asked to move the left arm
they may say that they have done so even though no visible movement has occurred.
More bizarrely they may reach for the left arm and grasp the examiner's, which has
been slipped in the path, and claim that it is their own. Also they may deny that their arm
actually belongs to them; this abnormality probably depends to some degree upon the
amount of sensory depression on the left.

Some time ago, a patient with severe right hemisphere dysfunction due to a
stroke was examined at the VA hospital. When turned onto his right side for the purpose
of carrying out a lumbar puncture he vociferously objected to the presence of another
person who was lying on top of him; the other person was his own left side! The term
applied to the lack of appreciation (or neglect) of deficits is "anosognosia" is the term
applied to this deficit. In time, anosognosia fades, compensated by recovery of right
cerebral function or some transfer of this function to the left hemisphere. However, there
are usually some remnants of neglect unless the pathology completely reverses (e.g.,
the patient, when asked what is wrong, might answer, "The doctors tell me I am weak
on the left," etc.). These patients, as you may surmise, tend to be poor rehabilitation
candidates because their neglect decreases their motivation for improvement. The
patient with a similar motor disorder in the right limbs from left hemispheric damage,
despite the fact that they may have severe language deficits, is quite conscious of the
motor loss and quite willing, even insisting, to rehabilitate him- or herself.

Lesions of the right hemisphere, particularly when they involve the confluence of
the parietal, occipital and temporal lobes are frequently associated with visuospatial
disorientation of a disabling degree. This can be tested at the bedside by having the

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patient fill in well-known cities such as San Francisco, New York and Washington on a
map of the United States or by having the patient copy a two dimensional rendition of a
cube. At a practical level, visuospatial disorientation creates problems with following
directions, reading maps and when an unfamiliar place is encountered navigation may
become grossly disordered. Penfield described a patient, who after right temporal
lobectomy became disoriented as soon as he lost sight of home. He was forced to take
a job in the post office across the street from home in order to avoid daily confusion

Musicality is also a predominance of the right hemisphere. Lesions, particularly of

the temporal-occipital-parietal confluence on the right, cause variable deficits in tune
learning and reproduction. Left-sided destruction can leave the patient without speech
but musical ability will frequently remain intact with the patient readily and correctly
reproducing tunes if s/he is cued by the examiner.

4.0 ENVIRONMENTS FOR LEARNING

Recommended educational approaches, then, consist primarily of trying to
maintain a relaxed, focused atmosphere that offers options for learning in individually
satisfying ways. The old paradigm of students as empty vessels waiting to be filled with
knowledge has given way to the constructivist belief that students continuously build
understandings based on their prior experiences and new information. The idea of a
fixed intelligence has given way to a more flexible perception of gradual intellectual
development dependent on external stimulation.

Gerald Edelman, chairman of the Department of Neurobiology at Scripps

Research Institute and 1972 recipient of the Nobel Prize for Physiology, offers a view of
the brain that could influence the future classroom. Edelman's vision of the brain as a
jungle in which systems interact continuously in a chaotic fashion suggests that learners
would thrive in an environment that provides many sensory, cultural, and problem
layers. These ideas suggest that students have a natural inclination to learn,
understand, and grow. Surround students with a variety of instructional opportunities
and they will make the connections for learning.

5.0 IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING

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 Recent Research Suggests Teaching Suggestions

Present content through a variety of teaching

The brain performs many functions
strategies, such as physical activities, individual
simultaneously. Learning is
learning times, group interactions, artistic
enhanced by a rich environment
variations, and musical interpretations to help
with a variety of stimuli.
orchestrate student experiences.

Be aware that children mature at different rates;

Learning engages the entire chronological age may not reflect the student's
physiology. Physical development, readiness to learn.
personal comfort, and emotional
state affect the ability to learn. Incorporate facets of health (stress management,
nutrition, exercise) into the learning process.

The search for meaning is innate.

The mind's natural curiosity can be Strive to present lessons and activities that arouse
engaged by complex and the mind's search for meaning.
meaningful challenges.

Present information in context (real life science,

The brain is designed to perceive
thematic instruction) so the learner can identify
and generate patterns.
patterns and connect with previous experiences.

Help build a classroom environment that promotes

Emotions and cognition cannot be positive attitudes among students and teachers

separated. Emotions can be crucial and about their work.

to the storage and recall of Encourage students to be aware of their feelings

information. and how the emotional climate affects their
learning.

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 Try to avoid isolating information from its context.
Every brain simultaneously This isolation makes learning more difficult.
perceives and creates parts and
wholes. Design activities that require full brain interaction
and communication.

Place materials (posters, art, bulletin boards,

music) outside the learner's immediate focus to

Learning involves both focused influence learning.

attention and peripheral perception. Be aware that the teacher's enthusiasm,

modeling, and coaching present important signals
about the value of what is being learned.

