Introduction to

Topolo9Y
I ntroduction to
TO POLOQ Y
10 . r . 6opKc o lJlt'f . H. M. E /nt 3111llJ:OIl , JI . A . H 3pllHlIe DHOf.

T . H . IoMeHkO

BBELlEHHE B T OOm a n-tlO

JiJ.a a Te..'1bC'T BO B .. ICWWII W1ICoJla

M """",
 Introduction to

lf~p~~~~y
YU. BORISQVICH.
N. BUZNYAKOV.
VA, IZRA ILEVICH.
T. FOMENKO

Translated rrom the Russian

by Olea Efunov

MIR PUBLISHERS MOSCOW

 First pu b tl. hed n u
~ from the 19Itl It...,.;.,. edHloa

o " m~ .. 8~ mKQM )O, 191

() EnalW> u ana1f,Ooa. "'Ill PIIblWlt rs 15lll'
 ,
J'lRST NOTlOm OF TOPOl.OCiY

1 .W!laI Il~
1. ~1Wotioft of ,be COflCqltJ of ~I*'C IIIld '''''''ion "
3. From I rIlftric to lQPOlosical watt
4. The notion of ItiaDaan _fad: ,"".
5. SomnbiD& about knot,
FlIfIher; .-lin, ""
GENSRAL TOPOLOGY
l. Topo lotleal lpoI<:a and oonl' n\lOUS mappillBl 40
2. TopolQfy I nd ro nlinuolu maPl'illll o f mtl rlc ~Pilc.n . Spaca R", S" - , ami
D" ...
J. Factor spa te and quotient topology S2
4. Cl.wll1cat ion of JIlrrlCU "
, . Or bit Jpaces. Projecliwo and IetU1J'KU 67
6. O pcnllool over lei' ,1\ I wpolOskal SPlIce 70
7. OpmItioM aver soeu In mctn.;.~ . Sphcre$ aIld ~U,. Com p!clmcu 7]
t. p,opertlu of COIItlD\lOIlS IMppinas 76
9. Produclt of tOPOloai<al JPIl<:n III
10. CO<'IJIeO;1ftI IlliU 0( topalop Spacc:II ..
I I. CountablllYand scpaIation ....iolm II
11. ~ I~ and ru~ ""Plf.lbilily 92
I) . CoIlll*1lJ*ll'S and tbcir maJll'iqs 97
14. CompaairotMiDots of lopokJsi<;:ll ~ M~ 1Qj;
Fwthft readVI& Ill?

HOMOTOPy THEORY
I M--.. JJ*Il$ , HOaKIlopies etrl cllon, . aad de l _Ions
1. ~CI'O'Y. fllaCl Of - ' - alteb...aatloD of \<IiIOlcIciW ptOblcm,I:
",
1. f\Jnaon of lIocnoIollJ'IJOlI JII '"
'"
4. ComJll'lq 1M rooncboncnlaJ .. lid ~op)' 1Jf0 llpl of ..... ,patti
fllnJrus rcdnJ ,'"...
MANIFOLDS AND fiBRE BUNDlfS
I. Bask aoUoN of diffcnn.tial """kulus;n .. -dirnmWoaal SIMIOl:
2. Smooth wbonanifoldl in E",,1Ideu I~
,..
,n

3. Smocxh IlWIifolds 16 .
C. Smoofh fu:nctionllin. manif old and IlIIOOlh parthian of unil, 173
,. MaPl' inas of manifolds ISO
6. Tan&enl bUndle lind l&t\ICnlia l map 183
1. T;onaent V(Q'r u di fferential operator . D1rr~ll.1 o r l\.Iocllon Ind cotaJ\&enl
bundle 199
I. Vector rlddl on JIlIOOCtI JIl&Ilifoids 208
9. Fibre bund le. ..nd --mnp 113
10 .sr-Il fltDClioD on rDallifdd &.s ccUular Slnoc:twc of ........ fold (na>Dllk) 215
I I . ""....'S ......l'llle cmieaJ poUilllDd its mda 140
11. D=:ribi"l'--DPJ Inx 01 mani fold bJ _ of critlc:al ....115 244
Funis" rndina 249

,HOMOLOGY TH EORY
I . PJd lmina l)l notC!l
1. HomolotY srGI'PS of dWn cucn~
, . Homolot.Y .p CNpl of limplicial eomplaa
'"
'"
4. Sift&ulaT lIomoiosJ lkcory
, . HOlnOIDsY lMory a,xiomI:
'"
'"
6. HOIIIOIoIY ,"",ps of ~ Devft
7. Homolou ITClI.1J* of cdl COInJIk:Hs
of mappina '"
'"
C. Ellkr charaderlstic and urodld~ nllmbn '"
,.,
""
w._-.
Further ladln.

..
lIl",nrll.llonli ,.1

......
SKbjtct Indelt
aca
""
 PREFACE

T opoiolD' is a subject t~t has only ~nll' bem inuod Ud into th e:c:urrituJum
o f mallianatic$ departm mts. Howc'!er , it does , in w r op inion, play quile a con
siduab4c: ro le: with respc:a 10 unl venlty math..matics ed ualtlon as III. whole:. It is
bard )' possI ble: to design co urses In math emat ical anaI y.loi" differen tial eq uation"
diffCTC'ntllll geometry , medlanks, and funetilmal analy sis that H'relpond to the
mode m $late o f these dJ5d pllnes wit hout involvIng tOpOlogical concepts. It "
therefore cuentiltJ to ac:.quain t atuden ts willi topoloaJcal methO<b o f iucarch as
IIO(In as they " an their (InC. unl vc:rs!ty tOUr$Cll.
H avint lcetured. on topo lOD for $Orne time t o fir$!. re-r university stuOe:nt l, we
ruiiscd th at there is III. great need for a te nbook th at b: co mprdlensi ble 10 sl udcou
who have a m inimal tnow~ o f nal bcmatics (i.e ., tbey ate colt\izatlt o f amenl
fJCl theory, , cneral al&cbr., the c:I.~u of lin ear a1Jdn. cd math _ieal
analysis) ud that wiD inl.todw:c rudoet to the basic: idea$ \tlld c:riyin. modem
t oPOlosY. At the same time, the: book sboulcl "OCIla in l:fttain volulac of
topoloJical conttpU and JDClhodI.
This textbook b ODe: o f the many pouibte:varian u o f . first COUIX in topolol1
.,d it wmtm in ac>cordaJIce: .nth both the autbors' prefere_ and lbdr apc::ric:ncc:
as Icc:rwCQ and rac::arehc:n . Jt dull wit.b those area of topoJosy thal we I'l:>OSt
cJosdy rdated to fundamc:n~ COWKS in smual matbetnaticJ:and applieadOlU. The
matmallnves .a ICClIIrft" lffe choice as In bow he Of she mil' want to drsian hi, or
her own to pology course and lleminar cla.s.sa .
We draw your atten tion to nwnbu of dcvka we have: l.lSC'd in lhis book in
orner to Introduce: gentrlll tOpOlOlD' railer. We ha.-e Iher ..Core:introduced conllrue-
tive conc:c:pl.S, fo r c:urnple. those r elat ed to the: noI lon o f faetor ' pace, m uch earlier
th M th e ether notlolll of ge neral to pe loSY. Th il ma kes il posdble for studenu to
study ImpOnant exam ples of mani folds (t wo-d immlional surfaces, f)rojealve
spaces. orb il spaces, et c.) as topolQlkalsp&CCS. Late r (01 . IV) ,mooth 5lnlC\utn
are der".c:d on them . The th COl}' of two-d imen sional sW"f _ b not ClOfInnc:dee e ne
plaee: but 11 distributed IIIIKIIlJ$I. Ch . I , Cb . II and Ch . JlI IS and when the bas ic
ideas o f amcallopo&osy are devdopc:d. The JIOlion$ o f ealqory and functor an:
Inlrodueed inlO hOlllOtopy lhcoty quite early; likew ise, the Idea ollH a1acbnl iu-
t ioo of lopoJnlic:a1 pt'Ob~ The functori.al apprOlldt bdps lIS apou nd holnotopy
U1d homoJoay theories uniforcnJy and compktc: tbe dcsaiptioo of various
boIDo kl$)' theories with t he Stc:e:n rod -Eilm bc:rl a.Uom.alks,lIIUiD, up , to limit a -
ImI , lor the abfenee o f the:proof of W invariana: of limptil:ial bomolosy theory In
this IW booJc. Moreover. thehornotopy almpul iUilnll edmlque (Cb_ JU) if reduced
10 the c:alcubtion of t he fundammt.al arou p! of t he a raunfc:n::-.t an d ckJse:d Mlr

fKC$. "The eq uality,.... (5" ; Z ) "'" Z . II .. 2 u, ho>ftvu , liven '/Ii'ithoul proo f and
saves as a basis for me IntrodlK1ioo o f the dqrcc of. nuoPPinl of sphcns an d the
characteristic: of vector r.eld (willi the Brou wer and fundamental theor em o f
alarM' bcinl Qedueed); while in thc bo mo locY IlfOUP section (Cb . V). th e t echniq ue
b U1 cl:Kkd to CU(t SC'QUCIJCaI. In p*rtil;Ular , t he lJou p H ,. (5" : Z) is com puted, and
the Brollwcr an d Lefschcu. rl!led-poi nt theorems arc pro~ . Tn spite of havln!
prepa red cY<:rythin, fo' a devdop me:nl of the thnique, we pur posei)' Iea~ thc
subj ect !land at thai beca use o f the spec ial objectives o f the teJlt boo k .
T he co ncep ts of smoo th structure on a manifold and o f tange nt spa ce (CII. IV)
lin e been e1 abontcd lU st r upulolUly.., PQu iblc . Th e tcmlino lo8Yh.... be en revised.
and the relal lons o f th e ",bjtt! wilh mechanics , dyna mic systems and the Mo rse
thcor y emptuuiud . We believe rna, a number of homololY thoory varoanll
(sinau llr, simplic:ial, ceUular) should be sl~ at as ea rly. slqc as po wbk when
1tutin, on the IOpie Pnte the reaeer may encou nter Inem in even the simples l IP-
ptieltioN. AerordlDaJy. the vann h lie explaina1 in 01 . v,
The ClIcn:ises in the leal of I SCdkm often ~IR I W!:Iple liDeof rcasonin, and
I n Inlended to kwi,oraie the rnde, 's1.hc:NJ,ht. We indiclte the end o f the proof of
Ihe(M"CRl .nth tbe .t&n . , and if il is n~ 10 '-pIll te In u unp!c from the
runher tUl. , the lIan is ~ t hen .
Note tha I ahhollp th is textbook h based on lectures ddlvert'd by
)'u. G. Bortsovlch to studen u o f the MathtmatKs Department of Voro nezh
Unlveu ily , they hi ve been co n5idcrll.bly revised by the authors, All the textual draw-
lngs arc by T , N , Fcmecko, while the co ver 'l nd chapter title illlUltrations arc by
P rof, A. T . Fom enko (Moscow University) ....ho m the authOrs ....ould like 10 thank
sinCtl ely.
In con dusion. we would like 10 u pre" ou r $inccre .ratitudc to A . V . Chern.v.
sky for h is valuable ad vice and l1Kfu! critkisnu. to M. M. PO$lnikov both for lXIt
discuWocu 0" lhe meth ods o f leal:hin, to poloo 10 firsI_yur IltUverrity a ud eolS
an d mao)' ot her useful remlrb, and , finally. fillY we thank A. S. hshchmko for
his uxflJl advice .
We arc aho aratef ul to a IIlI'"OUP o f JOUJ\I staff lDCIllbcrs and post'~U&lCll It
t he dcp anmCDI of a!&cbraand I~ mcIhol1s in anal ysis o f Voron<:d"o Uni,,"-
$it)' for their helpfUl disc:w:sions and utnlltks. Yu. E. Gliktidl, V. G. ZVYllin,
M. N. Knu> and N. M. MeDer hi ve cadi dleckt'd thrOUl h II num~ of dllplerl ,
an d a considerabl e qUlntil)' of mispr ints were CORected d ue to Iheir valulble
."istan~.
We hav e received man y C\ltnmcnl5 upo n the Ru.n ian ed ilion Oflhi 5textbook and
ere Ihankfu! 10 th ose who ha ve con tri b uted them for man y use ful rema rh they
made . Many of their Jullestio n5 were takCll in to acco unt whe n We prepared this;
revised edition .
 First Notions
of Topol09Y
The p urpose o f this chapter is 10 pupare the reader for the
syll emalic: stud y o f lopoloS)' as it b expounded in th e slibseqUent
chapleTs. Ou r PUl'pQ5C here is to review the prob lems , whose sc tu-
lion has led 10 the formation o f lopolol ' as a mathematical
di scipline an d to its devdop~nl at present . We il1so dUcuss th e
bqinnings o f lbe notions o f topological space an d mani fold .
 I. WHAT lS T OP OL OGY?

Quant 1 moi~ tou te, Ie' vole'

di_ 0<1. ic mhai1.Cnp~ sue:-
Ce:. .ive:.etI 1 me a>n<luhaicnl i
I' Analysjs Sitns-.
H .PDim:au

Topology as a science was, as i t is ~nera1ly believed. forme d thro ugh th e wor ks

of the SJeat F rench ma thematician Henri Po incart. at the-end oft he i9-th century .
The: beginnin&s of IOpolol'1 re,eart:h may be d3ted to the work of O . Riemann in
the mi ddle o f the 19-th ccntlM)' . In nis investig3tiolUl of the function theory. ~
devdopcd new methods based em geometric rep eesea taucn . He is abo kn o wn for
baving made an att crnpl to formulate thc notion ofmanY-dimensJonal manifold and
to intr oduce h igher order' of co nn cCl.ivit y_ These notio ns were de~lopcd by ll.lt
Italian mathematician Betti (1811 ) bUI it WilliPoincare wh o, by keeping in m ind th e
rcqlli rcments of th e: theories of fun ction and diffcn:ntial cqu81! on s . introduced a
numbe r o f very im po nant topo[ogiea! concepts, devcloped a profoun d theory and
applied it'IO h is research In th ese bram:he$ o f mathcmllics and mechanics. His ideu
an d the pro blem s wh ich he suggened have had il Ctmsiderable innucnee o n the
develo pmen t oftopol Oi)' and Its application up to the PR:'CDt day .
Poincare dcfmed to po logy (whicb was ealIl then Analysis situs) as follows:
' L ' Analysis Sit Os est 1& science q ui nous fait connai'tte les pro pritt b q uali ta tivcs des
figurcs g)rnetriqucs n on seulcrncnt duu I' essece ordl naite, !Dab dans l'cspaee"
plu s de tr ois dimensiOIUl.
L'Analysis SitQs " trois dimension s est pour DO ltS une C(lrlnaissance pr esque in .
tuitive , L ' Analysis S it'is i pl ~ de trois dime nslo lU presente au C(ln trlli'e de s dif-
f1cuhb CflOrmes; il Iaut pour tenter de res scrmcmer !trc bien persuad t. de l'e!ll rl!me
impo rtance de eene science.
Si eeue importance n' cst pas:co mp rise de tout te monde, e'est q ue tout Ie monde
n 'y II pas su rti samment rf flkh i u' (62, 631.
T o understand whal is meant by the qual itative pr openics of geometric fliute5,
imqine a sphere t o be a ru bbe r balloon that can be stretched and shrunk in any
man aer with out being t om or 'g1uin, ' an y two diMinet po ints together. Sueb
transformations of a sphe re are t erm ed homeomorphisms, and th e differe nt re plicas
obt ained as a rC&Ult of ho meomorphislJl$ arc said to be homJmorphk to o ne

AI fOf me. all the VlIriOUS journeys. on which Oneby one I found mys.elf enl asro. were
Icadinl me to Analy sis situs (Position analysts).
.. Anal ysis situs is scim c:c which lets us am tile qualitf.ti vc propcnIa of geometric
flau,,,, not on ly in the ordinary ,paoc. bu t also In the speee of more than lhrcc'di mcnsio/'IJ .
AnAl yris ti tw in th ree dimensions is almo< t intultlve knowledge for us. Analytillilus ;n mo1e
than tbrcc dimcnsiofu p~nts . on the contrary , enormous dif...."glt;cs. and to att crnpt (05<lT-
mount tncm , one $lIQuid be ~cd of tbe extreme impor tanc:c of this science . tf tills im
portance is not un derstoOd by cvcryoM , it is beoca\ISC everyone nu not lufficiently .dtectcd
upon it.
" lnllodUClion ' 0 Topolo&y

anothl:l". Thu.s, the qualitative properties of the sphere are rhcse whidt II shares with
..u its homeomorJIhlc repDeRs, or. in olher words, those which au prcseO'ed unl1CT
IIomeomorphl$lll$.
It Is evident that hornromorphl$ms and the q ualitative properties ct other
ligula may be lIisRl50Kd as well. It is a1Io conventional to call the qualitative prop-
erti es fopolOJimJpropn1;u. In the aboy!! example. one of the topoloaiea! prcper-
lin of lhe sphen: is obviotu. I.e., Its Intearlty (or con ncetcdne$3) . II.! more subtle
properti es art ~vealed if an attunpt is made to establish a homeolriolllhism o f th e
sphere, IllY, with th e bal l. It is CASY t o co ncllKlc that such IIhomeomorphism is im-
pm$ible. However. in orde r 10 prove lbat. il ill necessary 10 show the variou s
lopo lo&leal properties of sph eru and ball" . One of these is the 'con tract ibillly' o f
the ball ln!o one of its lXIinu by changing it smoothly. t.e.. eonuaelina it lI1Qn, iu
radlllOWltdS lbc eeeee, and the 'non-<ODtractlbility' of Inc sphere inlO Ill\)' of 11.5
poinu. It Is aJso wise 10 bear In mind the topoloaJeal difference between a volleyball
blaOder and a bicydc: lYre. Th~ Imuitive teas need to be; corroborale d slrid- Iy.
E:urcin 1- . Verify that the numba" of 'boles' in . gcornet rK: n8UfC is" Its topological
property; vai fy ."0 tbat th e an nulu s Is not ho meonlOlllhk: to the two -dimensiOllai
."'. The research carried ou t by H. Poinc~ is the slarting poin t for on e of the
brlUlCbesIn lopolol)' , m ., combinatorial or alBebrai<: topolosY . n.e rnc:thod of in
vc$liption is to a.uociate geometric f1Fu"e1i uslna a rule t hllt is common to all the
fl8ures with algebraic objects (e.g .. &rOO""' , rinp , etc.' so that certain relallonshlp,s
betWttn the fl.umJI correspced 10 th e algebraic relat ionships between the ob ject s.
Studyina the pr operties of al&ebralc rJ8Ures sheds light on the prcpemes of
gcomark figures . The algcb raic object s con $lructed by Polncar~ MC nothing bllt
homology gro ups and th e fundamental group.
The developtn cn t of th e method of a1teb rak tOpOlogy Inevitably led 10 COlKut -
rence with tlte Ideas of sel-lhcomic topolol)' (0 . Cantor, bet.....een 1 87"'1 8~ ;
P. HausdorCf, between 1900( 1910). Even Polncari: hlnudf set the l uk of gcnenJiz-
Ing th e co ncept o f etometric rLJure for &.paces of more than three dimensions and of
lnvcnigatine thei r qualitiltlv c propcn!es. Thi5 gcneTlilization induced t he mtrodlK"
tion of t he not ion of topol ogical space, now a Cundarncnt al Idea pl:rvadll\& ail
Ulathemat ics. II not o nly had an Impact. on thc invcst i&a\ion of geometrle figur es in
fin ite-dilnensl onal splices, but, due to the d evelopment oflhe theory of functions o f
II real vlUiable and funct ional an alysis, it a"o led t o tnc con lll"Ud>on of function
speees, which are , 11&Il rule , infin ile-dimenslonal.
'The ruSi fai rly general definitions o f 8 topological ~ were Jiven in the walk
toy frkhet, RJaz and H ausdo rf f . The ecmptete defin ition of a lopological space
was given by the Pol ish mathematicillll K. Kunllowski and by P. S. Alexandrov'
142).
Topological spaces, t heir COnl inUOUl mappings, and Ihe st ud y o f 8cneral pro pc r-
t;C$ haY<: madc up on c brllllch o f t opolo/J)l known 1I5 'general to pology'.
The merger of the a1gebrak: and set-theoret ic school s in topoJoey was ac-
co mplished by L. B. Brouwer in his work devo ted to the no tion of the dimension o f
II $plU;e (1903-1912). The uni fied approach wu con siderably de veloped by
J . W. Alexander , S. Ldsch.etz, P . S. Alcxandrov, P . S. Uryson, H . Hop f,
 O . I. F",rs' Notions o f Top olosy u

I. . A. L1lStem ik. L. O . Schnirt'lman . M . MOTSe . A. N. Tihonov. L. S. Po.!-

try qm . A.. N. Kolmoaorov. E. O:dt . et aI. Sovla malhmtal M:Wis have made
profou nd an d u len slve cont rib utio n to the de vdopment o f topolOIY u a whot e.
To d escribe preciJely the results oblain~ (and eveu to pose pr oblems) II impos_
dble wllhollt b eing acquainted wil h the e1ementl ot general and lI1aebraie topololY.
Heee, we Jive merel y Hlfl\e idea of the p roblems that have sdm ulat~ topol ogKal
,""""'-
If s' is clreumfcrcnet: Ott the Euclidean pl.Me: R 1 then the !d R 1 '\. S I dOm'
pt:pes into two m uh llllly co mpkmoeutary open scu . vU. t he Interior A and ahc ex-
lerior 8 of s'. The cil'CUlllfe1CftCl' s' serva u a ~r betli'em A and B . Can a
siDspk: contlnuous path be dra wn from an arbitrary point II ti A to til arbitrary
point b e 8 $0 that it docs not int ersect t he sep'n.tor 5 " (A. simp ff' m li"IlDIU
INIIII is a homromOl'Jlh k: mappilll o r the lineseament 10 . I ) of the number llne into
lhe pbne.) The M swn is negative. In tee. if p lx. y) is the EIlt:Ud ean d islanee be-
tween PQlnu)t , y of t he pbne R 1 and "I'(t) is w eh a path, 0 " t" t , "1' (0) <: e ,
.,.(1) .. b . Ih en Ihe function J(t) p !7(t), 0). Mum 0 b th e unu-e o f t he cis".
almfccnce . Is con tinuous, tild / (O) < r , / (I ) > r, where r is the rildius o f the cir
e:t1l'1lfcrcne:e 51 . By a property of continuous fun ctions. /(t) ta kes t he nlue r at '
point t o- There fore. y(lG! <I!! s' .
Let us substi t ute a b omeomorphic: imq;e r' of t be cin:um fereDOt 51 (5Udt a CUTYe
is said to be :sim pk ~ for the ciJalmIere nec ludf. A Question arises u to
whether R l " r can be partitioned into disjoint open IICU so that the cu rve r remai ns
t be bonier 0 1 e&dt of them. The an sw is PQuti ve (the Jor d an theorem), but the
proof lovolY" subtle topo logica l concep ts . And tltis time qain the curve r is t he
sepuato r between IWO open sets.
The ptobll m seta gin mo re complic:at~ If a ho meomorphic lmalt' o f M
'1-dimeDsiottai sp heR ly1na in tM (II + l )-dimtnsional Euclldeao spaee is con
side:sed imIead of a simp le ckn ed ewve , The Imenli.zatioct o f the JOfdan t heo rem
for this use _ c:arried oat by L. E . Brou wCT in 1911-191) . A more tJleo.sive
&t:Deraliution o f th e resul t led to the c::ruJ.ion or d ualit y theorems ( AJCJlilndtI" , e e n-
tryagin . Alex andro v et a1. ) whkh shape d the deYdopmenI of all ebfaic: 10 POiogy for
along ti me therea fter .
Another imponant pr oblem was the ac:nerali zation of l ite conc:ept 01 dim ension .
Tbc difMnsi.tln of a Eudidcan spac e Is wellitnown IS an a!aebrak conce pt, bUIis il
al.so a topological co nce pt' That is. will homeom orphic; Euc lidean spaces be or the
KIn e ctimcnsSon' Lc:bes&ue found ill 19 11 that the llI\$VN:r Is pmitive .
As 101oornctric: rlJUrcs Iylna in E~idean ~. it is tbe nolion o f dim ension
tbtlt should have been form ulated for them rlrll. An idea e:oaoemIna: such' defini-
lion had been expre:ued by H . Po Uw:.rt himsd f. The dimension oftbe nopty IC:I. ls
uwmed to 0CIua1 (-I). No ...., by in~t'tion . If we Itoo.... what is meanl by dlmen-
$iol:ls Ics.s tb n or equal to " - I. t hen the dimcmioo " of a set ,i gni flCs lIlal it ca n
be 5CPUated inlo partS Ih at arc u smallu we plea se by a set o f di maulo n " - I
and canno t be par litioned by a set o f d imt'n5io n " - 2. illese Ideas wete ela bo rated
by a rc ewe-, Menger , Ul'1so n, A1exan dr o v ee al. "-
Another importanl directi on in lopo1oay, ..mleb is do$ely relatec1 to apptica
tions, is fiMd-point t heory. We encountCf. even ill algebra and Ote elemel'll.$ o f
. Inll od ..etioa 10 TopoJoty

analysis, the qvestion wha bet"Dr not there aisl sol uliorl5 of eq uat ions o f th e f()l'1ll
I~) .. O. ( I)
.men:/(.l") is. ~ial or IJM)fC ~m pliQted fUlK1ion . Equa tion (I) b equivalent
10 t he equ.aaion
! (.l")+111 cx (2)

o r. when F~) .. l (x ) + III, 10 the equation

F(x} d x. (3 )
The &olu tions o f eq uation (3) ar c ca1Icd tbe: ~~ poin u 01 1M nulppfn , F. If
equlllio o (I) i' eaor. i.e. ,lf iC is . system o f ~uat;ons in seven! unknow l. lhcn the
equivlakat equatiol'l (l) is llbo vector and , tba rIon. the fl.UCl poinlJ; 1i.e Ia . many-
dlm~na1 Euc:lideaD space.
An exuemdy iJI1ponaat taN; is to find sum~icnl'" . m etal and ef lectin lew.
that wl1I illdicale if flMd poinu cma. ~ obtained. rcmacbtMe result thai Ia4
vcry eMcrWYC ap plications ift modem researc:h . It is IUfpri$iqly simple 10 lor
mulMc: any c:onlll'l\lOus mapplnJ o f. bounde d . con vu, d OleCl let inlo il.5t:lf h as .
fixed poi nt. Cc a vex $etS may be considcd bo rn in tbe lh r~ dimc nsion.l and
many-dimenloional Euclidean I pace. Fo r example. Ii coniinu oul mapping inlo ittd f
o f. cloud (I.e . COMldcred alOI\I with its' bou nd ary) disc In p lane or bah in
space necessaril y 1Iq. fIXed point .

.........
X~ 2- . Show IbM an anaJoaue of the Brouwu theQftm for aD annulus dOC$ not

The Bto _ tbeomn _ clevdopcd by H. Hop f, S. l d sdletz et aI. It Will

abo ,cnCBliud fo r lM: mappiDp o f fWln ion spacrs OCcllol, Bir khoIf, Scha ud er,
Way) which u lmded its Ippaieatiolls. II should be DOI.ed thal e'ftO H . Poinean:
himsdf _ intcresced in the ~lWtcnc:c thlrenu for ( txed poin u when [eduQn l eer-
tlin pr obl ems In cdaWtl mccblnia to Ih~m .
w~ emphlsae thaI the tluee probkms de&<:ribed abov~ do not make up t he
whole set o f lopolo,ical problems lit al l. Co nsid er anol heo- U Ml ple. Riemann In-
troduced the notion o f n-d imensional man ifold , \.e ., a space in wlIkh aUme poi nu
po$leSS Il.numerieu eoo rdlna1es de(med at leut on su fficien tly small puu o f the
space. All aencrali.lalioll o f the.notion o f su rfla in ee thrtc-dimeos ionu Euc li-
dean I PKC, the notioll. of manifold has cm b rl(l qu Ote:. nwnbo:o" o f 8lIIlCiric: 011-
jed.s IIw arite from d assic:al mechanics, differ Ential rquaUolll lDd surface IhnH'J'.
PoiJx:an! p'tO[:the (mal tb.a pe to Ih e concept of manifold and ck>odoped d emen u o f
1lDaI)'IiI for IUotb sp&ca.
Th cx COftC%p11 wac elaborated in smooth manifold theo ry (0. de Rham,
L. S. Ponlr}'qIn, H. Whitney et -.t.) . Fo llowinl the aladx"alc 10polosy IMthod ,
these ~ wen l$$Ocilued with new algebraic obJcets, Le .. with ' the u terio r dif-
feren tlal fonn coho moiolY rint,:i'. 5rnool h mlnlfolWi them selvCl were also 'O'lllni.t:
ee' Into . 'ri llS o f interior homoloSles' (tobotd ilm rins) (V. A. Roh lin) . The ac-
cum ulatio n o f var ious a1sebrllc objects In aliebraic: topoway I~d tun- to the
emetiCl'ICe and developm enl of the so-ealled 'homologic:a.l aJaebra' .
In the post -war period ai&dXaK: topo loJ)' has been e:ssentlally rwructuud. By
dlc bea.UuUnl o f the mtics IIWIY raulu of ai&cbrU: to polou ha d been ec -
 ClI. I. Flnt ND< loou: of Topololr
"
cumulal N d ue to the ru.eareh of such mathem&1 kians . s Hopf. POIlI~acin .
Whitney . Stnrod. Eilenbug . M:oc::Lan e . Wh itehe ad eI a l. II Ihen bcc.ame
Desury 10 WOC"k o ut. uni fied ap proach 10 all the various d atalhal. h ave bcnl ob-
IlIiMd and 10 create new general rnetbo<1s. Th is rearuaurilll o f topolog y was
Iellcral ly innllCDCC'd by the French tofIOloPcal Khool (I..en.y. CaNan. Some et a1.).
111 pan.itulM. th is d o:ve1opmet\l led to the formally complete soI U1iOl'lof the fun
damana! problem o fhocnotopy t heory eM. M . POSl.nikov). althollJh the prolMmu
related 10 me determinatioft o fthc homotopy type of eeeerese spaoes an: sti ll a long
way of( solution.
The development o f lopolol)' ov er lhe last 20 yearl hll reached a hlah Ia-el in
ml ny directions. This prOCC$.S of da-elopin,g has still no t finidted , alt ho ugh a
number o f the imponam pl oblcou t hat h ave fa<:ed lo pologh u were solved . An K '
live part In this has ~n ta ken by Soviet rnathcmatkians . We can no t Jive e ven a
sItort descript ion of these d ireetlol1.'l. llJId so we sha.II onl y em ph.a~i~ one impo rt ant
fcalufC o f modern topology. l.e . the very w1dc UK o f iu memods in ma ny of the
Olher branch es of modem math ematics ~ueh u th ose dealing with di freren tlal eq UI '
do ns. funct ional ana lysis. cllWical mechanics, lheoretical physics. Beneraltheory Of
rda.livlty. mathema tical coonomies, biology. ell;. Topology has become a powerful
instrument of ntlthern:aJ.ical researc h. an a its I.... ua~ UI:l,uircd a univer~1 imp ort -

Dc talls Of t he dcvdopmc: AU In topo!DaY ma y be fou nd in H istory of SOllie'

M atMnffI' K:r (4Z].

2. GENERA U ZATION Of THE CONCEPTS

OF SPACE AND FUNCfION

I . Metric Space. We have alr eady men tioo ed Nt lopology h.s worked out an
t:l:SClllial1y wider 00DI:qJt o f space thUi lbat o fEttl:lldeall . We shaU con sider the ne -
tioll. o f met rlc spKe (....bkh is less gen CTlli lh an that o ft opok)s:ia1 space) as o ur fiut
step both ~uJC of its greater simpl icilY and d ue to the wide usc o f thi, notion in
modem m' lhnnatics.
In the Eue:lidean spKe R I. Ihe d lslancep"'. y ) I, defi ned fo r each p.II 'r ~. y o f its
points. The disiance p possesses the rollowing properties:
1. p lx. y) Oi: O for an y ~. y .
II . etx. y ) .. 0 if and on ly if x .. y .
lII . p (.ll'.)') " PO' . x ) .
IV. p()C. y) " plx. t ) + p (.t. y) fo r any x . Y . t e R J (the Iriangle ineq uality).
Thus. a db t.... O;:O; is Ii rul fu nction o r . pair of l'OlntJ CIr.)') Jalis fyina Properties
I IV. f\lnttions like this can uis( not only on II I but abo on o ther kindJI o f HIS.
~.
' - . t.et X be llD arbiuary set . PIlt p(x. 1') .. 0 if 11: and y are COincidenl dements of
X . l nd p (x. y ) I olfterw;se. Show thai sudt II fu nction p satk roes Propcrt ilCl I-IV.
Z . Let (t I ' h . f,) be the coord inatoCS of a point x t! R I . Sh(lWthat the f\l.fKtion pl.- ,
.1) . mu. It( - . , 1. wh en (. 1' .1' .~ are Ihe coordinazcs o f a po int r e R I.
I" ,,,)
also sat!srlCS Properties I IV.
 In l, od uGlio n to Topol"6)'
" The functiolllp from EKerdscs l and 1 are natur ally call ed the d lslanc:n be l WffIl
Ihl! t!umenrs o f the COrrespond ing seu.
To introduce a general ecncepr of d1uance, recall the definition of the product
of lwo " IS. If X and Y lLh: two seu then the ir produ ct X )( Yis lhe $d. consisting o f
..... ordered pairs ~. y), where x E X, Y E Y. In particular, the product X x X is
dcrmcd .
DEFINITION I . A set Kalong willi the llUIpping /:I: X x X - R 1 (iQto th e number
axis ), llli SOCiat;Dg each pai r ~,y) Ii! X x X wit h II real number p~ . y) and iJltis f yio g
Properties I-I V , is called II metric spo~ and denoted by (X. pl.
Thc ffiappilli P is calkd thc disuma or m etric 011 thcspgX. The clemfllS of X
arc usually caUed points.
Any ser may be made into II metric space by cndowina it wilh the metric
described in Exen:isc ' '' , Such a met ri<:. space is said 10 be diurele . However , this
way of 'rnetrlz.uion' is no t very ef fective.
EXAMPLE l. Let X C R ) be II subset of II Euclidean space. A distance in R ) may
simllllllDeOllslyserve as a distance in X . Th e melr)e onX iI obtained then by res tri ct-
ing the metric on R 3
. If (X, p) Is a metric space llnd Y C X Is a sub$et. then (Y, p) is also a metri c
space, whe re p; Y x Y - R l is a restriction o f tb ma ppinll P: X x X _ R I.
Th e mctrle on Y ls said 10 bc indllCtd by (to be hereditary ftom) the me lri c o n X.
and Y is said to be I. SU~J)lICt o/ the mct ric sprKc X .
A number of examples of metr ic spaces naturally arise fro m problems in
analysis.
EXAMPLE 2. Consider the set of all continuous fun eti o lUi on the Ilee-segment 10 , I].
II is denoted usually by C lO. II' If x(t). )'(t) are lw o cont inuous functions from
C IO, 1I then set
pCK.)') " miIX lx (t ) - )' (/) 1.
' . l". 11
Ex8rciu )". VerilY that functi on ( I ) iJ a metric .
'"
Th e !oCt C lO . ll lOiether wilh th e melrie dc-scribcd above Is calltd tbe spa~ o/ con-
t;nuous / uru:t;QIl.t; it plays an importanl ro le In analysis.
Enrclsu.
.. " . Let A be an arbitrary set , and X the set of bounded real functions on A. If
f: A .- R 1,8 ; A _ R I ue arbitrary elemcn h of X , then we pul

Show that p
p(f, I)

u: a metric on X .
0

, --
sup 1/ (1) - 8 (1)1.

S". Let P be a prime numbet. If n ;>0 0 is an intege r and, wh en decomposed into

prime fKton, co nt ains a power P"'. then we pill \Op(n ) CI a . EJllend the function \Op
fro m the set o f positive int egers 10 the SCI Q '\. 0 of rational number$ wit hout zero
using llle formula vp(lI:r fs) '" vp(' ) - vp( s). P UI

PVc , )' )= p - -" fJ< -Yl , x*y.

pVc, x ) = 0
 0., I. Fiul N<.MiQns ofTopoIoI)'

lor arb"n,ryx .y frOfll Q . Show that the funeOOnp(.t,}') b lkfil'ed correc1.ly aDd ila
"
_ric on Q{JNIdr distlllltC).
2. Co nverge nt Seq uences and Cont inuo us Mapp ings. The notions
lkal &eoenliu the in ili al CODttptl of mathem:uil:a1 llI&Iyw CIID be illlroduced
...urally for l mo:uic $pace tx, pl.
A mlppin,1I - x~ o f the sa o f nat~ numbcrl into a metric J pUc tx....) is
eal1ed u q Wll o/ poill(S o f Ihis Jpace aad den oted by (,lr.l. A sequence lx~ 1 is laid
to CCJl vt~ to II poi nt fI ue h~~ I limil 11') if for any e > O. Ihere iI a natural
numbcTlIo{d web lUI p. (.t~. II) <; c for all " .. "o (e).
Thil b onen written th~:
x~ !. 11', or jusl x.. - o .

E:xemst 6 . LeI lr~ - <H,'2, E1)! be a sequence of points of the three-dimeMionll

Eu ~Udean space. and p the Eu~lidean metric. Prove tha t x" !.. fI if and only if
t1- ~~(I = 1.2.3) as II - OIl. where a", U? E~, E~ .
8y co nside rina aKq ~ce of eon tinaousfun etion l xe (t) . 0 " r"
1.lobiC l se-
quetlcc in the metric ip;>a:CIO II' ll'erNly speak of lhe eon vCJle nce ofthb; sequence
10 = xo{r): x~ !.
an e{emeDt x o XO' Such a eonvtraenu is ofte n Aid to be IIffi/rNm
0/1 tIN Kfnwllf 10. II
Exzrtiu 7 . Sh ow that the ieCI~lZ of ruon ions X.(I ) - 112re-'" on the sq;ment
o " l " 1 eon versa to the aere funetiOllfor any I but doa nol converae llIIifOf1ll-
". 1',.
We lKlW ddittethc notion of continuous mappilla of a metric space
. 1lloCtrlc space (Y,
tx. pJ wo

OEFlNITION 2. Ld/: X _ y~ . mappina oh SC1 X illtO a lei: Y. If, roe lily point
Jto Ii X and any ieClucna x.. ~ Xo in X. the 5l!qucncc o f the im.a&eI in Y con..efll'S
10/(.t,}; ff,1c~) ~ f(r,}. chen the mappi ns / b called . l'(IIIfill llOUS tnQPP;"1 oj the
me/ri" spIKe (X , Pt) into thr metric: space (Y. po) .
Thil definition II C"ildenlly a aeneraHUt lon of the concept of continuouJ
numerical funnion; It (oven . gfeat dell!of mappinas o f l eometrk figures in Eucli
dean spaces.
If the prope rty of cont inuity given by Definition 2 is eonsldeeed at a ern ain
point Xo- then . definition of a continuous mappinl ll the point Xo it obt.lned.
Eureka.
r . Let S2 be a sp!lrre in the Euclidean Ipa~e R ) with its cenue . Ihe origin. PUltina
jfJt) - - x (II is paine symmetry). pn).-e that f ic ~Onl inlMlllS .
9" . Givt an CQlJlple of a cont inuo~ rmtppin& of a planuquare into itsd f tlW has
(IUd poinn only 0.0 the boundary.
Ob..iou siy. an equlvaJmt dc(lIIition o f a contimlOlU mappina o r metril: ~
ma)' also be p ..en in tmns o r e, f .
"mlIfJPbr, j: X - Y iJCOIIt/II_ lf fOf any xo e X alld fOl" InYt :> 0, lhar is
" ~ ,(t,:rt,} > 0 suc:b ttw P)(f(.t). f lit,}) -c e as soon as p, (r. xli < 6.
 I nUod"elio D '<l T<>p<>l<lJy
" U, in t his definition. ~ does not depend on tile choice of the pOint ,lOo. t hen the
map ping ! is ,mli to be: lmi!orm{y continuous,
E.xercise 10" . Lel j : R 1 _ R 1 be a cconn ucus functi on . P ro ve that lhe mapping
F: CIO. 1]- C ID. II' where h{r) .. !(x(f). is continuous.
Rem ember that a mapping of =f: X - Y is laid 10 be surjl/ve if each ele-
ment from Y lithe Image o f a certaln element from X; i'liective if dirfercnl elementa
from X am mapped into dif ferent elements fro m Y: bijf!<CINe if a mappi ng is both
, urje ctive and injective simultaneously.
We now eeve to define 8, homeomorphism of metr jc spaces .
DEP1NmON a. A ma pping!: X - Y of metric spaces i:$ called a homeom orphi.1m .
and th e slNIccs X , Y homeomorphic if (ll ! is. bijective, (2) / is continuous, a nd (3)
the invnsc mappIDs / - 1 i$ cont inuous .
Th is de finition is a me re precise WIYof exprC$sing the idea of homeomo rphi c
figures which we discussed in tuitively in See: I . Th us, the nation of the topo logical
propert ies of figurcs ese gains firmer !UQund: the /opological properties 01 metric
spoctS lite those wltietl are pre served und er homeo mo rph isms. Home omorphic
mClric spacn are mid to be topologically et[uivillen/.
Enrcist'S.
11 . Pr ove that (I) an annulus in R I is hom eomorphic 10 a cylinder in R ) ; ~2) an an-
nulus with out bo undary (Ihe interior of an annulu s) is homeomorp h ic to R without
one point , and to S l with out two po ints .
12. Show thai the mapping of the hal f-Interval {O, I) or ne the circumference In th e
complex pla ne given by the function z = t'"2. ' , 0 ( / .c J, is nc r a homeomor-
phism.
\3. P rove th at ( I ) . cJo:;;td ban an d . close d cube in R ' arc homeomorp hic; (2) t he
sphere S2 wlth exclusion of the poinl N (lhis is the spate S 2'N, wheu N is th e
north pole o f the sphere) is homeomorphic to .ne plan e R I. (flin t: Use the
stereographie pl'"ojection .) .
Ir II mapping I : X - Y is a hom eomorphism on to its image/(X) coruide red a.s 1\
subspace in Y, thcn/ is called an em~d,'n, 0/ the space X ,n/o Y.
The following example of an embed ding is e nen used: X C Y, f(x ) = )C.