Use "hooks" or other motivational techniques to

encourage personal connections.
Learning always involves conscious
and unconscious processes. Encourage "active processing" through reflection
and metacognition to help students consciously
review their learning.

Separating information and skills from prior

We have at least two types of experience forces the learner to depend on rote

memory: spatial, which registers our memory.

daily experience, and rote learning, Try to avoid an emphasis on rote learning; it
which deals with facts and skills in ignores the learner's personal side and probably
isolation. interferes with subsequent development of
understanding.

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 Use techniques that create or mimic real world
The brain understands best when experiences and use varied senses. Examples
facts and skills are embedded in include demonstrations, projects, metaphor, and
natural spatial memory. integration of content areas that embed ideas in
genuine experience.

Learning is enhanced by challenge Try to create an atmosphere of "relaxed alertness"

and inhibited by threat. that is low in threat and high in challenge.

Each brain is unique. The brain's Use multifaceted teaching strategies to attract
structure is actually changed by individual interests and let students express their
learning. auditory, visual, tactile, or emotional preferences.

6.0 NUMBER SENSE AND NUMERATION

The mathematics curriculum should include whole number concepts and skills so
that students can understand our numeration system by relating counting, grouping, and
place-value concepts.

Children must understand numbers if they are to make sense of the ways
numbers are used in their everyday world. They need to use numbers to quantify, to
identify location, to identify a specific object in a collection, to name, and to measure.
Further-more, an understanding of place value is crucial for later work with number and
computation.

Prior to formal instruction on place value, the meanings children have for larger
numbers are typically based on counting by ones and the "one more than" relationship
between consecutive numbers. Since place-value meanings grow out of grouping
experiences, counting knowledge should be integrated with meanings based on
grouping. Children are then able to use and make sense of procedures for comparing,
ordering, rounding, and operating with larger numbers.

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 6.1 MATHEMATICS AS COMMUNICATION
The study of mathematics should include numerous opportunities for
communication so that students can reflect on and clarify their thinking about
mathematical ideas and situations.

Mathematics can be thought of as a language that must be meaningful if

students are to communicate mathematically and apply mathematics productively.
Communication plays an important role in helping children construct links between their
informal, intuitive notions and the abstract language and symbolism of mathematics; it
also plays a key role in helping children make important connections among physical,
pictorial, graphic, symbolic, verbal, and mental representations of mathematical ideas.
When children see that one representation, such as an equation, can describe many
situations, they begin to understand the power of mathematics; when they realize that
some ways of representing a problem are more helpful than others, they begin to
understand the flexibility and usefulness of mathematics.

Young children learn language through verbal communication; it is important,

therefore, to provide opportunities for them to "talk mathematics." Interacting with
classmates helps children construct knowledge, learn other ways to think about ideas,
and clarify their own thinking. Writing about mathematics, such as describing how a
problem was solved, also helps students clarify their thinking and develop deeper
understanding. Reading children's literature about mathematics, and eventually text
material, is also an important aspect of communication that needs more emphasis in the
curriculum.

7.0 ARE YOU LEFT BRAINED?

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 It is difficult to sort through all the information offered by brain and mind research
and make wise choices for the classroom. One popularisation of mind-based research,
the hemispherically theory, has attributed certain learning styles and preferences to
dominance of the left or the right side of the brain. This dichotomy seems to explain
observable differences among learners and designations of "left-brained" and "right-
brained" have appeared in our popular culture. The original studies that supported the
theory, however, involved severing (either through an accident or by surgery) the band
of nerve fibres, the corpus callouss, that connects the two hemispheres. In a normal
brain the two sides of the brain operate together, but with the connection severed, the
two halves cannot communicate. The popular interpretation of the hemisphere
explanation of personal learning styles ignored the complex, interactive reality of the two
sides working together. While understanding the brain's hemispheres is undoubtedly
relevant to education, children cannot be categorised as exclusively left-brained or right-
brained learners.

Broad generalisations are often made in popular psychology about one side or
the other having characteristic labels, such as "logical" for the left side or "creative" for
the right. These labels are not supported by studies on lateralization, as lateralization
does not add specialised usage from either hemisphere. Both hemispheres contribute to
both kinds of processes , and experimental evidence provides little support for
correlating the structural differences between the sides with such broadly-defined
functional differences.

The extent of any modularity, or specialisation of brain function by area, remains

under investigation. If a specific region of the brain, or even an entire hemisphere, is
either injured or destroyed, its functions can sometimes be assumed by a neighbouring
region in the ipsilateral hemisphere or a corresponding region in the contralateral
hemisphere, depending upon the area damaged and the patient's age.When injury

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interferes with pathways from one area to another, alternative (indirect) connections
may develop to communicate information with detached areas, despite the
inefficiencies.