3. FROM A METR IC TO TOPOLOGICAL SPACE

I. Th e 'Gluing' Method . We now diseus.s 1\ concept of soac e more genCl"llI

th an a metl'ie space, vU., th e concept of topological space, and givc some initial
ideas about such spa ces. First ly. we descri be a way o f construaing new spactS which
im rnediatety lak~ us outside the purview o f metric spaces .
Letex, p) besomc metric space (in order 10 vi~uaJize on e, thill): o f X 3.$ a CCflain
:rub~ o f the Euc lidean space R3). Let X be di vided into disjo int sub sets A ,,:
X :> !;fA,,; A" n AS " 0 if a * /3 .
If all the points from X thai are in some A " arc cal led t:quivalent and '. Iued' to one
 Ch. I. Am NocionJ of TQ4lOloIy
"

t_n----------_n-n ---!
<

"'.,
poin l - " " . I!len .
. a ~ ICC Y ". U 1I" is obtai ned . Th is is ailed the/ a<etor Mt rdative
10 a a)ym equln.lmee. NOl:e that Y is DOl:Il M1bwt of X . Therefon:. lhe metric:p hu .
JeDeralty spukm,. nothinllo do with the ' SI*X' Y.
1\ IlWDber of 'lIIdJ bown surfaas in th e Euclidean spaoe: CM be: obtained b y &11.1-
ina otbeT sur f _ IOIethc.r. CoMider some o ftbern. Let X be a rectaIl&Ic (Fil. I). If
t!lOM: poinLS on Db and cd whkh Ii~ OIl. a eorn mon horizontal , ar e ' pasted ' 101d-!ler.
Iben a faclor set Ihal can be: IdmlifLed with a cylindeor is oblain ed (Fig . 2). U Ihe
points on th e slde$ Ilb and de t hat are symmetric with t u pet:t 10 t he cen tre 0 of the
rect~t ar e 'a!ued ' together men MObius ~rip is obtalnetl (rli. 3) .
A MObll.ls strip (:lUI be: m ade o f a sheet of papa by pa sdtli to geth er the oPPlu ite,
sides in an appr~ri lle manner . This can be used 10 d emonstrate YisuaIly I number
of Ole properties:o f t be Mobhl5 strip.
1be Mobius strl p has man)' remarkabl e properties: it !llJ one ed&e (thc closed'
tine~) and . in eonuast 10 a cylinder , II has OAt side bcallfC it c:ao be paint ed
0Clt colou r with I COI!tm uous mavanm1 of Ihe brush lritbout passofta oyu I" e edge
(these propaties: an: GUY 10 see on a papcT IOgdel). The MObius Wip is a nee-
orientable sur face . Remem btt t h.al a IiUlra is said 10 be: orimta ble If an y M1 rfi-
ek nt t)' sma ll c:ire~ on lhe: sur face with II rued dlreaion of t he jou rney a1on. in

- Slrictly IIPCllkiD.l. tbis means lilal each lid A . or cquivakftl points from X is considered
as me a.mcal of the _ Sd .
 Ifttrod llClion 1.0T opolol)/

,, ,
--- -~. ~:E
,, \ /- --
---,;...
- - --~-=
....... - - -- /, , --- ....~,
--------r- -
~

....

boWldary, duq any 'm>ooth ' lhiftiD4 Xl'OU in surr_. Ptesel'Va tbe orisinal
dl!ceUoo of the.loumey aIon& the boundary (lhe c:irc:lc is usumat not to il'Ilent
the edge; o f tlle surface): otherwi se, the: swfta: is Icrmal noo-orienllobk. Tbt- non-
orimtabilit)' of the M6bius wip is d ew from Fla. 4.
If me sidClltb and ai of the dl C ltbcd ate putftl tOl eth cr SOthai ea ch point of
fib mtets that point o f otwbich Iin on tbe wne-horiwntal . an d IIllhe same time the
sides bd and It t arc: pasted IOl ctbcr 10 t hat the POUlts OR co mmon verticals mee,
then we obtlin I surfaet calk<l . (onu - (FiS. 5).
If , ho wever, lib and cd , a, well.,M an d 1lC , ar e 11111 t oBdher SQ th all hc polo ts
which are $ymm.etrn: with re$JlK{ to t he ceerre 0 _ (rll. 6). m en the factor Kt
tannot be rqlfnmlcd as It fi&urc in the Ihreo-dimmlional Euclidean space. More
aKtly, AldJ all "temp: to pUlt eq uiYaknt po!.nu tosetber 'fI'OuId lead to It wrface
lhaI would pirn:c Itself.....hO\lt 5d flllterxainJ. We andd oni, ~ Ibis li. rf llCC in
R ' by tcariq it aput in lconven lent manner, but this would vi.o1a1c our tacit priD.
a pte of lbc 'CORtin lLity' o f stuias (i .e. , the points that ar c nur to eqllivaknt points
mnai n near points . ftu a1u~ api.). The obtainled factor 5et is caned lhe ~
ti N plaM and denoted by RP .
NOle tha t tbe reclan~ tlbck il hDmeomorphic 10 . disc wi'l h Ibe bou pd.arytlbdt:.
and the projeCilve plane can also be de$aibed as . disc (Fig. 1) whose dillrT\e1rlcally
oppotlte bo undary poinls are glued t08ether or, finally, Ii$ hemi"phere whose
dlametrica1Jy opposite bo undary poinls are Blued locether into one iioint (FI,. 8).

If IIOIIWOld CIllla'wUt. bylCINI tIle .....r.... 11 -.... ~ Ilk boot (tr. ).

 Ch. I. Firs! NoIio", of TopoI03Y n
Thus, fo rming the fact or sets in the lirst three cases leads 10 figur es in the Buell-
dean space R l agai n, an d gives iI new objee-t in the last case.
E.m riJn.
1 ~ . Verify that cylinders , lori, and spheres are oritl'ltab le sur faces , whereas t he pro-
jm;"e plan e is ncn-orientable.
2~ . Obtain, by an apprQ priate gluing ope ration (faClorization), a circu mference
from a 1ine-~lIment, a sph ere from a disc, 11 circum ference from R I, an d a torus
froD'! R i .
2. On the Notion of Topological Space, We I:a:\ see now how the idea
of a topologkal space comes in tO play. We men tio ned above th at a factor set can not
always be placed in a metricspace In a namra! manner and th erefor e a met ric: deduc-
ed fot the set. On e of the functio ns of a metrlc is to char acte rize how near twO
points are, and in the definitio n of a continuo us mapping, a metric: plays t his r ole
(d. Sec. 2). To geomd rize the notion of neame:l S, consider a ball
D,<xo> .. ~ e X : p(x , xo> < rl, r> 0,
with centre at t he poi n t X o and radiu s r . A po int x is e -near to the poin t Xo if
}t eDc (x~'
It Is easy to verifY Ihal the continuil Y of a mappllll f : X - Y of two melric
spaces can be descri bed in an equivak:nt manner thus: let Xo e X be: an ar bitrary
(fixed) po int and )' o -/r.r:ol an c1clllCnt of Y; l hen for any ballDc(y~' there is a baD
D, (Xohu ch tl'lat /(D, (x~) c D .lYoI
The co ntinu.iIYof a mapping may be now said to sig.nify the pre5Cr\la.lion o f the
neam ess of poi nts . The corn:ept of nearness allow s us to formulat.e exa.etly Ihat of
neiJhbourhood of a point: iii part 0 of a metri c space is a neigh bo urhood o f a po int
Xo in 0 if each poi nt , which is 5ufficiently near 10 Xo> belongs to O. Thus,
neighbo urh ood structures arise in metric spaces.
'N evertheless, th e spaces so de fined ha ve a V elll lllan y pr operti es which can be:
alaled willIout refe ren ce 10 th e 'dlSU\Ilce' which gave rise: to them. For example,
enry subset which ce nta lru a neiah bourhood o f Xo is a,gai.n a neighbourhood o f Xoo
and the intersect ion o f IWO neighbo urh ood s o f X o is a neighbo urh ood o f xo' These
properties and ot hen have a multitu de o f consequences which can be ded uced
without any further reco urse 10 the 'distance' which originaUy en abled 1IlI10 define
ueiahbo urhoods . We obtain srarements in which there is no mentio n o f m.lgnit u&
or dist lll\CC' (18, p. 121.
If, In a SCi X , a distance is nOI inlreduced, t hen the neam= docs not have an
c.uet mean ing and the above defini tion of a neighbourhood Is in appropriate.
However , the inverse process pro ves dft(:live, i.e., each dement }tOE X is a.uocialed
with a certa incollection of subset! (O~~ of the set X 110 as to fum.!the ma in prop-
ertie! (axi Olm) of neighbourhoods. Th is collect ion is th en can ed a system of
neighbour hood s ilPd Ihe ejeme ms from th e nt iahbourh ood. O(xol ere said to be
O-near 10xo- Th e set X is then said to be: endowed wilh a l opo lolictIl sITJICturl , or a
topn!ogy and cal.lcd a t opolol i eul spate whilsl t he elemen ts o f X are called poi nts.
' On topo klgical structures ha ve been de fined , it is easy to make precise the
idea of co ntinuity . Intuitively, a functi on is co ntin uous at a point if iu valu e vartes
 IntrodUCIion 1.0 Topolocy

115 littleas \1111: please whene ver t he ar gument rem ains sufflclcntly ncar t he po int In
que stion. Th us continuity will have llT1 exact IIICan ing wheMver the spac e o f the
arpun<:nt and the space of val ues or t he fun ction ar e topolo&i<:a1 spaces ' Il8 , p . 13].
Thus, (eplacina th e balls in the definit ion of a con tinuo us mapping by
neighbourhoods, \1111: o btai n Ihe not ion of cont inuo us mapping , an d tbm the defini'
tion o f a homeomorph ism of topologkal spaces. Hom eomorphic: topological spaeft
lire c:alied topoloB;caf ly cq u;\lQ/cnt .
EXAMPLE. Let C be the complcx plane. Th e exlend ed plane o f a complex variab le
C - C U co b a (opo log1ca! space : the sp herical neip.bourh oods o f poi nts 'l E C
an d the neigh bourh OO<b of Ihe point co of the form
D , {co) = It E C: I'l l > , ] U co,
and also su bset.l con tain ing them , form a to polo tical st ruc t ure on C.
Exen;~ 3" . Pr ove that the extended ecmctex p lane is homeomorph ic to the sphere
5 1, the north pole N beins the image of th e point "" . an d the sout h pol e Ibe image of
the pomt O.
Hint : Usc Ihe ste.CIOifiIplIic projection Sh,N onlO 1M eqllalorlal pian<: C, viz.,

u .. X +i.t, t>",J'.'l) " Sl , N .

, - Z
In ttlc cue of facto r sets , a topol ogIeaJ saructure na tu rally emeri es from a
lopoJoskai structur e in a mo:toc space by &1ulO1l nelgh bo urfloo<ls to/lether. Thus, a
f. ctor Xl bcmmcs a 10POIogical space ({a<:lor spon) .
3. Gluing Two-Dimensional Surfaces Together, Let us MOOy in more
ddail the 'ractor spal:ell Iha t ar c obtained by glu ing togeth er plane figures . Consider
a pol yaon n in th e plane R 2 anll. ind uce a me tric (rom R 2 on It. Th e spherical
neighbourhoods o f a point x e n obviously consist o f the tnte rsecucns with n of
open dim having centres at. x. Thus l u mciently &mall sph erical neigh bou rhoods o f
the polnt ;l{ are open discs if x docs n ot lie o n the boundary of th e polygon, and are
sedors of an o pen db<: (togetber wilh t he boundary rad ii) If)( lies on the boundary
(FIg , 9).
Let there be t wo poly sons n an d n . Mar k one side o f eac h, u an d u', respec -
fively. n and n ' " an be glued aklnllhese sides, thu s prod ud ng the horncomorphis m
0: a - /I '. We declare the lmage an d the Inverse image eq uivalent. Th e topology o f
the factor spau (II U n ' )lR respective 10 IbIs equivalence consists of o pen d iscs for

F"II. 10
<
 0 . 1. Flu t NOliolls ofTopolon n

f Ia . 12 fi&. II

Interior point.s ~ e n , If ' e n ' ), the secto rs . Iued tOlelner for equiv alent poinu
If ' G II ' , lUI d the seu con taining the menrloned nng hbo urhoo d.!l . f tl. to ll-
.r e II ,
lulUlies the case when ideo tl(yinl is done by Jo lninJ, the polygons along the eq ual
sides II _nd II '
Similarly, tWO sides of t he sune pol n oo can be &Iutd to.C1Mr (sec Ihe CXlmplcs
ill Item I).
E:ut'tiscs.
4- , Dacribc t he topo~ of _ cylinder, tofUS. M6b ius st rip , illId pro jcaive plane.
' - , Verify that th e exam ples o f filCtClC splKcs (in Ilctll l) arc borncoonorphic:to their
rnIiwiom in'tbe EIX:~_ s~ RJ. Vcrif,. that difrCfCTIt modds (Fcs. 6, 1 Ind
I) of th e pr ojc(tive plane arc bom eomorpbic.
Coosick r no w the akli.n& of $Wfaas . Let lU p ask losethcr the sides o f a pee-
tlloa 1$ $hawft in F"!&. I I. TIle arrow.heads den ot e the I luini ruk for correspond.
illl sides (t he bqinninz of <me or;Cll tW Iinc~t is Clued. to the beain nilll of
moIhu, and th e CDd of the former to the cnd o f the Il ller) . Th e desipl t iolU 11. 11- 1
remind us (If the ~ny, whm Kknt ifyina eq uiValen t points, to trav crx alonl lhe
stde iI clock wise on the bo undary of the polygon, . nd cou nterd ocl:::wise 110n,
the slde Q-I (in othe r words, the side=; with opposite orienlat ioo arc a1ucd). The 1111'
illl lCheme is de$Crihed hy Ihe form ula af)a -Ib - 'e. It is easy to see th at Ihil factor
spsce m.y also be obtained in anOlher to pologically equival ent way (Fig. 12); here,
the factor spa l:!: ~ represented by a toru s willfe CUI -out along the CUl'YC e (R, . 13,
Ihe doll ed line de notes where ao- I and bb- 1 were Ilued). A 10rw with .. hole is
termed a hand Je.
Colllider tfte glllinl o f two adjacenl sides o f _ lriIn.le. If the ol'imt. tion s arc
op posile , l.e., the glum. scheme is fiI-t e (Fl . 141, then the faclOr s~ is
lopolopeau, ~uivaienC to . spher e with hole (F~ 15) .
Consider Ih" g\uirII. of l""O _djlCall sides with the wne orieutaliol1, t.e. IttOtd
In& to tbe JdIcme II (rl1 . 16). We ll:PR$Cflt mis Iriarlak u tWO rlJ/U tr ianp:s
allied tOIClMr a1oo& the oornmon heWn d CY,.. 11) with lh e indic:alcd orielllillion .
No'" _ chlll&e the order in which they .,e glued : ( trUly , ~ti f)' the bypotCrtIlJCS
. , and then the q. d (FlA. II) . A MObius strip (d. FIg . 3) is obUined. the rmal ree-
lor spICe bem l homeomorphic: to tN: orilinal (Fla . 16).
 lm roduclion \0 T opolQlI'
"

flt. 14 Fit. u

Now, lf a disc is cut 0\11 o r lhe sph eK S l . the n t ither a h lndle or a Mo bius st rip
can be alued wons the availabk edge c . Th e latter ca n be ~ Jlrcsenlcd IS lhe eir-
CIlm(c.cnc;cs ' (lit e bou.nd llty o f lhe circl e which has bee n cut o utl . In lhe fir$t cue ,
a torus Is obtain ed (Ra . Ill) (verify Ihe l opolOSical eq ulvalcDa of the ligllrn in Ihe
dr awln&). in the seeond t he projtivc plane R p l . Let us va iry th i$.
The pr ojea i<: plan e (Re Fit. 8) is IOPOloP:aD y equ ivalent to [he facto r space
dtawn in AI. 20. In fad wbtlt ~M to show b that the 1l$'P 'ca p' is a MObius
.urlp wi th the edac= c. Rc:pR1Cntl na II as lID ann\llu, wh u e d iametri cally oppo$ itc
poin b of t hc inoer cir cwnfamc;c arcldentirKd , ....c clJllo poklgjeally u ans fo rm it 10
a M Obitu $'lfi p (Fla. 11).
The funha ronstnlCtions CIn be ~Dtin~ in 1"'0 ways; (I) by cuuina; p disa
o ut of the I pbCII: an4 l1uiftip handb 10 them : (1) byeuttrnc o u l q discs and t1llina
'I MObius stri ps to th em . Th ill , 1""0 sales o f su rfaces may be obtaiDed:
M " M " M 1 . . , M , . . . 1'1).1'12 . . . 1'1.. ... ( I)
IM o ad N o an otwiovs!y th~ sptm-e 51}.
. We IhaD d.i5CUU t he properties Glthesc Iw faoes . Fine of all , it is eas y to sec thal
they ar e oblai nod from . finite number o f convex poI ylOfls by al uina toaet h.et" th eir
Jida; an d wbKquent topoJosieal tra ndol"Jft.ltiom. Such Splices an said to bcfinittly
rritlll, ,,rablt , and partitionin; o f Ille spac e into ' C\UVill near' polyltOns is ulkd
rrlollp lollo.., The su,f..:es M p ' N q Me coe neered, mean ll\g t h.t the y CQl\si$t o f
whole ' piece' and do not spilt into t wo mutu ally u d usive selS o f po lygo ns . Th i.
foll ows from t he f.<;1 Ib.t an y two verti~ o f tile t rlan aul. l lon poly gons are Joined

f'lI .n
[SlO
 , '
9
"
- ' ' ,'
,~ :-'

by a continuous PJllh made up of their sides. The surfaces under consideration <10
not have a bQund af)'. since cKb boundary side of th e pol )'ll:onb :u b een sJued t o o ne
(and only one) side. Hence, each point of such a surface bas a neiJ,hbo urhood
hom eom orphic \0 an open d isc; these spaces are called fw o-dimcnsiomJlmanifolds.
Finitcly-uians ula blc con nected two-d imen sional mani fold s are said to be dOSN
surjtJcs. If we did not glue to&ether all the pairs of the "des of th e polYilons. and
left some aides free, we would ob tain a nond lJSl!d m rf oct (or a $II'/~ with boun-
dary). A poi nt on the boundary would han a neighbourhood homeom orph ic to Ii
semicircle. An exwn ple is th e sp he re Sl with several holes.
Note also that the w rfaccsMp IUco rientab1f;, and can be placed into R 3 as two-
sided surteces Wlfhoul $Clflnter sertiol\S. By con tr ast , Ihe surfaces N'l are non-
ort entable (th ey arc cal led on e-sided Uke t he MObiu s stri p) and cannot be embedded
in R l witho ut sclfint<:rStio rui (but can be in Rl).
II is shown in 01 . II lhat an y close d sur face is homeomorph ic 10 an M p o r N
typt surface (Ihe nu mbe rsp , q are called Ihe gmus 0/ tlt~ sur/at;~). The su rf acesMp
and Nq , q ;;a I, are never homeomorphic, since the orientabilhy of a surface is a
to po logical pro pert y. T wo d iff erent M p' and Mp .surfaces (or N an d N q
sur faces) can nol be homeom orphic either (sec the next nem) . Thus, the' ist In ( I) is a
complete to po logical cla.ssificalion of closed surfaces. If P handles an d q ); I

fl l . 21
 Inlrocl """0II 10 Topolut.7

.....
MObill'S strips (tia vina made p q holes) an: alued to sphere t!'ten the obLlined
surface " IOpolosical.ly eq ui....lcm 10 spben: 10 whio::h "lp + q M6bius :.trips an:

En rdscs.
6- . Glu.e. ey\inder to tbe: boundaries of a Ipho:re with two boloes.. Pro..-e thlll the ob-
tained su rface is bomeom orpl\io:: to spher e with a handle alued to il. i.e. a lOTUS.
7-. Show t hat IIQ annulus and . MOb;\d Slrip can be ob lalned from . dis< by al ulnl
lbe bou.nd:u)' o f lhe latter 10 two sldes of a nctaqlc:.
8- . Prove the eqllivalence of t he followinl dermitions of R p 1 to l l\ose l iven above:
(I) dialMlricaJly opposne pa.irs o f po inls are identified in 5 1; ( ii) th e edle o f a
MObius Mrlp is shl'Ull k inlo ee e po int: (Iii) the edce o f a Mob;u5 " rip is Slued to a
disc by a cert ain homeomorphism o f t he bo undary circumfe rences.
9- , Define Rpl by idenli ryina d iamel riCllIl)' opposi le point s of the circ umference
S l. Show that (I) Rp l b hom eom orphic to t he circumference 51 : (il ).Rpl C R p 1:
(iii) th o:re is a neiahbourho od o f Rp l in Rp1 which is homeom orp hic 10 a MObluJ
strip.
10- . P rove t he equivalmce o f tIM fo llowins defln llions o f tIM Klein bo Ule: (i) two
MObius l u ips aIue<1 a10nJ their boundarics; (Ii) IICI an nulus wit h Ihe bolllldary dr-
cum rerenoes al ued lO8ether and With th~amunDavi&.t;on directions ~erxd: (m)
en annulus 10 ea<;h o f 1"tIose boundaries a MObius Itrip is Jlued.
A lopoloaieti spac e wttkh is homeomorphic to eo nvca polYlOn is ea!)ed a
'opo/ofiaJ/ po/noII. Aoeor dio&b'. we d efine the lmqu of the venita (rap. sides)
to be Ibe 1I,miccs (usp. ed&es) o f rIM topolop::al poIY101l. Wkhout loss of I merUi-
Iy trillll ul lLtioli of a swfau may be tiS\lmCd to oonsiA 0 ' topolosical ~nonl
...hit h ar c edge'lltix adjac:ml 10 each ocher (to carry this OUI. t~ convex polylolU
1"tIO$<e $ides are ident ified to obtain tbe JWfa<:c should be divi ded & priori inl O wffi
ciclltly small pol)'goos such as triallgks). Herea n er . Olily HKh tri&n.&u1&1ioM are
considered .
For an)' trian&ulated su rface n , ~ derme t he nlUl'lber x (l1 ) ... e - It + I .
..her e e is the n..... bu o r vntic:cs. If. t he nu mber of edac:s and I the number o f t he
tr w lulation pol)'lOllS. which b known as the Eu~r c"tlrru:rerinieolt"esurf~ D .
It po lSC$SC3 the rem arkable pro pen y thll it does not depen d on II t riangulatio n. t.e.
is II to polo8i<:a,l in vllriaJlt of the surrace.
EnrcLn 11-. Verify t hat the Euler char a etertll.i<: o f l he sphe re s ~ equals 2. Ihat o f &
torus zero , lha t o r a disc unlly, t hat 0 ' a handle minus ODC. and lh ar o f & MObius
strip zero ,
It is UI)' to prove the to po loai cal ittvarian tto f X( Sl , usillJ t he Jordan theorem 0
which Mates t hat any limple closed cu....e , i.e . CUIW' wtl idl il hom eomorp hic 10
the c:irc\lmfCRIICC. spliu the Jpl\ere or the plane inlO IWO d isjoi nt reaio ns. t heir
boundary coincidina lritb the curve.
Thus, eonsider a lrianptll:ion o f S1. U can be adIlcvcd gntdu;illy by fudna '
YCftCll (0) and dra win.a one edce a n er another: we dr .... the fIrS! ed&e from lhe
vena ( 0) to a new ve:rtQ . Wid then u. h Ql"e that each s:ub5eqUQII edle should
bq.in . l ite ,,<,rtu or lUledae a1read y drawn . We count the n um be r of rAe oblll.i.nfil
"
..mI ceSI!!, ed&e5Ic. and regjoru/ ttw are bounded by . ~i.mpk tIO$ed curve made up
of the edaa I l eachste p . AJ nu t . we pill e - I. k : 0. / _ I (when we: ha ve Ihlt
va1U ( 0) an d iu complmla1tary rqion). ft is CUll y &em Uu:t Ihe num ber
e - Ie + I remairu un.aIwed af ter addina uch new cd&e . In fad , if an Nat coma
to. new vertU then no new R s;ions emerac and the numbcrJ II! and Ie an boc.h in-
creased by I . If the newc "s;c joins two oCt ile oriJin&1 vutic:a then iC w"ldose. eee-
tail' cdp pat h an d a tiC'" , q.ion will cmuse (by tht J o rdan Ihto(' e11l). Thus , It Indf
will both be in<:>'eUed b y unity, and II! will ~maIn unaltered. t b viq drawn the b Sl
edit , we 50hall oompktcly restore the tri angulat ion . and ll'Im II! - .t + f - l: (5 2).
Qriainal" ,1I! - k + J _ 2. therefore. x (S) - I .
It n""1 ar e t ....o sur faces with boundaries ' I) wh ieh 'arc nOlMOmOfPhio: to 5 ,1 ,
thtll they can be glued boundariwl$C: in accordance with the ho rnwmorphlsm
"': II - I) . Let II I U .. Il 2 oXno~e I fac tor space. We shall prove III!, fo nnu la
x{Il. u, n ~ .. :d Il ,) ~ x(Il:J. (2)
Let u s triangulate fi t and " 2 so as to ob tain homeomorphic triangulations (Ihe
tf lMaWaUon of $ l b6na made up o f I vertices and the SlIIIIe number o f edllts) on
the bound aries ' t. ,}. Aft er &lui".. the number o f vertiCes Is eq ual 10 1', + t } - t,
W I of the cc1gc:s to A: I + k 1 - I. and that o f the polyJonl 10/1 + h. Formula (2)
follows from th e equality

fl i + t } - f) - (otl + k2- f) ... (II + Ii) :: VI - *t 'to I I) + (.e2 - k 1 + Ii).

Fe-muJ,a tl) is lOOlCtiInes colwmlall for calaalat ins the Euler cn.r.cteftstic:.
Ld ,.s1 be . sph.ere with p holes . If p discs Ire atued bact, then we obIain $2 .
Formuli (2)'idd.I the eqlYlity )($~ :: x ct.1) + p, wtt~ X<,.sl) ... 2 - p .
Tbe l urf.ee M p is obt.iMd by a1um. ,s lOp handJu whose Euler c:Not&CIerist k
equals -I . From (2). we o btain Ihal x(Mp) ... 2 - 1,p. Similarly. x(N )
.. 2 _ q . since the Eule , ehl~cristlc of II MObius strip equals zere . ce t ..
xWp,) x (MP:I) onlyirPL - P 1.anll)(NQI) - x(Nql)on lylf q l - ql' the s",
faces Mp , . Mp 1 cannot be: homeomorphic ....hen p, '" PI due to Ihe lopoloa.iu.lin-
variaJlce ofthe Euler characteristic, nor can the surfa ces N. ,. N q1 be homeom orp hic
when q l . q1 '
Ot her inlCl"elt ins app liwioN of the Euler charaaeriltte can be foun ll in the
theory of convU' polyhedra. Th e surface of acoevex polyhed ron can be imagined 10
have btm l1ued together from I finite number o f OOftYCll: po1nons (its faces) respee-
live 10 the idenlity ma ppil1is o r the ed&c:s glued. We immedial ely obl.llin the Eukr
fOl'tllula for a convex poIytlcdro n:
ao - a l +01 = 2.

when ~ is the numbu o f venk:a. G, the nunibu of cd.&cs. and Gllhe number o f
fICa of the poI ~c:droa . In ra a . the Iert 1wHl side is the EWer ehlr:ae:ter1stic of th e
l un.", of the po!yhcdr Otl ...bleh is ob riously ho~ic 10 $ 1.
If m faas _ 11 eac h vena. , an d CIIch faa is a eonYCll: "-son, then the
polyhedron is said to be o ftypc (II. mI. If the ,. ..oaSlre fC&ular then tIw: polybedron
 Inl<od w:tion \0 T opolozy
" said 10 belQUlor. If the type (n, ml u known, then Q'o- (:f l ' "'1 can be
is caj culeted . Jo
reer, m cd&cs mttt in each vc:na, th erd o rc r:1if" '" ].a I; since t here are n edg es in
each face , "'7!I '" la . (ea ch cdse jo ins two w:n iccs and two faces) . Thu s,

"' 0 "', "'1 "0 - "" I + Cl' 1

m - I .. i=T =;;=r " m- l - 2- 1 + ,, _l
2 4m.
2n+ 2m_m,, '
wh en CClhe val~ o f a ll' al' and ""1can be cakulat ed . The nlll ura] requirtment fo r
<110' a l' and Q] to be positive leads to the inequ.a!ity for lXlsitlve inl~n n . m:
2n + 2m _nm > Q - (n - 2)(m - 2)< .
It is !:as)' to cooduOe th at there are five solutions all in all:
[l ,l l. [4,31. {J ,4 I. (S,l ). [l ,S1 . (3)
Five killds o f regular polyhedr a are known fro m elementary geomet ry, vte. ,
tet rah edron, cu be . OClahcd ro n . dodahedro n . and icosahedron whose tY'PC' ar c
pn:ci$ely wluil ts given in (3) .
Th us, a complete lis! of t he {n, mltype po lyhedrons hu bee n Ji ven .

4. T HE NOTI ON OF RIEMANN SU RFACE

One of the ways leadi ng to the basic: lopol ogic al c:on",ep ls is to stud y a1ge bTaic
funalolU and thei r Integrals ; it .... as discovered by Riemann as ear ly a s the mid dle o f
the lut cen tury .
Consider the a1Aeb raic eq uation
ao!:) w" + a l(: }...... - I + . . . + a,, (: } ... 0, 00<:) <F- 0, t I)
with com plex codTh::ic'lIu Ihllt are polynomials of a complex varia ble t ; iu fOOlS are
funaions w '" w ( t) ts e. an d analytIc under cef1ain conditions. For example, if all
the roots of eq uation (I ) ere differen l a t a point t l)o then (hell: cx.Ist " funCll on ~
w /(:) , i .. I , . , " in the neigh bo urh ood or the point to lhat depend on :
analytically.
An analyt ic funct ion w ... w I:) satiJifying equ ation ( I) is called an algebraic
/ un criOll. Equat ion ( I) det ermi nes several bl1UlChcs wr(:) o f algebra ic fun ct ions
WhOK nwnber will vary, gencrall y spcu lll8. and which change into one another as:
varies. Consequently, mll1hematicians speak of II man y-valu e'd algebraic funClio n
w (:: ) lkIerm ined by eq uation ( I) an d ofi ts branches wl { : ) . R iemann proposed that
the : -plane C be re placed by a sur fac-e on whic h th e function 10' (.: ) will be: one-
valu ed, while Its branches 10',(:) will be the values of 10' ( :) o n separa te pvU o f th e
surfllCe (such sur faces are called Riema"" fUr/aces).
It is nOt compltclltcd to construct such a sur face. Co nsider the exl.ended co mplex
c
plane C ... U ... (Ihe t -sphere) and t he Canc.sian p)duC! C )< C con s.istil18 o f
Ord ere d pai" (t. lO'). N eigh bourhoods in C x C ar e d efined , nat urally. as the Cane-
 Ch, l. Fin! Notion. ofTopolo i Y
"
+

c
<r::
- - _ -/"7
/ '-~ll

sian products of ncighbourhoods (aRd as all the sets that contain them), Then
algcbraic equation (I) determines l lll'a ph in C x C C()fIsisting of th ose pain te. w)
which SlItis fy equaucn (I ). Th is is Ihe Riemann sur face n of the man y_val ued
a1gebraie fu nction w(: ); In fact , t hc proj ection n - C given by the rule
(l, w) - W , (2)

determ ines aone-valued fu nction on a Riemann surface ....hich Lakes th e val ues of all
the branches of the many-value d function. An illtere$!.ing quel.tion arises about th e
stru d ur e oflhe surface n Md . bou t th e dist ributIon o f t he branchcsof the functio n
... on it.
The simple$!. many-v aluc d algeb raic function is rclatcd to the eq uation of the
second degree
(3)

The cha nge of variables v "" 2... + Q

I res uees this equat ion to a simpler for m
",2 _ p (: ) =0, (3' )

where p{:) Is a polynomial ,

In the simDleSl: ease .vI:) = : . Th en eq uation (3 ' ) deter mines t he two-val ued
algebraic funcuon w _ Vi, If I = r c'" the n ils tWO values w, "" ~,j~I2 ,
"'2 .. - fie l.r1. r > 0, have op posi te signs and change into each ether when the
point 2 ITIOVes along a closed pa th around the point z _ 0, To prevent th e red uction
of the branch WIlmc the brarn:h IVz' cuI th e I-sphere alo ng the pos itive real half-axis
(F'IJ, 22), This cut jo ins the poinu Oand ... . Two edges ab ut on the,cut , vir. , the up -
per (+) and the low er ( -), Consider th e un ion (disjoint) of $heel I and sheet U
(re plica s) of the Isphere cut , Call sh eet It he car rier of the branch W I' and sheet II
the ca rrier of the branch "'2' On the t wo-sheeted surf ace I U II . t he fun ction ,., is
o ne-valued . T o detect the errect of the reductio n of th e branch 10', into th e bran ch
"'1' we glut the ( - } edge o f sheet 1 re the (+ }ed geo f sheer II, and lite ( + )-e<!ge o f
sheet 110 the ( - j-edge of sheet II . We o btain a facto r space n i which is the IWO-
$heeled Riemann surface of the funclio n w ~ {t. Althou gh nnl lyill& In R ' (sheen I
and II pierce each othe r. see the I luln& sc heme. F'1lI . 23). it Bi",o=s US a l oad v;"ua l
dcmolllluation of Ihe relati on ship bet ween the branches W I and w l'
 '" Introd uction 10 TopolOJ)'

"

But, for the alticbfaic equation w2 - l = 0, the graph D 1 in C x C. on which

the function ... Is also on e-val ued, is determined. .
We now snow that " I and OJ arc homeomorphic to C. t.e., 10 the ( WOo
dimensional sphe re S1. In fact, mapping (2) .
W ., w{t), where I = <.t. w) e " l'
is easily seen to be a homcomorphhm. as well as the mappin& w; O J - C whKh is
induced by the many-valued fu ncti on ... = {t. Therefore, the Riemann sur face of
th e many-valued al,ebraic funct ion IV __ ffb topologically equivalent to the two-
dimcnOOnal sphere Sl . "This, bY the way, can be seen In Flg. 2A when sheen I and II
wa-e'glued after transforml nl l bem topologically and a J""lotl lnto h emispher e!: by
' moving' their edges further away from each other.
Let us specify anolller projcdlon" . - C by the form....... t(t) '" t and identify
C with S2. We then ha~ two diagrams .
 Ch. I. Fi,S! Not;o" . o(Topol<>,r

These diavanu ar e eom mu tenve , I.e ., the S\lperJ)O$il;on of two mappings (in Ihe
"
dirLlon of the arrow-heads) equals the third m apping (the remaining a,row). BoLh
the ho ri:ronl al mappings in t he diavam ate h o meomo rp hisms inverse 10 each o lher .

Th e m a pping S1 ~ S1 is l ermed a H~o-shuled

(ramified) cov erin. of the
sphere S2 with th e branch points <: - Oand t = ... (ve rif y Ihal circumnavigalio n o f
tbe point Z ..... also lea ds 10 a change of th e brandl) .
TIlII cove:inS stv... list 10 substitULion> f1Ilionalizinllthe lot.g .onds in Familia. lntegrab
1>1 the Fo rm !R{c. r'pt. where R(z, .f) is a rational function in 1 and r.
Considcf tile Ilmplest integral
,
!Rlt.fi)ds. (~)
~
rqa>dcdasaauv'ilinearlntqra!inthee.pIlneCalonl acenllinpf;th1 " lU).O " s " I
.iOin1nl llte pOmU 1 0 0IJld z. where fi. il one of Ihc brlDdles of IIIe: many....a lucd aJaebrale lUrK.
lion .I ven by lhc equalion ..' - < O. The """'" int.gral can a1Io be considered as the cur_
vilinear intqral

j R(r)d1
,
y;
Ilolllthe pIlh t .. ll; (s ) . "iTsmn tb. space C )( C,jolnin. tlle:pOints (l". 6.0>. re. q l. of
IIlefllllcti{)n R(t) ... R(:c ...) . let 'VUein a Ric:mann surfa<:e fl ,. Howcver . it is mor e conVe
nlatl to consider its lrnaF,in a Mlrf which Is borneomorpblc ton,. i.e.. the ...-plane C. the
iInqc belnll tlte palh ~ .. ... ... (.r) 11....e ...(s) .. oIi18r. The telatWn between tM z plane C
ond the .... p1ane C Is q>ccified by lhc tranlfomu.Lion z .. ...' and maka it posll!b\e to
UlIlsfOl' m lnlegal (~) b,-lhc chlUtsc o f varialstn:z: .. ...' into the lntqral alon. ihe ...."'.;Yin
the ...pianc' C :

IRlt .v'i"l<4 " ~ R (...J, ,,)2IVd""
"<l Wo
The last b1cearat is o r a ' allona! fUnction. Th us. _ rationalited Lhe 11lle ,JUtul by uodina
(usinll a t~CC'lcd covo:nnl o r the z-spMu S") the pat h of IntC&f1llion onto the Riemann
surfllOe o r the many valued ~brale functlon detennl ncd by the equation ... 1 - 1 ... O.

No w,lct p(t ) - Q(!.l + Qlt + 0 1, where oOO 0 1 E C ,,, a" f-

4 0 0 " 1 ". O.
00 ". O. IXnotina the roots o f th e polynomialptz ) by ' 1' ' 1' wh er. " "#- '" .... ob-
tain th e algebra!, fuooion
... - " oaU - ' LXi - ,~. (6)

Obviously, It is aUo two-valued. An invo:$(iptlon simi lar 10 t hat above sho ws that
on. branch is l'<Idu,ed to the ot h. r d uring lh e c.ircum nav igat ion of both th e po int 'l
and the poi nt '1' whil. the c.ir,umnaviJlltion of boLh th ese point.! (aton, a dosed
path sUTTo und ing th e points 'l and '~ and t he point ... does no t alter the n umber o f
fI branch. Th efore , t he Ri.man n sur fac nz
of th is fu nc tio n is obtain ed (ro m the
IWo repl icas o f m e t _sph.ere which ar e cu t along the IIne-seament i7",. t he C'dges of
me ets I an d 11 beina glued t ogeth er as Ihey were in the fLlSl exam ple. Eviden tlY,the
space "i is stiIJ topologl,a1iy equivale nt ro the sph. re , We have agai n a two-sneered
"
CQvmnaof the lJIhue 51 wilh t wo btaDdI poinu 1: .. ' I' e 't>
The &raPh O! of t he algebraic ~lWkln
..,z - a,p. - ' IX: - ,~ .. 0 (6')

t he ( -sphere intO the ?sphere red_,. into ' l O. and'2 inlO 71 '" .. .
Th e change o f variableJ

v - 10' (l _ 1) . r "" J:' - 'l

""ov, - 'v 1 - '2
lransro, ms, as can be n~l)' seen, alacbraic tqua tion (6 ' ) lero .he atsebr ail: (quallon
,,2 _ 7 = O. 1M COfTUPOIId1n& fIlIIPpinl . : C x C - C x C, {to (T, ,,). w,-
reduces 0 2 into n I .Dd is homeolltOrpbiam. and the homromorphi$m n I onlO5 1 is
pVUI by pro jtiou (2): " = I' (t}, .here t ~ ('I', . ).
Thus. we ha..., 1M commutat ive dlq:ram

")

If tile In~oI
,

.-
", ,;w en OQ -IRIi:......ot:- rilG - rJd: . jR, w)c4
.
n..lhea bonmnuJ ma ppiap of d/aaram P ) mIIbk us 10 tn.n d ona IlIIl'1tOtile ill-
.
j A(. I... )dP.
"
on lIIe ... sptu:n: Sl, wtme A io nuand f\lAlCUOOlo. Th is _ lJ for the ra:.loaaJlUIlOll of ee
I,u q.and by lhe fo""" EllICf I:IIbl.Iit utioll

_ fr_
-.
.J::........:..J. .
1 - 'J

We will come to I n essentially ne'" fcsulllf ....e cOnJidcr a polynomialp (t} oflhe
thIrd dcu. ThUll, corwd an II1l<'braK: fu nct io n o f the (Qrm
... .. ltl(.f": - 'IX: ,J(i rJ (I)

...here ' '~.'J ~ ~rw; sc di ffeR'll!. TlIc func:tiQn ... possesses two bnlnchn , but
now lhqo arc ' jo ined' in I. more eo<nplialed way. The ein:'umnaviaah<m or o)M
 Ch. I. F,m Notions ofTopokllY
"

point ,,/ te5UIIJ In a ,=han8~ o f a branch of the funct.lon w, while lhlll o f any two
points preserves l h~ bnndt, and that of &lIthe three poin ls, just like the tircurn
naviaWon of che point 00, alter s the bnnch. To ' ban ' these tran sformalions, It
suff""elI co m&lr.e the ~uu " t"1 and "J- on the (sphere. Then tad! bnndl of the
funaion w III oD~.valued on such a Jtled with th~ I;:\lll. For cae bnnd l to be
lransfomted into the other in the: lUtuiml way, we,rue replicas (aDd U alolll che
I;:\lU "(: and "JOb , reJJ)Caivd,., th~ cdaeJ beml slued as before . The lopolorkal
5pllcen j obtained D evidenlly the ~n Jurf.a: of funaion (I). An _ tilll dif
fe=>Ce botwem the su rf ace OJ and the surf.a: ni iI lhac nj is topoklaic:a1ly
equivakn t 10a ~ere wilh a 1undle (FII . 25, whac the cuu are fim upanded iDlO
'bolu' rrom whw;h lube$ au pulled and &I\led cd&ewlse toeflher in lbe req uired
way ). The nalural mapplal OJ - C is a two-sbceted aim'll ma p o f SI wicb the
bnndl poillU "p "1' " J ' -'r.",,,,,,,,,,,,",,,,,,:;-,,,,.-::-;:;
For t he fUl'ldion. w - ".of;. - "J(i - "J(i - ,,~ - ".), when "I, "J> "J'''~
are pairwiH dirterem , we haVl: the Rimwu:l surf.a: n . whktI is hoaleomorphil;: to
n j . This fDl\owJ from the one-valued brarll:bes bein, separated by the IWO t'U1S".'1
iIIKI ,'I"..... d the poInc ". al:liq as the polIN. o f the previous cumpk (the latter
not brill, a branch point) .
Hoce tllal lorqrar:lnl ratioPJ. ruroetiom OIl the Iw fKn n n. teodl; to elliptic buqral
Ih.....,. . "
 Inlrodu., lon lOT""""'"
" It IS "0( complieaaed ~Iher 10 Invest;,"l' the casc o f an lll~b~ic funtlion
w _ -IQoti ~ l) ' " (~- '~ l. (9)

whue ' llirC pairwi5e dirrcrt~ . Here ,lI ll C\IU arc made . I.e., 'I'z.. . " . _ ...... If
" IS~. and '" + l )I2 cuU l'.r 1 . . . , ' . _ ~" _ .. ' ..... If,, "odd. Havinl lallm
IWO rcp1iea5 of lh c z-spbc WII.h sul;h a>u , we 111.10 them alone ,he cClfnll)Ol)di llS
cu u : The constru ct ions arc similar 10 IboJc inIDealed in r IA 2S ..o will produce a
_ ("1 ) , -1
sphtrc Wllh __ I
2
1 +1
2
_ _ . , , . . -1
2
..
h .nllks. n ns IS the

R,cmann surfau of fUn<:fi on (9) . Th e number o f hand lnp (Ihe Bcnus of l WTface)
lS reJ&l cd to the number V o f the branch poi nts o f ,he Rianann surfa by the
~ua.lit)' V - Up + I).
Thus, the many-valued _Itcbr.ie funetioo , which is determined by equat ion (J),
posscssC! Riemann lurfl ce tlla, is lopo1oa ical ly equivalent 10 .a 5 ph C~ wilh
handlts. This ueten em is valid for any many-valued ala.b lllle f"'"Clion .
XrreM 1- , Con$lrua the Rieman n surface o f Ille algebraic function ..... -
- t '" 0, where n > 2 and Is an integer, and verify tlull il is .. -sheeted and
10POlopeal ly equivaknlto lbe sphere,
Th e inVUliption of Donalgebraic lZlal)'lic functions in the ~plane aJso ICllds 10
Rieman n surfaces QI1 wbid! the attal)'1ie fWlet ions all: OM-" . lued .
Enrdfe 2-. Cemsid",. tbe Iopritbmic: fun<tlOl'l 6eImnined b y the eqllalioo
~ .. - ~ .. o and CDn$lrUet ' jl$ Rieman " sunaec.

S. SOMETH I NG ABOUT KNOTS

Intultlvdy . the no Lion of knot $CellU unCOlltplieal.ed. The simple5.texampkl lfc

the ' prUne' Icnot(Fi" 26) an d the ' ligure-of-cigbt' k" ot (F'IJ. 27) wbidt C:&II be RIl-
ly repre5ellted witb a rope . Any altemptto lraJlsfonn a ' pri mc' knOi lnlO a 'rllure-
of-elJbI' koot without pusinllthe ends or t be rope thrOllgll a loop will fail. Tllu s,
wch.n uperimtnl m ows lhat these knots are differenl , which brinKs up tile wbjeet
o f chusltyin l knots mathern.lk"a1 ly.
 "

A, . 27
 Introduction [0 Topoloty

fia;. ) 1

We sball be able 10 ba.n passm, the m ds through a loo p if we ident ify tr.e., .Iu~
tOllether) {be rope-.ends <FII. 28 an d Fla. 29). Th en the follow ing defin ition
becomes DalUrai.
DEFtNmON \. A knot is a hom eomOtllhlc Irna&e of the circ um flTll:l1Ce 5 1 in R ) .
E.XAMPL1lS (a) the lrivial k DOt (Yli. 30): (b ) a 'prime' kil O(, 'cloverlear kllot o r
' !nfoi!' knot (see FI&.2'), (e) a 'figw- N)(-eiaht' ce a 'fou.-fokl' knot (I
Fi. 29) .
Note that by deflJlition all k nots are homeomotpb.ic . Th~fore, it is ~ql,l lrcd to
classify the c:mbeddilllll (homC<lmorphimts) by which the clrcum ferrnee can be
embedded in R I.
DEflNITION 2. Xn O/$ X I lind Xl _ $/lid 10 be t!quivafMI If there wsts a
homeomorphism of R ) ont o userr mapping X I onto K I.
A more ~ et....if~on of knots is based on tb~ nOIKm of isot opy o f th e
~ Rl , A con lillUQ lU ma ppm, H: [0, II X R J _ R ) is called an is{J/OPY il fOf
eacb Ie (0, II, th e mappi ng H homeomo rph ieaUy mal" R ' onto Itself, whereas,
WMII t => 0, it is th~ ident ity mapping. Th ll$, an isotopy is a family of homeo-
morphisms of the &pace R ' which depend on a PlUVIle1erI and which chllJl. e I;On-
tinuowly ali t ioc. -, beSinlling with Ihe Identity when t = O.
DEI'1NmON 1. KDou Xl IltId K J are o f the same isol opy /ype If then: exiUli an
i$Otopy H<t, x ) of Ihe spac~ R J, I e [0, 11, X{; R l such that H(l, Xl ) = Xl .
&~ 1 , Sh ow tbat th~ bcloqinc 10 an isotop y ~ is an eq uiVal~nc~ , d arion ,
There are exam ples of knot s which are eq uivalenl in the sense of Def"m ltion 2
but are Of difftl"ent isot opy types. Thus . ' trdoil ' kno t and the mirror image o f a
'trefoil' knot , i.e., the knot which is symmet ric 10 th~ 'trefo il' knol wb h rel~ to
$(lII\ ~ plane In R J, are not of the $IUlIe i,otopy type (the pr oof of this requlr~' th e
dcYdollment of a spec:i allecbnique). However , a ' figurN)f-ei&hl ; knol and iu mir_
. 01 imqe are o f the same Isoto py type.
The basic properties: o f knots ar~ euIly studied for knOll th ar an: co mparalivety
simply tied ,
DEP"INlTt ON 4. A poJygorKIl k not Is a knot which is the union o f a finit e nwn bcr of
r1 i1inear segmmu .
 ClI. I . Flnl NO(ion, or Tapa&ou
"
DEFINITION 5. A knoI: whicb Is eqUoivaknl 10 . polyconal one Is said 10 M t tlfM. A
knOI whicb is not eq uiYalmt 10 POIy.on M ODe Is said to M wild .
EXMoIf'UiS. Th~ trivia!. tr~ foil. and flaur~f.I' kDoIl ace tame. All exam
,* o f . wild knoI hai_ in rll. 31. 'rxe Aumberof loopsm th illnMllica_in.
dd l.llil d y Yt'hetus their size d ed'UIeS inddin.ildy while appI"OKhiIlJ: 1M poI l11 p . II
it inlcrCSlinl t bat if IlK number of kloprr; wee "I/Iit~. th en lh~ knot _ Id M
eqllivalml to th~ trivial one.
KlIol d assif"ttation is d oseb nt al ed to pr opa'ticl of spaces whidJ .,.~ co m'
pkmml ary 10 knOll. For C:lllampl~ , if some of th~ lopolo&kal invariaDlI o f the com-
pklll m ll of knOiS X l an d X l ue different then X t is not eq uivalenl to X 2 (and nOI
i5010pic). A useful to J)Olo&!w invari lnt II th~ fundament al &rOU P of tb e knot co rn
plement (th e knot grOUp) (Ie~ 01. III ) . Note also lhat the set o f all kn ot eq uivalence
elas50el (o r iso topy eqllivalmcc eIassn) m ay be end owed wil b IJl algebr aic flntetu!'e .
The Idea or l uch a struct ure lill y be , ivm In t he foll owln, manner : call Ihe r:omposl.
rioIr (Product) XI X 2 o! two kll ots X t X 2 thc o perat.lon o rtyln, lhcm o ne a fter th~
other . The o rd er in which the y ate tied is im mt~rial ; more exactly, tb e Ilnot X I . X 2
is equi. ....t to th e b ot X 2 X l" 1be c:ompoition of the t not equivalen ce c!.Uses
1IO ckrtllCd is commutalivc and usoc:iat iv~. Th~ cq uivalmc:e c:bss of th~ trivi al knot
SCI'\'C$ u tM Idm lity ckmcu l . Ho wever , all . U IIpt to solve Ib~ eq uation
X X . I (i.~., to untie X by tyin, Ihe b OI Xl will flil exeept when X _ I .
T),crcfore , t.hc knot equival cnc:e da$se$ only form . xrn!&ro\lP (Md do DOl. fon. .
IfOUP)

FURTHER Jt.EADING
The 1'"_ lopolosbl 0ICIIiau can be Ic:amcd ft c.. e>&II)' 1ICNfCCS. fit, ~.-ic iJlt~
I. . tl;> I ....... bel- of buic ~ (iaoc:Iud.lnI 1-...;....,..;00 1 MId dl~1WlIl
mlJlirolds) il carried: 0lIl. by Ef'ml~ in ~ f1/ DtrJW1t/aT7 AIlzt" -wtia, V. 5
~'7. "~tif TopoIOu f2f 1 (pP. 476-'~ VlnlaI ~ 1(7) by Boll)'ln'
sl111ld Etranoridlmay be Quite _rlJl rt>r I h~ bq;iDncr. lt upl""l the ide:u. basic notloflS
ad I'"LI'lIlnas of IOPOloIY in I popuIlr mannl:\" . Abo r nl eo.w.plst>!ThpoJ<>u lUI by Olinn
WIdSlem.od Ib outd be noted .
1'bt: problems or ,luiq IOJfthcr lwo-dimcmional ,wraon 1ft' al s.o coveml ln l>O~r
boIlkJ: Whlfl /$MQlhnntlt/ a1 [131 (Ctl . V) by Co urant and Rob blJlJ. AlfSdNlueM CAomrtrle ,
[19J (0) . VI) by Hilbert and CohnVossen. New Mtll~t1J/ DI"""ioIa f rom Sdtt,,1(fIc
A/Iffrl('a" 1"'1, and ~ Unexpect ed 1I_,In, ilItd Other MtIIJre",.. ,kaI ~ (HI. etc .
llcy ca<dIlcr . Oatdr>cruplalN bow M~ld .slrips Ir e llScd for l'indin 'Nhm ~ lnt~
tilt EllIer dwaetoislic. we abo ldcd _ tedu'liclues rro-! A " A~ I of tlte &.sic Itletu of
Tf:l9OIoD by BtlhYIlIlkJ' IIld Efr cll\O\icll (I6I, ..... _ from Cm.dCr (141.
The cl.aail'"atiCICI of l-.dimenslooal surracesl:s _ ed 1'ftY lill::lroq/lly in A ~
Topo./tIu : AM l " trotIuU_ Ij 21 (0.. I and ClI. 2) by M.wcy 1Ad.lso" !he ~_
T~ [7 11 (ClI. IQ by seirert ..,d Tbldf.P.
MCIril: WlICa IIIId thdr _plftas an: dQk with ill 1,,/I'Odw6tM I t:> SeI 71fer;Iq aMI
a-rfII T~ PI (Ct. 4) by A1allftdtOl' UIdill lbc ICIfl~ at rw.etionaI-l1IU. (461
(Q. m. n
1491 (CII . lTd 1l'I.
An e1M1m!At)' approach 10 1M idea or. copoIop:,al '~ fIlIY be found Ia !he 1_ boob
_lolled II thc bqlrICIlaa; or tbiI wnoey. Note abo ia tllD _nealon l.m~ ' 1Inll
' Hiltorical NoI.e' 10 A.. I rfOllll !be boot by Bourbati Topotjlfw ~ 11' 1 wllidI _
_ flI in Scc:. 1.
" IlIl:rod lltllon to Topoloa y

The "", o:oocepu of 00lft(lk:I wariablc f....etloo theory I h.1 we fc furilld 10 in Sec. . .... y
be fOtDld . tor exUAplc., .. Inland <k\>dootftenl or \he notiont ioIrod llo<ltli11 Se<: ClIl be
, _ ill 1" 1lIIId ~9] .
~~ . ""lIoM: buic: idcaswc diJanJe4 i1l Sec. J. ilco-r'" by h"'~lioII'o Kfl'"
no.c.,.ll'1 by o-cu MIl I'm.
Note tHuIe....Dal:H ID.lhooIf byOln>ant)' ..,d Mat~ (201 wbidl_ ~IiPcd by
VOflllllCdl Slat l./IticmIJ Mol Qk'h e:aeuiDJ <klDa.u or a-roilOpokiQ and_opy
tllwy. tM IllJXliOl)' of surflCCS. cIemo:Bu or ....fold l!ltofy as wei III Port swYeyS of bulc
M IOillau.
We ioldiWoe, iIl~. tha tho:iJlif d YOI_ of Hisloq <l/ Safttt M ltin.-tia 1421
caaulm: . bistorktl........". 01 II.. dc.clupoMnI or \DllI'IIo11 in this _11'.

A - * ' of tlIc prublnnI p~ ill 00 I art from ~ ICIll book.

 General Tapol09Y
AI we have me n tkm! above. the notio n o f melne space is insurn
eie ntfOT the de ve lo p ment of a number o f Impon anl mathema tital
pl"oblems . In the twentieth call\U"Y more ameraJ CODCept o f
space bas IlI'iKn and devel opm in matbemati , the co nCCJ)C o f
to po Josica"1 space. By now, this notio n h u ba:omc uni venally ac;-
Pted ainu the ' atnletu re' o f a t opolosfcal space , a co ncept quile
b road and pcofound , lUUa1ly preeedes the introduction of o th er
..tlll et Ure$. The lanBllQe of topoloskal soacc th eory has become
I!I cr ally accepted In aU the b~ DC madlcmalK:s which are
related to m e noc>orto f space. ThU c:hapter is devoted to the theory
o f topoloaical spaces and thei r continuous mappil\&l.
 i. TOPOLOGiC AL SP AC ES
AND CONTINUOUS MA P P INGS

I. The Definition of a Topol ogical Space. Let the re be a collection o f

~ubiet.l ~ .. lUI in a se t X of an arblt ...!)' natu re so llla t it poueUe$ th e following
propcrtl es:
(i) 0. Xe 1';
(Il) t he union o f a ny co llection o f set s from' belongs to r ;
(iii) the lntersectjo n o f any finite number o f set! from ' belongs to r .
Such . collectio n of su~et s r is called a lopolot>' In X ; the set X is "ca lled a
1O/1OIOlkol Sp<lce an d denoted by ex. T). and t he subsets from the co l1C'C1 ion l' are
Wd to be o~n (in theo spau X).
EXAMPLES..
I . X Is th e number lin e. A tOp</logy is gi~n by the following co lllion of su bSCIs:
the empty set 0, all possible intervals and th eir unions U '" lJ (g", b,,).
2
2. X .. R . Call a set open if together with each ofiu po inu , it contains a su ffic ient -
I)' smaH open circle cenlred ill t he poin t, and the empty set . It is easy to verify th ai
the family of all open sets In R 2 forms a topolo8Y.
3. X is an arbitrary SCI. Put,o = [0 . Xl. It is a topology (verify l) . Thu s, ex,
TO> is.
lopologie a1 space.
4. X is an ar bitrary set . 1'1 = lall possible subsets o f xl_ II is also a t opo Joty
(vcrtf'y!).
Th e t opoJOi)' r J is sa)d t o b e rntJXJmQ/ or dlscrfte . and the t o pol o gy ' (I is Cllllcd
mi1limlff or trNiof. Th us. different lopolog ies . e .g. , t he tr ivial or discrete one, may
be deflfle<l on the: sam e set .

who.., c;omplement is o pen. Thus. if U e r Ihen

Fit c10Kd t hen X 'F It open .
x,
The dual noti on of cloud set Is clOKly re lated to the not ion o f open set: It is a st:!:
U is closed. and , co nversely. if

X~i.sc ) 0. Verify that the fo llo wing sets an: close d: a line -segment In, h I in RJ ;
and a dosed di $c in R 1.
As a result of th e dualil y of se t- t bec rettc o perat io ns , the colltttion of all closed
letS of a spa ce X sa lisfles t he followina pro pen ies :
(I) th e sets X , 0 are closed,
( li) the cuersecnon of an y collection of closed seu ;s closed;
(iii) (he un ion o f any finite number o f cloKd St:!:S is closed .
Variou s lOpa logies on the sam e SCI form a paniauy o.dered sel.
DEfiN ITION I. A topology , is said to be Wlkrr (eOQrur) thM a to po logy
'.(1'< ,.-') If it ren ews from II e r th at U e~: t.e., if all sets from, belona tc ,. '.
TlH topa!o&Y ,. is then sai d to be stronger (flner) Ih an the topology r ,
Note th at Icr any lopo logy ,.-, we have TO < r < 1'1' It Is clear thai there al$o ex-
iIt incompVlIble topolog ies. Topologies T ' and 1' " are inco mparable if each o f
thm! contains on ly so me o f the set s belongi ng to the ether.
We will now co nsid er how to con st ruct a lo po lollY. First , an important defini .
tion .
 tn ll od ucll on 10 T opqlOSY
"
OEFINITl O:.l 2. A coU~ lon B = I II} o f open s.eu Is eaIled" /xJse{or i2 topoloU 1'.
if for any opm set U and for an y point E U . the~ wsu " et Ve B such th l u (i V
udV CU.
TbtR fore . an y noa-mtp(Yo pen set in X QII be repruented lit t he unio n o f open
5ClI f rom the base . Th is propcny dlaJactaiza baK . In particular , X equals the
lUlion o f al l lM $eU (TOttI V (UlY co lkttion o f 5ClI "'; !h sudl .. property iJ, ealIcd "
I ,,",II~ o f ttlc space) . ConYCnl'ly, if a see X is n pra cnted a, the Ul1IonX = IJ V.
the n undu what eonditions can a topok)sy on X be c;olUlrueted sc tlw the fllmily
B IV. J is " baM: fOC" th e topology?
n1Oll.... I (A C1lIlEUG.' 10F" A IlASE). L " X .. lJ
Y" . A co !lUin6 B .. lV.l in
baR 101" i2 ~,"f" topo/OV 1/ tmd only if for " " y .' fifty v , /1'OifI B "lI d,."y
E V.. n ",. I~~ exisu "'..,E 8 Sitclr ,/rllt X lii V., C y . n V...
PROOf'. If 8 .. IV.) is " base (OT " Io polou" th en Y" n
,>
v,
is an open set. M d , by
1M dd initlon o r . base, for an y x v. n ... lMn aisls Y ..,: XE Y.. C Y.. n v, .
CoDYUSdy , If B .. Wool satisncs the cCNldition of the Ihcol'ftD th en the sell
U :: U $I.. (aU possi ble unio ns) and the em pty SCl 0 form , at can easily be vamcd.
II topalOJ)' on X (Q r 'IItilich B.= IV"I is " ba$r.
Note l bat we have abo indicaled in tbe pr oo( . wrJ o feonSlroc:dn l ;l to pokl l)' If
a family B satb fyill, the f;O nd;tion of lhe theorem is l iven .
Bllt can a to po lOI Yon the $1:1 X be co n5trueted for an u bilrat)' co vering (S"J'
Th e follo...m, Iheorem answers this Quest ion.

...
TH EOflEM 1. A (1)vuf" g !S"l nQlurally tCne'ltl~J Q tQJ)Ology on X , vh . the came-
tlolt of n tr (v _ " 5..1, 1~/r~ r'I! K lJ on tub /In" )' finite $IIbstl from tal, lJ 0 lu:st
for lhe topology .

PaQOv. Verify Ihal the co.lltttion (1'1 $8\is fiea the cri terio n of a base . In fact, pUI
V,. '" v. n V"for v.. " V".ObviDUdy. V,.'" IVl,and , l hertfore, the aiterio no fa
base is flllrdled.

DEFINITION l . The fami ly IS.. J

...
Th us. the co " mn. [S.l o f th e set X dacrmilKll 11 IOpoloU OD X whow ope n
seu ' " aJJlhe posslbk union s U ( " S.) an d Ihe cm Pl )' set .

iii c:aIkd a s..bba5o> fOf t he toPOlogy whic h k

IcntniCS.

""""'=
S. ler. X . R I. Set.5of tbt formS.. '2 ~ :x < crJ, cr lJR l , and S, = Ir:i > ,/JJ,
,/Jfl R I , form a w bbLW ror th e lopolou of th e Dum bcF line R I.
6. La X _ R be an II-dime nsional vector space. A base is a ccl lealon o f seu
B ,. {Y ~ In R" . 'Il'hcn: v..... - Ir E R It : . / < f, < b/, I _ I . . . IIJ. f , is me
j -(h coonliftate:of the: vectot..t - (t l , h . . . . ,(" );,, - (01" . o.J and b ,. (b ,
b,, ) an vbitn.ry "ecton III R " , 0 / < b,.
Sets lite: v.... arc c:aJItd optll ptl1'af~"p/pMJ In R -.
xvrirr 2". Pr O'le: rn.t the set of para llelepipedJ: described in ~ample 6 fornu
bur rOf' Ihe topolo lY on R" .
 11 ls natural. fo r a topological spa, 10 51:1\ base with lhe IcaM possibk
"
numb o f clementi. For examp le, sets II' .. ('t . tv
in R I, whae '1 ' /2 arc ration al.
form base c:onsistina o f I w unabk set of clements.
Similarly, mere is. countable base for R- cons u lin a of puallelepi~..-ith ra -
tional vcrtica or the fonn
...,1'1 - (x : ,~ < t, < ,-11' I .. 1, "1.
wtlere ' 1. ' 1 arc n J:iona! WCI.OlS in R - ,
1. Neighbourh oods. Let (X , 1) be I lopokt&ica! spKIt,andz e X an arbiuvy
poiat.
DEflt,m0fll4 . A Mi4libo",hood of a point X6 X ii an ,. subset D()rl C X sa ili fyin,
!JIe COlld ilM)J\$: (i) x 6 D(l'), (ii) th ere U Ul. U 1i".lIC:h dIa. z 6 U C Q ()r) .
We IMY tolUider the colkc:tion o f aU neiahboumoods of :;II given point thai
poucucs lhe followi8. propatiC$:
(i) t he \Inion of any colleaioll o f nri&hbow1l oocb is. lKi&hbourhood :
(d) the interwa ion o f ful.itc number of Ileiahbourl\oods is a ncishbou rhood ;
(iii) MY set co nlliniq rome neighbourhood Ott> Is nrighbourhood of the
point )c .
THEOREM 3 , A sub.wt A(A *" 0)01il lopoIo, ka l space (X, ..) u open i/anr!onty
if It con faiM somt nt i, hbou,hood of tad of its points.
PROOF. Let A be open , x EA . It is dcar then Ih AI A is a neigh bourhood of x ,
Therefor e , A con talll.l ll neighbourhood or an y o f Its PQinls. Let for any x itA ,
there u lSl a nei&hboumood of the poin t x , Iyln, wholl y In A . By the definit ion of a
ne\lhbou rhood , ir co nt ains some open let U". x e Ux ' Consi der the union U U"
...
of liudl sets for all x EA . II' is open; A C

beloo.., 10 .U U". On Ibe other hand . we

...
U U" linee any point of Ihe Jet A

ha~: UII C A fOl'" every x , r.e

w
u U" C A . There fore. A :< U U}< . and A is open .
x." "0'"
NeiJhbouthoods Me wed for sepaJalin, points rrom cadi ot her.
OF1l'o'lTION , . A I~&ical spac e (X .,) ISsaid 10 be HtnUdor/ / if Cor an )' two d if.
feraN poInru .,. in iI. there are neith bourbooch U ~)and UU') o f these potnu we h
111111. U(.t ) n UO') ,. 0 .
A IOPO\o&it&l space ~. ") equipped wit h the trivbllopoJoay is not H. usdorfCif
it (OQW!lsmore Ihan 0l'Ie point (YUl f )'!).
'Ibt$e ptopenltS ohhc:neia,hbour hoo cb or . pai n! (wbidt arc now dedared to be
uiomJ) are o ftee ,,2<1 ali II basil for Ihe folio..."" dtrmil ion o f II 10POIogy.
DEFlNrtlON 6.. A l opolo,icrzfspPu is stI X for wtIidi eac h po inl x has a s o f
StIMdS 1D.(x)J. ealled tbe neip bou,"oodJ 0/ llIe po h'f x lal'liryina the followin,
(OI'Jditioll.l: (i) x belonas 10 eac:h o r iu; oc-'ahbo ur llood s O.. tr): (iiI il " Sd U C X COIl
 Introduction to Topolo8Y

laim some Q,, (;r) then U Is also a neishbourhood of the point x; (iii) for any two
n d sh bour hoods n", (X), n.. (,x) o f the point;Jr, their interwction n.. (,x) n O"' ~) is
abo a ncighoo urhoJd of th~ pointx; (iv) for e\let)' neighbou rhood n'(x) of the point
x, th ere is a ~lghbourhood n (x ) C O(.r) S\I<,;n tn"t it is a neighbourhood of each
o f iu points. "I

Exercue J ", Show that sets which life neighbou rhoods of each of the ir point s Vld 0
fonn a topolo8Y on X,
3. Continuous Mappings . Homeomorphisms. We wall d iK\l ss now
the definition of a continuous mapping o f topological spa ces,
ut ~. f). (Y, 0') be two topo logieal SJ)ll0C5 end owed with topo lo gies f and a ,
respectively, !.rt/: X - Y be a mapping o f the seU,
DEFINITION 1. A mappi ng I o f topological spaces is $aid to be oontf"uous if the
full inverse imager 1(Y) o f any open set V of the space ( Y ,.,.) is an open $C'\ of the
space ex,
f).
E:xen;ju$.
" . &8le the deHnition of a continuous mapping in terms o f a base and subbase for
a topo lO\lY.
'0, Show thaI a continuous numerical fun ction )' c l{x) ( - ... < x < + ...) deter-
nueesa continuous mappingJ: R 1 _ R I ,
6' . Prove that J is cOlitinuOUS if and only if t~ mveue image r I (F) is closed roe
an y elOKd. 5e1 F in Y.
If I: X - Y,, : X - Z are.mappings of topolOlical spaces then it is natural to
de(lfle the superposit ion gf: X - Z by the rule {gf):;If - , ((X .
THEOIlBM 4 . ifI Qnd, rue co",inIl.OflJl then II is olso conlinuow;.
The proof fa llows etuily from tbe remark that
W) - I( W) = r 1<r- ' ( W ,
where w e Z is an arbitrary 5e1.
We now $late one of the most Imponam definitjo~.

Off1NtTION 8. Two topologleal spaces (X. r), ( Y, crj are said to be hOrnffVnOrphk
if there exi!u a mappin,/: X - Y thaI S!' tlsfies the condi tions: (i) / : X _ Y is a bi
tecrtve map pIng; (iil l i! oont inuo us; (lii)r 1 is continuo us.
Note that this definition el\8.etly roucws. in form . the definition o f a eom ecrecr-
pbism of metric spaecs.
DEFINITION 9. A mappina J : X - Yk said to be OPtIf treso. clo:m /) if the image
of any open (~sp. doooed) set in X is o pen (resp . closed) in Y ,
Eurris~ 1. Pron that a mappinl/: X - Y is a homeomorph ism if and only if the
mappina r l: Y _ X is defined , and the mappings! an d r 1 are butn open and
closed.
ThWl, a homeomorphism Ir&nsfor ms open sets inlO o pen, an d dOKd. sc:ts into
tI(I;$Cd.
 "
AsJodll11na ~ o pen lee U o f the spaa: X willi Its IfI!.l&e I(U) W>dcr II
Il~rp/Iism j : X - Y w abl i.l.hd; II bi jea.i1: conupon dcaCf:; bet ween th e
topoloJies 011 lb.e spaces X and Y. Henu. ......y Pro~), o f the ~ X Kaled if!
tmnS or II lopolosy o n th is $pC is also nlid for the space y ..hid! is ~
pbX III X, and is il EnilatJy " ated in terms o f the lopololY on Y. Th IQi. the
~ 1 pa.teS X and Y poue$S idc:nUca1 pro~a and I.I'C tn
di!lin&viIbabk from thjs poirn of kw .
The: propnties of lOPOkIsicaI spe.c a that are p reserwd un dcT bomeorl:Iorph~
arc ealkd l~iotJI ~ia . Note, in th is COllnec:tion, lbal the main u.sk o f
lopolOl)''''''' for a lonl tim e (and st UI remains partiaD)' utIso1YC'd today) 10 discover
an dfeatvc method o f d m ill.l uu.hing bd.""'em nonhomeomorphic: spKeS.
~rcisa.
' " . Sho w thl.! II homeom orphism dacnninC!S ill oom :spondcnoe bdWf\ t he b ases
and . 1Ibbases for homeoIIl orphie spa ces.
9", Show that ure homeomorphiJ:m relation is an tq uht.l cnce relancn .
HI" . Show thll' the Interval ( - I, + I) of the numbcT line II h omromorph i<: to the
wllolc numw line an d ce n ut\K:l lhis homeomorphism .
II ", Show Ihat II closed line sqment an d an open mtuval on Ihc number line are
1101 homeomorphic.
Thut: u isl$ q11iu II usefl&l elIlaWon o f the notion o f honIcomorphi$rn. viZ., II
'i ~. This is II (ODIinllCMQ ma ppin, f : X - Y SIKh IbM for any
~ x .}' .}' " .1,,") , the re IR ~bouttlooch U(.K"J. YO')fon,hich/:U(x) - Vcy )
is a hoIneomotphitm .
~ Ir . Verify that the mappina :R I, {OJ - R I, (OJ d etmrtined by the for -
Illalay .. r is a 101;:&1 homeornorptl l$m.
4. A SUbspace of a Topological Space. II QD be: teen from the abO'le
lhat SIIb#tS of metric and topcMolkal lpKes are oRm c:onsider ed indcpc:ndent ly . In
addi tion. a su bsel: Y o f a metric ~ X naturally irlherits the metric:o n X . We no...
defIlle Ihe nolion o f hercditaly copo!oaY 00 Y if X is topolok:aj spaot.
l.cI. tx, T) be: a topoloPcaJ spa oc, Y C X a ....bsee in X . COnsi d er. fa mi ly o f
~tnetsln Y:

f y" W : II - un Y, U Iii .'1.

THEOR.l!.M S. Tha l ami /;! fy~ a l(Jp(Jlogy on Y.
TN!! PIIOOF is left 10 the reader (it is ob~ious) .
The topology r r Is lUI 10 be I n Illduad Or Jrrnd flqry topoJov fro m X and tbe
q>a ( Y, fyl is c:.aUed a sMWpo ot th e space f) . ex.
If f : X - Z is a CODCdlUOWl mappi", o f lopo1op;:aI SPaca and Y a subspac<= of
X. tlIm!he mapflin&f: Y - Z can also be ooruidered . Th is is ca1fed ansrrlcrlOll off
10 Yand denoted by f l r

Whik iJI~ ~ ~. ~ _ X uod Y are ofl...

iotmllflod IJId written II X . Y. We -ut a.Iso rollow tlriI cunvendo.n .
.. 1lll1OClualon to Topolou

THE O ll.EM 6. n co f/Il1ppirll/ l r : Y - Z is ron,i"lIOlU,

P l OOf. Lei. 7, be . topo!osY on the Iplce Z, a nd W e' T Then Vly)-I ( W)_
'" f - I (If') n Y and l in ter l ( W) E r we will ha ve III y )- '( W) e "y
Mr(l;u .
1) 0. Show that UI open set in l subspace Y of . i Pace X is nol ~y opm in
X . Conslckr th e cases o f X _ R ' , R}. R J ;,tte:mpt Ihe IOlDIC qucKioo rot closed
xu in Y. Pro!: . priori !h lll. any cloKd ~ F" in Y is of u.e form F 1' '" F n Y.
where F .. . closed K1 in X .
14 . Lc1 A . 8 C X be elo$ed :leiS o f . to poloP:al fPllCc X . an d In X _ A U B .
Thcn l mlppin. ! : X - Y is eo ntln uoWl If and o nly if/I,.. : A - 1', / 1, : 8 - Y
;u"c co ntin uou, .
We no .. introduce ano ther importMl notion . A INppi", I: Y - X ii c:alled an
embeddi116 of Y into X if (il I is eon Linu_ . [Ii) i : Y - i (Y) is . homeomorphism ,
when i{Y) C X is . SlIbspaot of X .
Embtdc\i.Dgllfc useful wMn.. -e inlaid to 'sir!sk OtIl' subspK'C Y c X of the:
ambient iPUC X and. to e<JCl$idc:r It sep,arl.tdJ. ~ conncctiotl wil.b X is prncrved.
via th e natu ra.l mappina Y - X wh ich UIOCIales an ek lIIoeIl t of Y wilh the same: de-
ment of X and is an embed din .

2. TOPOLOGY AND CO NTINUOUS MA PPINGS

OF METRIC SPACES. SPACES R " .S" - I ANO D"

J. Topology in a Melli e Space. Let (X, p) be some metric space eooowed

with I metric p . A topology on it can be constr ucted in 1 natural manncr. Cons;d(J
a ll po ssible tetS D~(.t) .. ()' : p (y. x ) < rl, whe: x E X . e ->
O. Th e Set D, (x) ~
c:a1lcd an opDl boll o f radi us e wilh IU ce ntre at Ihe point x.
The coUm;ion o f aU open baUs: 1D,f,x)1fomu I ~ or lhe rncuic': space for
.midi th e cnterlot\ o f I base ('1'beorel2I I, Sec. I) it fulfilled . In fact , let 0, (x.)
llIId D' I"')) be 1"1'0 opc~ M1ls ...hos.e IrlIClWdi<:Kl II llOnC!Ilp(y. ' Le
YED, ,{x,) n D' l(xi) . .5 = nun (t l - p(y ,X I).C 2 - " u-, x i)l, and let t E D, (Y);
then
P (~, XI ) '" p (~ , )') "" P(y , XI) < .5 + ..(y,x ll ' ' I'
p(.t, Xi) " p (.t, , ) "" ..(Y, x i) <' + p(;l, x i) " ' 1'
tbercrore , ~ E D' I"") n D' l"' i' , wfttnte D,(Y) C D., (xl ) n D. ){x,) _ l'h\l$, 11K
t:ODditions of Thellfml I an fIIlfilled .
DEF INIT1Of'i I . The 10poloIY f dct mniDed by Ihe base COClSlSlinl o f al l DPa' barb
in I lIIelne space (X , ,,) is Qlled lhe topolOlY ' Mllt ed b, rhe mcfrk p, Of .hc -mt
IOpoIoU ,
Th us. opc:n set s o r lhe topolo gy T. I TC all the pou ib le un ions o f Opcl'1 ball.l o r thl
met ric 5J)aOC (X , .. ) (and 0 ).
 Ch. 2. em...1TopolOlY .,
THEOR M 1. Tltt: IOpo/OO ~. t:O/lJ1111r:lnf is Hausdor/ f .
' 100f. I..ct X __ r- TlKn P(.r . y) .... > 0 (b y I p ropt:n y o f a metric) . Setting

e '" i. we. ~Udcr D . (.r) . D . O') . II is t:as)' to s.how Ih a.! D.t-') n D. O') ,.. 0 In

fxt. if wt: asswncd!hr: con trat)' o -e: would have

l
....
.. .. p f;t. ,. ) " p (.r, d + p (t , ,.) < - ... - - -
, l
for a poi nt (E'D. t:r) n D , {Y), which is impossi blt:.
Anotht:r an d equi valm t defi nition o f open St:\$ in a met ric space can be given .
DEFINIT ION 2. A set U '*
0 is 0{Jt: /f if for any:t e U. th ere is an open bail D. txl
with tbe centre II x which l i e.~ wholly in U .
Not e Iha t we. defined a lo polo gy in R 1 in preci$ely th e Sli me manne r. IIIId,
therefore , it eo incid Cli wilh tilt lopo logy ... generaled by th e Euclidean memc p o n
Ihe plane R . The vcri rlClllia n of the equ ivakn et: o f th e IWO defi nitions is It ft 10 lilt:
"",U .
'
Co nsld u a mappina!: X - Y o f a met ric Q)aCt: (X , p I) iftlo ;0. mtl nc tp aC'C ( Y.
PI)' Now two de finitions of t he tonlillully o f lilt: mappiftl / r:an be C1vet1. m ..
as a
Jtt.appifll. of metric and u a ma ppi n, of lopolosical spaces. The$t: two dc filllllons
arc. equivalen l . vU: . Ihe folloW'illll hcorem is va lid .
TlfEOREM 2. A moPPIJI, !: X - Y o/ tI _ rir: SJ]tIIC.T <X. PI) IlI tO tl mt:( rir; spa ( Y.
~ is COtl ti,ultnU VOT lopolo. 1n III~ by 1M /rIt(riCl) if _lid 0111,. if/or twry
XI ~ X lind t:"IIWJ' ~lIt:lla ~.. llll X wJrkA C'OtrwTJU (o x o 1ltt: St:q~ V(.r,,)1NM '
VUJf'3 10 ! f.rr} III Y .
' 1.00". Let!: X - Y be . tondn uo ul mapping in lopolo~es X . Y indu ccd by Ihe.
me.lrlCl. an d let x" ~ xO. We tht:n lhow IhI / (,I(,,) ~ / f.r0}. which mean s lhat (o r
any t > O. the re iJ a na lu nll N" N(t , xr} 5uch t hat Pl (f(,l(,,>./f;tO -c e when
II > N .
Conside.r an ope n ball D .VCxr}) in Y and den ot e 11 by V . lIS inverse Image
1- I(Vf ) is an open ser in X due 10 the continu ilYo f! . mceecver Xo er
' (V. ). The
poinl ..-ob elonp to/ -I(v. ) tOj elhe r wilh some ball D.Cxol o ( rad ius <S. "There e~ l su
a num ber NIJY _ N fft. xO>I weh thai x. bdOrllliiO D.CxO> (an d IOr 1(V. "'ht:n
" > N . bUI Ihcn F I (I-,,) ~ v. (i.e . Pl (f(,r,.). /f;to < t ) wltt:n II > N . Therd Qft:.
11M: ll'Ilp pillJl: f is COIllinuo us as I ma ppm, of me tr ic: SPica
Let Ihe tonditioo f(,r..) ~ If;cr} tit: fulfillal for InY sc.q Uer1Ct: tz,,1 wtl lCfl 1$
con" q Cl'll to som e poilll ...O m t he spaoeX . Wt: m ow then th at th e inver se. ' nIagc of
anyo pc.n KI is opt:ft. Let V be. an open llet ill Y, and U .. / -I (V). We a n 100W Ihl l
Uis open in t ht: s ~ X usina the second d e.rut.itio n o f an open SCI. If x e r l( V),
"'en il su ftkt:$lo rmd t: > Owdt IM I D.txl <!ir '(
V). If we assume thai sum t does
00t erist: , lbe n raere t:ii" scq uen :s 1e. 1. ~"J sudt t ha i t .. - O. x .. e D (x ). but

J"" l ' r l(V) . Tht: rt:for e ,x" ~ X. "'ht:nc:e/f.r) ~ ! (.f) . Havlna noticed Ih,I l / (,r)
. lnl rodll,:tlon 10 Topolol)'

belong.s (0 Y tog ether with a cert ain open bllll, W(: co nclud e that f(,rft ) E Y and
x" 6r '( Y) bclJinnina wit h some n umber ". which is co ntrary to the a.s.sumpt;on .
Th us, the mappins f is co ntinuo us in the topologies of the spaca X an d Y whictl
were induo:ed by the metri cs. _

2. Space RI! . We shalJ co nsider an im po rtan t eJlamplc of II metric space, i.e., t he

E",cl ldetllf s~
R" - ((E . . , E,,), - 00 <: E;< +00 ,/ _ 1, . .. n)

consisting o f all ordered sets (called pohm or vt'CfOI3') of " real eumbers: the
numbers E, are called the CCQrdlnOll!$ o f II po inl (VedOT).
A metric (tbe E uclidean mctrH:) o n R " (n >
I) is defined similar ly to the metric
onR l :

( I)

W~ J( .. (fl ' . Ell)' Y '" ('" . , 11,,) arc 110'0 .rbill'a1y vect o rs from R It
Let IU veri fy that this il a mie Tie . Evklently. Properties I , II , III of a met ric (sec
Sec. 2, 01. I) are fulfilled . Con sider Praputy IV. II is rcqu~d to prove the inc-
q uality

for ar bitrary real numbers E,. "'_ fl'; '" I . . ,n. The proof is broken into two
lemmata.
LEMMA l (THE CAUCHY BOUNIAKOWSKY INEQUAUTY). For any rtal num~n
~I' ", i = I, . .. n , th~/o/lfJ winB inrqUD/ily holds

PROOF. For an arb itrary real 1\. we have E (fl + 1\11;)] ;;, 0 , whlffi~
,. ,
E
1- I
E: + ~ 1:
1_ I
E:/l/ + >,Z

E ,: ~ O. Consider t he left-han d side of the in-
1_ r
eq uall tt as I polynomial in 1\. It cannot have t wo different real roo ts. Therefo re , its
d.Iscril:ninant is lIOI\opolltive. Hence , the inequalit y

E: ,-E, 'If
 Ch. 2. C."",al TopolO!y 4?

LEMMA 2 (THE MINKOW SK I INF.QUA..L ITV) . For Ilrbitrory N!UI numb~n ~I' " I.
'h~foJlo wjnll ineq uality is valid
I '" I . . . . n .

( i: 0 .. l
" ,+ "" )'" ( i: 'i)'" + ( i: ,i)''',
I. .. I

PlOOF. By using the Ca \lchy-Bo uniak ows lr.y ineq ual it y,

r ,r- ,
Q', + >1,)2 '" (~ f + 2l:,l1, + ,,~)
; ~ I

< ,. , e
r 'in r
+2 ( ,.r , ,.r , ,,1 + r ,
,. , "

[et 'i r r- "'r r+ (

, , '

an d by tak ing the sq uare root of bolh sidrtofthls inequaHIY....eobtain the required
inequalily .
We ca n no... com plete rbe verif>eatio n of P roperty IV of t he met,ic. Usins the
Minlr.owski Inequality, we o btain

c ( ,~.,(~,_f,)l)'" + ( O ~.I
is a metri c o n R" .
Thus, p
(~y . . .. , ~~) be lhe ce ntre o r a ball D ~""ol, an d x .. (~ ; . . . ~,, ) its
Ut x o _
arbitrary poi nt, Then the coordina tes of a po int X sa lisfy t he ino:quaillY
I ~I _ ~Y 12 + .. + l ~ ~ _ ~~12 < r 2, ( 2)

A ball in R" is often denoted by U;""ol an d called an oJNn 'I_disC. A set of pointsx
whose coordinates 58tlsfy th e unsmcr inequal ity
I~ i -~~ I '+ . + t~n -~I ' ,;;; r2 (3)
is called a cloud ball (d OSlid n-dl$c) TY: V r;). The (n - l)-d imensio nal sp here
S; - 1(.l'r;) wilh ra dius , and cent re at lhe paim xl) is d efined by the equ ality
11 _ ~Y1 2 + .. . + I ~" _ f~12 = r 2, ( 4)

We will call It th e bo undQry of tht! disc 15'; or JY;.

A metric on R" can be defined in other ways , for e:<amPle.
,1> "" , )' ) =
, . rna"
" ."
(I ~, - 'fII J.
'"
 llltrodlldioo loTopoloty

~ I - _ Describe II ball in R" by means o fm~ (' ). Show th . Ihc E lJdid ear
mel ric and metric: (S) ind uce Ibc same topology .
ConsId ft" the complC'Jl .. -d immJionll1 space C" ;
c- .. l:t ; c .. I' . .. c,,). c,. .. x. + iy,.. x,.. J',. I! R I . k .. 1 . . . . Il l-
llIe ma.rk on II iI. introdl.ll::l ln the same: 'II'lIy as in the real case ;
p(t ' , z " ) .. ( Ici - :t:i ' 12 + . ' . + I:t:'; - :'; - 11)11lI.

wher e.t .. k ; . . . t~ ). e ' - (t j ' . . . , c~ ') are: elemen ts o f C" . Th e -..mc

10POlosY is detmnined by the: marie
p(t .Z H ) . mLll ICk - t k 1.
.. . I.

We no w for mula le: a condition for the conl in uilY o f mappinp o f Euclidean
spe.ees. A mappingf; R" - R'" a ssocia tes each poi nt (fl ' .. . fIll wilh a nain
po int (" I ' ... , 'I,,>
. so that we: a n wrile
'" - f t U I" . . f ,,),
(6)
...... f. (f l ' . . f,,>
.
wheref" " I _ . , m ia a n~ fuoction o f II variables . This fUnCiio n deter-
minc:s a mappinzf,..: R " _ R l by the: n de
'Ii - f,(f l' . f .). (7l
It if evidml that th e COIUinwty o f th e mllppill a /' is cqu ivalml to I ~ co ntinuit y
of the nwtlCfical functio!t Jj U I' . . . f.>
as iI is dcruted IJl analys.is.
CaU mappinl (7) the i..fl\ component of the mapplnlf. The ma ppina l is det er-
min ed by spc:cif)'in l aU itH mponcn ts f ,. j - I . . no.
THEOREM). A nuzppilfZ f ; R " - R - is cot/';""ow if llnd 0 .. 1)<"nlch of ,ts co m-
ponent"l, : R - R I i .. l. . . . . m.
fS contmW OI<li.

The proo f follows fl"OUl l he remarll lhar /~) - / (x. ). k - ... . Iuquiv.len lto
/I~) - /, (x"). k - ... . for i .. t . , m.
a. The Ball Dm is Homeo morphic to Rm . Co nsider so me subsets o f
R" . .. ); 2. Let S" - I be:a sphere, an d D" an open .. -efU(: wilh unit radi us and centre
at 1M po int (0 , . . , 0) . Den ole the p an of Ihe sph er e whe re i . > 0 (j.e. the no r-
t hern hcm i$pherd b y ~ - ' . We p rove tha t the d isc D" - I IS homeomorPh ic to the
hc:llllsph cn ~ - I .
The space R" - I may be: co nsider ed 10 be coinc ident with the subspxc:ofpoinn
(( I" . , I II _ I ' 0) o f tbe space R" if the poinls (( I ' f . _ I) and (f l' .. .
f. _ .. 0) arc idMliflCd_ ThctI D" - I and ~ - I lie in R and arc aiven th us;
~ - 1 .. fl' . . _ .l.): e+ + f; " I. i . > OJ.
U - I - l(i .. . . . . f.) ;(~+ + f~ _1 < 1. ( " - 01
III the: euc o f R ~ we hI''"': ~ Is th e upper hal f of Ute sphere ..., thout t he cq Ullor,
 "
.
""

Fl... n

and D1 is th e inc.erior of th e lll'lil circle in R 1 (AI . 32) ,

. - (~ I .h- h) E S1 .. , J1 " 1(\.h.OJ e0 1.
Th e Pr ojcd>on U I _ h. h ) - (f l ' h- 0) is . bomeomorphism of lh e ht;mis pha-c S~
UMI dil<: D1
Similarly, the projection
j : ({t o , f. _ I. E,.) - tE l' . . t" _ ,,0)
dunmincs a co nlinuOWi bi jective m appml of ~ - I onto D" - I in R " (verify!) .
Co Mid n- the invusc map pins. It is easy 10 sec ll'lal. it is o f the f Qrnl
r: ' :(fl_ " . f" _ 1, 0) - (t,. ,f,, _ 1, (1 - ft- . .. - t~_ t)l ll) (8 )
lnd co ntinUQus. Th us. a homcom orphism of the disc D" RlId hemisphcfeS". - I h u -
bem eonSlr uacd.. C alI lh e 0C't of ~inlli o Cthe sphere S" - I that laru f)' the Inequll1l.
IY ~ " ... Olhc ~M"' ~ J"...- ' .11 ill:lurthat:5': - I .. so:. -
l U SO - 1. It
is M lu ral lO c::alI t he sp m" S" - 1 tM bo ll,ui:l ry oj 'he hvnlspJu,~ 3": - I (o r
~ - I ~. NOlC lbac S" - 1 is sbnultaneously the bowld.ary of the disc D'" - I (or
D" - ). It ill easy t o sec thai: h.omco>o rpbisrCl (8 ) is also dcrlrled o n S'" - 1, and lh al
r II SO _ > - IS" _ 1- Thus , 0- - I is homeomorphic 10 St'. - '.
We now csu,blish llnOthrr impon an t ~(omorph ism .