Brain function lateralization is evident in the phenomena of right- or left-

handedness and of right or left ear preference, but a person's preferred hand is not a
clear indication of the location of brain function. Although 95% of right-handed people
have left-hemisphere dominance for language, 18.8% of left-handed people have right-
hemisphere dominance for language function. Additionally, 19.8% of the left-handed
have bilateral language functions. Even within various language functions (e.g.,
semantics, syntax, prosody), degree (and even hemisphere) of dominance may differ.

Additionally, although some functions are lateralized, these are only a tendency.
The trend across many individuals may also vary significantly as to how any specific
function is implemented. The areas of exploration of this causal or effectual difference of
a particular brain function include its gross anatomy, dendritic structure, and
neurotransmitter distribution. The structural and chemical variance of a particular brain
function, between the two hemispheres of one brain or between the same hemisphere
of two different brains, is still being studied. Short of having undergone a
hemispherectomy (removal of a cerebral hemisphere), no one is a "left-brain only" or
"right-brain only" person.

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8.0 HISTORY OF RESEARCH ON LATERALIZATION

8.1 BROCA
One of the first indications of brain function lateralization resulted from the
research of French physician Pierre Paul Broca, in 1861. His research involved the
male patient nicknamed "Tan", who suffered a speech deficit (aphasia); "tan" was one of
the few words he could articulate, hence his nickname. In Tan's autopsy, Broca
determined he had a syphilitic lesion in the left cerebral hemisphere. This left frontal
lobe brain area (Broca's area) is an important speech production region. The motor
aspects of speech production deficits caused by damage to Brocas area are known as
Expressive aphasia. In clinical assessment of this aphasia, it is noted that the patient
cannot clearly articulate the language being employed.

8.2 WERNICKE
German physician Karl Wernicke continued in the vein of Broca's research by
studying language deficits unlike expressive aphasia. Wernicke noted that not every
deficit was in speech production; some were linguistic. He found that damage to the left
posterior, superior temporal gyrus (Wernicke's area) caused language comprehension
deficits rather than speech production deficits, a syndrome known as Receptive
aphasia.

8.3 GENDER DIFFERENCES

Sex and gender differences are apparent in almost every aspect of neural
anatomy and physiological psychology. This is also true with regards to lateralization
differences between men and women. It is generally accepted that male brains are
typically much more lateralized than female brains, although this is challenged by a
recent study.

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 Gender differences in cognitive brain development are not limited to logical
decision making discriminators. In one of the largest and most carefully conducted
studies of its type, Hanlon, Thatcher and Clines (2000) EEG results on 508 children
aged two months to 16 years showed that the areas that process spatial rotation and
targeting are not just superior in male brains, but they also mature four years earlier in
comparison to girls. On the other hand, they found that the cerebral areas that process
language, verbal-emotive, social cognition, and fine motor skills develop six years
earlier for girls. Boys advantages in spatial processing come with a cost, however. The
areas of the brain which process these skills take up greater cortical volume in males,
which gives them around half the brain space that females use for verbal-emotive
functioning (Gurian & Stevens, 2004, p. 23).

9.0 LATERALIZED COGNITIVE PROCESSES

Language functions such as grammar, vocabulary and literal meaning are
typically lateralized to the left hemisphere, especially in right handed individuals. While
language production is left-lateralized in up to 90% of right-handed subjects, it is more
bilateral, or even right lateralized in approximately 50% of left-handers. In contrast,
prosodic language functions, such as intonation and accentuation, often are lateralized
to the right hemisphere of the brain.

The processing of visual and auditory stimuli, spatial manipulation, facial

perception, and artistic ability are represented bilaterally, but may show a right
hemisphere superiority. Numerical estimation, comparison and online calculation
depend on bilateral parietal regions while exact calculation and fact retrieval are
associated with left parietal regions, perhaps due to their ties to linguistic processing.
Dyscalculia is a neurological syndrome associated with damage to the left temporo-
parietal junction. This syndrome is associated with poor numeric manipulation, poor
mental arithmetic skill, and the inability to either understand or apply mathematical
concepts.

Depression is linked with a hyperactive right hemisphere, with evidence of

selective involvement in "processing negative emotions, pessimistic thoughts and

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unconstructive thinking styles", as well as vigilance, arousal and self-reflection, and a
relatively hypoactive left hemisphere, "specifically involved in processing pleasurable
experiences" and "relatively more involved in decision-making processes. Additionally,
"left hemisphere lesions result in an omissive response bias or error pattern whereas
right hemisphere lesions result in a commissive response bias or error pattern.The
delusional misidentification syndromes, reduplicative paramnesia and Capgras delusion
are also often the result of right hemisphere lesions. There is evidence that the right
hemisphere is more involved in processing novel situations, while the left hemisphere is
most involved when routine or well rehearsed processing is called for.