THEORE..'Iot 4. T1l~ disc D '" .. II ortWomorpJrk to /II( space R"'. m ;;0 1.

PII,OOI' PUllinS m .. " - I . we use t h( pr( vIou s constructl on . We tl'3nslace the
. pace R~- I, II "" 1, so Ihal ch( orls in of coordinate:s 10<:$ to the pomt (0 , ." , O. I),
the Nonb P o le of Ih c sph er( S~ - I. E ve, y po inl it> the ee w plan ( has Ih( fOl'"m (t l '
h . . . . . t. _ I'
I) . t r we draw chi: blIlf. lIne . 1 .. tt" '11 '" th , " , ." .. tt",
I "" 0 t hrouah eac:h poin t x .. (( I' " . " , E.) '!S'" - I, il will in lawa tile cee-
$UlK't~ p1_ ;l t a uniqu( poinl COlTespondin. 10 t be value l (r) - lit . By usisn
 I A(fodu cl!oa to Topolop
"
ia& ltliJ interstttioo poUK 10 l ilt: point Jf, _ obt_ the ltI appi q +: ~-I
- R" - I , h 'CD by tbe l'\Ik

(fl' ... . f.l - (!l......!L:..l . I) .

( .. (.
TIW IlUoPJlin!. Q il ill euy"'o .airy. is.~. The M1papos;cion ottbe
ho_lIlOfPbirms
.r 1 : D" - I _ R" - ',If > 2.
)'idds the rc(luired homeonloc'phhm..
~iws.
2 . Sllte . crilUion of the l:OlItinully of. mapp il1l / : CO - C'" of oomplell' spoeet'l .
J . Prove lha t C" ill homeomorphic to R 2II,
4"'. Prove th at the balls in the .pace R '" which are defi ned usins melrics (1) and (5)
ar<: homeomorphic .
' . Pr ove Ihe continuity of lbe function,

/(( ., f:J '" ut + f~I I2./(fI ' ' e..),. (ft + . . . + f~)l ll .
6"'. [)I,rUlCdiscs and 3. $pMtc ID the .spM% CO by COCldltions (2).(4) and denote than
by D'l:. ro i?f" ~ ~:; ' , respcaiuly. ~velhat th ey arcbomcomorpbic tO~ .
1P," and S, - n:spcaivdy
.,.. . Pro'I'C th.. dUo:::so(1l1li, ractii arc bo rmornolllbi<;in R '"; prove. sim ilar SlllnrlClll:
for t,phUCl.

J . FACTOR SPA CE AND QUOTIENT TOPOLOG Y

I. The Definition of a Qu otient Top olo gy. We wi1I aivcutrict defini-

tion of . topo qy In a (lCIor space. l.e. quotien t topoloay. and analyse the ell'
amples frOltl Sec. 3, 01. I, from the new point of view. W I a relation x _ y be,
tween 50me d emcn tl x , y " X be defined on an abst ract .etX. Thi, relalion Js ~lIo:<I
an ~u;WlI~CfI jf the foUo"';nl prope~ are fuUlUo:<I: ( I) x - x for any z" X

,_.
(re/lQlvily); (2) if z _ y then ~ - x(symmclry) ; (3) i f x - y and y - : the nx - ~
(m.n..Vli'fily).
Th e set X is then split Into di sjoi nt das:se$ of equ iva.len t elemenu . orequ/vrl/eflCfl

The X1 IDJ of all equivalence dassel ,.;11 be de _cd by X I R ,vtIItte R denotes

lhe eqllivakDD: in X .
DEFINITION. 1be XI X I R is c:alIed lhelllCltN sel of lhc set X . ith respect to tbe
equivalence R .
Let lX . rl be a ~ ~ce, and koIan equ ivalcQ rdation R be dei.cd o n
th e KI X . A nanuaJ topololY ma y ltlcn be introducecl lntO tbe fact or set X I R in !he
followin. marmcr. we call a ....bset " c ro.1~of dc:mcnts of D. open If
M d on/y if th e \ID;OIl U D . 01 dl;eICU D. 35 subsets o f X is open in the sPKe lX , r l.
Naturally, we rdel" 10 t he empty set as an open set. Th is collectio n of c pen subselS
"
in X I R is a IOpo]OI Y and d cnol:cd b y 'R'
Eurcist 10 Verify tha t-'R is a topo logy <Ill X I R .
The to pology TR is called a quo tie nt topology , and is lUUally implied whe n a rae-
lor space is beillJl spoken o f.
The motives for d efining th e topolollY "R will become clearer if the m app in g
.. ; X - X IN associatin g every cle m en t X 6 X with the equivalence cws 0 " is <:011-
lidcrt<1. This mapping is called t he projrc llon o r th e space X on lO the facl or spa ce.
II is usy t o see th at a set V C K Ill b ope n if and only ifl ~ $el :r - 1( y) Is e pee In
X . ThIlS, the projectloll'" is continuo us as a mapp ing from (X, ..) 10 VU R, '1/)'
(Nole that th is enTails the prin ciple of the co nt inuity o f tbc 'gluing' mapping whicll
~ mentio ned in Sc<:. 3, C h . I) .
There may certainly exist other IOPO)ogjes on the SCI X I R in which t he peojec -
tioo 'III is oonlln\lous . The follQwing theo rem chatactcri~ the lopolo" T1/"
THEOREM \. The 10pology T/I. is fhe stro" Iles' of 01/ lopolollio 0" X I R J or which
the "",ppi"':If is com i" u.ow: .
P~OOf. If {WJ is . topo lo,y on X IR in whkh th e mapping ... i$ co ntinuo us, t hen
. - ' {W);1 open in X . Th eTdore , W i$ open in th e facwr spaceXIR, i.e ., W e T/I. '
This mean s that the topology [WI i$ wea ker than Ihe topology T/I. '
Exercis6 2G Let X .. [0 , II c R ' . We de fine the eq uivalen ce t h us:
x ~ :I. x - y is ra tion al. Show that the fact oT space X IR is not HaU$dorrr.
2. Examples of F actor Spaces . Con$ider t he exam pJe$of Sec . 3, Ch . I . If
X is a rlanllk abed, and an eQuiva.l.c:nce n: latil)O R is defbled SO th at :x - x for
eaeltx E X and x - y If a nd only if x E ab, y (l cd and x ,;l' lie on the same horizontal
in X , then X I R is a topological space which is homeomorphic to tbe cylinder (see
Fiat. I and 2) .
In ract , t he ba$e for the topology of the cylind er is forme d by tWO'"dim en5ionai
'disu', i.e., the intersect ion s ofbalb in R) with the cylin der (All . 33). Ifl he cylinder
is a ll aloD& the line ah and develo ped into a rectangle then the "disCIi' will be eatTied
into the base for th e topology of the lalte r . Monover, the 'd iscs' intersecting the

-----. --
,
 lnlrodllCtioA10 Topo !olY

,
'r:t,
. ,
-
,
,

""'C - 31

line: /lib will be all mlO $Cpnmu wh icb COIllP~ mc:nl each nthn to ''''cles and lie or:
th e: oppl)lltc: sides of the red.ullJe.. If is d ue' thaefore: d Ull it i$ Il:CSSarY 10 ~
the: comp lementary searnenu loaeth<r alon& Ihe: line of the c:ut i!I order 10 obtain tbt
base for the topology in X I R ( F ... ).4) . It is tlow NS1 10 see Ihat by ~tiIII
eq uivalent poin.ll of the: rcetan lic wilb the poinl mlO wh ich the,. have hoeD ' a1ued',
_ obIai n a h om eomorph ism of ou r fattor spa X IR witlI lhc:""Und er .
The lOpolosy o f a MObius Krlp can be invat!p(od in precisely the umc WIly (we
th e: nut examp le: o f Il\e: 'a!l,Img' in Sec. 3. Ch . I). Som e: open !leUo f a M Obi us strip
arc represee ted in Fig . 33. Here, the .epntflU 'glued toget hn-' co nsist o f poin lt tlult
ar c: s)'nIm etnc: wit h respect to th e: oenlre and lie on the: sid es ab and cd.
In the: third u am ple of 'a1uin, ', the co rre$pondina facl o r space is homeomor
ph ic to the IOrtlS: th e dement s o f the base for ll$ to pol og y ar e rc:pr e5ellled In
Fill.. 36. Here, the eo~pondj n8 $Camcn ts are no t Oll[y aJued to gether alon g tile ver-
lieal b-.,.es lying on (lb . t:d, bUI also alQIl8 tbe horiZOl\tll bases lying o n at:, btl .
Finally, in t he last ~ple, _ ob tain . project Ive: plane. E1cmen LS o f the Iwe
fo r lU topoloSY are rcprcxnte<! In Fig. 37. Here , lhe Kgm enlS are glUed lo, ct!ler
a1on, bolh \lCTliQ.! and hor ilOnlal bo und aries o f the rce:tartAk by joinin. po iou
whicb are symmet ric:a.lwith respect to lbe eemre .
H ere is IDOt bu useful nam ple o f bo w to form faclo r I~ Let Y C X be .
sulpa/;:c of . lopoioaic;ai qllICle X . We dttlare"cry poilll o f Y to be eq ui"alc nl kl
every OIbu perini , a n.d.D t he poi nl.lx. X , Y eq uia lc'lI to thcrnsc!\cs . The fKUw
lpace- with rcs pccc to Ihis eq uivalence. il de not ed by X / Y , and Ihe projcct:ioo.
: X - X / Y ;n .lkd shrln.til!I 11l1t.set Y tO a poim . E.., . , 5 1 _ 11/0, 11iuhcf..,.
lor splice- of the ~ n t I _ [0, II with rapccc 10 Ihe sec of end -po;n tl .
 CIl. 2. GenO!aJ TopolOSY
"
J.Mappings of Factor Spaces. LttX,X ' betwotopologi~al spaces andR,
R equivalence on Ihem . C onsider II mapp ing/: X-X' . We ..... ill u,y lh al the
ma.pping / prtservrs ~qllill(lltn If it roue.. . s from x ~ r t hal/<;x) i!. 1(Y). For
luett mappings, it IS na l urili lo define th e mapping I : X IR - X ' IR ' o f th e factor
&p_ as fonows: Jet D ", be an equivalence d;l.Ss in X , X e D " any dement and D it
lhe equival ence dll$S in X ' contain ing the point f<x), u,en](D,,) .. D it .
EHrciH 3 . Show Ihal l he defin ilio n oflb valid . Note th at the mappins]is ~alled a
~idUt CfiUS mapping.
THEORE M 2 . if a cc" j"UQUS mopping f; X - X' preurvu tquivalenct th tn tht
rorrtSpo"di", r~itIut closs mapp{n,}: X I R - X ' fR ' is oonl l" uoU$.
PROOf De nole the projections Qf the spaces X , X ' omo the cor respo nd ing factor
lollllCC$ by ..., .... , respectively . T he diagram
,
7

iii commutative , i.e " for each x X we.have. (/"1I")(r) = (...f)~), If a sct V is open in
X ' / R' thcn (.. 'f) - I (I') is open in X, beca use ""1 is c;onlinuous. But rJ..)- 1(V) ~
.. (5" ./)- 1(1') and there jcre the set (/.. ) - I ( V) is open in X . Since (/"r) - I(V) ..
.. ...- I V- I( V), the sel/ - l( V) is open in X / R (by the. defin itio n ofl he. topo lOllY of
factor SpKC),
We.now fonnulate. a tes t to see. tf Iactcr spaces are. hom eo mOrph ic,
THEOREM 3. ifl : X - X ' is a lI om~omo,phirm r1l1d I~ IfWppings/,/- 1 P'eMrv~
tiluiva/enet Ihen the residue.class mapping!; X I R _ X ' f R ' is a homeom orphism .
In fact, t he. mapping 1-1 in this case determines me residue class mappi ng
1_1 .. (j) - I (verify l), and Theorem 2 can be app lied bal h to } and I. vv:
Here arc t hr ee more. ' mod els' of the peojecttve plan e. Rp 1 ln addit ion 10 those
listed in Sec, 3, Ch , I. Th e forst is obtained from thc sph erc X .. 52 by past ing
togethe.r dia.metrieally opposite poi nts (Fig . 38). Th c second consists of l,n alght
lines in III that pass through 2;erO '"
- y .. Jr,)' lie on one such st raip t line and
x ~ 0, y 0) (F ig. 38).
X~rci.u 4. Describe the topotOI)' oflhe Sp3ces Obtained as the topology o f the. fac-
tor spaces S 1 /R an d (R J 10)/ R , resplivdy .
The. thi rd model o f Rp 1 can be. dcscrlbed as folJoW$ . Co<uldcr an arbItrary plane
Pin R ) which d OC$ no t pa ss t hroll gh th e. origin . Fix t he. poim a, r.e., t he. projCC\lon
of the origin o f II I c m c P . In acco rdance wilh the scC011 d mod el o f Rp 1 jus t co n-
sidetcd , this space consists of th e straig ht no es in R ) that pass through th e Orilln .
Associale each of Ihese.51 rai ghl lines wilh t he poin t where it intersects the. plane P if
it intersect s P, Or with the str a;ght line In P passing thro ugh a III'ld paralle l to the o ne.
li ven i f not. The straigh t line. ob lained on the pb ne P is symbolically id cnt ified with
a point al infinit y wh e.re. me se parallel lines mett. '
 " la ll'D<tucUo.to TopokIcy

\,

~.38

Th us. ...e obWncd a eee-ee-eee QDfJcspond.mcc bctwftn R p2 (second

IlWdd)
and P wiUllhe poiau II in rll'li17 lidded 10 ii , one poU>t {Of cadl
direction (i.e., far
Qd\ stRiahllia~1 through the ofi&jn ) ill P. In the Itt obIained
. the p!aDe P iI.
con sidered 10 be mdowcd with tbe usual to pology: "~irllbou ,"ood
0/ 11 poifl, fit
ittj"", lty corrtlPODdini; to a d irection d on P is defined to be: a part o r
the plan e P
(the shaded region In Flg. 311) bounded by an Il1bitrary hyperbol
a with the &!lis d.
The set o f all poinLl at iorlllil)' added to tile plane P is also c'alkd th e
tIbsoJut~ or
st,w,IIt IUre "t itiflJtir:t .
~ ' . ProYc: the bolncomo rphism of all realizat ions o f R p
i.
Co mider closed d i5( 1)- lLIld lu bo lUld.afJ S" - " We identify
all boundary
poinu. OctIotc the f. Clor space ob tained by ti" IS" - 1
 ct>. 2. Gw cralTopoioSY
"
THEOREM 4. The $pIJ~ jjtt I S" - , IS homeomorphic 10 Ihe 5phu~ 5" .
PROOF. tn Item 3, Sec. 2 , it was shown that the disc D" is homeomorph ic to me
closed hemisphe re 5"... This homeomorphism is the identit y hom ernnorphism on
the eommon bou ndary J.S" - I) of these SCIS. Therefore, the equivalen ce relatio n
from D" is ind uced on S~ , and D" IS" - 1 is homeomorphic to ~.. I S" - I by th"
last theorem.
We sh all now sho w that S".. 15" - I is homeomorphic 10 S" . The inclu&ion
1".. C SIt 1.5 natural. Denot ethe South Po le (0. 0, ... , 0, - I) o f the sph ereS" by _.
There must therefore wst a continuo us sur jective rnapp!na 1'" ! ".. - S" such tha t
..,(5" - I) _ . , an d ", IS".. : SIt - S" , l- j is a h omeo mo rphism. The larter can be
eeestructed, for exampl e, es follows: if x E !~ and x '" N fI" is Ihe North Pole)
then we draw a two-<!imetu iotlal plane th rough the poi nts 0, N, x which inter sects
S" alool a circumference (meridian). Shirting x a long the meridian thr ough an a rC
that is twice Ihe arcxN, we ob tain the point.,.",). P UI"'CNl - N . The residue class
mapping is thus de fined
~:~ /5" - 1_ 5 " / [- J = 5"

whIch is eviden tly a h omeom orp hism .

The produ ct o f th e two homeo morp hisms
Dn IS" - I _ 5".. I S" - I . ~/S" - I _ 5" ,
is the requtre d homeomorphism .

4. CLASS IFICATI O N Of SURF ACES

1. Surfaces and Their Trian gulati on . Let uS ret urn to o ur invwigation

of ciosed surf ac:es. The defin ition s of a topological spa, f;;u:tor space, ho meo mo r-
phism o f topological spaces givco abo ve and the examples eonsidered make up a
1I01id buis fo r the proof of the theorem mentlo net1 in Sec . 3, Ch . I. It states that
IJIY closed' su rface is topologically f:9.ulvalent to ilTI MJ!- or N q - surface : i.e. , to a
sphere with p handles o r q MObius strips &! l,Ied t6 II. Here, the co rrespo ndine no,
lioJu will be roade mor e precise, and the proof o f the ..hove_ment ioned theorem
giVI:O .
A. topolo gical space X each of whose: points has a neighbou rhood homeom or_
pl>ic to the open two-dimension al disc wlll be called a t wo-dimt ns lonal manifold. It
is more co nvenient to Mudy thC5e spaces ir they are broke n into elementary pieces
wbieb are topo logically equivalent to trlan&!es in th e two-d Imen sional Euclidean
plane. Let us make thls re presentation more precise .
OEFINITION L Call the pair (T , ...), where T ;s a subspace in X , and.,. , .& - T is a
homeomorph1.5m o f some tnan el" 4 C R 10n T , a topologkD l 'rllJngl" in X .
If the ho meo morph um \<': 4 - T is fixed (when thi' <;<InnO! be a cause o f am -
bi.&"ity), !.hen th" su bspace T C X will be called , for sho rt . a topological triilTllde.
Th" imase s of the ..."rtlces and the sides o f Ihe triaJt8le <1 (along wilh a rest riction or
tile homeo mofllhism 11') are called, respectively, Ihe tTl/ees, and the edgtS o f th e
" hllf od llClioa 10 Topoloay

... .
lopolo&ieal t rlanaJe T. For unlfonnil)', II is also con~nit'1I1 to can lhe $IdC'J of t he
Inanale'" the celan.
We now define an o ric:lltatilln o f a trlanlle. Different or dered tripla of point!
can be formed fro m tile ven~ o f d. We coruidct IWO tr iples 10 beequivaJenl if one
can be oblained from the alber by . cyd k permutation . C\c....ty, t~e arc ~aetly
tWOequivaiClOll classes. A trltln,k '" if ori#Ittr! i f one o f th_ equi vaie oce elasm
is ra ul. A l opdo, lclll ,,,"r/w (T . ,,) is said 10 be orlmttd If the triantk '" is
oriented. It is ob rious lbat ori entilll a t rian.&!c 4 is eq ulvalmt to siina: ""aiD
direction to th e c:imlrnnaYiJltion of its vtttka (cklcln.Uc or coWl tadoc:lr.wisc).
Th is Qr CllmAilviDtJon di rect ion drtc:nnir\e$. via the bOlM()lN>rp/'lism .... c1ittioD
of lhe circu mnaYi&alion o f lhe ven icu o f the IOpologiClll triu&le. l.e . an orienla -
Uo!l induced by lbe homeom otJl/ti sm " . An o(i en t at ion of triAnaJe obviously
detennlnes the orientations o f ils cdtl" Il.e., order ed pain of Its ven ieaj .
N ote for Ihe futu re tha t an ori ml81ion of lUI lI-gQn ud lUi edg es when " > 3 is
del'ined in pted$ely the same way (by aMna an orien t at ion for tbe eircumnaviat ion
of Ihe vert iceS).
OEFl NmON 1. A rmile SCI X _ l(T, "'i)-"'. I of topoloakal l1i~cs in X Ihal

fulm the eondiliOll$ (I) X .
...
U F j and (2) lite intef~ of all)' pair of

IrianaiCS from X is either cmp! 1 Of cciDcidcs with thei r rontmon vertex 01 tommOll
ecIa:e. is called a IrlDnp/tltiQn of the l'IO-dimtftsionaJ man ifo ld X .
A manifold for which mere exUl$ a trianlu latlon is ~id 10 be frian ru /flbft . If
any IWQ vm itts o f the trlan,lcJ fro m X tan be joi ned b)' a PlI!h made up of the
eda:a. th en we o;aU X oonntc:ftd.
In rIB. 4(}, VI uampk of a trianlulall on of Ihe .sphere 52 co nsis tina of eigh t
trianaJes is shown.
OE.FINrT tON 3. We c:al.I a connled. t riCl au lable. Iwo-dimenMorul mam fold a d os-
N swr/ llU .
 Note that th e u.amplo:s o f e:1osed l unacies wbldl ca n be triansllb":d HlIO
tollOlolPc:al poIy&Oftl aDd wh klt we COJUid~~ in Sec . J , 01. I. arc: examples o f
do$cd l ur faCCl in the: ICIIX of Definition J (to pt'Ove th is , it 5ufl'ic:c:li 10 l riansu late
Ihe polyCWU).
E:MrriH l - . Co nst ruci t rian s uhtt ions o f a to rus and a pr ojective plane . Verify Ihac
'~ey are:d osed sur fa l:eS.
The lopolopcal pr olXnies o f . clo sed sur fac e are dele:rmined by Ille stru e: lure o f
its lrim aulatio n. To ;n ",""ls ale: lite: Iria ngullllion, it Is eo nvenlenl 10 con side r ilS
IdItmatk repr esenl ation on the plane . Moreove r, plan e t ria""es l1/and lite:' nveue
lrDqes or the t ran&!eS T I e K ..,.y tK: coll$idered 10 belOfil to the sameplarte and be
llltMuaUy a dusi\'C.
We will dacrib:e s..cb rqoraetu ation . Let (TI, " ,J, (Tr "') be IWO Irian&Ies
ft Otll K, and T, n ~ _ tJ the;'" com mon cd&e; lettl; :a " ,- l (4') and tlj '"' "i
I (lI ) be
tbc ~DdirlS edScs in 11,. 4/" The s1wna bomeoft1Ol'llhiYn is d etltlcd as
"11 - "j l;I../ I ~; Q/ _ Q;
Thus. the 1riansuill ion K set 11 .. (14,t; = I. ~(lj) of
can be as:so<:Iated with a
lrianates o f tile plan e alon S with tile homeomor phisms 'fI1/ fot the co rresponding

pailS of the ed gCl. We declare Ihat po inu in
,.U ,11/ lhal e:orrapond to ea ch ol he r
und Ibe homeomorphisms " Ii arc eq ui....lent. We will <knote thU equival ence
., R.
T1u:f~uN'~
UMMA. (
,-~ ,4 1) I R is lt omuHl'llN'p" ic to fMQJ,jllm X .

PJOOI'. Th e ho mc:omoq'l bism l ",; 4 , - T, nat urall y detennilte the su rject ive

m&pp!nl ol:
X. the Inverse Image 01 - '(.0') fo r an y e X being an
,- ,11/ -
U

R..equiv&1c:n<:c dus. The residue class mappinl +; ( ,-~ , 4, ) I R - X Is con-

.-1
tioIuo... mappinl by Th eonm 2 o f Sec. l . Obviou sly, it is blJCCI ive and ks iftvcr5e
continuous .

1. The Development o f a Surface. We sball n4 l.rcr some f)'S letnli

which arc malo,OIIs 10 Ihe fllll ily 11 sc hcmatkall y rcprcsem'ft Irianau 1a liOfl K
or Ihe su rface X. bul such Ihal along ""ilh t riansIu Ihey may e:ontain " ' I ons
(IT> l ).
DI!F1NrTlON . A fam ily Q (IQj]' hPi/ll,where IQIJ is a flnite set or disjo int plan e
polYlons and I.. ill a finite K1 or &l uing homcomo rphi5ms of pairs o f edSel, each
tdae bdni slu ed lO only o ne ed, c. is called a d~w:/QpmMI . Olu; nl the cdt. es or the
SlIM polylOtl totUher is perm itted .
60 IOlr OOul;(;O/lI OT opoloay

,
, ,
'D
-t '---------- t~~
0
,
I
, ,

-.... - --71' - --- ; ,

Fit!:.

No te th ill if the the location of a polytlo n Q, on lilt: plan e is altered by I

homeomo rphism ..,. then we act new homeomoill hisms (OJ'''u-at IJ t ha t s:Jue iu
edges, and which we shall not distinl Uish hereafter fro m the hOmeomorp hisms (YOu!.
In particular , thc famil y <) = (14; 1. (" v)) is a deYelopment. The developm ent 41 15
said 10 qree with the lrianguation K .

Consider tbe laclor-$pace a of the un ion y Q, with respec:1 to the equivale nce R
ddcrminel;l by h~ !Y'/lJ. () .. (UQ)/R for lin arb ltrarydcYdoprncnt Q.

We wW call" the fa ctoc space or lhe developmen t Q. It is clea r tllal lhe fact or ,pact
of a d evdopmelllis a two-dimensional manifold; it lIdtPs at riangul atio n aen erattd
by a sufrlclently fine trianl;ulatlon of the polygons QJ. Thus. if the fa cto r space i$
co nnected tben it is a closccl SlIrface (hereafter, only sud! " arc JlU iden:d) . We will
a
call Q the dewlopmenf of I~ surfQ,.. " in .web a case.
A residue crass mappina lndu0C:5 a decomposition o f the 5urfillX into the im- a
ages o r polygons. imases o f eda es (or the d ccom positKm edacs). ima ges o f vert ices
(or th e dcoo:om position vm ioes). the dcoo:ompositio n not bcUJg. geol:f3!Jyspeaking. a
tria ngula tion.
In F'I$. 41,there is Ihe develo pment o f a torus repuJC:ntlld as a polygo n. The ar
roW! an d designa tions of its lldges denot e the rule for gluing the to rus.
Here;dl er, we will orient deVelopment polygons by ruting an orientation for each
o f them . Th e orientatio ns o r the polygons ~ennJne tite co rrespo nd ing o rientalions
o fthe edges. Un der Ihe 'g)uinJ; home omorphism "'if: tl i - tlJ o r IWOedges. the edge"J
acqu ires an orientallon ind uced (from the o rientation o f the edge Qi ) by the
homeomorph l5lll ,,~. Geoer ally spea king . thil orienilltion m8y be d iff erent from the
o rimtation o f the edtl;e tI'r
A developme nt Q is said to be odl'lI/abll' if fo r the sarne orien tation o f all ill
p(llygon s (e.g . wfl~ circu mnavigating th e vmices eo~ erci ock wiSoe) . Ihe ed ge glu-
ing homcom orph lsnu induce th e reverse c rienta tic n in the image edge . Othe...... tse
u.e.. if the oriamal orlcn tlUion co incides with the Induced in al least one edge). IlK
deVelopmen t is ~d to be II(W -orlenl"ble.
A surface X is said to be omntQble (resp . flon-oril'n /ab le) dependi ng upon
whether iu developmen t is oriema ble (resp . non o rientab le).
J. The Classification o f Developments.
"
DEl'INI~ , . T wo devd o pmcnts Q and Q " aft A id 10 ~ tqu;vlllr"t if theW f actor
J!!"KIIlS ~ bomeocnorphW;:.
We _ lnlTod~ lOme elemental'J' ~ ions OVCf dcdopmel>t wni(h will
ll1UlS!0I11l it into lUl cquivakm (mIO.
SU8OtVISlON. l..d. th en be an II ~ 2 1 f" > 3) In <kvdopmom. W e d ra... "
dU&oaal d ..mCb ~1u. Q. inlO t wo P"l>'lOns Qi ~ Qi ' :and moYt the polYloru
Qi -.ui Qi ' ~ oOllSnuctinl a new development Q from Q by rqJ 1adna 1M.
pa&Uon Q,b)' IWO pol Y&.O<U Qj . Qi ' . The I_new ed&csd ' andd . t.e., replieu
or 1M c1i'JOMl d . ar t rc laled by lhe natura! K1cnl ily ho rneomorphism. "hile the
Ilomcomorphilmsof the ori &in.... edB"" are p rcser ved . The dndopnxnt Qis c:alled.
SllbdiYiJioll 0/ /lie . ~ "1 Q; it b obriOlU that 1M)' arc equ1njf:Ql.
GWI1'IO. This open.tio!l is invux 10 1M luI e ee . Two polyaons Qi and Qi ' o f.
dtYtIopmenl Q art l1ucd mlo one polygon Qj undco" on e ohbc homeomorphi$ms o f
l!1drcdaes d ' and d " ; the hom~ltK)I'J)hisms o f the remainlna ed&= Qi and Qi ' in-
o:lIll;% homeomorphisms o f lhc cdt:a of lhe pOlYloO Qt
CONVOLU'T'IOI'I . Let two adjacerol eda;e. in polygon 2 1 with o pposite orien ta-
tions be duro tolrth."., After !hey hllve been '&1I."e<l.'. '"' oblaiD develo pment
wIIleh. iOSl ead o (Q/. o;ontaiJu a pol)'l,on in which the number of vert~ is two I,,",
and the number o f homcom orphi$ltlS is One leas (F1,. 41).
Wc ...rm thlt lhe descr ibed operations pr eserve th e development ec crvarence
dw. We leave the proo f to t he reader ,
for convenseece , in Ihe theory to come, we will d<:r;be COlCh d evelopment in
IYInbolioc word s as follows: Biven an arbitrary development Q = ({Q,l, "'lIl>, we
3pCCify. ciralmnaviBation (i. e. , ori enta!;on) for eaeh polYlon. Each ro ge o f each
polygon Q, will be denot ed by a letter accordi ng 10 th " follo wing rule: given a
tIomcomorphl&m "'lI for a pair of edges. w" uenc te on" of th e C'd, es by II and cltcc:k
wMthn Ihe Olienlatlon th at the homeomorp hism '1'/1 induces (eartiel; o ver) from II
01110tbe ~ond edse ari""ick:s with t heorieDlatlo n Mlh" laller . If thc )' do coi ncid "
lbal lhc IoCtX)ftd ed se o f Ih" pa ir is also <:knoted by II : if not it is denoted by ., - I.
Edacs wtlich au DQl Blued 10 II ar" denoted by Other leU.en , e .... . c or b- l c - I,

 !l>lroduellon to T opolosr

ere. See CII. I fo r Ole words of Ihe" ~_es 9 f ~ltepmllion ilIId triana:1e wblch are the
develo pments o f. hM dlc and M6bius st ri p, rupectivdy.
Ha >inS deooI ed the ed.&es of aD Ihe pol),lOm Q, .... e obtain a sa o f wonls
(wCQJ\. ....here ...CQ,) is a word dc nodna Iftc 'Vui.llS ruIc: Of l he polygoo Q" In ldeli
don . tllle lcUef1l in Ibe won!. ...CQ,) arc ....ritl Cft In the onier in whicb ""' tM ax-
respondinl sides o f!be poInoo Q,.eeordlnl lo itl o rien tal ion . It i5 d ear that the Ia-
~ted sa of $YRlbo lic 'IOOrds !o-CQ.)I determ....es the "'elopmcnt Q .
Two IIWn types of devc:lopmcn u can be t.in&kd ou t .
OEFlNlTIO!'l 6. A T'ypr I auton icrJJ ~r is. dc'Iocloprnent consisti.Dt of ODe
poInon detntnincd by. word who fonn I or is . -
lI,b"" Ib, IlIP }!'i 'b i I ... lI.,b"p;'Ib;' I. ", > o.
OEPINrTlON 7. A ~ It CilnoJt/all dewIop_1 is ~dopmenl ~ o f llIlr
pot)'lon with word of the: form " I""'}!'! . . . ""pM' m > o.
We now formulate the basi c resul t.
THEOREM I. A II)' dtwlopmMr Is ~{Wl/enr 10 " ~ / ()T JJ Ctmr" ,icDI de...m,p.
mornlocclHdin, 10 ir" orienr"bility lH non~"'"bi/ily.
PIIOOP T wo mt'IIIrks II nut. To bc&in with. it Is eaJ)' to see tbat by s1uilll, lite
development C(ItTapondios to a triangulation K o f a w rf aec X ean be redllocd to ,
development a:msisl ml o f one pol)'go n . We shaD ther efor e consi der onl )' lb i.l kind
of deve lopment. Sc<;ond ly. If th e"" I re CGCllbi nallo nl of Ihe fonn QQ - I In I wo!1l
oth er l han (Ill - I in our devdopment . t hen we may get rid of Ihem by th e eonvo~
tion of tbe ctl.ga. II IIId II-I a rou nd th eir w mmon vertu A . The word of t he nC'fl'
develop ment i.I d erived from Ihe OriJinal by cfOS$lng o ul all CGCll binllions ",,-I.
Finall y. We ecme a lha 10 a twc-lener wo rd (01,, -1 or w) o r 10 a word no ICSI
d'ilII four !clle" 1011& IIId withou t co mbin.ll ions of the fonn 1lQ - 1 (rccall lMI IhI
surfao;c il dosed) . Slnoc Ihe WOld s 1lQ. QQ-' describe. CItIonkal dev elop menl. ollir
Ote IIUt eese should be considered furth er .
We sball bleak thls analysi5 inlo a number of steps'
( I) The obl&ined dewlopmrnt Q . an be Il"IlUfonncd inlo one w~ all vm~
are equiYaknt. i.e. , a1ued on facl orUalion . In fact, auwnc th.at there ar c vertice:l ill
Q' whid! ar e not eq ulvaleru . Th en then: lti llIl cdCCII in '2" WhO$eendsA , B an: I\tll
cqUlv~1. Let" be mother edge ad jacml lo lbe nna B and ...bose other vertc:Jt it
C. Join A 10C by a diqon ai d. Thm tbe ~" . to wbich Ole t!febmllSl bc alu~
ill o uuidc Ole triana\CABC. Ot hcnwisc. eiOier" or" .. II wbic:h is contrary

corn bloal:ions of the fonn ._1.

10 the usumpllon that tb e veniocs A and B arc I'ItII CQuinlCllt or that OIcre arc CD
Now, I pp l1 the opcntion of subdivision aJoDa dlf
diq:onal d . and thea the opcntion or &Iuirll aItma Ihe cd&c b (we &I~ it 10 " .). II
the rcsullant devdopml:D1 po . the sa o f wniocs wh ldl ar e equiYllletlt 10 A incn<Ull
to cee lDOI"e in n\llllbcr. and the set o f vertica CQ uivalent to 8 red uces 10 on e IeIt
(F.,. 43). In acktit.iClo, if rombin ati.olu of the fonn lltl- I appeared in the word oftltc
dcvdopmatl P" then wcdelete them b)' con volul ion.. Moreover. il should be IIOtd
that .he: 1:l3t r~OD c::annoI aha th e di fference bdwcm tbe sa of vutiea,
....hich arc eq uivalenl 10 8 . and Ihe set o f lh QSC equi valclll ' 0 A (vaify this It
ya Uf SCIrl) .
 0..2. Oc:ncra l T opalo l Y
"

1'"'8. 43

Furthermor e, if slillsome vert ices which au not equ ivalen t to A remain, then we
~t lilt whok= p rocess de scri bed until we obta in a dev elopmen t with th e required
propmy.
Thus, we shall assum e fro m now on th at aU th e vertices In ou r development arc
equivalent, an d thaI th ere a re no combinations of t he fo rm QQ - l' ln h.
(2) We m ow now th at two similar leUen in t he word of a d evelopment can be
llways placed IOSC1h~ . In r...." lei two let ters Q and Q be nOI placed toget her. Th en
draw the di aaonal. d join ing lb l' initial po ints of th e two edges <I and II' in the
polygon. By subdividing alo ng d an d then aluin g alo ng o . ~ find th ai there i, no
letter" In the new wor d a$ can rea dily be sun. How ever. the combinalio n dd docs
appear, wh ich is what we were striving fo r (Fig. 44) . (I t is Cll$Y to veril)tlhal tbe cc n-
sequences o f the firs t step are preseTVcd.) ,
We pedonn the same proeed ure for other identi tallettn s nol placed together.
Note, rncrecver, thai ~h ile applyin8 lhc ind icat cd proce dure, we d o not separate
otltcrcombinatio n$ of lIlc form aQ, since only those edges which are adjacent 10 Q
are separ ated and t hey certainly are nOt equlvalent to it .
(3) A$Sumina lIla t the co ndi tions of steps (I ) an d ( 2.) are flllfllled , we will sho w
that jf the leu ers a and a - I 81e not placed to gether in a word , then mere ar e olh cr
letters b , b - l such lh at the pairs a, a- I and b , b - I separate each other (Fij:. 45).
Wc shall do thi s by cmployina red uctio ad absu rdum . If the re is not a pai r b,
~ - I then ther e are o nly co mb ina lions o f the for m cc between Q and a- I. But thi s is

Fig . 4S
. In"oductlon 10 T opology

co nt rar y to the equivalence of all yenil:e$ of lhe development, since 51,1 cl'la situation
is pos.sible only jf the vcrtlce$ A, B of the edge (l are not equi valent (Fig. 46).
(4) Thus, there au two pa irs in our word , Q, /1 - t and b, b - ', t hai &epanue ea.:h
o ther . We now demo nstrate that Ihac: fout can ee always replaced bycombin alionl
of !he fo rm -'J'X- 1y-l whilst kecp ing1hc conditions of u ep s (I ) and (2). Fi rst, join
the origins of the edges4 ande " with th e diasonalx an d make a subd ivision a100S
it; then glue a10nlllhc edge b (Fia. 47). Join th e ends of the edses x andx- I in rlK:
polygon obtained by Ihe d1aaonaiy, subdiVide along)' again and then glue alongl
(Fig. 43).
We oblain a developmen t in wncse word then is the comb inat ion X)'X - 1y- 1 ig.
stead o f the letters a. b , /1 - I, b - ' . If combin&lio ns of the form ee - ' appear aflel'
these operatioM. Ihm. th ey are removed by con vo lution wh ile combinations of the
rormdd and a/c - 'd- l an: no t separated. 11111.', the sit uat ion rea ched after steps (l)
and (1) is pr~rved.
By applying th e cOnstnK:\i01l5 of steps (1)-(4), we ha~e'tnlIIsformed the ori8ioll
word to that oonsist ina of combinations of the form }C)lIe- ly-l and aa . If there art
DO aa t ype comb inations in the word, then th is is a Type I canonieal development.
(5) If th en: are blllh 1e)lJt-ly - ' and ao type combinatio~ Ih en th e wold can be
reduced IQ th e Type \I ca nonical form ill the fo llowing waY. Jo in th e common
vertCll of the edge s u an d a to the wmman vertex of the edge s )l1lIIcI Ie- I with I
d iagonal d. Subdivide alo ng d and glue along (l (Fis . 49). The two palu of the
 Ch.2 (><,"et'31TopolOSY
"

separated edges th us o btained, viz., Jt an d Jt, )! a nd y, are then turn ed into the eom
binatlcns az, ww by applyin lj: step (2) (Fig~ . 50 and 51). Afl er Ihese operations a re
over, a separated pair d - I, d- l appears, wh ich we turn into the <:ombinat ion v>'
(Fig. 51) again by per fonning step (2). We th us ob tain a word o f th e req uired
canonical fonn.
Hence . the pair o f combinatioosJtYJt- Iy_ I, Uti is repla ced in Ihe word by an ar_
raogem<:nt of th ree au- type pairs. In do ing w , o mee .Q'Jt- I)!- t or tl a co mbina tions
are nOI dishlrbed. The proc ess ca n be repeated untU all t heJtJ'Jt- 'y - ' com bina tio ns
lIan dil.appea red .
Jtercise 2". Verify tha t two closed surfaces X , X ' whose developn,ents are
equivalent 10 cano nk al o f the same type and with the sam e numbe r m lire
homeomo rphic .
4.The Euler Characte ristic and Topological Classification or
Surfaces. Let uS n ow tur n to the geom etri<: interpret ation of th e rheorem tha I we
have ju sl prov ed. II was sho wn in S. 3, Ch . 1, lha tJt)!Jt- Ly _ 1oombinatlons in the
....ord o f the cano nical developmenl o f a ~urflloe X C(l rrespo nd 10 II handle . and a n
stl-form C(l mbi nalion to a MObius strip , boLh o f these b eing glued to the rema ining
part o r the surface X along its own bo undary. Thus, if the canonical developme nt
of II sur face is of Type I Or II then Ihis surface is glued logelher (rom a finite
number o f han dle.'! or a finit e number of MObius stri ps, respectively. Thi s gluing can
-be easUy ~eprese nt ed as the result o f gluIng Ihe han dles or MObius strips to the
sphere S2.
Consequently, we see Lhal a su rface with a T ype I eanon ical develop ment is an
onenrabje Mp-type scrrace, where p ii the nu mber of the han dles sl"ed to the sphere
(tbe genw oflhe $Urfa~) . If. however, the cano nical development o f a s" rfaee 's of
Type II, then II IS a no n-Qrlent able surface of Ihe N q ' ype, Q .. I, where Q i$ the
number o f MObius strips glued 10 the sphere (also the genll5 of the surface) .
..
In lh~ proof of the theoftm , ~ ba~ soown that if P handks and II "" 1 Mobius
st rips arc lilted tc Ihe sphere. Ihe!lw obtained surface Is non-orienlllble and o ri lle
N" .. . 1)'pC.
1llt devdop:nc nl dassificatioo lbeDrcm Iuds us 10 the conclusio n that Any
c\o$ed. surface is homcomofllbic: to. <>main sw ratz: of the type M p N." To make
the reNh mon predK, COIlSidn' the EuJtt charact.erUtic of OW" sur face. Let the
d eeompositioll of _race x contain CIlo vertices. 0, cdaa and 01 imqa of
poIYJOr1l. 'I'M number x (X) .. 00 - al + <%1 is alkd the Euler chtuUCIcrU l k of
the wrface . Obvioudy, this lkfillitloa acnctii%cs the one si.m arlier (see Sec . 3,
01.1). since lIOW the im..I# of. poi)'aon Mcd Ilot be , say, topolocica l poiy &On
(the 5kLes o f. poInon rnay be &Jued l"Sether).
tr X is of the M... IY~ . and P its canon ieal dcelopment whC* wo n! i$
aJ b~ i lb. I .. . 1l,!J1l; lb; I, then it is evident that ee .. I, 011 - ]P . 01 .. 1 and
:t OO .. 1 - 'P.
If X Is of lhc N.<type and Il Jl'IIl':zIll' . . a~!l is Ihe word o f its ca nonical dcvclO!>"
mcnt , thcn .. o" 1, 01 " Q,Oll " I and:d A"]. 2 - q .
HQ b an afbitrary devdopmau. Of t bc sur face X tbe n il ClUI be: trandonn ed into
QIlOnlcaI development usin. demtntary operations. It is easy \0 see thlt 1M
c1C'1lCnlllY opc:raIions do IM)t alter X(X}. In fld , 5lIbd:ivWon inCTCUtS thc
ft\lIl:lbers QI andQ} byone, QO beina unaltcu:d; I,Uina dea"cascs " , anda} byooc.1lt
mnallWla lUlCba.ol cd , an d I coavolutioo deenues tlfIl.lld "I by one. llIerdOl'C, t ile
J\1DI <llo - <II + <I} ~ wWurcd. H ence. we can lQake tb e important d)lle!u.
sioD tbaa the <::UI01Uul ckvdoprnent P 40es!tOt dcpeDdCUI the: dloic:e of demetll ay
uamfonnations o f the dev dopmem Q_ In fad, if Q could be red uco:d to 1"-'0
caaonical deeklpmenlsp. r , and bolh were, Ay. o f Type I, i_e .,
'.-1 1 - A'r'h
A' l Ilil')
,,, - 1.-
,...... - ,
1'"1
-1..-1
I - . '1"" 1 ..... , '

tben tJle Euler charkterlstic ~Wed for I decomPO$lt loo 'o f Q would be ItIt;
same &$ that evaluated fot do",posiOOI1$ of P and p ' . HCIlCe, wc wowd hive the
cq" alily 1-1p c 1 -1pI ,whencep _p l, i.e., lhewonh for PandP' would
OOincide. SimiJar rU$Ol'ling is held ....hen the develo prncnl l P Ind p ' are bot h of
T)1)C II.
If, bowever, P is I development of Type I. and p ' is o(Type II , then the eq uali-
Iy 2 - 1p .. 2 - q II possible on ly if q .. lp . Thcrefore , the abo ve n ,u olll ni
merc:ly estll.b llshes that a development canDot have 1.....0 canonical fo rm. , e ne of
Type I and.1he ot her of Type It wilh the l enCrilp an d q '" 1p. The general cond,,
linn tbat the $imuUanCO\l5 redlld.ion 10 born T ypes I and n ~oniul fo rms is ilfl.
pouible follow5 from Ihe property 10 presc:rve III ori.enllbility (resp . noo,
orietLlabllity) of I devdopmtnt IlO.der dcmentltY Irlll5fl;lTm,u iom (verify I}.
Comcquen tJy, we ~ proved lhe firs t part or doc foUoWinI cenlrai lbrOf~ o.
thc topolQlieal cLmIr~OlI o r swfllCel.
TH 2 01lEM 2. An)' cknJ SUr/flU it /opoIDrkatl)' eqtIu'A'''''''r "' A' sur/1Kt oJthe M
ot "','l)'pe. SIIr/f;lS oJ 1M M , - Md 1'1,,-, q .. I, 'I JXS gn fIOl l opoIoriclJU1
eqll t\IGltnl if P .nd q gn M I boll! eqllll'/1o U f O: 1M SUr/lICts M, fot" N,l/or di/
/'~II I ..,llIa of p (rrsp. q )'~ 1101 /ll'p oiOf k;il1{)' ~1lm.Je", r llhu
 Ch 1. G. ... ral Topology

The ileCond pa n o ( th. theore m Wall explained in Sec. J, 01. I (It em 4) an d

"
above. This expl anation could ha ve bee n consi dered to be t he proof. had the
topological inv ariance of the Eul~ ch aracu n stlc X(X) (oc- an arbitrary closed sur-
nee X (we have o nly don. 50 fo r X = S2 ). an d th e faetlhat M p an d N q ar e not
homeomo rp hic . when q = 21' . p '> 0 , bee n prov ed . Th ese fads will be estab lished
In Sec. 4, 01. Il l, usin g th e id ea of th e (u nd am.ntal s roup of a space .
Exerci#.! .
3. On.... the diagram (or sl uln s a su rface whose eallon il:al. developm. nt has t he
word
Qlbtoj ' bl lazP'J!tZlb i"topflJ Ib J I.
4. Oaw the diawam fOT BJuin s a su rfa ce chm cter;zed by the word Q1Q IQ-PPP J'
Imlicate the t ype and genu s o f this su rf ace,
S. Veri fy that the following closed surfaces have t he Indicated t ype an d genus:
(l) the spher e has M o - No:
(2) the lo ru s (t.e., the sph.re with on. handle) M I ;
(3) the double to rus (i . . th . sphere with two handles) M 2:
(4) the pr o jective plane N I;
(5) the Klein batik N 2.
Draw the diagr ams o f their dClCOmposition s.
6. Call a topolosical space in which each point has a neighbourhood hc meomcr-
phlc to an open inte rval of the number line, a ont!-dim~ruionQI mtmi/oid M 1, C all
the dcccrnpoiition of M l in to al'Q which arc th e topeloSica l imq . s of t he line .
IC8"'ClIt 10 . 1) an d who se ends ar e adjant to each other (i .e., med at vertic es) a
f,*,nglllQlio n o f M 1; we UIIume th at M I consists of a finite numbe r of arc s.
Prove tha t a trian lulable manifold M I is ho meo morphic to the cir cumfo:ren ce S ' or
some o f its replicall.

S. ORBIT SP ACES . PROJECl'IVE AND LENS SPACES

I. The Definition o f an Orbit Space. We cort.lider her e imponanl ex-

amples o f f~()f spaces arising when gr oups act o n topolQgic ai spaces,
Let H (X) be th e set of all ho meomorphisms of IIto pologieal space X onto itself.
The p roduct o f two ho meomorp hisms h I and h z is defi ned as fo llows :
(/I lh~) - h.p. I(x) In add itio n. for each h E H (X) , there is an in ver se mapping
h - t e H(X) and hh - I "= h -I" = I x. Thus,H (X) is a mu ltiplicative grou p (n on -
comm uta tive . gen erally Speal:;inll) with the iden tity element I x .
DEFINITION I. We will say that an a bstract S!"oup G acts (Jro m lhe Ie/t ) on a sJX1Cf!
X if II h omeomorphism o f the arotI ll G into StOUp H {X} is given ,
If G acts on X th en to .ach , e G, the re correspo nds h, e I f(X):
t - h, ; 8 182 - h' lh' a, g -l - (h, )- I.l o - iX'

Let x e X be an arbit rary poin t; t he ser U h,(x) is ca ned its OI'bll and deno ted
by OJ(' a_a
. lnuoduclioft 10 T opol lllY

~rr;1SI ' - . Sbow that two orllilll 0, . 0 , either eoiaadc or arc disjoint ,
TIle: lui SlatCiDQIl enables li S 10 intn>dlltt on X Ul eq"jYakncc R , x ! ? ..
.. 0 .. _ 0,. i.e., ~Jl.nd , bdon& to 1!Ie same orbll.
DEFlNmON 1. 1bt rlt\Or ~ X I R is caIkd the orllit spo of 1M /lrtJUP G .00
6cnoted by X /G .
This method of C<HlSU'llctinJ; faetor SpateS pla ys u impo rta nt rok in modtm
topology. CoNider lOme mmpk ,.

1. Projective Spaces Rpn , c p n, Consider the sphere S" c R ~ I. Lei

c.ch paintx = (EI . . . , ,) II S be associat.ed wit h ilS dia melfi(:ally oppolitt
poin t Ax - ( - E . , - E ,) E S". The mapplna A : S" - S" is hom eomor.
phism llIlel called " "'rtflsymmetry. TN: rollowina relations Me obY;OUI :
A - A -' . ,, 2 .. IS"" Therefore. the lei \A . IsJ is lfouP (mvltlplicative) <:OIl-
Nllina o f two dClJlcllU; it is isolnorpbie 10 Ole srou p i; (addit ive) of residua
mod 2. C<lnscqumtfJ. the: a<:bOQ of .l,; on 5" is defi ned.
DI!flN mON l . The 5paCC SO' I~ ill talI e4 tile nvJ projti -re$pOl:r and denoted b1
RI"'.
Thill, RP" can be; obWcled from S'" by identifyina cli.amrtrical11 oPl)O'ilc )lOinU
X. -x.
Consider the set G '" R ' O (I,e., all real number! u'Pt UfO) . Th ts is
multlplicat ive SJ"O lip and we de fine 11$ actio n 00 the space X - R" + I , (Olto ~
1r.... (I' ) '" Ar ,;I. I O,xfii R" '" 1' (0).
Oz is o bviou5l, tlJe 5tt o f all tlJe po in ts or the slJ'allh l line in R" .. I. P&SSina
lhrou&h 0 ilJld s, without the point O. TbeRfo~ . <K' .. I , [On/O is th~ 5Cl of aU
su-alght UN:, in R"" I pusina throuJh thf: origin . Th~ spaa: til" .. I , {OID i5
bomco>norpbie to RP" . The borneomorphiml is cRa bmbed by the COrrcspondena
in -..bkh ,. pait (1'. -x) is &I5OCiated wilb lbe It r&ight lillC paWnS throuBh the poinu
x and - x.
Jrcuu.
2". Describe Ihc IOPOIot.J o r (R" .. " lOOID and vtrifr that \be.spaoes RP- and
(R" .. " ~/G are bOllleomOrpb io;.
) " . Gille thedi&melrtcally opposite poin~ o f the boundar)' of the di$c fY' tosctha .
SIlow th " t the faclor spEc obtaiMd Is homeornOfllI\ic: to lI.P".
COnsilkr now the compleJl space c- .. I. Lei 0 .. c'
{OI be the mllltlp ti<:ativc
IfOliP o f complex nwnben. It a N ill c- I , (OJ by the rule Irklt .. Ar, >.. E' G.
x E C" .. I, (OJ. Th e.crorc, {c- .. " [Ol )/O can be ide ntlned ""ith the Jel of aU
(om plc~ sttals ht UDell In C" .. 1 pan in. thr olltb zerc .

DEFINITIO N 4. The space {C" .. I, (0)1/0 is rcrmed the avnplu ptoj/;u $pII~
and cknotcd by CP" .
We sh&II corLIt~ anotbcT modd o f CP". COlISidcr lhe unit sphe re in C" .. I,
viz.,"* '" Ir: rEI12 + ... + IE,. .. 11 2"' 11. Tbe IfOlIP 0 .. Ir"'. O" .. < 2.
 0>. 2. Gcner.ll Ta polallY

iKlSon it according to the ru le ~ ...x .. (~Ia~ I' ~"h ..... ~~~ .. I ). ThUs,group a
WI be identified Wilh th e un it circumference S l in th e complex plane C . He nce. S '
ICU on the coordinate {, e C, and the o rbit o f the poinl tj ln C is the clecumference
of radius 1 ~ 1 1 if I~I I "" O. Therefore. Ihe o rbit Ox :::> (r'"xj (0 " (l> <; 21r) of each
poinl x E S~ is lI gru t circle on S~. But oS?- can be Idenllfled with S loo .. I and Oz Can
be lWumed to be a p eat circle on S:ll< +'; Ihere fore , Ih e action 0 _ S( has bee n
ddcrmined on s- .. I and we have lhe homeomorp hisms
Sc lSI - S '2A I /SI _ CP ~ .

Tb. firsl harncomorphism has alread y been con sreucred . We shall now establ ish the
komeornorphi ~m S~/S I - (C" ... " IOJ)/C . We define thill ho meo morph ism by
.0
us.itning each co mp lex straight line (Le. a poinl of CP") Ihal gW;l! clrclc o n
(a point of SCIS I). whkh Is the inte rsecu cn of the complex straigh t line witll Sc
Sc
3. Lens Spaces. AI ille end of It~m 2 . we deal t wilh th e group S I o f complex
numbers whose moduli were eq ual to unity, and whIch acted in th e co mplex
_C.
COlUider those finite su bgro ups of the group S I which are known to be finit e
qclic IInd jso morp hic to th e add it ive groups Zj; o f residu es m od k . Lei such a group
Z. act in Ihe j -Ih replica of the space C as follows:

wbe!'l: kj is 1I certain integer. 0 " kJ k. Then th e actlon of Z j; is d etermined in

C' .. I and in Sc
th us;
<;

{{ph. . tj ( ~. I)

hl~ z.., ~ 2.1 ~

- (
e k{ l"e E~ , . .. ,e k t=J ~ 1' . ,)
DEFINITION S. The space SC1Z j; iscalted a ge nerali7.edlens spa~ i f any k r and k are
relatively prim e . and deno ted by L (k . k , . .. k n ) . When n _ l,lhe space L (k, k ,)
i$ called a lens space.
:U fCl$ t$ ,
4" . Show Ihal if any k l and k are relatIvely prim e, the n each o rbil of th e actJon o f
the grou p Z. described above CO<Ul$t f of Ie points .
,e. Sho w 'lhal lhe following Iormute determines lh e a <;tion o f lhe group S l 011 a
l eneraliled lens 5 pace~

e"" (( , .. '~n . ,) .. (c' r~I"

6". Showlhat L{k.1e1 . . . . k~) /S[ _ C p n.
" 6. OPERATIONS OVER SETS IN A TO POLOOICAL SP ACE

In this $leClioo, we qain tum out . tteDllo n 10 the in_iplion o r tlle pro petties
o r topolofPcal 'PKa and conlid er the o::lcmlu and int erior operations and the boun-
dary operat o rs o n a K'I and also two l'IOlio n. elol.Cly re..ted to them. th at i,.
the cce -
c:ep ts of lim it a.nd bound lU)' points. AU thc se Ideas gel'lcral il.C well_kn own concepts
of malhematkal an alysis .
t. The Closure of a Set. Let lX, Y) be . tOpo!o&iu] lpace ,
DEFlNITlON I. We dd ine the e!o l un:A o f . setA C X to be the intcrsec1ion of all
doso:d $l:U coar.a!nl.n& A .
1be fo Dowin.5IlJecncnU ate obriow:
( I) 1bc ~ Al$ the $tIWIe$t dosed let eontainins A .
(2) If A
closed th al .i A .
A dosed sct CllD be charllClmud by lim it poinu. whic b _ do bdow.
Dl?FlNtTION 2. A polntx E X Is sa id to be limIt o ne: of. aiv cn set A C X If there
11111 least one po intx ' e A ot her IhllllJt in ea ch neighbourhood D~) o f the poi nt x.
&e~iK I " . Verily thll! th is deflllilkm can be restri cted to only ope n nc~
bourhOO<b of the point "'.

EXA.\WLES. Consider tht scUA .. "'I. B .. ( .;] ,II .. 1. 2 . . " C (0. 1). 0 ..

_ la , I) iD R I, TH K I A "as no fuN! points , ~ SCi B has one limit potnt ,!."" O.

and the limit poin ts of the sets C and D rlilihe ""hole line-$C:pIeDt 10. I ].
n..: DOtioD of limit point in a topolosk3J ~ u. u un easily be _ . a
I cncr8lizallon of th c concept o f IlmIt poinl in analy sis. Wc . haU 0010' provc $OI1K'
U&efulllatmtcnl$ usociated ""jlh limit points.
THEOREM I . A Rt A C X Is closed if rind o,lIy if iI CtJIII"iru ,,/I its Ii,"it points.
PItOOP Let A be c:k >scl , x a limit point of A . and )( E A . Hcnce.
x II! X 'A _ O(l') ""hich is an open set . a nclghbourhood o f lhe poi nt x. Thercfore,
O~) n A _ 0 . whid> is c:onUlU'}' 10 the dc:rlllition of a limil poin l.
Let A oontain aU i1s Urnit points . To show thai it i$ doied . i.e. thai its comp'"
ment U c X ..... A is open. M sumas to P I"O\IC that f or an y poinl x e U . ttlnc is I
ne iah bourbood O~) sudt IIuII O~) C U. By aDumina Ihe c:ooU'vy . ~ find tba
for a cuuirI poInl x oe U and an y iu nci&lt bourltood O ~ol. lh ere is a ~
x Ii! O(Jro) sum thatx ' ~ U . Th en X-EX..... U ., A . Ihcrc fore.xo is a limit po int g/
A . wttic:h is contrary 10 Xo i" A
The setA ' o r all limit pointl of a Sl: I A is called the ckn"Wd N t o r A. Th us. a nrw
ope retlc n arises. viz . L\.&is nlnl lo each sct A C X Ihe de ried see A ' .
TH EOREM 2. For Qny Slet A e x. 'he Rt A U A . is clwl.
J'1l0 0F_ We wal show thai Ihc set X ' (A U A "J Is o pen . LAt x be an a, bitrall'
poin l of X '(A U A ' J. Then Ie is DOt a Ilmit po iot o f A. therdore. t her e Is ill
neiahbourhood O~) RId> Ihat O~) n A .. 0 . Le t.e " II! O~) be an arbiU'lU'}' poud.
 "
..
Then fo r any DeiahboUrhood v(r ' ) o f the poiDt)t ' such lbal 1'(1") C O(r). we
kne V(r ' )nA _ 0 . thc:rerlX". x is notalirniIJlOUlIOrA ~ O (lr) n A '"' 0.

.,..
1'bIu. OU') C X '.CA U A " ) . and bec:aw.er is vbitrary, the 5C:t X '(A U ", ' ) is

Eumx 2". (I ) Vcri(y WI (A UB)' _ A ' U B ' , (A nSf CA ' nB ' and
(A 'S)' :::>A " ' 8 ' ,
(1) Lei X .. la. b l be .. spa cc o f two c lemen t' cq uip pro wilh lhe topology eo ns;stins
Qf lllc thte" sets: 0. X , la). Gi..." an ex.1lmple of a KtA C X fOI wh ich the ind usia n
(A T CA ' is 001 valid .
We shal l now prove .. buic st atem ent abou l lhe structure o f the:: closure of .. set.
TIlEOR.M 3. X - A U A ' l or anyMt A C X .
PJOOf'. 8 y Theorem 2, ee KI A U A ' is ~ . Therefore. by the d efin ition of
.. do$u rc, A C A U A ' . On t he other hand. it is ob viou.s thu an y clcna1 Jet con-
tairlinl A also COIltaUu all limit poi nu o f .4 , and m a do!c oonlairu A ' . Heoce ,
A U J!' C A. ThIlS, X '" A VA ' ,
EnrfiM 3 , Let A W 11v XI oj ""tioll4lpoi1!u on 1M. ,"1$trai$"t liM R I . ~
l.!lacii - R I
If. topolopeal lPKC X h., .. eounable su bset A ..mote do$ure urinddcs wit h
X, Ihen It Is ~ to be sqxupble. (I is cu:r to verify that ~mty is a lopoloPea!
P!VP"r1y.
Extrf:ius,
4" , Sho w that the Spate R ~ . the dise D ft an d the sphere S" - I are separ able .
j", Verify t he followina properties o f the closu re o~fat ion : m '" A U B,
A" A,~C A n B,A ' Be A'::B,
6", Let Y be a $Ub~ of a topoloJical space X and A sulurt of Y. Denote t he
doIure of the set A in the SIIbspaa: Y b:r A y . and Ihe c10lIIfC of A in X by A . Show
that Al" - A ny.
DEFlNlTION 3. A pol nt x ~A is oaid 10 be isolDlftI if there is . nci&bbowhood 0(%')
of the point x JUdI that it docs not contain lilly points o f the Jet A olha than x ,
A poin t X 6 A is iloJated if and o l\ly If x e A ' A ".
OFt1'4ITtON 4. A set A is said to be d i$r:,c,r If each of its points is isolated .
z. The Interio r of a Set. COll1idef t WO other lmponant no tio ns co nnc:cted
wilh that o f neighbourhood.
OeFINITION ,. A poin t x e A IS call ed lUI iIl/mo, poiflf of a set A i f it hu
nci,hbouthood fl (x') sU<:h t hai fl (%'} C A ,
TIle set o f alll nteriOl' PQintl of a set A is U1llcd the In/rn o, o f A and deno ted
by IIIIA .
XN.U>U- Co lUider A _ [0, II, Ihe line sca,mc:nl of the l u i st rap line It I. II IS
cur 10 sec lhat (nt (0, I] - to. I) .
TIle operation Int is d ual of the dosu ~ operation. which follows flll m ilS ","0-
pcnics as al unciated In Ihe fol lowin, thcoran.
" lnuodu o' ion Co T..."olo V

lliEOREM 4 . For 1m }' XI A ex. It't' /IQ ,'li': (l ) Inl A ~ (IJl ~/I .J1!r; O l lnt A is IIw
Ja,.,ur 0Ptll st.1 COnlD;nM ill A ; (l) (A IS O/H n ) (In cA .. A ) ; (4)
I,l"G InIA) (I' E A orfd}l is 110 /" J"n" polit I of X 'A) : (S)X ' ''' = X , In tA .

_....
PIl00f. Properties O ){l) au aImasl e'ricknl . We wit Y'tTif)', fOf cump~. Propm)' (I).
Lei x E Inl A . Then Ihne is an ope n nclshboufbood U(.l') of Ihe pai nt x $uch that
U (I') C A . The rcrOft:, IJlI.A is II OOBbbourhood of e~ of Its poinU and e eeee u

AI for prapmy(4). if x E Int A lMn , obviou, ty. }lE A andx'l"(.X' A )' . ConVUK .
Iy. if Jl E A and Jl (.X , "' r then th~ il; :a nei,lIbou rtlood 0 ",") CA . ther efo re,
X l' lai A .
The vm fica1ion of propert y (S) is k ft to !.bl;: rc.clu. _
lbe ~ ltI1 (.X ' A)
has to be c:on.sidc~ quite oflt:n II Is aflcd 1M u.tcrior of
the lei A IUId dmotfd by u t A .
~l .Showlhat A " X 'edA .
3. The Bound ary or a Set. The fo11owinS important conceP'S.llfC those 0'
boulld ary po int an d the boundary of. Jet A . They ..-c ~e<l with the intuitive
kle_ of . 'Sep&lSIOr' be t....een II region o r Euclidean space and i" exrertce, Some u
. mples will be co nsidered In the not Re lion . Hert: is t he ICDual defin ition .
OEFINlT lON 6 . We uJl the s.c:tX, ({nIA U elllA ) thc boUM(1ry iJA o f a s.c:t A , and
call ""cry poi nt of Ihe boundary. boundary IIOlfll o f the Jet A .
Thl, X 0 aA If . nd only if each nci,hbourhOO<i o f x contains a po int fro m both
A and X ,A .

EXAMPLe. Lei x .. pI and A ... {O, I] . The n Int A .. (0, I), X 'A .. ( _00 ,
0] V (I , +"), In l (X ' A ) .. (-"' ,0) U (I . +00 ). There fore, iJA .. 10, I] is lhe
set or two poin15; 0 and I .
Thus , wc h. ve Ihe bo""dary o~ralor a . IU relatio n to the d osure and tnt o prn
lloJu is elearrd up by Ihe followina theolem .
THEOtlEM S. For a"J' A C.X,_MW : ( l ) aA .. A n (X' A): (2)aA _ ;h
lOlA ; (J)A .. A V ,M ; (4) InI A ... A , aA; (S)(A udoUdl (aA C A)i (6) (A
Is optII) .. .lA) n A - 0).
P1I.OOF W C shall pr O"t some o f lbest: stal t a>cnu.nd Iea,'c the ot hen as Q<errna..
(J ) ld x E itA , then in any neighbou rhood UI,r ) o f lhc poin t x , there Me po intu "
Xz wdl lhal x 1eA , and Xl E X , A HOI'l<:C ~6: A aDd z I!'X , A . i.e.,
x EA n tx ,A ), Con 'tCnCIy, ICn i A n (X' A ), ttlcn z EA,zE(X ' A) Silll:ll
(X 'A ) .. X ' lntA , A .. X ' u tA (1 h cm S of TheofClll 4:l1ld EJ;e rmc: 1), ""
roncl th al Z E l.nt'", x E Q<l A , ....h eace XI!'aA .
(2) By dc:rmltlon , aA .. X'\,(IDIA U ea tA ) _ (X ' Q<.l A ) ' IntA ... A' InI A .
(}) SuKt: In t A C A, It follows from (2) tl!.J,t A Io t A U <lA C A U <lA : tina
<lA C. A ,we SftthM AV ;JAC AU A _ A.
IS) II A IS closed Ihcn itA c.li .. A . Co n,ftsdy , if iJA C A then by (ll,
A .. A V <lA (~ h e m)) wt\encc A .. A. I . C., A is closed.
 L" . 2. Getlcfal Topolou
"
E:nrcises.
r . Ln U bc opm In X IIfIdA - au. Show lha t aA '" A . P rove the converse stat e-
""". Y
,.. Let be a 1IIbs.puc of a lopoklgkal spac:c X , .and A a sub$et in Y. Dmo~ the
bounduy oftbe idA in Y by ay4 . and the bourw:!.an'o r A in X by;) A . Verir, thaI it
is tlOt ahfayS lnIe Ihal cJJ"'l .. (aA ) n Y . Give some examples.

7. OPERATIONS OVER SETS IN METR IC SPACES.

SP HERES AND BALLS. COMP LETENESS

1. Operations Over Sets in Metric Spaces. Here we consider Ii'll' COII-

~s Sludied in the previo us stet io n as they apply 10 metric liPKu. RemernbCr thai
11K base for the lOPOklsY in fJ.I. p) COlllUts ofall poIIible balls D,t;co>.
where" > 0
is the radius. md"'l1 is wanln or the balL The P'lCtric ,. makes it possible for U$ to
$peak of aoD1ltflCnt scqumccs in M ( $CIl: Sec. 2, 01. I). We can CllPfcK A. A ' .
Int A . CIA in Ihea terms Ih us:
(a) the cODditioa x Ln.t A is cqU!v. ltnlto the ball Dc(ir). for aC'elUin e > O. be-
in& contained ..molly in A: this folo\WS f, om the 6f:rmi(ion of th e marie topoJoay
,~;
(b) the condition x EA ' is equivalent to the ctistencc of sequence
\'l:l",ent to Jr . where a A , a.. ~ If .
"'.1
con-

In fa ct . if Jr GA ' the n for anY " 1 > 0, there is an clement " I in A such that
IIle D,. ,,"), III '" x . Le i 0 < "1 < p (.c, a ll . then alain there is an element
*'
"1 E D, (xl. a1 Jr , etc. Th us, the sequ ences ir..J and 1a..1C A (ire co nstructed such
thtp';... Jr) < "., ". - 0, a. '" If, Le . a.. - Jr.
Conversely. lei there emt a seque nce a.. - s , where a. oil x, a.. Ii A . T hen for
any nriahbou' bood 0(:0") o f Ihe point .... there W SI a b. 1I D.,,") C Q(r) ud N (e)
SIKh th.l p {a x) < e fnf It ;l= N(e) . H mee G" 0 ,,") w~ It ;l N (c) :l nd G. *'
Jr,
. hich comp letes lbc proof.
Th e doerlD itioa o f . limit poinl in tmns o f KCI_ cnn~&Cft1 to it livu aboe
is a1.... ys used in anal ysis as lbc de flnitioo nf a limit po int or. set;
(c) th e condit iOn tha i a itt A is dowd Implies . just like lOt to polngkal JpK e,
lhaol A conta!ru lllJ its llmi l poi nls.. This cond ition n. eqllivak'ntlo the fac1 Ihal th e
condition z. A fol ln. . from the emlen c:e nf a scqucnoe \ll.l C A convusellt 10 ....
III face. th e condition that A is dosed is equi valent . for eumtlle , t o lhe con di tion
lb. l A C A (ICe 5: . $) which Is equiv alent to the previous $IDtemcnl ;
(d) llle con dilion ;It 11 llA is eq uivalent to Dr "" ) n A *0 an d D , (K)
n (X 'A ) 'fJ 0 fo r any , > O. t.e. an)' ball wilh cent re althe poin l'" will ' JCOOp'
OUI the po inu of A I.fId X ' A . Th is st.tement is ob~iOlll .
We ar e also liv inl an eq uival ent definition which Is n lt m used in anal ysis;
(e) Ihe OOIlditiofl x E aA is cqui'flllenllO the uistrncc of a Jocquenr:e ~~J . X ' A
(OIIYCf'1lCf1.t tox. and to t he exlSlenoc or. It:quencc 1a,,1C A "OIIVCIlIenl to x .
In fact. su ppose X li! 'M. Then for . ny " > O. the ~n Dr,,"l 'KOOPS' poi nts OIlt
of both A (i .e., tbc po int a, ) ~ X 'A (i.e. th e poinl G; ) . AswImin a!hlll. ' .. "
". _ O. we obt&in th.. sequences G ,. E .4, .~. C X ,A sudl tha i . '. _ x, G;. - x,
 Introd uction co Topo\oJY
"
Con vtndy, ih. - x.Ia.1C A. and/l~ - z. I'r~ 1 C X , A., thmany ba UD, (.l") coa -
tains both the point " . U>dth e point ,,; fCll' a sv.rrociently IaraCIi .. " (r); lherera rt,
JUliA .

2 . Balls an d Spheres in R" . We lba.Il invcstip lc the sptlcrc S , 1he opcn 4ise
1>" .. I an d the dosed disc1)- ... I in R" .. "
TH.EOREM I . The/ allowin g tqutllil~s are Wllid : U- .. 1 .. u)i+I) .. (D" '" ' ) .
PROOF If llle 'r ay' [txoJ, 0 " t < +00 , I, co nsidered (i t emanat es fro m tb e cen-
In o f the ball, the poun o , and passes t llro u&b the poinl Xotii b" .. 1' %0 .. 0), then

lbe poinlSxi .. Ie ; 1 xo Ofthis ray Imd loxOand lie ill D" " l (vuify th is by ou.inI

lhc metric on R" .. I ) , aDd the points h '" ~ %0 also Jie ill D" ... I and I.md to :mo.

Therefore, (D" " ,)' ::l D" .. " On the ot her hand, (0" .. I) c b" .. I (JIere
(L)i'TT) is lbc lopolocical doI ure of the ball D" " I). In fact . it x. - "
Xl ii D" .. I . i,e., Ify e (D" .. 'r
tllen
p (Y, O) " p()' . x. ) .. p(x. , 0) < p(Y ,.ll"... ) + J.
_ hmce by taklna: lnto accounlillal p (y . Xl> - 0 as Ie - _ . we ban p (jo. 0) " i,
i.e.Y E D"" I.
After eo mbinina: the Indl.lslon malions Ihu we b vc obtained wilh Ihe eviclmt
relation (d' .. 'r c ~ , we have
u+ I c w .. 'r c (D". I)C 1Y'+ "
wheGl% the I tt.teme nc o f tbe theo~m readily foUowI .
THEOREM l . ~ $phtn Is Ih~ boundary Qj o boll : S - .. a(D" + ' 1) .

PROOf. IA. .1'0 5 S" (S" ,p. 0l). Then XI< .. - '-1.- .1'0 E lY' '' I, and the tequem:e
~tJ <:GDVCI'ICS to .1'0 foI k - 00, Therefore, S C i(D" .. I). Co nverset)', let
.1'0"a(lY' + I). Thm XcI e O" .. I li llee 0" ... I wnsislS of int erior poi.all. and lhC"l"e
exists a ~uetlQl: (rtl l'O" "+ I o;on,et"IIent 10 .1'0 (sec Ilem I, (e. Therefore,
.ree(D" + r ..&' + I,X."S-, .
"""....
1- , Pr ove that S" .. a (iii' '' I).
2- , Let .,: R - - R I be a corIti nuolUl function. t' rove tha c th e set
A .. ~ E R - : .. (1') < al is epee, and the teU B .. f E R" : .,(1') " aI,
e .. Ix t! R" : lI'(I') = a ] are closed for an )' a G R l (lh tit Je ts aee caUed the
LdJague .'s of the function ll'l.
3, Show for th e It'tli o f Excrcite 2- Ihl l A c B, Give an en .mple "'hen A .. B.
aA .. e, .net alJo an aamplc when A :#. B and oM .. C ,
J . Bails and Sp heres in Ar bitrary Metric Spaces . Consider a rmuic
1p.Ke eM. pl , We dd"me a ckntd btHJ D, (xol and ~ S,(I'O> u.e., with radillS
 0 . 2. o.ncnoJ T OPO!ou
"
r > 0 and orllt.~ at Ih" po illt x~ by the eqlluun
D,~~ ,., ll' IE M . /I (x. x~ " rl. S, tlr'ol .. 1M' e M. /Itlr', xol .. rJ.

...
Not" tl\1I1 D,tlr'ol. S,tlr'ol are eIosed XU ID M . l.ll faet , i (

p(E-.. ?} "
ll'.J E D,tlr'ol and ]C. - ?

Ptlr'o- :r.) + Ptlr' ?) " r + Ptlr' ?).

YoiImoc pl;co-?} " ' , Le. ?eD,tlr'~; S,<xol is d osed &5 the oomplcmcntln th e
doKd Jet b , <xtl to tbe opel> iet D,Cxol.
Aze the theDrcm5 o ( h elll 2 vali d i n the Inrtric IJI'&Ccl The foDo'lrins aampk
pwtcs tbaJ. lht: UlWcr is ocpUvc.
EX.ucPL.E. I~. Let M bc II nnkcloU . W" spcci (y ll mctricp<X.
rJ .. O. Ptlr',?} .. I when:r ". ? Then (or , c 1.
D,(E-~ ... ,,"oI.O,Uol .. lrol. S,I;c~ .. 0
.... (D,(xol) .. D,tlr'~ .,. (.D,tlr'ol)' ,. 0.
Ho....ever,
S,(xol .. 10,(x~ .. 0 ~

\\'hm, " 1DIS:!L:..lxol.....D.(xo> = M. SI (xol .. M ' lxol and (0 1(}CO C D 1(}Co),

Fu.:1.humOfC. (D .(X0l) D I,""ol. $1'""0> ~ ,)Dl(x~ " 0 .
Fillll Uy. when r > l,we have
D,tlr'o> = D, ,""ol - M . S,u~ " 0:
mOfCO"et".m) '" l'J,Vol *" (D,<.rolr .. 0 . S, tlro " ao,(xol'" 0 .
'The (oUowin, theotcm pro vides II nec:t:Uaf)' and SIIHlcie nl condition fo r II
qJher" In metric apaa to be Ih" boundar)' of II ball.
THEOREM 3 , ~ /olJowinK tquivo lOlCl! is "({d;

<5,(:&'ol = aD,(;r~) ... ~ .. "fJ,l.xol)

Pl OOf". It (ollo ws rrom. (D,(;rol) - b , (xol thaI
S, ~ .. D, (Xol ' D,vol - D,{.l"ol,D,(xol aD,(;rol

COO\"C:f1ely. If S,l;col '" <lD,(xol, th ell

D, (xol- D,V~ U aD,~ " D,(xol U S,(x~ .. l),(x~ .
~ 1...cl M .. Cro, II be the rpaa. of conlinuous fll~ns with Inc $I;ano,1ard
Il'drio: (loOC See. 1. 0 . I) . Gin one inteflll"et.at.ioa of D,. D,. S, and Ihow lIIat
S, .. aD,..
.Completeness o f M etric Spaces . In anal)'$is. Cauclty's cri terion of thc
fOll'/U&C=nce o( II sequence: of rtIUIIbcn (lll lbe l pace R 1) h&5 been est.ablWlcd: 11.-
quence lx'..1tolIve,.es to.som" poinl xll<x" -:rtl i( IUId only If .. b/"ndlJJftl:1ltfl l.
 In lr od uetio n III T OpOlo&y
"
i.e . for any t > O. there is an integer N {e) such that I x" ... m - x n I 0:: t as soen 11
1I ;;a N(t ),m ~ I.
If x" !. xoiD W . p ) , the n lx,,1ea n be calIil)' st.,, ""n to be fundamental 8$ i. true
in the case o f R I, l.e., for an y e > 0, there is N(c} such lhat
P ~,,+ m , x,, ) t:;II: . ll " N(c). m ;;a I. (I )
However. Ihe co nven e i. nOI always true .
DEfi NITION I . The space lM . p ) in which Cau chy' s criterio n hokl ' true Il.e., any
fundam ent al sequenc e h M a limit) is eaIled a clImp/ere spare.
E XMll"UlS
2. Let M = Q c R I be the set of rational num ber s in R I. Th is met ric space i . no t
com plete since there W s! seq\lcnc~ of ralionalll\lmbc rs convergen t lo an irra tional
number (i. c ., funda mental, but havina no limit in Q ).
3. The. spa<:e M _ R ' ts coei p jere.
4. Th e spac e M = R" is complete. This follows from the fu t Ihllt the {undan,en.
tali!y or ccnversence o f a sequence o f li nes [(~1, . .. ~)J of len gth n is eq uivalent
to the fact that sequences of the numbers (tll, I _ I, . . . , n, are fundame ntal or
con vergent.
~rci# S. Prove that th e space M .. C" is <:;omp lete,

BX/.MPU, , . The spatt M C[O. II is co mplete in th e metric

OM

P I (x (I) ,y (I) :: max Ix (I ) - y(I )1

0 ':'': I

bu t not in the metri c

P l(x(I), yl l) '" (1, Ix (l ) - y(I)l ldl

J,n . 0)

The stateme nt just fonnulntc:d is proved in an al )'$is.

Th e examples show that the property of completeness is not topological, t.e.,
genera1ly speak ing , It Is not preserved unde r hom eom o rphisms (e .g. , the inttl'Vlll
Ill. b ) C R I and R I itself are homeomo rph ic: bu t (Q. b) is not co mplete).

The fonll ",i n, Slat.ment holdllruc but we leave its ploof \0 lhe leader M an e~.,e\l"
THEO REM 4. Lrl (M , flJ lw a metric sptZ . and M 1 C M asubsf}fl. // M I is camp/tIe ," on H
.. closed in M ; if M is comp~lc and M I;S c1o.ud '" M. IlIcn 1011 is comple/t .

B. PROPERTI ES OF CONTINUOUS MAPPINGS

I Equival ent Definitions of a Continuous Mapping. We shalt c>;.

press the propen)' o f uie co ntinu ity of a mappin g!: X - Y or topological spaces X
an d Y in term s of othe r topological concepts, i.e ., o f th e n eighbourhoo d and im
closure of a set.
 ClI. '2. General Topolou n
THEO REM I . u lf: X - Y W Il COllI /nuoUSmQpp/II . T1I' loJJow",. Pf oPNtiulln
eqll fwlll!lIl : ( I) I is COIItifl llOUS; (2) f or Illly A e x. /( A ) C nil); (J) frK Ilfl )'
A C Y._h~: r l (A) C rtIA ).
p JOOf' We sh an prove _ im pa tKxls. (1) .. (2 ); We rondudc from the defmi
tion of ~Oftlin uity thai t he K1/- l mJi is dosoed in Y ",d contains A . "ThercfOl"e .
A C r I qvm .!"'hetK'C / (Al C f (A). (2) .. (I): Obviousl y. it follo ws from (2)
thatA C r IV(A fot any 1 ' Choosin& ~t(F). whtre F is an ar bitrary c1os
edICt in Y. We obtai n thalr ( F) C r IVV - (1')) - r l(F). "ThercfDTe.r I( F)
is ~Io$ed fOt any clos<!dF C to i.e.. (is co ntinuous . I ll .. (ll : The cOntinuilY o f/
implies Ihl! cIOKdness orr I (A ). Hen. (3) immed iately follo ws fro m the inclus>on
r l (Al C.c ; IA ). (J) .. ( I) ; For a closed A, the chai n of itIclurion relation s
r l(A) ~ r r
(A ) ~ 'IA) follo ws Item (J) . Whencc r l (A ) i. dosed , a nd thc
mapplna / Is therefor e-eont inuolU. i
On the analogy o f t he deOnltion of the co ntinui ty o f a mappln8 in a mettl c
sp.~e . co ntln \ious mappi ngs of topological spaces can be defined as bein a con -
tinuo\is at every point by intTod ucina the noti on o f continui ty o f a TRap ping a t a
palm in a to pol oJ,ical space .
DEFINITIO:><l. A m.lIppi"l/ : X - Y o f topoio&ic:al spae:ts is COIflill llo14 Ilt Il point
xa X if fo r any nciah bou rhood aV(;fO>J of the point ff;t.o>. there Qisu a
tlri&hbourbood OCKol of the poin t ..., SllCh t hat/lO(.x-oil C av{col.
~ 1-. Thl! fol1o'lrina propeny o f. 1TUI!t~/ : X - Y is cq WTalm t to the
cmtinuity aI. poiM: the luJI inverse ima&er l'OVf;t.oI of ...y nciahbourhood of
Ibc point/{c~ is a nci&hbourhood o f 1M poml XO'
TKEORE.... l. A _~/ : X - Y is COfJlIlIUOUS if lHtd onJ, if Jr is conrinwou:l ll t
tcJt polll l XE X .
' lOOf'. U:t/: X - Y be cont inuous. ro e X llII ",bitr&ry paim, llIId OVf;t.olJ an aT-
bilralY nei&bbo urhll(ld o f the pe int/{coil. Th en then u an ope n set V C Y $\1ch thai
YcOVf;t.cll) and/f;t.oiI11 V. Put U - r l ( l'}. U I5 an opc n,Jet and xo E U . Thc:n
I (U) c nV<riY). wh ich pr oves the co ntinuity o f/ at the poi nt :ro.
Co nvem ly, let/ be continuo us ~ I evcry poi nt X lii X . Let V C Y be a n a rb i!.
liU )' ope n set and let A _r I( I'}. Since V Is a nc:i&bb tlurhood of c:ac:h of its potn ls
and / is continuo us at each of lu points. for any :r e A . there is an
nex)ncipbo urh ood o f thc poinl X such thal/COf;t.') C V . Thcrt'forl!, n V) C A,
which pro ves tha t A is open. The contin uity of/ is th us proved .
Exrrc'- 2-. U:t X .. A U B be the union o f two closed sets. Th m tM mapplO&
I : X - Y is cODt inllOUs if and only if the ma ppinas / I.... and f i B arc tOllt inuous.
cn-e COIlnt tTcu.mplc:s ...hen the condition o f Ihe closedness 01 Ihe scu A and B is
DOl fulfilkd.

2. Th ree P ro blems Leading to Cont inuous Mappings. In topoloJy

&Ild in app!iatiOIlS. the follo win,a t)'PtS of problems have to be: solv ed oflc:n :
Ii} GIven tWO topol ~ 5lIlOCS X . Yand a mappin./ : X - Y f"l>ctlt whet her
{ is conti nuo us.
" l "trod~cti on (0 TQpology

(ii) Given a topological spaceX, a $el Y and a mappinlf : X - Y. Eq uip Y with

a topology so as 10 make ! conlinecus.
(iii) Gir e" a topol ogical space Y, a w:t X and a mapping! : X _ Y . Equip X
with a to polo iY so as to mue] conlimmlls.
Problem (i) has already been <;(Inside.ed for ~rtain space> and mappinp. To
solve it, Ira information about X. Y, and ! ;' rtquired.
Problem (ii) ClI.Jl be tolved withollt any additionalauumpt kl ,. Let iUl = .. be a
topoiolY on X . W. endow Y wilh a topoloJj' by ea.lIing upen in Y th ose and only
thO$e sets V C Y whooe inverse imagcs ! ' (V) .. U arc open in X (incl udin g the
empty inverse image) . It is not dirn<;\l!t 10 verify that the colltttion of such sets lY)
forms a topology . If V.. are some ids from ('1 then

(2) ~
, ~ I
V.. elVl, sinccr
'
l ( ~
, _ I I ..
Va) = n,r'(V..)