10.0 BRAIN-BASED EDUCATION

10.1 CRITIQUES OF BRAIN-BASED EDUCATION

In some cases, summary principles can oversimplify research to the extent that
the most useful level of detail for educational implications is lost. For example, in a 1999
article, Bruer pointed to Sousa's summary claiming that brain research had established
that the left hemisphere of the brain is responsible for language processes (including
logical processes, coding information verbally, reading, and writing) and the right
hemisphere is responsible for spatial processing (and also creativity, intuition, and
encoding information via pictures). Sousa had furthermore argued that, based on this
insight, teachers should provide time for both left and right hemisphere activities so that
children receive a balance of left and right hemisphere activity. Bruer, however, pointed
to more recent brain research that demonstrated that the left and right hemispheres do
not strictly divide the labor of thought between processing information about space on
the right and language on the left, with this research finding instead that both spatial and
language processes draw upon the left and right hemispheres and that subcomponents
within each of these skills draw differentially on left and right hemispheres. In light of
these findings, the related brain-based education claims appear to be invalid. This
discussion underscores the dangers of relying on outdated notions of brain organization
and function and the importance of making rigorous and detailed links between
educational practice and the best available brain science data.

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 In other cases of brain-based research, summary statements appear to be
general enough to have broad appeal to educators, but they are perhaps so broad that
they have little or no meaningful connection to brain research and have only vague or
perhaps misleading implications for educational practice. To take one example, in 1994
Caine and Caine stated that one basic principle of brain research (already mentioned
above) was that wholes and parts are perceived simultaneously. Bruer pointed out that
although this is statement is likely to be true, the statement is framed in such a way that
it cannot be used to identify any particular brain system, nor can it provide direct and
compelling implications for educational practice. Furthermore, Bruer directly challenged
the validity of the inference that the Caines made in using this principle to argue that
whole-language instruction and cooperative learning are warranted by brain research
because such programs encourage students to think about both parts and wholes.

Another challenge Bruer posed for many basic summary statements relating to
brain science is that the evidence that best supports many such summary statements
does not actually come from neuroscience or brain scans but comes, rather, from other
disciplines that have been around for decades. For example, in his 1998 article "Is the
Fuss about Brain Research Justified?" Sousa listed several claims about how current
"brain research" can influence educational practice. On the topic of memory, he wrote
about insights into how previous knowledge and judgments of meaningfulness influence
people's ability to store new information. On the topic of timing and learning, he wrote
about insights into how breaking learning time up into twenty-minute segments that are
spaced over time might be an advantage over massing all that same study time
together into one long stretch. One problem with these claims is that these insights were
achieved with little or no direct support from brain studies. Instead, these claims are well
supported by existing evidence in cognitive psychology, in the form of compelling
information-processing studies on the influence of prior knowledge on memory recall
and on the benefits of spaced versus massed practice in recall. In this sense, referring
to these claims as brain based can be misleading; after all, existing bodies of cognitive
psychology may have a great deal more to contribute to educational practice than the
currently available brain studies.

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11.0 SUMMARY
Research shows that cognitive brain differences between the sexes can result in
learning differences between boys and girls. Many authors have used brain research to
speculate on the instructional strategies and types of learning activities best suited to
teach boys and girls. As brain studies demonstrating gender differences in learning
activities are so recent, many of the teaching strategies that may exploit gender
differences have not been tested in the classroom, let alone in the single-sex
classroom.

Assuming that one is able to determine whether one is right or left brain
dominant, or whether perhaps one may use both hemispheres in equal measure, what
are the implications of this knowledge for inclusive education? The most obvious point is
that the traditional classroom configuration may not suit all students equally, and may
indeed set up significant barriers for some students. Karen Curry (2002) has suggested
a range of options and possibilities to help the right brained child within the classroom
environment. Among these are using humour, presenting information visually, using
computers, making use of fantasy and using discovery techniques. Other strategies
involve putting learning to music and drawing positively on emotions. One interesting
finding is that children who are right brain dominant are often less good at handwriting
than their left-brain dominant counterparts. It is though that students with dyslexia or
Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) also have right brain dominance. However, research
also suggests that students with dyslexia can go on to be good speed readers. The
odds against right brain dominant children are even greater when it comes to
assessment, since traditional forms of assessment (for instance, paper-and-pencil tests)
favour visual learners with strong reading and writing skills, and tend to neglect oral
and listening ability. This leads to a re-examination of assessing different kinds of
intelligence.

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