(3) Y e 1"1. sincel ' CY) = X fi r;

(4) 0 e (VI. sincer 1(0 ) = 0 e r .
The to po logy coru;trllC'(ed wiD M called th e t opology indu ced by the mapping f;
Ihis is the SUOIlgest topology in which f is coedn uc us - .
ccnstser now the cont inuity of a mapping g : X I R - Y. where R is a certa in
equivaknce, anti X IR is 11 factor space.
THEOREM J . u t g : X I R - YIJfldf : X _ Y belwomappings,and fl ; X - X IR
tlr" proj:tion. u{ tire diagram

\/'
,
be co mmula(iv", i.e, / /;K) - (gfl )tt), x E X. Tlren g is continuous if and only if / is
conrinuous.
PROOF. U:tf be continuo us. Consequent ly, if V C Y is o pen t hcn r I (V) i ~ open in
X . Owing to the commula tivity of th" di3.jlram, rhe SCi ".-1("1) '" U is open iD

Th ISrnctt.od or equipping with I tapalDgy"'l1 menl'D~I .IlI;"" when we inlroduced

I"" co..... pi o f lIuot i011t .I0p0 IDlY (_ Sec , 3).
 01. 2. Qc,ncral Top01olY
"
aiM . Since! .. , .. .
r <r ' (V "" ...(... - I,- I)( V) .. , - '(y).

tIldol"e. t u wnt;nuo U$ .
La , be COlItin u.ous . i. e. , , - l ( Y) it open in X I R if V is o pen in Y. Then
" . 1(1- ' ( 11) is opn1 in X d ue to the eont inu ity of .... Ho....otV1:,
- IfI - 1(11 .. r
I (II). and hmcc f is contlnuo...s.
We mw.t find Oul when the sp aee Y wlth lbe lopolOJY dd cri bed above is
lIomeomorphic to the f&do.- space of Ibe spa X ...-ith r5pea to the fol lo " inS
cq:rinlmoe rdar.~n (ind~4 by f) :
Rf x l - X2 .. fVrI) - f~ -J
Tbc: dus of equivalent ~inu in X is the ruu invel"$e inu ac r l O') of some vlIllle
r~ Y. l.f:l 'It : X - X IRI be: the pr oject ion , lind): X I RI - Y t he res idue class
In3ppmS tnnsformin! the clau o f eqll1va}m1 polnU LKI into I ","). W e thus h ave th e
equal ity I (r",") .. f",") . x e X , which meallS the corntnl,lUltivity o f The d iagram

THEO REM 4 . /1 11 ro polQI)' On Y is in duced by II mappmfl f : X - Y and l is surJer:-

l in , tlren!ls a ho~omorphism o.I lhe spu~ X IRfand Y.
PROOF T he ma pp lna f b C<)ntin uo us if Y is el\do w<:d wilh lhe indicated to po lo&y .
ByTheorem 3./is cont inu ou s. Since ! is bijective , It is su fficient 10 pr ove t he con -
linuity o f J I. which Is equivalcut to ' he opcrm css c t ], To prove it , let U R be: lin
Q\Xn set in X I Rfollnd V - ! (UIl) iu ima ge in Y . U l ! .. &. Then we have
r l ( V) .. c, 'It) - I ( V) '" :r - 1c, - 1(l1) .. :r- 'lUll ) .
Since. the set ,,-' (U,,) is o pen. r '<V) Is also ooen: by tbe dd mitiOCl o f the
$Irongest: lo palo, y on Y in which f is continuous , we ma ke a cooclusio n tba t V IS
open in Y
nrci# 3- . Sho w lhat if a rna.ppmaf is not surjecti..~. then t he f" a oc spa ee X { Rf ls
~ic to the , ubspag:! OO C Y, ,.,hue lhe topolOBY on Y is in duced by I ,
When coruidC'rin.a conhnuous mappi nt! : X - Y of two IOpolosica.l~.a
qllCSlion ma y be asked under ..hat wndition s the topolosy o f Y is ind uttd by tnc
mppi~f
nreoP,E,.... 5. w I: X - Y M tl SUr]cc1ll1<r lrltlppitl' 01 1_ topoloekol spa ond
In ! bit COiIIUlIIOWS and opuo (or r:kJsrd). Then Ih~ /opo /Ou on Y u a quo'~nl
/l1f1OIou ",dUC'UJ by [ ,
PlOOt'. ConUdu the c::uc whcn f rs open . Let fVJ '" 'I be the topol ogy on Y m-
c!..cecI by 1M. ma ppinl/. and r, ... IUl lhe ori&inaltopoloBY OR Y. We shllll!J'low
IMI they coi ncid e In r.a. lei Vl;' r .. V 1&' 0 . Th en . ioIncc f i, lu rjecu vt".
r 1( V) "" 0 1nd/- 1( V) is open in X (b y the method of conuruction o f 'I) Srnce
so Inlr od uClJo n 10 TGPOloJy

l i5 open , we find l h.at the $Ct/<T ' ( V - V b opcn in Y. I.e .. V E r1" COlI"u l ely,
lei U e "1; th en u follow s from th e oo ntinuit y of f thaI r
I ( U) is o pen in X .
Therefore. U e 1"1 by tb e d elinit ion or 'M lopololY r . ,
n.: C~ whtn J is cklscd is mnsidered in a n alIabeou s ....ay.
h remaiN for us to consider pro blem friil. UtI : X - Ybe. ma ppinl. Or. Kt
X in tO t~Jita1 SJ2CC' Y . La 1'. IV) be .. to po logy in Y . Put
" - V- '(V)I......" The s)'Stem "SiItiJr.es th e u.iorru o f Il)pOlolU' (" eri ry!). It is ob,
iou. Ih" / b CC)rItinuou.s., .. mapplna. o h opo!osielll spKe$ (X, tr) . ( Y ). II is elear
also ItLat 'I ili the ","kest o f the IOpolo sks po5Se$$m, th is propoerty.

9. PRODUCTS OF TOPOLOGIC AL SP ACES

l. Topology in the Direct P roduct of Spaces . ObUining the direcT.

prod uct. of topoloaicallpaccs nuke s the constl'llCtlon o f new lopol op:;al .speas
pclSlible.
Remem ber th at the d lrtCt p f'Odul;' X )( Y of th e 5dS X , Y is t he mllcaion or
o rder ed pail1l t-" , y ), where x E" X . y E Y. The direct p rod ucts of an y num ber o r rae-
lo rs can be con sldered . An elemen t o f suc h .. product n Xo is a set lx..J...A'
x" E X .. 0 ' , In oth er words , the clements
."
n X", a rc fun eliolU x : A - UX .. suc.h
. "
Ihat .x(cr)6X" . If A ... II. 2, ... . n l is .& finite set then me prD<lu et o f X l ' X 2' ... 'X
n
lsoru~nden(){edbyXt x X l X _ _ x X". iUclMnem, bei Il8theo rdertdseIS (xt,
X 2. _ ,xn), where X/E X" i :=. 1, 2.. . , n.
We endow the di rca prod uct X )( Y wilh a to po logy by givin g th e fam Uy
IU.. )( V,I ali tu base, wher e IU..l, !V, J ere the buts for the IOpologjes in X U1d Y,
respect ively.
E.xuc~ 1- , Verify Ihat Ihe eoverin. 1U.)( V , J o f ~ he 5et X x Y satisfiu the
Criterio n of. base lsee Sec. I) .
The lopolo u d etermined by the bese IU.. )( V, I is called Ihe produef (0/I0101J'.
EX_ PlE. 1l\e piancR 2 1sthe di rca product o r $lralJ.ht lines : R 2 _ R l )( R I. 'The
base for Ihe to pok)lY on R 1 i$ Ihe set o f open . ecta n.Jl.tsor the fonn U. )(
Iwo-d imCiu lon al pa rallelepipeds (Fig. 52), wbere U .. , V, &I"r intcrvw.
t.e.,V,.

,
\
u.
,,
 eh . Z. Ge".... IT o pol"IY
"
Exercises.
2 . prove that the tw o-dimensional1 0rus r 2 is homeomor phic to lhe l>rodu ct
s' x a'.
3 . Pro" e that the space st x R I is homeomorphic to the circu lar cylinder.
Co nsider the project ions
p \ : X x Y - X , (I:, y j - x ; P2 ; X X Y - Y. '-". y) - y .
THE OREM I . The mappin gs PI' P2 are com jnuous in the producl IOp% gy.
MoreOYl!r, this is 1M weak esl topo loBY in wh Ich P I end Pz arc co ntinuo us.
PROOF. We show that PI is con tinuou s. Let U" be a SC t from th e ba se for X . It suf-
Iiees to show that P i"I (V..) is o pen. Since the spac e Y ca n be repr esented Ill; lhe
union U V, o f all the sets o f the base

P i"t (U,,) _ U" x Y _ V" x U V,, "" U (U" x Va)

and therefo re P i" I (U..) is o pen in X x Y_ The continuit y of P2 is vertfled in the
same way.
Let us ~erlfy the second sta teme nt o f the th eore m. For PI 10 be co ntinuous, it is
necessary that the sets p i"I(V..) '" U.. x Y should be open. Fo r Pz to be con-
t.lnuous. th e scu X x VII "" p i l( y a ) sho uld be open. Hence for b<!th PI andp2 to
be continUoWl simu ltan eously. it is neeemry tha t the sen V ", x Y and X x Vll"
and therefo re. lhc sets (U.. x Y ) n (,X )( Vp ) ... U" x Y~ sho uld be ope n.
Thus , any to pology on X x Y in whiehPI andpz arc co ntinuo us sho uld contain
the sers U.. x VIJ (an d abo th e to polOi Y generat ed by th em). Therefore, it is
stronger than the product to pology of X x Y
Cons ider the dir ect product . !,IA X .. o f an a rbitra ry (pos sibl y. infin ite) numbe r o f
factors. We introd uce the wea kest o f all those topologies o n ~ ~,\X" in which every
projection p", ' : "~IIX", - X ..' which assoc iates the funct ion x wilh the value
x{a ' ). i$ con ttnuc us . nth to pology on ~ ~A X " iscallcd the product tcp%t)' o r the
Tl honov f OpO/CD' .
We shall describe il in more detail . TIle su bbase for tile Tlboecv topo logy can most
"sily be characterized as Ihe collection of all th e possible set s in the produ ct ~ ~"X..
Which have th e fo rm 8 " ... f% : x(aOJ C V .. I. Where U" is an atbitrary element o f
Ihe ba se for lhe spaceoX~ and a oE A isoabo arbitrah, . It i$ easy to see tha t
B~ _ P;; I (U" ). Thus, fo? a certa tn "'0' the sets (B.. J fOf"m the weake n topology
on~ n X"oin wh'kh the p.ojcclion P", is continuo us. :rIieref ofe. ha ving declar ed the
"
~ [8",l.. ~ A 10 be Ihe subb ase , we obl ain the weakes tt opoloSY in wh ich all the pro -
jcaions p,, ' a rC CQ nti nuous.
Hence, "the ba~ fo r Ihe TIl'onov topology COn.iSIS o f sets of the fonn
U .. p ; ,I CU" I) n p ;.I(U" I) n .. . n p;~ I( U...'.
" Intr od uClio" 10To polosy

" "11 1$ a n arb itra ry (inil" $C1o f "le men IS lO A , a nd V .. ;~ an a rllilta ry

""hu e" , . .
de ment of Ihe base III X" . In othe r words, an open .seto f the base i~ a .set of fun' -
tl ans I

TH EOREM ~. For QnY " o A , Ih" projtio" P"o : nx.. - X.." ;S Q ~fl/l ..ousond
opt:n m ll/Jp ml.
PROOf. The continuity o f P" has already been verified. Since IhcP"oimage of a set
from Ihe base for t he IOpo!t gy i, open , t he image of any open ~t IS ah a o pen
E.xercisJu.
4 . Silo... th at the ba se for th e Tihonov topology ;5 formed by all possible .sen or lhe
form
x u..~
(SIIt h sets are of1m re ferred 10 as cylinders) .
S . Verify Ihlll R" " .R I )( , . , >( R I, D!::$Cribe Iht base and the subbase for the
Tihonov topology a ll R D ,
6", Verify thai tile ,,- dimension al cube I" in R " can be repr esented ns
r .. J x xJ ,wherc/ =- IO,I ].

7" , Co nsider t he n-dlmtn sionaltoru s "" .. 5 1 X . .. X 51, (there are n facto rs)
and eesert be the subbase and base for its topo logy ,
2. Continuou s Mappings into the Product of Spaces. We in-
vestigate the lIlappin ss / : X - ~~AX" from a topological space X inro a product.
weean C()I'l sider the components/ " : X - X" and / .. '" p J of lhe ma ppmg/ . Con-
versely, If a ~t of lIlapping$' !to : X - X o ' cr e A l is given, then the mappin,g
/ : X - ~ ~A X O is determined uniquely.
Thus, there extas a bljealon between the set o r map pings/ : X - n X" and
the family of th e ~tS of m"ppin S5 !tol.. ~ A ' " ...

TH EOREM 3. VI mapping/ iscontinllous) ." (Ihe mupplng/" ls ro nrinuous/OT NCh

ere A ).
PIIOOF. u t all/" be cominuous. In order to sho w that/ is continuous, it sufficc$ to
show th.at r JI U) is open in X for any U from the bale for n X"' Let
."
U ( n Xo ) )( U" l X , . x Uttt ,
\., " ~ ,.. ' ''k
then
r l( U) " lx E X : /", ~l .. X.. , er '#. 01 ' " . ,o* J",~) E' U",' 1 = 1, 2. , . " k)
n r.;1(X,.) n /;/ CU..,)n , . n/;/(u..,)
.. .. " I' . ...
 Ch. 2. G~MuJ TopoIOSY

"'''~"' V, ... .t;, I ( V..) is an open $et In X o wing to th~ co nt in uiry aU.." Th~ refore,
"
r IIV) is o pen in X. The proo f o f the eo nver$<: is left to the read er .
COnsider II?W the mapping ! ; ~ ~A.X" - X ~5$O<:ial ill3 eath f;un ily !x(c<),. . A
..1th th e t orrespo nd ing elemen t rrom X .
Exercise ga, Varify lha l if X '"' X " = R I, a e ... . A '" (I , 2 . , . , "J, t h ~n the
mapping I Is a numerical funeti<m in /I ~rgu menlS,
In the general ea se. lhe mapping! can be:consider ed 10 be a gene ra lization o r a
numerical funetion in /I afgWIIUlIS, assumJ.ns thai it depen ds a n th e variables
zeal .. X" . H all value.lx (a) are rured (t.I<.C<p\ x (aol) t hen a funetion in o ne arg ument
il ah lained, th e artumenl var ying in X" ' We make these Ideas more pr-ecise,
Conuder a su bs pa ce x;
of the proJuel co lUisli1ltlo f all fu nct ion s x ta king lh e
value x (a ) .. Y" . e ... ao> ~her<: )'.. t! X" is a certain clemen l .

. ."
E:xerclM 9". Veri fy that X~ is homCOlTlO'l'hic to X"",
Let ,.." ; X" - X~ be: the" nal.ural hom eomo'l'hism (depending on o:rtain y" ,
.
a '" 1>. ) , an d I I x;. the restricuon of 110 X"". The d iagram

~ 1/xa, '"' It
.~ .., /'
Jf,,:,~
can be: nal ura lly completed 10 a commutative One by the product o f twO mapplnlP
bee th e dotled arrow) . We <knote it by t::~I. This pr-oduet of t he IWO mappings
eharacteri:u:s the dependence o f I on the arg"utnen t x (a ol e X"" ra r the given valllC:S
1. of the Olhe r ar ..ume nts x (a ) ,
Eurcisc 10". Verify t hat if!is CQntinuous. lh en the mappln~l : X "" - X is ecn -
tiDlIOus for all "0 e A , ' " e X" , when .. *"
a ir The converse is ~ lrue . Give an ex-
ample.
We shall co nsider ano t her case: of a mapplng o f the pro dueu of 10 polosJCid
<J)aCCS. Let /'" : X ", - Y"" o e A be S<l me cc ueeucn o f mapplnSS of 10polO&kal
spaces, The mappln.. TIj.,, : TI X" - n Y" Is determi ned na lurall y if ell':h Iunc -
. " a "A a" A
tionx e . r;AX " is moclaled with a funetio ny e ~A Y" by the ruley(a) .. I ... (rla)).
This map ping is t:aIIed th e p rodUCI oj mappings I", Wh en A .. (I , 2, ... , /I I. the
pradU<:l. of the mapping$!1 , / 1 . . . ./~ ill oft en denoted by
11 )( r; ., . )( !~: X I x X1 )( , . )( X" - Y 1 )( Y1)( " , X Y" ,

..
Xm;isu.
II ' . P rove thaI ( OJ... is co nli n uo u$) .. if. is cOll1htuous fo r ea ch ex e A).
i2" , Th e grop h 01 II m/lppinsl : X - Y .b the su bset r, c X x Y of th e form

(I) r,
r / .. ((r , y );XE X .y =!(rl l.Verifythat
is th e image o f Ihe mappingl : X - X )( Y, ll.>:) (x ,!(r:
(2) if is co ntinuo us) .. (/ is co ntin uo us);
(3) if is co ntin uo us ) .. (f'f i. dosed) .
. lmroduClJon lo TopoJOJY

1) .R~qu ivaten l poin l.iin X(x ~ y )ean be rorn blned into a pair (x , yleX x X ;
denote ure set of ..u such pairs by R ex x x . Sho w that (I) if X / R is Ha llsdo rH,
tbe n the SCI. R is clOllW; (2) if th e projecti on ". ; X - X IR u o pen and the K t R Is
closed . lhen X IR Is Hausdorff.
14 , Show thaI the produ ct of Hausdorff spaces Is eisc a Hausdorff space .
lSQ. Show thaI 8, space X is Hausdo d f If and only If the diag on al ~ = \(.>', x) is
<kne d in X x X .

10. CONNE crEDNESS OF TO PO LOGICAL SPACES

I. The Concept of Connectedness of a Topological Space. Th e
Idea of connect edness gcneral.itts an intuitive idea o f the whole ness or
unstparatcdn,ess of 3 geom etric fli u rC, and the idea of a disconn ect Cld space
gtneralizes lItat of the negation of wbc teness, Le. separa tedncils . The se i<leu ad mil
8, striCt dcrmition with in the theory oCIOPQlogica! sp aces an d arc st udied In det ail in
the present section .
ConsIder a topological space X and iu subsets A . B .
DEFINITION I . Th t' seu A and B att' said to be n paralt'd if
A"n B -An B -0.
FOTex.arrlp(e,ifXisRI, i.t'. tht'Dumboetliae and A .. (u,b),B = (b.c)art: !n
ce-rvab, Q -c b -c c. then A and B arc separated; bUI if A '" (Q, bJ and B = (b, c),
chen A and B an: 001 sepMatcd (i.e. , A n if = IblJ.
OEFlNITIOf'l2 . A space X is said 10 be discoRlIffff!d jf it can be:",presented as t he
union of two nonempL)' St'P&"81cd St'Is.
A space not satisfying the condition of Definition 2 is saki 10 be: co nllecud.
Thw. a connected space ClUlJlOI be rcp~entcd 8 the union o r two non empty
separated seu .
We CllII speak of the CODIIcctcdm:ss (usp. <fueolUlt'd.edness) of a SU b.~~1 A a f .
topologkal space X by <;OlIsldt'rinI:.A to be: a copologkal space with the Ind uced
topology.
Tht' simplest enmples of connected spaces art' :
(I) a one-poin t . pact X ... (_J; (2) an vbilrary st't X with tht' topology '0 (i.e.,
trivial) . The simplest example of a discon D~ space Is a two-point space X wilh
me di screte to pol oJ Y (vetil'y that the defin itions ar e valid I).
We shall adduce ano th er de rmition of a disconnected space wh.lch It used Quite
often .
DEFINITIONJ. Po. to pologi<;al space X is said to be:disconnecte-d if it dewmposa in-
fO Ih e union of t wo nonCll'lply,disjai.nl.apen sen .

Note that two mut ually comp lerm-ntary . ope n (resp . c1osc<l) St'lS are
simultaneously closed (resp . ope n).
We thall prove the equivalencc of Dennitions 2 and 3. (I) Let X be disconnected
;n the sense of nermilinn 2. Then we have X .. A U B . where A n 8 .. 12l,
 Ch. 2. General Topol08Y as

An 8 :t 0 1U1d A andBare non~mply. Th~rerore,A C X '8andii C X ' A ,

i.e., A _ A, jj c: B, which implies the dosedness of A and B . The c;ondltions of
Dermiti on 3 arc Ihus fulfilled .
(2) Convcrsely, kl X be dlsconneeted in the sense o f Definition 3. Then
X .. A U B,A , B are ncnempry and open,A n B .. 0 .lt is obvi ou s Utat A and
B are closed. Hence, An B = 0 , since A co .4; jj n A = 0 becauseB .. B .
Th~ foll owing theorem produc~. an impQr1.ant ~"ample of .. co nnected space.

THEOREM I . All yugrrunt ID, b] of/Ile number fine R 1 is cDnnected.

PROOF. QlI\sider a topological space: X = la, b ) equip!lCd with me topology from
R 1 . Assume that X is disconnmed;X - U U V, u n v '" 0, wh ere U , Van:
nonemp ty aPd open (and sim ultan eo usly dosed ). LeI a e U. W e will consid~r line
~gmenls ill, xl where x e (It, b ) .
When x is near to <I, [a, xl C U because U is open. Denote tbe supremum of x
flleh thaI 1a, .l:1 c U by fl. (D. ill X), it is clear that fl . '# b.
If fl . e U then points near 10 fl . (on the left and on the right) also lie ill U , which
is contrary to the deimition o f fl . "lbereforc, fl . OJ U . Ho wever, by th e defmll ion
of (I., t he inclusion relll.1ion /J. E V is impomble. Thus, we b a~ Olll up agai nst a
contra dicti on with the equality X _ U U V.
Now the oonncetednes.s of more Jen eral spaces can be estab lished.
THEOREM 2. AllY CO/l~ ~l T C R " is rottnecttd; in ptlrtiollar, tltelS~ R" itse(f
Is amnccted.
PltooF. Let T _ U U V. where U and V are nouempt y sep ar ated open sets . Let (fl .
bl .. X be the line -Iegment ioinina WJnC points a E U and b E V. Th en
xn U - Ux '" 0 , X n V .. Vx '" 0 and X - U x U Yx is th ed ecom pasition
of X. whith il contrary to the ccneeeeeeoess of the $CJmtnt X .
AI; an example of a disconnected let, consider t he set of rati onal numberl

Q co [ ;] on t hestrll !ght Iine R I . 1.C't a. e R 1 be an arbltrary irr al lo nal num be r.

Then the sets

UJ( " ~ :x e Q. x < ..Jand VJ( "" \r : x eQ , x > .. 1

arc nonempty, ope n and di sjoint . Thul. the decomposition X '" U x U Vxmcam
that X = Q is disconnected .
Extrc:i.fu .
I '. Prove t bat the let of nJI irrational numbcn is di lCO Rllected .
1.'. (I.) Show Ihal Ute see A Is connected if A is connected; (b) show t hat in a space
cndowed with the discrete topolo&)', any set (except one-poi nt Stu) is discon necled .
2. Properties o f Co nnected Spaces. Nole fi rst that cceeecrednee (rcs p .
dIsconncd.edltcu) il a topological property of th e spac e. i.e .It Is preserved und er
homeomurphisms . In fad, Ib is foll ows from tb ~ fa ct th at the separateducss of se t!
is preserved llIld cr h omeomo rp hisms .
Connect.C'dncs, is preserved In a mo re 8~n<:ral way undo:.- COnl;nUOIll mappin/ls.
. Inl,odllCl ;on 10 Topol""

lHEOREM l. wI : X - y bt (I cOlltllluOIII mDPp;",. 1/ X Ir ronnltd then/(X)

ir eo'lIrtrt ill Y.
PROOF. ~ mc IhCCQntrary , i.e .,f(X) .. VI U V I' where V I n VI ~ 0, V V,
bcina opcalnf(X). V. ~ 0 aDd VI .. 0 . Thu/(X)Uopt'n implies tha I there a -
1$1 two 5eU U and v 1ha1 are ope n in. Yand NdJ thai un /cX} _ V ,.
V nf(X) .. V, _But ,dearlyJ(X) ~ V. U VI .. X "" r ' W, ) Ur 1cYJis!be
11IlM>n of llOnlhpt1,dbjoint w bseu. SJnccr I W I) .. r
1(U), r ' ( VI ) .. rI(Y)
(why1) Ind r I (U), r'cn are opt'll Ids (due to the eontiDuily of}), the decom-
po$Mion X .. r ICU.) u r lCVj ) tsCOll U'at)'l o the ~ of X .
Eurti# J " . (IJ Show tIw the ~ r/o r, oonLinuous mappmc!or. Jnnee'ltd
I:J)IllZ is Cl:XUIt cd .
(b) Hcoce daSuee the th COrall that th e nume rical eon tinlIOUS funetion I : [0,
II - If IW. ZCft) f ; / (0 .. 0 in tile intcfYIJ (0. I ) If J(OJJ(I) < O.
Stat ana-c l (b) of ~dse J is a varia.lll of the dauical Boluno thcoran Pl"ovui
.in anaJ,ysis . T o th e Bollano theorem, I more peraI lnlermec1iatc-val\K lhrorml ls
reW ed, viJ;. , If . numeriea1 fUftetion I fIt) is tontillllOU. on a Ii~ ,,", 6 1.
J {fI ) " /UJ), and nUlllbe:r C is inc:ludcd lJcotwa:n the Ilwn bers / (D) and/(b ), th(:ll
the re ClII$U . point C E" (Po 61such thatf(e) .. C.
Thi s theorema1lo fOllows frOIll Tbewcm J . ln fad. th~ intam~I ~valllC
th~orem is equivaknl 10 the nonemp ly interseciioll of the , ra ph r, of _ numerical
funclion f (';) with th e sU'ai&lll lin~ )I .. C in die plane R 1 wltic:h follows from Ihe
eonnccr:ednc:ss o f the ,,_ph r, and the choice o f the number C.
Th e Bolzano en d the intcrmedille-val ue theorelll co uld h.v~ been proved
wilhoul rerol'tlq 10 lhe "aph of the map,plns f . instead, lhe proof could have
relied on the collllccr:edn~ (in the space R ) ofltte lma~f(lI1 , bll an d th e property
of co nnect ed fClS in R I io contain evee)' Inl mncdiate point tOSether willi and be-
tween artY 11110 poinu (prove!) .
Extrr:istt 4- . Pr ove that tbe circum fere nce s ' il co nncaed
Hl#tf: ConlIIdcrtbo mappiq [0, 1} _ S' livc n by Ibc fonn:u!llcx '" c:os2.-I, ,. dn2.f.

Th e followina thCOl'm1 is intull ively obvious.

THE OREM 4. A SptIC'r X i..- QJfUIttd if 11" )11_ QjIU ptJUIu ctVJ iN 'joUud ' bJl_
CtNftw:t:ttdsa.bW (i-~_. tllq lk iIt 11 COIf,,ttt/ SIl~/).
PlClOP Aaumc the ODDltar)'. Then X .. U U Y is th e oorrespondinl decompoAi
tieD into opnr putl (U n " .. 0). Let Wo e' V aDd VOE " be lWO poinu , an:!
L C Xa conneeud let roIItailun& " oand VO' Put V I " L and "'I .. vn ",n L .
They ~ open (and llontD'lPlY) s.eu in L , m<M"coYef. L - U I U V l and
V I n Jf. '" 0, bUllb.is iu:ontfvy 10 the taIlnededncss o f L .
E.urciM 's- . Vrri h thai: (a) A U B is COlInnud if A. B C X are con nected sell; ill
X . and A n B '" 0; and (b ) A U B U C is connected If A , B , C C X arc COll.-
ncctallUldA n C '" a , a n c ..
0 .
It foUO'MJ from Elr~ j thii t, for aarnpk.L the IPl!.cre S"'. 1I ;l t 15 COIllledcd.
In faet , S'" COOIdtsDf two d osed hetni$pb~ 5". aRd 5"_ ""hose ;nl C'fsectiOrt is Ihc
 Ch. 1. Cene,al Topology
"
equatori al sp here Sf' - I, an d eac h hemisp here is ccnneesed as it is a co nt inu ous
Unase DC the disc (see Sec. 1) .
We shall now establls h t he follow ing more gen eral crilertOll o f connectedness .
THEOREM ,. Giwm a f amily 01 g t.. IA,,1 tllat a~ contrtffl in X fI"d PQil'l'lfise
u~purattld,
tile" C = U A ... isconnted In X .

PR.ooF. ~ume Ihe co ntr ary : let C ". DI' U D l , D I n D l .. 0, lUl d D I, D l be
nonempty and closed. in C . For an arb itrary A ..., the fo llowing cases arise:
{1}A... C DI, roA... C ~ m~nDI*0, A ... n~~0.
HoweYICI", ease (3 ) can be excluded d ue 10 th e cnnn cetcdneu DC A " . Hen ce, we
h~Ye the sets A ..., C Di , i .. I. 1, but t he cl~ nC$S of D j in C implic:s that
(A " n C) C D /,' _ ..I. 1 . _
ills evide nt that (A"J n 0n A 2 = 0 . A ... n (A !'l n C) .. e . an d.by tak -
i!!s inlo ace:o unt t he mcluSlJl ,lations A .... t: c, i = I, 2 . we obtain that
A", n A" _ 0 and A ..., n A" a e, whi ch II con trary 10 the usum ption. th at
A and 'Ji" are not separat ed.
" 'one spedal cllW of spaces satisr~ Theorem 4. They ar e termed pai h-connectcd
spaces. To descri be them , we teeceuce the concept of pa lh In X .
DEFlNtTIO N 4. Thc co ntinuous mawins s: to , I} - X ,s(O) .. a ,s(l) .. b is called
a ptJth connecting two po in ts ' and b DC a topolo&ical $pUC X .
~l'C~ 6 0 Verify th at t he lmqe $( 1) of the Une-scgment I .. [0, I ] is a conntcd
set connecting Ihe points a and b .
DEFINITIO N j. A space X ill said to bcPQth..-orlJ1 lffl ifan,. two polDu in it QUI be
connect ed by pa th.
An exam ple of a palh-conn cet td space may be gival by a closed su rface (5
Sec. A).
It roll ow", from Th oorem 4 that a path-connected space Is neceuati.ly eo nncctcd .
That the co nverse is not yalid can be demo nstr ated by the followl.ng exam ple . Con-
sider the uni on of sets In R l :

X = [(0 , 0 ). ( I, O~ ~ I [G,0), G-' I)] U (0 , I),

uu:l. deno te the line-lClP""nt co nnecting the poi nts P an d Q In Rl by {p . QI ; X i.1

~onnccted but not path-eo nncct ed {the point (0, I) cannot be co nnected by a pat h
wltlt an)' other po int from Xl.
Extrclsu.
7- . Verify t hac convex sets in R" and the sph ere S" ,,, ... I , ar e pat h-co nnCCled.
S. PJovethat if A C X i.1 co nn ccted , then an )' B such t hat A C B C A Is also eon-
nected . Qiv e examp les.
FinaUy. we shall co nside r the product o f con nected spaces.
THEOReM 6. The f)'Oduit X J( Y o/COlrIWCted Sj}QCIU is contrtw .
PROOf. AMume Itle contrary . Let X x y .. U U V be a deccmpcsnkm tmc OIXn
.
(oonempt,.> letS. U n v "" 0 . LeI (.r(loYO> E' U . The sc t.l'o )( Y is hom~onorphic 10
Yand. l ha'efor c connect ed ; inlent lna U aI the point {.loo. ')10>. II lies 'lItboUy in U.
wtticb followl from the COMK"tod" GS o f U. The leU :x
x Y . ye Y. inlcncd
~ x Yand lhenforc U. H oweva. bdn& ronnected . they lie Mi oUy in U. Th us ,
U (X x JI) ,., X x Y C U . TherefOR , V .. 0 . The conl~dil:lion proves the
,H

.........
theomn .

9- . Pro~ II co n ncc leCl spac:es (II > 2).

Thron:m 6 for the pTod o.K't o f
10. P I"OC t he mnneetedneu of the TibG/lOY p .odud. n X .. .. Y of collMC1ed
lipac es X" . ....
H iJIl: Collllcler I M .-t R of tbe l!9lnu or the prod lll:t !hill can be Joi ned 10 a CftUin point by
conn~ oct!, aDd vaif)' that R .. Y.

J. Connected Compone nts. If a spece II d llCo n nec;lro Ih m it is natural 10

alt cmplln decompo se it inlO co nnected pleas. We describe th it decomposition. Let
x e X be a point in a lopoloakal $pace X . Consider the lar,cst connect ed seicon-
lainin, t he point x ; Lit " UA.... WhCfC all ~Jf ~ co nn ed ed seu eoIltalniJl& tl\c:
point x . ~ set Lx Is c1osrd.!in the clo.w~ L",orthe con nected set L" Is ronnted
Isee EllCrd_ 2) and hence L ., C L.. l.e.,' L~ '" Lr
DEf ll'(lTION 6. The X I L" is u Ued the COIIn tl f:tmIpofle'll of a poilU.., in I
topo loPtal spaa: X .
~ x, y eX. x ~ y. COnsidathc Ku L~, L., Owill,l lathrir~nnedednas and:
~IY, there are t1WO pouibiliti5: either (1) L~ .. 1:, or (2) L~ n l<, .. 0 . In
the second esse, L~ is Kp&nlt ed (rom L:r sece L~ n L, 0 . L, n L~ .. 0 . ID
tJlc evitSatt eql&8lity X :0 U L.. ""befc tlie nnion it taken over all x E X , 1IIl'C n:jCC'l. all
repeated eortlpor!eIl U .
ThIlS. the (ol1o'lrin& theorem bas bcUl proved .
THEOReM 7. Any topolo,lalJ ~ ctln M d:omf'C1Zd into lh~ unio ll' of 113 t:OfI.
1I' ,uI COmptJM ll'lS whidf fire d ond oll'd d~oill'(.
Non :. GenerdJy ~kinl . connected componenu can not also be open (Ji ve ex-
amples) .
;r~rrisu.
I I " . Veri lY Ibal if a qlace X poues$CS a fin ite number of oonnecled componenll ,
thm lhey are open.
12" . Veri fy tha llbe number o f con ntC1ed components of a $pace: X (a l h finite or
underflood .. the po wu o f the Id ) is a lopoloai<;a! cltar aeterlstk of tbe space.

I t . COUNTABILITY AND SEPARATI ON AX IOMS

1lH: topalosical qlaea usually eDeOllntaed in nrious math ematical pr obknU
pl:ISJat other properties. A numb er o f these pTOpa'lics are o;prascd by what are
called the l:OUDta bilJly and xparatJora uioms.
 ClI , 2. <rt" .. a l To po lO81

l. Co untability Ax ioms . In $. I, the ncnc n of base for a topol ogy was in-
"
Iroduced . It bomts' clear, while inv"ligating topologicil spaces, that spaces
possessing a ec unt a ble basc for a to pology ha ve a num~ o f use fu l propert~ .
Hence, the follo wing defin ition is introduced .
OI!fINlTION I . A topological space (X, ..) is mid to satisfy the ucon d COl.mta bllity
gxlom If its top ology POesl<:S a countable base .
E:XAJ,tP ll! I. The spa ce:s R t and R ~ satis fy th e second countabllily axiom .
It is interesting to compare spaces sa tisfy inS t he second CO\l ntability lWom , and
separable spaces . It t urn s o ut th at a seperabte space: does nor neo::essari ll~ sati sfy the
second co unl4lbility axiom .
EXAMPUl 2. Consider an uncountable set X whose to pology consists of the com-
plemen ts to all poMible fini te subsets o f the llel X , the who le set X and the empty
set. (Ve1;ry that SUCh II set of subsets reall y forms a topology .) An y Inrmite subset in
this space: is dense since it int ersects each open set. Th is Implies the separabili ty of
X . On the ot her hand, assume that there Is a countable base 9 In X . Co nsequently.
if x e X is a fixed poi nt the n the intersection o f all t he open sets c.ontaining x equals
liJ. The refore , th e countable intersec tion of ail those clement s o f the base that eon -
tain x abo. eq uals 1l'1. But th en th e complement X , ~J Is t he u nio n o f at mo st &
countable Set of finite seu and hellce is at mo st co untable too. This is conln"y to
the assu mption that X ts un countable , .

On the oUrer lIand , the following tlle<lrcm is valid .

THEOREM I . A ~StJI~yin, 1M Sft:Ond COWII"b'lify IU'iOllt U stP4"'ble.
W~ I... ve t he proor or rhi. rheorem to tb<: reader.
It is important 10 note chal the con versesta tement that is, ~nerally spea king. In-
colTeCl (wh ich has just been demonstrated by way o f an exam ple) happ: ru 10 h old
for metric SJXlCC$. Viz., the roUowlngtheorem is valid .
THEOREM 2. A n)' S1Cparable melric space (M . p ) sa/ ~~ Ih. >lol'ld co uflltlb illly
IlYWm.

PIlOOf'. Let A "" l<> 1' tl 2, . .. . .. ~ , .. J be a co untable and everywllere d ense set in
M . Take the collection or open set s
siJ . [v".t: [x: P(.o',tI,,) <-i) :n,k .I.2.. . J
lIS a b~. It is eil.SY to sec tha t this is indeed a base.
In ra e!, tnc separability or M means lhat for an y x E M , in a ny ball
D, Cx) . [y : p (x,)') < ej . there is an elemen t o~ E A ; mor eover, there Is Dnu mber
k such that V k C D .(x). Since any ope n.sc l in M ~ be rep resented as th e u nion
of balls, it ca~' also be reprc.sented as the union of sen v~. k from ~
We need the. rollowing sta lement ror the rul ure as well.
rnOOR6M 3. (L1NDEl.()F 'S T HEOREM ) . (/ as~e X IWlidiu /he S1Cccm d cQurrrob ili
I)' a;ctom fire" in tts tlrbllrary open co vering IU"I. t hen is a/ most a eOlin/able $ub-
cOYer m /f.
'"PlOOF. Ld g Inl' od l>tliOlf l<>Topo!oty

be a co unl1lb\e base for the lopoloJ7 on X . SiDu aDy ~lemtnt o f tll

C'Il\'Uin,a lUJ is lJle lJPio n o f litU from 9 , a IIlbf amily C QII be ~ our. in .!t,
wtr,\dl is It _ collJlU.bk . abo (Oven. X and such lhat eKh clancnl of C is eon
~ in some detr\ent o ft bc fam ily lU.l. Then . tlavin. dlosai ror-eacb dement of
lbe COVUVII C . Set from lU.l tontainina ;1, We oblairl at most a COWltablc JU~
eovmn, of the COVU'in& [U. }.
&elides Ule blue for the lOpO!oo mrroclllCed in Sec . I , ~ II. the important
tn cqn ol base for the MiJbboumood 5ysl.em of apoinl xo f. topological Jp.Il" X .
OF INITION 1. The fam ily IB~)\ or the ndah bourhoods or . point Jl is caIltd lilt
~ lor tile Mf,hbourlrood system of x if lhue is ndlhbourhood from this family
in eac h nei&hbourbood of the DOint :t.
Th us. the family o f all esee nelghbclurboo(b or I poi nt is base for the
neighbo urhood system o f th e polnl.
EJ{,.\Ml' l.Il ~. Let X .. Mbc IImelTlc space. an d

B~) .. ( l'*CK) " [ Y ; p (jl , x) < iJf_

I

base f or theIlelghbourllood system o f tile point Jl . A sphmcaJ oei&hbo \lrbood an

be maGe a rermtmenl of any nelghboUfbood ob . For any sphtrical neipbourhood
I
D. (K) .. 11 : P ~. y) < IJ number k can be dIosen sudI llW k < 4:; thai

~(K) C D. (:c).
DI!F1Nrno.~ 1. A IJ*lC. X Ii said to satisb tilt fus r r:oIIlI flJbiJir, IDCiom If the
ncqbbcurtlOOd sy$1elD of M Y of its poinh ~ . rounwle ba$e .
EXA~u>.
4. A mmic JPKC is a first COUDlabk spece .
S. Th~ l pace Of continuous fUnd lonJ G o I] 58.liIfies th~ rlr$l. co untabiJil )' Worn
DoeI lh~ $p~ C tO, I] Atilf)' t bc lUO n'd co un tabllil)' uIom ? Thai it does fo Uo...,
from C IO. I] bdns separabl~ , aIld Wo from Thcorr rn 2 of this scctioa.
1lIc separab ilityoft!'le, pace Cia. II follows from the Wdc~l f"U'; theorem wblch
, tates lhat ltl y eonlm LlOU, function o n the line' Kjmen l [0. I ] can be: unlformly apo
Pfo.dmated by a polynomilll to any dq.ree o f Dccuru y . Thus, a countable an ti
(v~rywhcrc dense .set A in CIO. I' co nsists of lbe set o f Illl polynOlJ\lals fP~(f)J wilh
4"lllonlll cod fieienls.
~_ 1- . Veri fY that space satb fyinJ the seco lld co Llnta bililY axiom abo
SIIusrles the first.
TlW th~ co nyers<: Is not tnI~ b clemocl.stratal by the foUowiq ex&nllplc_
EXAMPLE 6. Any LIJ>COIIn lable .lpalle X with the disc:n:le lopolOlY satis rlCS the nn l
COUllllbility uiom . 1n 1at' Y poi1It ~E X pos.s.es5a a base for the neiahbouthoocl
1)'Ittlt1 COIlsisIin, o f a linlk nci&bbouthood v _ ~. B ll t Iud! a space does AOI
AltilCy Ihe second COWJtabi\ily utom . 1bls follows from liIlddor l theomn and
ftOm the fad l.hat the cov erina formed by Ofle-poinl sets ~ . ~ e X , hu no COWl-
l.ble lU!xOverilli.
 O . 1 0.""..1T opoloay

Th IlS, Lbe fulfilntmt of the second couftUbitity axiom is . st ron&cr condition on.
"
"lopotopc:aI space Lban Is Lbe fir St COWl."'bi lily uiom .
2. Properties of Space Separation , SOme imponUI\ lopoJoaka.I pr Opel'
tit$ are dlaradcrlad by t be scpwM lon uiorns. These uioms mabie IlS 10 rcsux.
i"'= cLais of the ~ Sludird ill o rd n to lft$idc:l' tbdr ~ properties.
We 5b.n .sdllDe~ mUD MfItlration fIXiom8 T. - T . A ~ spacC' X b Ald
10 be. TrSJNI" if J.ll uioo'I T,. i _ 0. I, :2, 3. 4, i5 fulfilled for il .
(To'. At f~ OM oj lIl'I)I ,wodifJ~'It p<JitIu III II space ~ II
ndlJl/)ovrhood which does flO( r:otIftHII I~ ot~r poill i .
( T I). Elld ' point oj 1111)1 ptlir oj difJ~"1 poi"l$ possnsv II lIt!/6hbollrhood
IfM: 1l does " ot conlai" lite Olltcr point.
An y one-point set in . Tl-spac e b dosed .
( T 2). Fo"~,,y two poinlsx, y CI X. 11 .. y , tltcre wt Illel' lIeighbourhoods U(l' ).
U(y) S\lCIl IIw l UCx) n U(Y) 0 . In Ihis cue, X is said 10 be. H IIIISdorJj spa
(lICe also Sec . I).
In or der to ~ further. we mlUl Introduce lhe con ecpl: o r neighbourhood o r
set in " topologic:lll spece .
OEFiNITK)H 4. .It MiZlIbollrltood oj fI sct .A iJI. IOPO~ space X is any open set
U co ntaining A..
(T) . For IIJrY polnt xeX IIN/ lilly do#d sct F JtWrt X , xe F, f~ uisl
lIdr1lbofu1l00ds U(K). U(F)AIC1t IJwt UIX} n Um . 0 .
U t he uioms T . aIld TJ arc rulli Ued JimulIUlCOlUl)' then lbe space X Is ca11ed "
rqlliar spo.
( 7.,). For rilly two dOSl SIIbsc/.s F ., F J C X . F j n F1 ,. 0 , t1tcN c.risI
~lIbowr"oods U( F.) . U (FiJ.nd rMt V( F I) n U( FJ 0 .
A,qIl X Is called . ,,0I7rIll( $ptlIU if the: uiorns T l I,Ild T. are bot h fulfiUed .
We rnuu em phashc IIlat cadi Ju bKquC/lt axi om from To to T2 1sasl rongcr ee n-
d.illon on the.JpaI:C lban th e pr eviou s. lltt: _ I I true ro t Ihe Wom. TJT. but
on ly If the w o m T l is rulti Uod since T l doe! no l fo llo w rrom either T1 or T We
Jlvc lOme u amp}es.
EXA M~
7. LeI R I be Lbe real sttai iht line eq uipped wilh lhe lopo lOJYwltose base i5 fo rrnc<l
by rl )'S of th e font! II < X < + 00. II Is not co mpllelted 10 show that in $UCh a
topolol)' , Ihe spate R 1 a,llufiea the uiom To bu t don not eHR Ioatisr)' t he u iom T I
TItcre Is an e:u.mple o r . To-spaoe which isnOl1 Tl-space in Eu:rrnc :2, S. 6, 100 .
S. ConAder the line sqflICI\I IO, I] eq uipped with the tOJlO101Y wh ose open sets arc
the empty let lIlld all the sets obtained from 10. II by ditctrdina either. flnice or
CO\ll)ttble Dumber o r poinll. TlIia $pKe iatisf.ea th e ulolll T.. bu l is not Haua4or rf .
i.e., the uiom T z is DOl fulfi Uod.
W e iltll od uce di e toUowitla deflll.itioD:
, . In the: linc-x&ment lO, II, the neipbowbooc1s of III tr bitrary perini , aapc zerc ,
arc ordlnuy ~boutttoods aDd all the poa{bIc b~rinlervt1s 10, 0) with the
d i:acarded poinlS..!. II I , 2 . ate eaUed the qhbourlt oods DI '1re uro

" In,,,xl\lct io n 10 Topo los r

point. It is e.u y 10 see that this space i. HausdQrff but no t reau lat , because the dis-

jo int ~losed 5C1 E ... ('; : II ... I, 2, . .] and lhe zero point are nOl: separated in

the sense of Illc Miom TJ .

'rxese c:umplelldmJ01\Slrate th at the class o f rcs ular (and aLw normal) spacn is
~n l iaUy fl8I't()wer than that of me Hausdorff spaces. How~er. the clan of or.
mal spaces ill q ulle wldc81I d includes , fo r example. all met ric spaces as will be sbcwn
in the nat soclion.
Exercises.
2", ShOW thai in a Tl-space. for an y ",bscr A . the following inclusion relation is
fulfi lled : (A " ) ' C A ' ,
3 , Verify that a dOSl:<l suffac e Isee Sec. 4 . Ch . II) is a H ausdorff space.
Note ;n ad di tJon th4\ the diflcrcn l:t between normal and rql uJar
which is demonsl ralftl by I"" fQl]ow!na .
.pa.
I, quile Il iahl,

TH EOREM . (VDEI"IlSOV). A n)' rquUu sJXlO" SQli Jlyl"l ' lte soltd co ull /ability ax'Om it fIOI'-
~,.

The proof of thu lllcorcm I. 1I01 1P~.n here.

12. NORMAL SPAC ES

AND FUNCTIONAL SEPA RABILITY
l. An Equivalent Definition of No rmal Spaces . The pn:tpcrty of ncr-
mal spaus thaI is enunciated in the folJowing lemma and wh ich can be lWumed 10
be an equlYalent definition of a normal space ;5 useful quite o ften.
MINOR URYSON LEM....lIO,. A spD X /.$ normQ/ If and only If lor any dOSft1 k t
F e X a"d t1!!J' olllJ ne ighbourhoods V , th ere extus a nelghlJolHh ooO U' ol lhe~1
F JIIch Ihal U' C V .
PROOf'. Let X be normal . Con sider IWQ closed sets I" and 1"1 ,. X ....... V. Since the
, pace is norm al . t here c.ti$1t wo_d isjOin l neighbo urhood..! V ' and Vi o r l he (WO sets
FandFt , II is clear thealhat u n F I ., 0. whence V CU. Conyersel y .let the
lemma be fulfilled. an d let F l , Fz be d isjoint closed sets. Cc nslder the se( V l '" X ,
1"1.' Then 1"1 C Up and it follo~ from the da ta atven that t!!tre eJti ' ls a
neighbou rhood Vi o f F J such thaI U; C VI ' Hay ing set U2 '" X , Vi. we Obtain
an o pen set V2 F~ C U~. whereas Vi n V~ _ 0
COROLLARY. r" " " 01".,, 1 "P"Ct. X, .!.."'" di.f}<Ji,,' c~ sets F l, F z P OS$C$J
neighbourhoodt V I' V~ su ch that VI n V I - 0.
Gcnen.l ly , _ 1" " " lhe nor mali ly of ub$pa<:. does nOI tono.... f, om th< nonn ll1i ly o r lb<
space . l-ktwc"."., it ... y s ubspa,ce in . OOfmal space X i' llOmI:li tb<n X ii said 10 b. h. rallt";
Iy notm.! . llIe condl lioru tOI her editary nOt lllll.l llYare &lyen by lh . fD!10,,",1I theorem .
'Tll EOReM 1 lURTSON) A ~ is ~1f(JT1I)' ".."""" V alid onl)' if Q"J' ' '''0 of Its u ptJro!rd
~ fX1.$IlCU d~"r ~i,"bourIrPlXis.
W. dO no, prQ\'C (his lheot<m llese .
 The itnaie Dt a normal lp a<;t,; uNkr a <;ont\nuoUl m ppin a il n~ n e u an\y no r -
mal. Th e ~implClt exam ple is the Idenllly mappina of the sUll.ill,ht line R I endo wed
wilh the usual topo lollY into the IIaJl\t lI .aigbt line ....i! h so me non Ha u Worf f
lOPOlolJ)', for example , tri Yial . H owever , there ms.l surt1cien t test s for the image of
normal space to ~ normal. For exam ple. th e following statement is vabd.
TllEORM2 . Le I X ~Q n Qmlo/!!po ce ondJ : X - Y Q oollli nuoU!lclo!!uJ!!urject ;ve
IIli2ppin,. Then ,he!!pilCe Y is ow norl1llll.
PlOOF. lei X~ a nonnal space, ACY l. closed subset, and r l (A) .. A ' . Th en
the set A ' is clORd due to the oon tlnu llY of f. Let Ube a neighbo urh ood of A in Y.
Then the se t r n
1(U) .. U' b ope n (due to the. con tinui t y of and con tains A '
Therefor e, U' is a neighbourhood of A ' , an d by I~ minor Uryso n lemma, the re ex-
isu a neighbourh ood V' o f th e .set A ' IIUl:h that Y' C U .
We t hul obtaln the inclusion relation s : A' C y ' C V c U. A closed surjec-
tive m ~ppin g is ope n. Th erefon:,j{V') il o pen , J (V') il closed . and we h a ve the
' d ation s:
A ", j ( A ' ) C/(V' ) C j d ;;' ) C j ( U ' ) = U ,

hence, the nocmalit y of Y follo ws easily. '.

2. Functional Separability, The Uryson Theorems on Extend-
ing Numerical Functions. The sep aration C!f sets was clefi ned above in
temu o f 'neighbourh oods ' . trrvscn Introduced another notion 01 separatio n , or
wbat is l:lI1la l fu nctional sepa,rab lUty. It i5 qu ite a convenient con cept fo r stu d ying
f1 Dfm a! spaCC' .

PEFIN1T I ON . Two sets A , B in a topol ogical $paoc X ar e aid to be j unclirmQlly

!/tptIrobie ilthe re exi&ts a ccntln uo us nume ril:ll1 funct ion v> : X - R I such that
",,(.K) = (011
I if
XE A
x e S

and 0 I( ",,{x) " I at an points of X (Fig . SJ ).

Tlor d ose , el;r.tionsh ip s between the t wo conce pts o f separation are shown u p by
e e 1'00l<I",ing ..irnple Lemma.
LEMMA . If lWO SIt!! A IUId B orr j uncl ioflolly n paro ble in 0 top ologi cal spoce then
the, hun disjoill r neighbourhoods.
The pro of u left to tlte reader.
Thus, the funet;oRal sep uabiiity of any pair o f closed di sjoint sets of a T 1spa,tt
lntpi ies its normality . II is Intc ra ting tlta t thc coev erse sta tement is also t rue !
MAJO R UR YSON LEMMA . For ony IWo cloud, d isjoint sets of" nQrm,,' !lpoc~ X,
Ihert tJilsls 0 contlnuows f uncrkHl v> : X - R t such th ot v> I A - 0 , '" 18 I ond
0" I" (x) " Ifor ony x ex.
Pl!.OOF. 1...cI A an d B b.e two arbitrary closed sets in X , A n B .. 0. We assc ctete
uc;h rati onal num ber of t he fo nn r .. k l 2n, wher e k .. 0 , I, ... . 2", with an
open set G (r ) so that the following pl opert.ia are fu Um ed:
" In<rod UClion <0 TOpOlol)'

R'

--- ----_. ~----"

c
FJs. ~J

(1) A C C(O}, x -,
8 .. 0 (1);
(2) ~ C GV) irr < r .
orweh . filmiJy o f ope n sets will be perfo rme d by indu c-
The proof or tbe existe nce
tion o n the index n. Let n '" O. Since X is normal. Ihl:1'c exlJl disjoint
neigh bourhoods U (A ) , U (R) of t he KIS A and B. Put 0 (0)., U (A ),
G ( I) .. x ,a and IlSSUInC that su ch a famil y o f sets O (r) II co nst ructed roe an In
dex " - l. We will now const ruct it for t he ind u n . Sin ce 2m11!' = m 12" - '. il
sufrlCeS to COlISlNet G(r) torr '" k n !' fo r an odd Il.
Lei k = 2m + I, th en (k + 1)/2" = (m + 1)12 " - !, (k _ 1)12" _ m l2" - I,
and t~relo", by the inductive hypoth esill, _ already have the inclusion ~lalion
O k 1)/2") C G({k + 1)12") . 11 is ev ident that the se ll Dk. - 1)12") iUlci
X , G k + 1)12") are closed and disjoint. The normality of Xmeans thai there ell-
isLs a neighbourhood V ot the SCi G k _ 1)12"),which does not in!eISei:1 a certain
neighbou rhood of the set X ' Gk + 1)12"). Put V .. G (kl2/1). It is clear that
G{(k - 1)12") C ~ and O( k / 2") C G(k + 1)I2~).
Th e indlKt ion argument is com plete.
We C:Xfcnd Ihe domai n o f Ute sc15 G(r) . ~vin8 PIli

G(r) '"' [0
X
l(
ifr>1.
r < O.
No ..... we spcc:ify the fun ctl on '" as follOWS: .. ~) .. O. X {; G (O) and .. (x) -
su p (r : .:r e.,)(' G (f). We have to $how the co nt!nu ;tyof J". To this end . we co n-
stru ct a neighb OUl'hood U#~ for each po int Xo E X IUId each N > O. such thaI
I ", (x~ - .. (xl I < 112"' , x I;' U",(x~ . Le t r o (of th e ronn k l2~) be such Ihat
,,(-'Ol < ro < ~ + 112"' + 1. ( I)
Pu tUN(x# = G (rol 'G(ro I I2N ). - Th en xoEUN(xol s mee "c > ,,(x~ and
ro - 1/2 .. I< ",(.x~ .l! x C U,,/.xol lhen X I;' G(rr). Therefore .. (~ " ro' Fu r-
tbermcre ,
x E X' G(ro 112N) ex, G(ro - 1/ 2"' ),
 Ch 2. Gcn .. al Topology

therefo re , o - 1I:r' .. <p(x) . Th u~ .

"
'0 - In!' .. ",,(xl .. ' 0' (2)
By comparing (l) and (2), we obt a m
1""(xG! - ",,(x) 1 < InN, x f; U" f.rG!,
which mean s that 'I' is cont inuous.
It is clear from lhe method of cOfl~truction that ""I.. . O. '1'1B I and
o " ",,(xl " I. The funf;lion Ihat we have just co nstructed Is also can ed the Uryso n
/ undion.
To apply Ihis rescn, co nsider me extenslon o f a bounded fUnc1ion from a closed
IUbset of a normal space to the whole splice. NOle first Ihat the major Ury son rem -
ma is equivalent to the statement t hat ther e ellisu II continuous Iuncuon 'I'~ b(x)
that satisfies the fo UOwinll .
v> 01", - o'v>a. O'S - b , o .. V'~ .b(xJ " b . )CEX.
where 0 , b (0 < b) are arb it rary real num bers. In fael , lf .. (x) is the Uryson fu nc-
tion th en me functi on V'a, b(xl .. (b - a )",(x) + 0 Is the one requ ired .
THEOREM' (l'lETZE.URYSON).Fora/lY bou/ld~ mtrllnuov.r!uncr;on '" : A _ R I
thfi1/td 01/ a clasJ .rub#t A % normal spoa X , there existsacontlnuous/UIIIClion
t :X - Rl suchthot4> I", . ",and s~ 1.(.%)1 "" ~ 1",(%)1

....OOF. We $hall co nst ru ct the fu ncti on'" u the limit o f a certai n sequence o f Iunc-
ucns. Put ...o = "" and

It is clear that t he seu A o Bo ar e closed and d i. joinl. By the ma jor Uryson lemma.
there exists a conlinuous (un ctio n ' 0 ; X - R I such that Igo(.%)1 " ~ and
)

t (.%) = (-1'01' if xa AOo

o 001' if )C 6 8 0-

Now. we define the funct ion "'I on A by the equality ""1 = "'0 - 8"0' Th e fun ction
"' I is therefor e continuou s anda l .. s~f 1'1'11 "-iao' Simila rly, b y in tro du cing th~
notation
 Introduction . " TOPOlDi)'
"
wh m xeA,
when J< e B.
a
"" I<l lonthe scI A.

Thus, we are co nst ru cting a sequeflc e o f f\lncli on sl"o = 1". 'PI_ ... ,'P" . . ,
mat au cOlUin uo~ on A, and a sequence of functIons 80- 01'1 ' . , ' n- . .. . IhN
arc continuo us on X such tha t
2
"'" ... I '" 1".. - I ". rgJt ~) 1 '" anI). a" .. I ""i D".
whe re a" _ $~ 1\10..",)1, n '" 0, 1,2, .. Hen ce,

The IaUer ineq\llllil)' means that the series
...
E ,lll ~) oonvCTlles llbso)utely an d

uni fonnly 10 . co ntin uous functi on In X . HavinS dmoleQ i15 SUm by 4> (K), we ob
tain an estimate

Let x E A, then the partial sum S,,(x) _ t V;") oj- + 1,,(4 by the method of
ccnsuuctlcn 01 the funct ions 'l'n .. I (x ) wilYeq ual \Po(x ) - ",.. (x). and ",..(x) - O.
ThacfoTe, 4> (x) = "'o(x) = ""<x) for any x e A .
The Tictu-Uryson theorem ca n be generalized for a mapp ing dlh e spaceX INa
all n-dimc:nsionaJ cube.
COROLLARV. A nyconlmuOW mQpp;ng" ; A - r of " r:I.~d .ll<b3et A oja nor-
mQt ~ X 1,, /0 On n-dimens;o"'" culn I" CQn fH extended /0 Q con tinuo14 nwp-
pingt cx -: r.
Exerc~. Prove the co rollary.
Hint : Usc lI<lOOrdinlll~ syUom in R" and apply <he Tj~lZe-tJrys on th<:'().<= to the componmts
or t h ~ _ win, '1>.

And no w the follow in. importut fact can be proved .

THEOREM 4. A m~lrlr: SPQCf: i$ " orm lli.
THE PROOf of this theo rem is left to the reader
 C II. 2. Qn<"flll TOPQlogy

J3. COMP ACT SPACES AND TH EIR MAP P1NGS

"
I. Th e Notion of Compact Space. We tu m no w 10 the st udy of II quile
import ant ctus o f lo pol ogical sp aces that arc charaererlzed by t he propc:niu o f
their open co verings. Thes.e propenies are an abstract (and con venient ) anlllogue Of
the j)foperry of co mpa ct ness o f a closed segm ent or an n..(limenlio nal cu be (or baD)
kno wn f ro m anal ysis. Co mpact spaces an d their ma pp ings am.: in man y bran ches
of math ematics.
We shal l first discuss some o f the ideas rdated to the coverings o f to poJog icai
spaces. Let If c tAl be so me sySlCJll of subsets A of a set X . The uni on of all A fro m
a will be denoted by if and called the a-'ie/d.
We shall no w exten d the id ea of a covering men tioned in Sec. I an d givm aft er
the definitio n of a bate for a topology.
DEFINITION I . A. famil y If is called II col/tri", 0/ Q sub$pIJce Y of II. to pological
space Xifo~ Y.
In panicuJar, "is a OOVer1na Qf the spa ce X if a "" x, which agrees with the no,
lion of coyerir!tt used earlier in Sec. l ,
DEFiNITION 2. A covering <7 is said to be a rej"'mtmtnt o f a cQ~rln8 11 (I> >Il ') if
each ekment of If is co ntai ned in some dement of the system ,, ' . The refin em ent
rclatkm introduces II panial o rdering OD t he set. Qf aJI covetin p of the "PAce.
Coverings consisti", of II finite (or count able) num ber of d ements are said to be
jinlle (or fX}unrllb lej, respectively .
DEFINITtON 3. A coverlng a of a spa ce X is said to be /OCtllly j/n ;te if each point
X l!X posseS$C$ a neighbourhood which intersec ts with only a finite n umbe r of
elements o f C/. Co verin&S consisti", of open SCls are PilMlcUlarly important and said
to be ope".
There Me many Importan t pr operties o f spaces which are clo~ ly related 10 the
properties of open coverings. Hence. the follo wing classes of spaces are sin gled OUI.
DEFtNITtON 4. A. Hausdorff topologicaJ space X is said 10 be (A I) comPQCt. {A ~
j/ruI(ly ComfHJCl, tA~pora COmp<Jcr if an open covering:tha t is (lll) fini te, (ail co un-
table. and (Q.J,IIoeaUy finit e. respec tively. can be made a refin ement o f any of the
open coveri ngs of the apace .
Extrci.fe I" . Veri fy th at we will ob tain an equ ivalen t definiti on of CA l) and (A il if
we require that a coverin g o f (a l ) or (a~IYPC. respec tively , cou ld be selected fro m
any open covering of the: spa ce.
h i. impO{tant {hat the properl iC$ A I> ; "" I, 2, 3. of a to pologi cal spaDC arc in-
herited by each of its d os! subsets co nsidered as 11 M1bspal:e (pr ove it by yOW"seln) .
ExAMPLCS.
J, Let X - [a, b l C R I be a spac e endowed with the topoJogy indu ced by tha t fro m
R I. The space X is co mpact. since, by the Heine-Bore l theorem , a finitesubcoverin g
can be picted from any covering of X with intervals .
2. Let X .. R I; t his is an Cllample o f a non compaet space, the reaso n bei ng t hat a
 Int rod uo;1ion 10 Topolo$y
"
fm it" cover ins cann Ql. be pick ed from the covering I(- n, ,,)::' T I" (H o we ver ,
co unta ble subcov ering can be ch osen fro m any open covering o f R . 'rnerercre RI is
fin ally compact . Pr ove it.)
Similar reasoning dtmO nSlrates that th e spa ce R n is also no n-ccmpacr , nc r
arc any of il.$ un bo und ed subset s. Hence , it fo llo ws. in part icular , thai the require-
me n t for a co mpact subset in R" to be bou nded is a nessaty condition .

TbenR' '"
..
3. The spa X = R' is paracompaCl . In fact, lei tv ,,) be an open rover;"" of R I ,

U ln ,n + I] . Each line-segmen t (n , n + I ] is 'a litt l,,' c:<tcndcd to

t he in lCl"'a1 (n - c, "+ I + e). COnsider the coYeri ng {U" n (II - I,

n + I + c)J o f lhc liroc--scamcnt ln , n + I] . A finite coverin g VOl. , "1 can ~
slna.led OUI of it. The union of such coverings (for an n) pl"odw;c:s a loI.:ail'y finite
eoveri.n& o f R I wh ich il a refinement of tu,,}.
If Y C X IJI a sub spaa: of . Ha usdorff spece Xthen by co nsideri ng covcrings of
!he spaa Y whidl an open in Ihe hercdiullY topology fro m X , we obtain , from
DefInition 4, lhe conc ept of compact , rUUll ly com~ and pl.rU(:ompact subs pace
(a compa cl, finally compact a,nd parac:ompact sci Y in Ow: spa ce X is also o ften
spokm abo ut). We could, in an cquivBlenl manner, ooll$.ldcr Ihe covcri np of the
spa~ Ywbicharc opm tn X . II is u.scful to note, morecver, tha t a clo5Cd set Y C X
lnherIu the properties A Jo I .. I, 2.3, from the seece X . In fact. 10 any open COVCJ-
ing (I .. IV.J o f the space Y, wheee Y" ... Y n U" , an d U" is open In X, Ihen: cor-
respo nds en o pen covering O"w = [U". U . = X , l1 cfth" spaoeX I. Now. we pk.k
a refinement; > ( I . (of " r type) of the &pace X. 11 is easy 10 redu ce lhe covering i
whk:h we: obWn to the COVcrinll i )' of Ihe JUb$paet Y by inlcnccti.n g the ell:TDeDh of
i wilh Yand dillCal"dina thes e dements which are con tained In Y w' il is ob vious thu.l
if)' > .. .
ibe fo llowin,s theorem is oftm used in anBlysis .
THEOREM I . A IU' inj/nllr n t Z C X of (I compact spoce X htu Dlimit point in X .
PROOF. Auwne:. on Ilw: contraty, that Z .. 12l.Then i .. Z. Therefcre, Z is cJoso:l
M d, co nscq umtly, co mpact . On the oth er hand. each point z e Z is isolated in X .
Th is implies Ihat lhere e/lists an OpeD neigh bo urh ood Oed In X such Iha!
O(J:) n Z = z. Neish hou rhoods U(z) = 0 (:) n Z that arc o pen In Z fo nn an in-
fin ite covering of the space Z from wh kh a finite wbcovering cancor be selected,
and 50 we arriv e at a co otr adiccion [0 the usu mpt:ion th at Z is co mpa ct .
ibe cone" pt of compa ctness is intimate ly relat ed to rhe cono;cpr of eloscdn ess.
This Is d emolUtratcd by the follo wing sta temem .
THEOR EM 2. Jf x 11 a compoa $1lf>s~ of a H ousd orff SjX1 Y. Ihtn X is closed.
PROOF. Let Y E ~ X . Por any po int x e X , since Y is Ha~orfr. there arc open
neighbourhoods U.. (y), u,1'(.1") of the po ;nrs Y. x such uree U..(y ) n UJ'(.1") .. 0 .
Th e family lU... (.-n
x fo rms a covering o f X . Because X is co mpact , there Is

finite sub<:overi ns !U... t-"/)t,' .. I' It i. cas)' to see thar the selS U(X) .. U U... ,,"r)
,. - I
 01.2. a-.:n l T opoIasy

n _ V (y ) ar e open ilIld di$join t. Thu s, W~ hllve shown that a co m-
and
,. , V..,(Y)
paC\ set X an d a point not In il can be s.eplnlted in a Hausdor ff space by t he disj oint
JW. hbourhOOds V( X) and V()'). H~DU, it fo Uowl th ai th.t: compk:menl Y , X il
open, and tberefort X ill d o5ed .
Exna. 2- . Prove that a coO>p.Kt Ipa<;:e is rqular.
DEf'1!'lm m .. , . A l)'S'tem 1M,.! of subscU of . $pace X is said 10 be crrItrwl if an y o f
IU rlllite SIoIb$ystanl pc>sscsid noncrnpty intc:nedion.
A dual ~alement o f th e dcnnltioo of. lXlfnlMlet lpal;C Is t he foUowln. theorem .
THEOREM 3. A Hausdorff spote X is tontpGCl if and only if alty ~n lrwJ sy.sl~m of
its closed SV_ IS <I - lM..l ~ It ,,0II'11lfJ(:t m(t!'WCtlo".
PJ.00f". Let 0" '" 1M) be llD arbitrary CCIItred syuem o f dosed sv bseU o f the lpaC e X ,
and 111 X be compact. ' We show th at
.0. n M .. 0 . Amune the WftttatY , i.~ . ,

. ..
n M '" 0 . Tbcn
....
V (X' M) - X, I.e., the system IX ' M IM is an o pen

o
Therefore U (X ,M.t) - X a nd , coNcqumtl)' , n M . _ 0 , ...hid! is co n-
I . I I ~ I

trary to the assumptio n Ihal Ih.t: I}'Stml " b ocntftd.

Let the inu n1lon
... n M be nonempl )' fo r an )' om cred sylt cm " = (M] o f

:Ioscd IUbxu. Let IV..I be an arbi trary o pen co vcrln. o f Jl . Then the 1)'lItem
[X, V,.! Iw the: empty intet5don and , by the: US\lCllpI>on, ill not ce ntred .
Th US,me su b$yn cm IX'U .D . I h.as the empty inlcnection Coc iOftle a t. 0 1'
... ,a,_ whence IV..,: I iI ar lll.ilc w boa vaill&o f t he covcri n. [U. ). Theref ore,
the sp*oc X is compact.
wi:. now con.ndCl" !be p topen.)' o f ~l1'lpKInesa. II is iltllftStina: I/) exa.mim
the rdation o f paracompaclnc:u: 10 me other propen iCi of \ o po!o Pcal lJlacel. Cotl
sider the l o-QI led loca !ty compact spaocs.
DEFJNmON 6. A space X is said 10 be IQqlf~ r::olPlpDCt if it b Hauadarrr and eaUi
point %
.
X posses.ses neilhbouT1tood U (.t} whose dO$Wc is eo mPKI .
OIIe exam ple of a Iocalty compaa spaoc is lbe space R "; an Olhcr II I WOo
dUneruioMl mani fold (Icc Sec. " , ClI . II).
THEOREM". U It top%fial/ spoct! X g 10NJJyr::olPlP ' th,,, i t is ~u/flr.
"'-OOf . Let fI e X be an arbiull.~ poin t, and F cx
closed Itt not contalnins the
point fl . 1'1Ien X , Fil open, and. Q E X ' F. Because thc spe ce X isloo;ally compact ,
"'" Im r od uc ll o n 10 Top<llOSY

there is an open neighbouThood V(a)such that V{Q) i$ ~omp;lct , and V(ll) C X , F.

Therefore, V(4j n F ... 0 , and for any~int x e F, (hert' exists an open
neighbou rhood UW which i$ dj~jaint with V(a' (Re the ploof of Theorem 2, vi.!.,
the passage about the 'seceauon' of a compa ct set lUll! a point In I Hausd orff
space). PUI U(F) "
."
V U(x ), the n V(o) n U (P) .. 0 .

The parucompact $pa<,;co f Example) is . special casc of the Sp;lCU d ~ribed by

the (oUawing theorem .

THEOREM S. Let X ~ a loeafl)! co"'f)(ld ~ (md X .. U C n where

compacr set , Ih rm X Is pofocomJ)Qd .
.. , e" is (I

?ROOF. We rcprr:sc:nt Xfil11as a counlable union of nested Open sets whose cjc sures
arc cornpllCt. We shaD co nstrnc! th ese: set s by induction. First of aU, we set Un _ I2l
when n " O. We W UIT\(! the ntlghboumooll of the set C l whose closure is compac t
to be VI> Now that the 5et_U" is COII$lrueted. we ta ke a neighbourhood with a co m-
pa~ closure of me set Un U e n -+ 1 and ceu it Un ... \" The existence of such
De,ghbourhood.s is st ipulated by the local c:ompaetnes.s of the space X.
_ Now , lei [V,,1. .M be an arbimuy o pen_covering of X . Denote the compact set
U"'. U" _ 1 by DIt The o pen set U" I'. U" _ 2 is thus a neighbourh ood of th e set
D", and the family of sets
(Y" n (U" + 1 '. D" _ illHM = lw:J.... M
fonns an open eoverin& of the set D". We select o ne of its finite su bcQyering.l
I w:.t:.. I' Having pc1"formed th e dC:5cribcd procedure fo r all n, we obta in a cou nt-

ab le oo veri na
.. ,[{w:.,,"..
U 11 (of th e whole space X) wh ich is a refinement of

the oovuinlll V"J.. ur

We no w show lhat lhi s coyerlngis locally finit e. Let x be an arb it rary point from
X,andno" min [1l :xe:U"!.SincexEU,, _l' thcre exisls a ncillh bourllood O (x)
of x lyinll in U" su ch tha i O(x) n V". _ t=
0' . ConseqUC1ltly, O(xl can on ly in-
tersel;\ 111<: sets ~ , where I 'Iii m " p~, no - 2 " k " 110 + I . By tlte m ethod of
ronslT\lction, t he number of such K!s IS finite .
C'OROLl.AJIY. 1/ Q /OCXlfly conlpQU ~ X PQSSdSeS a coull/ab/II! bose rllll!n it iJ
pororompuct.
In fact.)f a space is locally compact tlten it possesses a base (UC) of open sets
such thai ue is compact. By ch oosina from the co u nta ble base those sets of wh icb
vc oonlislS, W! obtain a countable base Ivf);"_ Iluch that Yfis OOm~1 for an y i,
Then X "" U Yf,
and its paracompao:tnes s fo Uow s from Theorem 4.
We no w investigate lhe rdatio D.lhip between the COncep ti of eompaetn w and
no rmality .
T H1;lOREM 6. A COmpgc1 ~ X is Ilorrml / .
 '"
nooF. Font estabUsh thai X ii rqular. Let II C Xb c. ~ d OHd sub lCl. xe X , A .
SiIlc:e X ii Hal,l$dorif, f or any :y e A, lhen a m t br; naghbou rhoods U...(1 ) . U,(x) or
the poiJlU Y. x such that U...(y } n U,(x) .. 0. The system rU... (y)k ~A fOlm S
covering of II; since A is compact, il. finllc wbcoverilla " '" lU,,(.v/ll:". l
can be singled 0 1,11. Bca~ UJI(y/) is [!\dude<! in the closed set

X ' U, (.l'), U.. (Y/ )
I
c x ,u,I (.l') C X ' il'J. We.rllld , hat U
, . I
U... (y/) C X, !rI.
Bill: V 0... 0'/)
I . I
ill closed, lhc ltforlt. x '\. U
,
U...l1/) .. UIt (xl is a n open

ncigtlbourh ood of the poi nt x , The union

,.U , V .,(Yt) .. V.. (.A ) Is It l'l o pen

~hboulhood of lhc SCI A in X . It is eviden t that V.,(A) n UA(x) ... 0 . IJId the
reaularity of X ha.1l hus heetl pro ved..
We now ha ve to pr ove lb . X is norma). Lei SCl5A and 8 b e closed in X nd A
n B = 0 . Then for any po int x e X. then. a i$l.$ an o pen nti&hbourhoocl U(x)
ror which al 1ea5t one of the rdaliol'l$ U (;r;) n A = 0 . U (x ) n B - 0 is true
because X is reruJar. Co nslda the coverin& fU(x}}u x of 1M JPaee X ,..jIll nJdl
ndahboutlloods &ltd~ a rlftitcoo~rin& ~U"lr'. 1 from ie. For each al. kasI U..,.
onc d lbe rd ations V o / n A ... 0 , U., n S " il fulfilled. LeI U ' - VU., be
the uni on o f those $ell for whieh U" 0 A _ 0 , an d I lmilarly , V ' .. UU" ,
, '
ii O S _ 0 . lI is e~y to see t hat t he opm wI$ X' U ' , X' V eonl al " A and B ,
",
l'C'pectinly, and are wljoint. Th us. !be normalit y of X !w also been proved . Gl

1. Mappings of Co mpact Spaces. We ~ stlldy .some Important proper-

ties of lXIntillUOUJ ma.ppinp of ODmJ)KI spa~ ,

THEOREM 1. LeI X . Y M topolo,bJI spU, X mmpoct. Y H rTIlSdOf'/J. tmd

I : X - Y tI conIinUOII.rtM,Ppilll 71fti' the imG~J(x) is tl comp<ll:t su/MPfXt i1f Y.
PROOF. Coruld rr an arll illVy o pen covtrina !V.J Or t he spate Z .. f{X) , It is ob-
vious !hlt/ : X - Z Is also tml tlnuolU, ther efore , (II (V,,)J Is an open eoverin, of
X . We select a neue com"in, (l1 { V.)ll". I which oists due (0 the compaetn~ o f

-,
X . Then lV.)/". I is a finite oJ)tll eovcriDg o( Z.
Extrdsr 3- . Show (hal II dosa:I surfaee (we Sec . 4. 0.. JJ) ila eompaet

A nrontU 1ta1emCDt is Pvm by tbe foUo",;", theorem .

THEOREM &. k t I : X - Y H tI COIIlinUOtU mtJPJJi1t6 ,
Hllusdoiff . TM" I it tI dORd mtlPPi"I .
X~, tI/fd
IOPO~

PAOOP, Refflffllber t hat any dosed ",bset o f a comp act space Is eOIDpMt . Le I
M C X be art arblt!1U')' closed (ll1Id t herefo re compl et) subset in X . From
Theorem " lhe see J(M) is <;Ofllpaet in Y aM Is therd ore cklKd due to
llteorem 2.
We h ~ dczh'e an impofta.D.t test oi a b.omcomol'J)himl .
""
THEOREM 9. LAr tlu /}VK1us lMotrnt brfillf"kd,fIIId 1M mttppbv/ bijtiw, tllCl
l is .. ~rpIIlnn.
"'OOF. COnsider lM invcnc mappin. r ' ~ Y - X . Show thai it Is contiDlJOIl/J. Let
A C X be aD arbitruy dosed subset . Since / b closed mappinc.
/(,01) _ ~I)-I(.A ) is c\o,cd In Y, which Implies the contin uity o f the
r
_.
ll\a ppina I
MJuly examp!et o f compllCtspaces an . when rotUt ru ttlna ' adeN" SPica.
EX..UlPU!4. LetX be I Hausdorff (1(:1or space of fO lJK" romp=! space Y. Th dl X is
co rnp" et sinceIt Is. continuous lmaae (.,.,;th respect lO lhe projection) of . cornpw

Colbida". coatinl,lO!lS nwnroe- ' fllll(tiOA j : X - R l on tompllCt lJ*% X .

Tbe toUowtn, Wrimlrus tbcoran wbicb plil" an imponatll part in maxheru.tial
lNIIysls is valld for it.
THEOREM 10. A ll' lXNllUIlHltlZ fimctioflJ : X - R ' on .. ~ SINI" X is
bou ndl fUId (lttGbu ib muinnlm (lind minimum) Wlf~.
~00f'. 1n vieIrf of Theorem 1, thucl~) is tOmpael . By Th eorem 2, any c<lmpad
IUbspacle in R1 .Is d osed . It tw a1rndy been IlIClIti oDfd that lD'J compact wbs~
in R - ls bouDdod . 11Jerd orc,/(}{J is bounded and closed. 11 b the boundlncu of
JOO that illloplies me bouDdcdnc:u of the funolon J . Slnc:e. dOKd Kl eonlalns ~
of itI; limit polDb. ~~ I(X) e/(X}, and 6~V~) e /(X). This COPlpletm tbe
proof of (be m-em. _
3. Products of Compact Spaces . lIl lhis .mion,tbe foUQ,rinllmport ant
theoran will be prowd.
THl!OIlM II (fIHONO V). n. ' opo l" 6kGl swodlM:t x - . ~..,x.. of lUIy~_
[X.J. eM gl eo ntpQCt 8pQCU i1 compoct.
PkOOP. The cmpact nC$l crlialon which we II\alI use is tha1ILDY centr ed system of
dosed SlIme" bas nonemply iDlcncctiotl . Let /N~I ... 110 be an arbittary eat tred
system of doit4 SlIbsds in X . In the set of rJI sud! $}'SlemS , <:OrtSider the partial
Ofderiq rdatioDdetermined by the: illdusIosl rd.tioIIlI > Ill ' if any SCI from Ill ' is
sub$d o f Ill" Let Gbc thUd of an syslans llsuc:h thai III > 110- Ills dear that any
scrietly Okred IUhsct from 0 hal muimIl dement (the UIlion) . Thea by ZOro' s
ierruq. ther e Is IIIUiJnaI cc:ntnd I)'Stan ; in G , Le., a sysurn sudt Ihl&! for any
system III E G, dthu i > or;; aDd III lite iAcompanhle .
Lct . .. l.N"'l. It Is cay 10"n..... thai an y (Illile inlu $etlioo of demenu (ro m ;
belonp to 'ii, and also thai an y dosed set M wllicll intersects with aJlYN' be longs
t o 'ii. (Veri fy this propeny l) O early, If it; 5 shown thll;; pGUesK3 a l'lOfttmply in-
tersecrsoe, t.e.. n ,.,. .. 0, thm the proo f will be ,omp~ted . We denOle the
",. . ;
project.iOB ce the f~or X. by .... ; X - X . ' For a CU1ain a , t~ s)'ll cm
f-.(N'}}; - IN'J - ... i!,.cen tred (th e COftSlitwnt sets need not be: do$ed) In X. '
and tlia'efore the S)'IIcm fNl11s Wo (:t:lltr od. By takiDI mi n aoeount that X. is <:om-
 01. 2. Genual Topoloty ,OJ

pad: . there Qisu .n dement Jt.. III X .. such thai for any of it.l neij:bbowhoocls
V.. "" V (x",), the in lerKCtion V.. n NT., .. 0 for any H:, E 'Oe - Co nsider now an
element Jt ... lA"J E X . E.ch of iu neighbo urhoods U _ U(Jt) con tains tbe clOSllrc
of a eetu.in elementary adahbourtlood of the fonn
(V x V x .. . x V x D X ) _ V
"'I "' J 1" " '.'. 1' .
....
V"'; n
..
_hid'! is in turn the intcnectioD of. (mite nu mber o( Ddabbourboocls oftbc. fonn
(U m x n X G ) . . Y. C X . lt iscleat W I Y. interxcts all the SCU N' '';;. sin
"'/
N:.;
'
0 fOT au., . Co nsequently , if"",, ;
/
and th enfore

V. ,.. ...... ... ,.;.. , if..; E;;.

Hentt, the nci&bbourlloocl U :::> U (x) interxas aD N' E ; . Since V is u1)iltary, we
dcdu ce thl tJt t' n N'(l nd therdore JtE n NY)
N> ,."
H~are some exampla which ~monst~ te how the eompattneu of .spaoc an
quickly W detC'r'llliaed by lbe. Tibonov theo rem.
EXA><PU1
5. The cube r ,10. I ) )( (0. I) x . , x 10. Il b . toIDpacl. space &iDee it u tb e
pnxIUd of n liDe-ses:ments.
6. Th e boundedne u and closedn~ o f . set in R " are cq uJvalml to ItI co mpaet nm .

_.
in (act, such. set In R" <:an be included in I clo$ed pualldepipcd (lit. b,1 )( (111'
6i1 x , .. X jll 6J, whose compae:tDeSl can be esUlblisbed u in &ample 5.
We have !bus proved that t he conditioa i:t suflJdent. n i l the: co ndition for
dosednas is ~ __ (IrOYtd in cee of the theofems in ibis KdlOO. aad that
the oondllion for boun<kdnes:s il n:euaJ)' wu DOted in Example 2.

4", s rcve Ibal t he 6Ph~ S b compac t.

5 , Verity that the n-dimensionaltorul T" _ .S I )( S I )( . . . )( S ~ Is compact.
EXA._ ..... "
'I . Tbe projedive space RP" is com~ct ~USt. ic is the fad-or SpKC of th e sphere
So.
I . Th e k nl lpllOl'StIt Z, ill compllCl for the WI'C re8$OIl

4. Compactness in Metric Spaces. Compacl me lric $pl=.t arc often cal led
comptJdll, and COmp i ct wbspaca an: called COmpact.1s of II ~rit: splIU.
The pro pe:rty or COrtlpKtfloCSS in I metric space can be tllprelkd. in tenns of con
~ "'Ieat tequenas.

DeFlN ITJON7 , A set X oh rncttic:space M is said to be # qVDIlillJlycomptICI if Ifty

sequeooe of lu demcnu contains I subsequwoe which is con VCfl<:nt in M.
niEOJlM 12. A # r X oj If runic.spoa: M UW mf1llC' If If/'ld o" b' 1/11is d~d lind
x quenrillfly JmpI.
,.,. Intr odu ction to TopolOlY

PROO~ . Let Xbe sequentially compact and closed . Then for lilly e > O. t here cxisu
flnhe set of points A. _ (xi] sueb that balls D.(xt) witb eentru in)tlc and radiu s l!
cover X . In fact, otherwiSl:. fo r $01De t o' mer e arc points x!' x, . . .In' ... in X
IUch tlull p(lr". Jt~ +.P) <;it tlo for all n , p. The availa bility or such a sequence is co n-
trary to th e seqaentlal eompacmess of X . Thus. finite t-l'lCU ellisl fo r any t > O.
Now, let (U] be ilIl arbitrary CQvering o f X. Assuminglhat a finite subcovcring can-
nol be slJJalcd OUI of il we fin.!! thai in Itle flnll e f l-net A the re is an Clen'lm l x t
such that th e closed sct X n D. , \Xt ) = X l cannot be cov~cd with any finite sub -
system fro m Ill). It Is cuy 10 sec that the 3d Xl is close d and $eque ntially oom pa.cl: ,
and tnat its dhuneter is not gI"UIlcr than Ztt" Ap plying t he same rcll50ning to X ,. we
can COI1lIlnll:t a scI Xl C X I with the same properties IIJld a d iam eter nOI s reater
than ~ < 2e 1
Thus, having taken lnlO 8,crQunt th e seq uence en - 0, we ca n construct a system
IX,,) o f c1osed,sequentially cO",p8ct leU X n -+ I C X n whose d iamclers lend to zero .

ExefciR6 G.S howthat

.-,
n Xk:f:. 0 .

We infer flOm this that there exists a pointxo c:!

.-,

n X~ .

"oe V" for one of Its elemen" V" ' and beca use VI> is open, there existl e >
Since

0 such
fUJ is a eoveri ng,

that D/,;c~ C VI>. By taking II suffi ciently large for !.he diameter of X n to be: less
than e, we obtain the inclusion n:latiOIlS X~ C Ds(;tc) C U and arrive at a con-
tradiction wi!.h the: assumption that X" is u n.:overa ble with a finite number of
dements from fUJ.
Oosedness and sequeDtial \X)IlIP~t!S follow from the closed ness o f a compact
set (see Theo rem 2) and existencc of a limil poi nt for any infinite sequence (see
Th~rem 1). iii
We jeave the proo f of the following useful statement 10 the: read er .
THeoREM 13 (ON THE LEBESGUE NUMBER). Let X be ~omJHKt and lu] all Dr-
bit raty 0fNII coverins of X . nllm th ert:easts a real mUnbef ~ > O:ruell thaI flny ~t
In X of diameter less tha n.l lies wholly in a t:erlo;n elemelll of tile ro veing 1U] .
berci# 7 Let. metnc space X be: compaet,and / : X - Y a eontinuous mapping.
Pro~ tbat for any eoveriol V '" IV.l of the space Y. the re exbls a Lebesgue
number ~ ... 6(U) such that for any . ubset A in X , of diam eter Ie: than ~,the image
/(A ) is whoUy contained in some element of !.he <:overtng U.
One of the most importantq~ions in malhemat ical analys is concerns the com-
pattnas of sets in function spaces. There are rnMY special criteria of eompactneu
in concrete spaces . One such criterion for the space C II which is widely used In
mathemalical analys;" is given by the Auelt theorem 1o. 461.

llle sel A . 1$Q.lled afln/l~ ~ n~I of X .

 14. CO MPACOFICAT IONS OF TO P OLOGIC AL SPACES .
""
METRlZATION
I . Co mpactifications . The propnty o f eompaet llCSS pr oves to be: qu ile usdul
and conyenient in man, qUe$tion s. For Itlil reon . il is nl tural to al.len>pt 10 find a
constru ction ..1Jic:h would enable us \0 eo ftl.tru et, fo r a liv-en IIOncompaa 6pa~. a
eompact Io(laUconlainin' lhc given one a nd to inv~liplC: t he rd ationsh lps betwun
the lo pologicli, the properties of functioN on these spaca , ere.
DEFINlT ION 1. A COrrlJ}U</ijicQlion or I. lopoJoaicai SPice x is an y compact space
ex containing X lIS an everywhere de'fl K sutnpa.
COnsider I. ooJnPl.C'lf1ealion whidl ls'UJI qui te often , I.e .. the A1exandr o>' O~
paill! t:tmIptJdifKVlioII.
DE1'L....m O'" 2. It. l;OP'ipactilical.lon ex a Clh e form ex - x U E,where fbI. poi n t
not iso lalcd irIex, is c.ued a OM-point crHrIPtijlCfl/ion X ' 01 IK space X .
,~ uists "one-poillt c:omp'1jJaI.
THeOREM I (Al.l!XA!'<lDRO V). For tI $pOCIr X .
liM r <: XU t i1rutd o"'yilXukJctll1y~. M_Hr; 1M topolou o/ Jr
tomridts ...." 1M fOpokJU 0/ X os fI :SU~ in X ' lind the I(}pOioU on X ' i.r
14f1iquriy de lYnliM(/ by t~ lopoJoU 0/ X .
PROOF. Let X = X U ~ be I. cornpaalfkation of X . We show that X it loeaDy
com~ . In fact , ]1 is evident t hat X Is o pen in X , tbudo re each po iDt X" X
~ . neipbou rhood U(,;I;) in the topol ogy X ' IlUCh th at U(x } C X. ) {o wever,
U(x) is a closed .set in X' and th erdore co mpact In X' and X . Th e local eotnpaet-
ness o f X nas tb us been prDvtcl. N ote also that my open set 10 X ' c:onUlinin . a po lol .
t is o f t he fonn f U a where a Is open in x.
However, the cl O$ed set
X' ' (f U G) = X ' O ir. compaa beca\IIIC X' is COD1~et .
Conver""')', Ic:t X be loa.1Iy compact. Let us describe a topology on X ' which
A lisrla the rcq uircmentl o f the theorem . We wi1I consider".sets U wtUeh....., open
in X and also th~ of the formf U G , wberc:G b an opeo $Ctin Xsud\ that X 'G
is compaa, 10 be opm in X ' = XU f . (The ICU G alst dllC to tile Iol:aIl:OII'lpac1'
DC$$ of X ; it sufrJCd 10 we the complenw u up to a mrn pact closure o f. certain
nd&hbourhood.)
~ 1- . VeriI\' thai the fan ut)' o f ICU described fornu a t0Sl01oIY on X' .
We ha ve to m DW that the space X' b co mpact ..nth respect 10 th e topalOJ)' de-
IICribtclabove. Fir51 , we verify tha t X ' Is Hau sdorff. Th e K paratroDcss o f an y t WO
poin l.s from X fo Uows from X beina H aUJdorff. We t hen $how th at t an d x 6 X
po$SCS:I dlsjoir!t nei.hbou rh oods. Havm. taken a ne\3h bo ufh ood U l.!) o f the po int
x ' \leh t ha, Ufx) i.l; co mpact in X, and seuin, V(O _ f u V\',U(:c, we have
un v .. 0 . Thus. X is Hausdorff.
Now ,let fI co (UJ be an arbi1fary open COVa1DI o f X . Then lbete c.ilits an cJe...
ment U... in fI tbat 0l1'InJ the poiDt t and therefore t u a ..
U"" wh en:
x,a - x is com pact in X ' . Th e su bcovuinl fI ' _ lU.I. ... CO'Hrl the SCt K ,
Since X is compact. a finite subcovcrin, an be attaClCd front :O. We dmotc it by
e" _ Iv.. . . . . , U. J. That the co1lec:lion IU. ' v . . . , . U. I is . rm ite ODV",-
irJ.a o f the ~oe X . 1'hut. the co mpactness of:.f ItlJ been pro~cd .
'"
A ~1l-knOWJl example of a one-point compactirJ.ea!Kxl of the space R n Is the
sphere S" . One hom~orphisrn of R" o nto the punctured ~pherr: S" is, for in
stance, ISlcreogrlpmc projedion.
The Tihoncw lIIcorcm Ji ViiIl below slll&lcs OU1 q l,li te a .noc
dass o f speces ...hi o;h are
homeomorphic to J\lbse\ of cau.in co mpllCl: m et ric.space called TIhonov cube. Boefo rc we
S\.IIe it, we mu .t P w. the n>clSU)' ddinitions .
OI:!YlNmON 3. The pr oddet " ~/I/~ (If linc_~nls. wh.... Mis . set of powa r, l" '" I, i.
t:lI!led 11hono" CJI~ l' of wdaht r .
r
For IUIy r, the product is <:OmpKt . Na le th at if M is C<I\Ifltalllc, the" r _ r- is lbe
Hilllert cube (by ddinitlon).
DFINrrJON 4. A space X Is Did to be ro mp /tlely rqulltr if uch o;]OlIed JU"" et and I point
OI.llaldc ;t an fUllctionally ~.blc.
DEFlNmON.s . The It't!i6ht''(X)<lf a lopoloaital spaa: XlI . minimal Cllfdina.l number wlllch
iJ the pow~ o f some hase (it briq . Ul) for the topoloo on X .
TlO!OIlP.M 2 (llHONOV). An, completely '~IU spo X of lO'I!itht T Is 1IomtomotpMc /0 II
.l'IIbl>tr 0/ the 7T1I0JI0" CIlMr.
We now outlillc tloc proof o f thll l!IIfem. COnsider 10nlC sct E '* [.. J or oontmuoUi
funaions .... : X _ to. I) such that f<lr any Jt <I X and an, 1Ipc:n neilhbeJurl>ood U(x) 0 ' the
pointJt. therc III. funct ion " .. I! t for which .... (x) _ 0. .. IJt , u _ 1. These 'sptlultl. sets
eJ<ift for o;()mp\eldy resular spaces: c.. the Jet 0' all conllnuow"tundions / ; X - [0 , IJ. It
hlIpperu thaI in ~ or weilhl r. sud l flUDily of power r Illways ClUstJ.
A hc>meoJn<,rplWm" of the Jpal' C X into . s ubse:t IIf the I'ih<movcube is delmnined by
as.ociat1ns <'ad> p<llnl Jt with set 0 ' numben \" (x) _ (I'.. Gt)... Ne lhal. the com pactnes s of
;m follo .... from Ihc condition "OO C r (due 10 the rottlpaaneu of 1' ).
II is ClIJy til see thai llIlY Iptiltilll set IIf fundlolll on X <ktc:rmincs . certain ~l*=IiflCll
lilln IIf x . In flo;l. by idenllfyia, X wllh ", I,X}. X illd( a n be coP1ider<:d to be embedckd in
;00 In iu c.a.p.aeity II an everywhere dense SIIbset . COnslder!he cue when the . p1illlna family

Dl!F1NlTION 6. The c:ompactiflC&tilm Jl e<>t=pooWna 10 the maximal family

"'4JtinuIl \It 1M SlOM-Cech r:omptlCtlflcal/on of \he spaoc X .
.1.
V.,l Is maximal . I.e. colnc:ide$"';!h tile sci IIf all \IOll11n1l1l1ll flllldlllJU. = V: X - 10. Ill.
said III be

The Stllne-te.:11 comp ktifiation pll5JCS5CS ' number IIf useful pr \lPl:TI'a . We list SlIme
of thenl .
THEOIIJ'M ) (STONE.tEcHJ. Eilcll DI I~/otl\lwfn, t1vft coruJilioMi$ MUWu)' tl"d S>iff rcltf/t
JOt" 1 I I..."C\lmpncI/lktttkm ex 10 M hom tDmo,pJrk to I~ rtWJtlfHOf at~.*:
_ (I) &dI ~tlnuolU l und/on I : X - [0. IJ Is ext ended 10 Q ",nll" uOl4 l unainn
j , CX _{O. l ].
_ (2) EncJt continuous mappinl I , X - B ittto (I compdCt.,_ B Is C()ntlnulJ usly ortended
ID I :CX-8.
(3) FOr air)' comptlctl/lo:Jlion C 'X . tllen exlsu a COfIlinlifJU.f mappinl '" ; ex - C'X
ru cll ihal .. l _ l X'
x
2. Metrizability of To pological Spaces. We cli5Cll$I here how 10 in -
lI'Oducc a metric 0 0 a topoloaica.l . pace: so that it induces the !alP!: topology.
Topological spaces which will admit such a metricare $Bid 10 be mdriZtlblf!. In par.
tlcular. we may speak of the introduction of another metric: on a metric space 50
that It geIlet8tcs the ori&inal topol08Y but is itsel f more convenien l . e.I., such Ihal
the space wllh Ibis metric may be complete. Such metric sp eces are said to be
 01 .2. Oene.. l TopololY
'"
topol08kQI/y complete. One mmple of. lopolosi elllly comp lete metric sp ace is an
inlerval (Q. b) C R I M - (-1 . I) In P1icuw . Besides th e yaDdard metric p (lr,
. _ Ix - )'1 in ...hidl fM . p) is not complete , Wf: C*Il inttodlKe II topolosically
eqwvalocn l meuic

, .(.-r.y) -I." ~Xl- ~ I

induonS b y t he homeomorphism o f an iJlle1V&1 and a sltlliVII line (the dhtlllCe be-
twC'l'D the point.S o f the: Interval is cak:ulat cd in tM rmI'ic P . as the: dlstlllCe . in Ihe
usual metric. betWttn thcit images on the strai&M line) . It B I:2SY 10 veri fy lhal P . Is
a melric, (,M, p) and (M. P.> are ~~. and thai <.M. P.>
Is a co mp kte
~rk sptlC.1l:. One mmple of . to poio pcalJy incom plete metric spatC i..I tbe set of
ratioual number , under 1hc mel.ril; f!"OlR R I
Tbe 11h onov pl"odlld. o f CO\lIItabIe numbel" or met ric spaces; (M. , Pro) II

Dle uiuble . ln fw . lf.r - (lrxp .. .),y '" 0'1' )'1' " .) arc: dcmcD ts from ,.ii ,M ,
then. metric can be pYUI by 1he form ula :

P(lr.y) '" i: . !. .
" . I 2"
p" <.-r,,. y ,,)
I + p" (X,,, y.)
urc1M 2. Verify that pis . metric and that the topolo,y ind uced by It II
equ ivalen t 10 th e Tihonov topology . In part icWar. the Hilbert cube 1"" Ii.e., ccun -
ta ble product of Une-lf'lPIIf'IIts /) is. melriza ble lopoloaJcal apace .

It follow , rr<lm the TIhollOY co mpac tln car.loll th. <;>rc:m tbt the foll owillll propoa)t ioQ.
ror In5lVICe , II tlve :
THE OlliM . (\I ttVSON). II "l1I1msptJa wilh II W II" ' lIblt bo#" mt/rlvlbit.
TM proor b based on the ~ larity o r 1M fPtIC'l' U>d III COWlubl ebue _urinl tbo: .--
mallt r. of the lpac e."d It=ce Its complete rCf\lllrity.
Al.'cOfdlIlI tOlbe TIhOftOY 11\.eOrcm. ""dla II*" II embeddable ill lIICI.ial:>t.e ""'" r
Mol ~ ill ltxtr llO<\,iuhk. .
To c:oatllllloP, we II1ale A. Stoae'l Lmponulllllcofrm. 'ril tbata Jftdtiulbk rop%fictIJ
SJNIC' II ~,_

FU RTHER READ INO

T1llI elup'tr .iI. baiaIty. a .~ltD1ollion or d dudcaJ rnW or ....ma1 lqpoIon'

wbidl CUI be fOUl'ld III "'or. cktd iD .Ioto:tcuh.. IXcratl/. e 0- IIiN: wbjcct. W. WOIIId ~
IQClId. tlnt 0( all. _ bookl marked by tJIcir , JIIPtIltic .pprGKIllO the dcrtItIIII or letter"
(i .. XI"theo<ie) topoklo. e.. r",todllCrirHt 10 ~ 11ttot)r tIIUI Gm6tII ttJptJIfJV III by
AkuPdrUY. (}tow'" 1'Op(MoD (4$] by 1Cd1ey. and. OI/ltrfIl ThpoIou l61 by AIaar>ciryu and.
Mirudlan)'Ul . ".. boot< by A1c:u11dr ... amtaim a !JKrfuIl&h UlCOIUIt of XI theor)r ud many
of tlIc braItdIa or JC'Ift"aI topOloJ)', i1huuatilll w. w1tll I Il>lmtlct of Ibc dauicaI o:ampla
of I tlbspaott In Il l . Il ~. Ill . We Iln)qfJ . CCOIDDIClld tIlii boot 10 1lud...1I.
1lIe bask tapa; of aentral I~ CUI allO be fCNlld itI 11tIt'Ot/IMrfw.. 10 Di _ion
7'7ttoq by A1aandrov Pd PalY"kcw (wbt\lled flllFOdwfioit to TopoJofiClfl Spt T1rtf)ry
" .
Itd Ovwlfll DimtAAoto ~)
In , roduetlon 10 Topolofy

141. _ putJ or
!be lfUlisc by BourNkI Top%flt
~ 1111. 1IC""":owsJd', Topolov lU I, at>d PonU1Qbl '1 e -,/roIfOou; (;ro,.ps r6oll\.
"The to&loWt& bODb are - rul Utnl nwtriailO ~ Iopia IIl Ihit chapter : f'fnI Q/ eo-
CA__ Topo/lIkJo iJr Pro/MfM Md E:r:vriJa [7J bJ "'~ &lid P- . , -. Pro-
bk.oou ill ~tq [611 by NO'iikov n aI., ..." ProbJmw I" Di//6Vl1flIJ ~('7 tIItd
TopoWU 1'91 by Misbcbut:o Cl Ill.
lU rcpRls Indirid..al~, _ ~ &aU llIe follow!llt r~
Foo' Iho Itvdy or tllc -..u 01 ~ aDd meuk 'P"'C aDd I1Icircontill.. 0U5 -w-
III (Stu. I IlDlI 2), tJw cOllapCll:1lll.q: ~ or tlIe above tiIIes art ,ClC:CJInII\oOIl.
5. J. The ~ of r~ or spKC 11 _ I IborouPl1 apooJfded in me boot; by JWlc)'
1"'1 (Cl.tlf), IDCl lhat by BolirtIUi l it] (0..1. Sec. 1).
sec Tbl: dllSlifieation or doled Iwo-dirnen1iolllll ,urf_
Is pr.wlled well '" Scifet1
and Tbt cllrlll 1711(01 . VI). UId . morcmodun Ippm.tb by Ralr.c\man et al. ln Jnrrodwtlo"
/0 Dl/f~mrlksl Geom#try 'r,. 1M ~ . [1)1 (~. 101.and by Massey in A. "~"'k TopoIou:
AII1",ro<!ttloll Inl. (01. I).
S. J. The COll<:epls of projti-.e &lid lens opaa call bol ah,l<l.lod from Tdeman 1191
(eb . I, $. 10). seifert and ThrC'llfall PI] (Ou . II, IX), lAd F\lc:hl et al. in Hom otopy
T1wot7 [321 (01, . 1-(1).
SeQ . 6 &net 7. ne c1onl. opcr"lolll. boundary oPa ll or of l id In' ropolo.icall pate,
etc. , u rn lcd 10 A1C1<&11dTo. \11 (01 . IV. S<c. I), A1c:w>llrQ'<l uId Pasynko Yl4] (01 . I.
Sec. I), Bo... bl.ki II' J (01. I. sec. I), and Ktlle7 [41] (0. O.
S. I . As far as COtIIliDuoo.II _1lPlnai ar ~ collC:Cf1>Clll. _ would like 10 , ..... mtllCOCI the.
boot by Kdlcy (~ (OI. 3).
S-. " 12. 110e IhearJ li t PfOd= tlIPlItop', CIlIIlI*tCdoClol, ~. aorwWilJ or
!OPOlOIl<* - . - '" d taaivdy "-1lcd by AIa:androo. Ia (3) p . VI, Sec. .(I , AIQudn>
MId ~ (41 (0.. I, 5. 1), KdIey ItSI (01 . 3), CI4 EkubW (II] (01 .1. Sec. .(I.
Sec. n . TIle COllCqIf of Ihl: COlftIl&CQlaS of, IoJlOloI:k:aI ~ cao be nfcncd 10 '"
......yo(W:Movcbllob. W~ -'d rflXlmJDCll<1I3.4. 1'. 4$, 67. 1tI . l1IO\lIb ~ "r
tnqln ,be ItrlIlilloIlIc'. _ _I dosdy follow 141. In pU1lallw. it dloouId be noted lIIat ..
pmcnl no ~Iy MltCpIed II:nlI fOf tile bask ~ 0( lIOIIlPK( spKe IIu butI
a\UllUbcd. w~ have dloI.ao IIIe ICnIl ' c<oa:lpeC:I spKl!S'.wbefeu \II I), 41.tDcy ,,~ sUI 10 be
bicoan pa1 In ..,.,.......... willi tbc ' etlll io>uocIuced by Alaudr......... UryIOtI (la. tOf [a-
stance. A M~OfI ClM\PKI ~ka/ Spaoa 1' 1whidl call also be T~ ror .
IIIOI~ profoland Mudy Dr Ihue Ilueslionl ).
Sc. 14. ~Iw mo,~ ,pcd,Uud U pol:Il lIr aomr"ll1S'l1lotJ (I.e.. ~t1eo.llon,
__riz8 tioo) ..e ~ pou ndtd in IIUs MClIon . ~'or , dceprr WIlienl&odl .... Ke 13. 4. IS, 79).
 Homotopy Th.ory
One o f the main meth ods o f topolo JO' is to study Ihe g eometric
properties o f topological s~ a1a cb nUcal1y . A n u mber o r a p-
p roaches have been u sed in topoloaY t o assodatc a IOpolO~
apace with a nu mber or al gebrai c;: o bjects, '"'th as gr o u pll and M il.
A!&dlraic topolO8Y h as the a.mc idea u odctlyi D& it, viz. th at there
is a colTcspooden (or fwteto r) llSSOCia tiD8 a collection o f
to pological spaces w ith a ecuee ucn of ceftaj n al&cb raic cejee e .
and con t inuous m appings o f spaces wi th the corr Clpon dina
h omomorphism. . TIl ls fl.loet o ri ll1 a p proac h ma kes possib le the
red uc tion o f a lo po)ogiC<ll p ro bl em 10 a sim ilar aJ.,scbralc o n e . The
solva bility o f the ' daived ' a1.ebraic: pl"o blem in many cascs impUc.s
IM l o f the ori&lnal topolopeal p roblem.
One o f lhc lin t concepts th at have arisen o n Ih b Wily is that of the
fundanKDW lToup o f a topolo(ic:al s.pace; late r a more lIlt-ncR l
oonoe p t , th at of b omotopy aroup$. has bcc:n in lrOd u ced. 1t it: 10 the
la u e r lhat the p r_ t chapte r is devo ted.
 I. ~PING SPACES. HOMOTOPIES.
RETRA CTIONS, AN D DEFORMATIONS

This ~etion studlt$ the set of aU cont inu ou s ntappinis of one lopol08ical space
to an other . Vario us topol OSies can be Imreduced on thb sct th eceby turning it i~:o
vario us lo pological spaces. The con nect edness o f this space Is a pllMicularly Impor-
tant qu estio n , wh ich na! urally leads us 10 lhe idea of homotopic map pings, whe as
the consi deration of speelal classes o f ma ppings an d thei r ho moto pies lea d' uSIO th e
concepls o f the de fo rm illion of one 'pace into another, of retract lc n , etc. All these
lncePb play important roles in homotopy th eory.

1. The Spa ce of Co ntinuous Mappings. Ccnslder the set C(X. Y)of

all con tinuous m appinS5 fro m a topoloSkal s pace X to a lo pologk a l space Y. The
propert ies o f this SCt . an d many of ui cse of the spaces X . Y , are inte rrela ted . One
d Olph: elUlmple is th aI if X is one-po iot, lhen C (X. Y) .. Y . whe re the sisn - '
means II biJo:etlon.
A topo logy may be introduced o n the:ICt C(X. n.
as o n IIIny olher. in different
waYs. This mak es us ask how It sh ould be done in t he most natural man nes. An in -
tuitive idea of the nea rness of ma ppinss may help cQn'liderably to set tle the issue.
Two mappingsfj.f} ar e ~Id to be If~r if the Imasesfl (x) and!}(x) for any point
x E X are near in Y. If Y I, a me tric 5P~ the n these no tio ns are eJIl prC$sed in turns
o f the metric o n Y. Renee, var1ouslopologles can be int roduced o n the set C(X, Y).
,,~ . the topology of point wise convergence . the topology o f W1i(orm convergence,
etc.
Jr ( Y . p ) is a met ric spa ce and X is compact, Ih= lhe sel C(X. Y} is equ ipped
with II metric p. th us :
P. (jI.f2J '" ~~ p(fl ~}.h f,r.fl .h e C(X, Y}.

DEFINITION]. The to po!O.ilY ~I on C(X. Y) as d etermined by Ihe metric,. Is calle d

the lopology of lllli!<-m co"wrgenc~.
Exttl'd su.
1. Verify that ,. possesses ee propenlu of a metric.
2 . Consider a con versent sequ encef,,!./in C(X, Y ) an d give an equ ivalent defi ni.
tkmof co nvergence In terms o f a topoloSYon Y. In the case o f X = 10, II. compare
Ihls con vergence w hh uni fonn convergence in C tO, II'
DEFINITION 2. Consider in C (X , Y) the set s (K,. VI!:.. I = if E C(X, Y ) : !~,) E
E VI' i = I .. kl,where XI' x}... .. ,x~ E X , V I' ... , V~ ll.re open StU in Y. The
topo logy 1'1 generated by these SCIS in Ih eir capacity as a su bbase is called the
IOpoJOflJ' of pailllwist! t:OIflleTgf!ftCt! on C(X. Y).
Ex~n:ises. '
form (Kf' vilt = I a nd their finite inte:r.sec tions sa tisfy Ihe
3. Verify Ih al SCIS of the
criterion of a base.
4. Consi d er a sequence VII/l ha t Is co nversenl 10! in a given tapalOI)' and p rove
 Illlroc!o.lCll.....to Topoloar

~~at:y=~~~. is equivalent '0 the ronve:rael'lte of the 5eq uellCe$j~'"' ) - f ()c)

S". Given the X( (YJ.exofthe nplicuof 1. 1pKC: Y which ha ve the dernel'llJ ~ ~ X

1.1 th eir JUbsc:ripu and the T lbol\O'i product !1x y..,
Ibow th.t the ", C (X , a.ll n
be ilknc iflCd with svbset of this produa, and tlW the product topoJosy induces
t he topolol)'ofpoinlwisc ~ ~~ on C( X , Y).
~ followilt& defU\.O)n supplies ~ ~ of I. ~ on the X( C(X , Y).

_.
DEf'L~1TIO!'l J. ConsI def.n possib le Ids of _ ppinss o f th e fonn
IK, U] - liE C (X , Y} : / l$l CUI.
wbmi K compa<:1lel in X , aDd U an open set in Y. TbetOpo&os,y ~J ,encnted by
thc:K leU lK, Ul as I. svbbase is caBecl. th e ('OIflpGCtoOf"" topolou on C tx, Y).

6". Verify that the fam,ily of 5dS IK, Ul , and t heir finite ia teneaions satis fy the
erherion of I buc.
-,.. Show tlW ~J < ~J' Ind tlW~) < ~I ror . rno: tric spaa: .
I ". Pr~e t hai If Y is metric: spaa: an4 X Is compact, then th e eom pact-opul
10POJos)o coinciQc, with the topOIoay of uni form ro nverlence.
to. If X is. DOllQ)m,pact space and Y is a metric space , the n sequences o fmappin;:s
wbich &n! unlfonnly eonvergem on IUIY compact $IIbset of X Ani o ften eonsidered..
Sho w that this converl ence is equivalent to tbe con verse nte in Ihe compact-open
t o po lQlY.
10" . Pr ove that If (Y , p ) Is a complete me tric space. the n 1M space C(X , Y) is
eomplete met ric 'pace In the metrit: ".
II " . Show Ihl t if X Ii loc.ny compact , lhen the spaces C (X x Z, Y} and C(Z,
C(X, Y)) are hom.eomOfPhic In the c:ompac:t;r:n topoJoiy .
The JPIleeC (X, Y} is o flnl denoted by Y .. The il&t~t of Eurcise I I an
then be wri llen u yX "Z '"' ( yXy (th e txpOM"tW p ) .
By way o f u eumpk, roasidcr the spice of crpcrlodic colllin llQW fUl'let101\$
wbkh lI'e dermed OIl th e nWllber line R I . By virlue o f thei r paiodieity, cadi of
these fllDCliomj ls com pld.dJ determined by lu nlllCS Oll !he Iinc-sqpnc:nf to, .. J,
ud / (0) '" j(.. ). tberdon, we .avally COII!"ider I Kt of fuDctioN on the tiIle-
stpDent 10, ...1~ Q U"emitks are '&!ued tosether' or, wbat is equivalent. oa !he
drcumf~_S I . This is th e Kt C(S I, R I) on which eadl o f the topolosics ~I ' ~:to ~I
llUIy be ImrocNecd.
The fuoaioJl spaoc: eIII be ~ in th e _ wa y OIl th e tCJr\lS:
r' : C(r' . R I) ... C~I X ... X S l, R ' ).

Th is eIII be Intcrpm ed u the ~ o f periodic fll11etklm in If variables .
2. Homotopy. It t urns OUI in llWly probkms that lwv m.ppiDp, one o f ..bieb
CIII be d1qod '';Ihou l I.bruptlleu', t.e., deformll.'d into the Olhet , an liable to
pow1lk ickml ~. A c:ontiDIlOU$ defonnation o f DOC IDlfppinl ioto another can
be nl tutllly thoua/tt of is path In the IPf,Ol: C(X, Y) wbkb bqins and ends at
 0 . J. Ho motopy Th<<><y

alven POin u/ l andh . Brouwer mad e th e co~cpt o f co nllnuo us deformation mor e

precise wilh the aid of lhe foUowina co ncept o f homotopy.
DEFINIT ION 4. 1'wo con tinuo us map pings 10. I I a C (X, Y) are said to be
homotopic (10 - I I) if ther e exists a co ntinuous mapping/ .. X x [0, I] - Y such
that/(. , 0) = 10(.).J(., I) '" II(.) for all ...E X .
1lIt mapping lis oft en <:a!led a ho mo topy connecting lhe map ping l o lOl l'
Th us, if / o - I I the n there is a fa mily of mappings /, ; X - Yt hat d"epcnd on a
nu merical parameter I e iO, II ilJ\d connect the map pl"i/o lo/l so tha t the mappi ng
X X 10, IJ - Y induced by l his family by 1M ru le (X, r) - I,(l") i~ cont inuous . The
con verse is ob vious .
E:arci$c 12 . Show that alving a homotop y I : X x [0, IJ - Y is equi valent to
specifying a path t in C (X, Y) (the topology being TJ' X loc ally com pact) .
E XAMPLES.
I . Let X =Y _R w , 10Vr) -x. I l(x) = 0 for an
xE R~ . We define
F :R" x I - R " asF (l",t) - (\ - f )x , te l . It Ise&3Yto5CC thatF l$ahornotopy
betwten fo and/l
2. Let X be an arbitra ry space, Y a convex subset In R" , aruJ l (pll e C (X, Y) ar-
bitrary cont inuo us mapp ings. Then the rnapping F : X x 1- Y, given by the for -
mula FV:,I) = fII Vc) '" (I - IVo (X)' in homotop y between/oand/.
Note thJlt lhe concept of homot opy is related 10 th e mapping extenslon prob lem .
In fact, It t J, r : X - Y be tWO con tinuo us mappi ngs. Defmina a mappi ng
.. : X x {OJ U X x II) - Y b y the formu lae ~(. , 0) .. f Vr), ~(X". I) .. r(X), ills
easy to see lhat! - 8 if and o nly if there oislS an extension of II' to X x to, I).
THEO REM I. A homotopy is an eq.. i \lO~<:r friO /io n Qn t/lr S#!/ C (X , Y) .
PROOF. The reflexiVity (I - n is estab lUhed by using the homoltlpy FVr, f)
/ (X) .
Symmetry. Assume thar 1 0 - II with the hom oto py F (;f , f) , then f ix, t) ..
.. F C;f, I - t ) defines a homo topy rrom /. to l D, t.e. I . - !rr
T ransitivity. Lct / o - 11'/ 1 - / 2 wilh hom otop ies F l (Jr, I ) . F2(x , f ) , respec tive-
11. Th en the mapping .
,. ) (Ftc , 2t) ,
H .... , f ...
1 f'" 112,
0 .;;
F2 tc. 2t - I ), 1/2 " I " I
is <:onlin1uous, since its restriction to each of the closed sets X x [0,~ ] and
X x ['2' I] u co ntinuous. It is easy to sec lh al H (x , I) a
is hom olOPYbclween/o
a nd I I'
Th e ecowereoce classes o r ho moloPic ma ppings are ca ned IlOfII OfOpy classtS .
Th e Iactct set C(X, Y )/R ts denot ed by 7:f)(, Y).lt is casyto sec ti'a t'l'(X, Y)is lhe
set of palh cc mponems o f th e spac e coc.
Y ) . Th e homolOpy class of a mapping
Ie C(X, Y) is denoted by (Jl .
DEFINIT ION ~. A mapptna l e C (X , Y) is called a ho mo topy ~ .. i\lOlelJC~ if lher e
ex;sts a map ping g eC{Y,X)such thalgf- l ... Iy. .n -
 lnuod uetlo o 10 T o polaJ)'
'"
Dl3I'lNmON 6. A space X is~;e;t to be homOlopy "lli/l/flkn' 10 . space Y . or X and
y ~ 10 ha ve t he same ItOftto ropy tyPt if the re uists homotopy equivalence o n
C (X. Y) .
The c:oneept o f homotopy Clqulvalenec i' uMful 'we.rsenio&" o r lhal o f
homeomorphism o f tWO sptleeS. ln ran. iff ; X - Y Is. bomeomOlJ)hi.sm th en .
bavtnl put, .. /-1 : y - X , _Ihall have" - Ix./' .. I y r.e., Ihccond ilXin
(OS" the: hoInotopy c:quivaknee of X and Y. ln view o f tbu, t he maWma ,
In the
definition o r . ho motopy cqul.... lcti ce Is &il.id l.O be' homotopy ln~ to/'
llIe Slmpl$ (oonempty) ropo lo&ical spllce is oncpoln t. We lhaII now coruida
wtIicb sp&oe$ have th e $&JI'IC bomo~o py type as a point.
DEFINITION 1. A SPla: X It $Aid 10 be COf/r/'flcrltJIc> it the Identity mawini
I... : X - X is homotopic to con u ant mapping tte.. the mappin, of X Imo
pa m .ro t! X). The homo top y between them is called contraction of the space X
(Into a po ln! .rc).
Eun:J.Je 13- . Prove th at My tw o mappings of a spa ce X InlO a contractibk SplLCe Y
an homoto pic to one an otha-.
THBOIl.M 1. A .sptIN is co"trodib k if and on ly if It lias 1M SIIff'HI type AS tI POi,u .
p aOOF. Let X be I;OIlIr-a.ible, and : X x I _ X a contraction o f X 10 a point
"'0 11 X . DalOfe the OQe-1lGint space consistiD S o f th e point ...o by Q. l.c1., : X - Q
be a Ulappins m to the poiIIt ....an d j : Q - X an cmbecldlnS. Then!Pi = '0'
artd .
is a lilOlnOlopy eonnectin, 1x wilhj~ . ThIB, ~ is homotopy ~uivakncc bciwecn X
UHl. Q. The pmof of OK convene b k ft to th e ruder .
-.-
I.. . PI'o c l hat any CODvn IU~ in R fm partkular, If" itsoeU) is COQ lntetible.
15 . Prove thai the s~ X x Y is contractibk If X an d Y an: oonlJ'adiblc~ces .
l . Extending Mappings . We DOW CODSidcr the mappq u lC11$ion pr ob lem .
It can be fonuw.tc1 th us : Can a i1VVl ma pp!.n, f : A - Y defiJled on a .ubspace A
o f a space X beUlended to the whok space X , Le., b there a mapplngop :_X ~ Y
such Ihat its testri<.:lion op l A : A - Y coin cid es with th e mllppl naf? SUch. ma~in&
'" is called t11e utens.ion o f the mappin gf.
The solUl lon n f Ihls problem has o nly be en found for ee me speci al cas es . and a
complete e:ctCns:OD throry has not yel been cre ated . On e exam p le o f II part ia l setu -
tlon of Ihis problem Is the Tleue-Uryson theorem f or normal $paces, which we
prOftd in Sec. 12,01. U .
The fo llo...ma theorem q"blbbc:s the ronnec:tlon betwee n the m appiltSl Ulen
sion pro bJc:m an d OK mtlC'qM of homotopy.
THEOR.E.'of). U I to: S" - Y H. M ,dinllolU 1ftQPpi/t4 a/ ' M " n ;r spMre.-T1ten lite
/olIowi~ ;wo eondirions fUll! eqlllwr""r:
(i) tlte _ppin8" is Itamotopk ro rite uIonr mop",n, :
(Ii ) lite ",oppi~ '" arI'I _ C)lle"d/ ro rltl! ..ltole boll ]}"'" I C R ""
PRoo' . (I) - 00 ; LeI f - e . wtIen: e is Uti constant ma ppin, of S" into a pom l
p e Y. LeI F : S x I - Y tie a homol: opy bctwca'lfand e. We spedfy the ea ten-
 01. J . H olllO((tpy T heory
'"
sio n /" or the: mappillll / to lhe b.lI lJ~ + I lUi follo wl :
Po O .. lxt .. 1/2.
(x ) ,
/" f,x) ... {
F ~ _, ,2 _ 2id ' 1 " 'xl"
I.
It is easy 10 I thalf ' l S'" ... fand Ihat / ' is conuml0U5sincc its rcsukUons to udI
o f Ihe dosed le ts
~ e l5" + I : O" l d .. 1121. ~ E b" + I : I n " Ix' " IJ
are eonlinUO\lJ.
(II) .. (0 . lei r. Ihe ule!15ion o f f to the whole b all [Yr.'. be gjven . ~
Yot!' S~ . We d efine th e mappinl4>: S X 1- Y lU
4>f,x. 1) - /" ((I - t ~ + ty ol.
II is clear Ihal +(x. 0) .. /" (x ) - f(x l. 4' f,x. I) .. /"V,p .. p e Y. an d therefore
. "'. t) is lhe required ho mo topy .
EnrcUu.
Hi- . Show tblll any mappinaj" o f a space X to a oontraalble spaoe Yis homolo pi<: to
a tor\$Wlt mappin g (er. Ex . (3 ) .
17- . Usin, the resul t o f tbe pre viou s es ercee, deduce from Theorem ) th at an y
mappiD, of th e ~ S" 10. contraetiblc sp.aoe t:&n be eJtl en<kd 10 th e who le ball
b""
4. Retra ction . A lpo;ial o;ue o f the: enension P1"obll"m iii that of a f'maction
enunciated in the roUowinj; manner.
DEflNlTlON a. Lcf.A ~ a IUbspate of X ,and I A ; A - A th.c: identity ma ppm, . If
then oats a mappin.1" : X - A $\IclI that 1"1A .. lA' l hen it is ell1Ied a retTrlCtlDn
of X onto A , and ee spate A a n lNlet of X .
Exo<I>u.
II". Veri fy th" t any point o f a topo lo&lcal $paCt X Is a retract o f X .
19". Verify th aI any linear SI.Ibfpaoe In R ~ J..s. retract of R" .
:W-. If Z .. X x Y is the Tih on ov prodl1Cl. of spa ces an d P E X. q E Y arc rued
poi nts, th en A .. X x q. B .. P )( Yare relrac ts o f the space X x Y. a nd the
mapp ings,X : e, y ) - lx, q). I"y ; <K. y) - (P . y ) are th e COlTespondin. eetrec-
tion , .
21- . Sho w th at the zero-d imensw nal sphe le SO '" (- 1. 11is not a retr act o f th e one-
d imeml onaJ d isc 1)1 :0 ( - I. IJ.
tlilll: \he lhe properties of OOIIneam opKa.

DEFINITION 9. If thcte e:x.Uu a mappina , : X - A web LhIU riA - lA ' thm A is

uIIed . _ t n t rtlCt or x , where&l r . _ t ~"tlt:f1D1t 01 X 00 A .
It U e&I)' to see thai. retract is a1.... ys a walr rdraa . Ge nerally speakin . Ihe:
r:onvcTle il lIot e:otTecI. which Is dcrnonPratcd by the followina u erciJe .
Jcvrbe U - . Givell alqUarc P " 10.1 1)( (O. l l a nd iu su!:oietA . a 'cornb spac:e '
eon sistln a o f (a ) ..c:rtical line_Kamc:nu wbosc: bas al e: aI. Ihe poi nt l ( I h l . 0) .
". Intl'OdtlCllonlO Top%t:t

F". 54
" .. I . 2, ... ; (b) (0, 0), and (el ltte ba.se o f th e ~\Iarc (Fil _$4). Sh ow thai (j ) th e
llel A is not . retract of the $Q uare / 2. (ii) A is. weak rd r.cl or J 1 , ( ui) if finll:c
nllmb of teeth are lcft in the com.b space' A, then t he set A . thai We o bll in is .
retrac t o f ] 1.
DEPJNITION 10. A h omot opy D ; X x 1- X Sl.lch t ha t D4I<. 0) .. ~ , and
D (;c , I) e A for a.lI x e X. Is ea1Ied a dd omllltion o f. space X into a subspace A .
DEFIN IT ION I I . if Ihc~ u/sts Q d(fomwUon of X into A , D : X x I-X. SIKh
tha! Df,K, t ) .. .x fox Ii EA. ,., f. IhctI A i$ a.lled stroll, dq Qmlt1t ion " /rv ct of

_.
X. and D stl'Oll6 dif_ tiolr IVrrtJdiott.

_.
EXAMPu;, J . A point is.. Walla dd om uu ioo n: trl a of any COllell subXt of R IO c:on-
tainu.a it.
()tha examples o f $lroq d cfocmalion tetrans ar c liven in the: foUowill&exer-

23- . ut A sPIK'C X be c:ontrKfible 10 a point %ol!! X . Show t ba l Xo X Y is a ..ron,

defonmo ti on retnrcl o f the p rodUCt X x Y. In pat1kuJar . m nloidu two-
dltnmsiona! eyii nd er and sbo,.. t hai lu hue is $lI"o n, de fonnatioa retrad .
24. Verify l u t the Ye!1t:ll of. co ne In t hree-d imcnslonlllspaa: is a wong d~fonna
(ioI! rw a et o f Ih" eene .
U - . Sh ow th ll! a Slro ng d cf or mat io n retract A of I !plIoeX l! homo (GPYeq uivalent
(oX.
H int : lhe embed d ing' : A - X a nd t he r~l rllCl io n D (I . ~) o f t he $p8C~ X onl oA
are homot opy inverse .
, . M apping Cylinder . Co nsider some o~ ralio'" o ver topologica l spa1: fin l .
TIt" lop%lkrd"'''' (d4ft>1n1 'I nio n) X v Y of l wo) spaoe$ X . Y is de fined as Ih~
tllIIiOll of th~ dis joinl ~pl lc.u o f X and Y.
Th~ topoloay 011 X V Y Is dermed as fo lloW5: V is o pe n in X v Y if .nd Ollly ir
y n X Itld Y n Y are opal In X and Y . respe<:th.cly. .
Ifj : A - Y is . eon tin \lOl' ma ppinJ; . ... hel"~A C X . th en X and Y anbcpue<i
(Ol ethes- "'; th rc:spo:a 10 th~ mapping f. With Ihis in mind . we introdllCll: In
equivalence rela tion 00 X v Y Ihl':
R , ... - :? if x E A , :T E Yand j (lr) _ y ;
..., - Xl if "', . %1 E A *Jd/(rl) - /(r~.
 Ch . 1, HomoI09Y T heory
'"

The factor 5PM'C' o fthe spaa X V Y with rcspec;t 10 the cqu i.,.1enu R II. ckaoled
byX U j Y and called lb", ~ ofthe ~Xand YwM respect to the mawinl
f. If , in p.anku.W . A II. I poiDt Xoe X. and the ~/ : X - Yc.arriaxo inlO
YO - /~c} . then the tewiq X U/ Y 11 Q)Ied the ~ of the lpaca X . Y and
4erloted by Xzo vJ Y. Il ls easy II) see thlt t his 1I lb e factor 5PKC o f the d~t
uld on X V y with rupor;t 1.0 the ClIuivtlcnc:c: matioo aJWna toacther the pol,,"
ED_X andYoe
.ro~ _ Y.

26- , Show lb at th e hom oto py type of the wedce X x v)f. y c:olncidCll with Ihe
homot opy type of th e 'pate Y if X Is ton Lract ible to th ~ pot ll XO E X ,
27 , Prove th at the tincsmcnt / ... 10 . I) a nd the wro ae / 0 V" s'. wh crepo. s-,
o E I , hive two d itreren t hODlOtopy types , 0

Let/ : X - Y be II co nt inuo us mappln a . Then """,m ay ass ume t hat

DEl'Il'llT tON 12 .
the -ppma "' : X )t (I} - Y , .. ~, I) - / fJr ) is ckl1ned , whae X )t (I ) is
su bspal)e of X x I. The. cylirtdu Z/ Q/ 1M mlIp~ I : X - Y is II .ew!na
(X )( 1) U. Y of the .paces X )( I and Y wi th rcspq;t to the rnapplDa .. .
'The mappiq qUn6cr ea.ll. be leprew:nted &$ It Is depicted 10 Fla. 11 .
The eeoe e o f mapp lna cylinder Is Imponant seeiDa tha t X and Y can be cca-
aidc red to be IU~ o f Z, Thill, th e mappina/ il.ep~.1n a sense, b y the
embocldlna of Xinto 2,. Note a1so t hat Y il a.!rOIl& deronnatioa tetrad o f Z, . aIId
the em bedd ing o f Y into Z, is a homO't opy eq uivakna (veril'y l).
DEFINITI ON i3 . Th e cylinder of II ronst ant m ap pmsc : X - pili called .COIl~ ov er
the . pa ce X IUld denoted by CX.
THEOREM 4 . A mapPIIl,! : X - Y B homotopic /0 a CotUtlllll OM if (Ind onl)' if
/MtY exislS an exloos/oll : ex -
Y ol /h. mQpplnll f ,
PIIOOP. Iff is homotopic 10 th e const an t mappioa '"0 : X - (0), tben
F : X )( 1- Y . Ff./t . 0 ) - .... Ff.r:. I) ... ( 0).
F u; conRanl OIl tb<t uppoer base o f dw:cytin dcr X )( I . aDd th~fD<"C: induus
l llll.li,
me rnappin,s F o f lbe (KiD<" spKC (X )( I)/R . whfn R Sla.nds foc shri nkirla the
'" lmroduet;o n TQ Topol oS}'

upper base to a point. But t he sp a~c (X x I) /R i~ homeomorphic 10 ex (vttifyl ).

The proof of the converse sta tement is left to the reader .
~e'cises.
28- . l ei a mappingl : A _ Y be conti nuous, A C X closed in X and X . Y normal
spaces. Pr ove that X UI Y is norma l.
29 . Pro ve that f : A - Y can be extend ed 10 all X (A C X) if a nd only if Y ill a
ret rac t o CX U I Y.

2. CATEGORY, FUNCfOR AND ALGEBRAI ZAT ION

OF TOPOLOGICAL PROBLEMS
A d~ription of a mathematical o bject in terms o f <:alqO ries implies thai thi!
object, for instance. II group or a space, 15 considered as a member of a colkct ion of
similar object s rather IhM separa tely. Inl uitively, a category can be represented 11$ a
collection of seu (possibly, with an add itional st ruct ure) IU1d map pinp llgTceing
with this structu re. Correspondences betwee n elements of di fferent catego rie.t o bey -
ing special rujes are caJkd/unc'on,
I. Category. DEf iNITION I. A calegory d is said to bcll ivl!n i f l ~re D,regiven:
(I) 1I certain collection o f o bjects : (ii) for each ordered pair cr cbjects X , Y, the set
Mor~. Y) of morph~ms~ fro m X to Y , and (iii) a mapping " socialing any
ordered Sd of three objects X, Y, Z a nd any pair of morphismsj G Mor~X, Y),
tE Morg(Y, Z) with their core pcsntcn gfeMor...,<X. Z) , Thu s, a commutative
diag ram o f the morph isms in the given category (Ihe morp/lisms being denoted by
arrow s) results:

,/~
., ,
furthermo re, two properties must be fulfilled:
(A) AssocWtM ly. l/
/G Mor...,(X, n . 1l e Mor..,(Y . Z ), h e Mor..,(Z , W) ,
then
hfgf) "" (hg lf in Mor Jiil (X, W) ,

(B) The existence o/the Idtnti ry eltmt nr, For any objtet Yin Mor..,..{ Y, n, then:
exists II morphism / y S/lrh Ihot/ or rmy/e M or~ , Y) , g E MoruCY, Z).
t" - j llnd S 1Y "" Il

II is amunc<l that M orp , Y) n M or p ' , r ) . .. .. hen X .. X and Y 0#- y ' ,

 Ch . 3 . Homolop y TheC"y
'"
Note that t he uniquencM o f the clement I r fo llows from Ihe abo ve pro pert ies;
this elm\Cnt 11; caUed Ihe ldenliU' morphism of the objecl Y. If fo r two morphnmJ
jE Mor.-(X. n., e Mor.....<Y. Xl, the equal it)''' Ix is .,.lid. then the mo r
phism , ls h id to be I<ft m'Hn(! o f I, andjr1lllt jn~~ of,. A morpllism wltidl is
both ri&ht and lef t in VffK o f 1 is said 10 be rwrHidcd i t t _ of f.
DEFINITION 2. A rnorph illDje Mo r...,(X , n
Is c:a1lofd &1\ tqlliwlknu (f : X .. n
if there ellists a morphismr I E Moc.-(Y. Xl which i.s a t~ ided irlYa'SC o ff.
~ I . Prove thai. if a morphism/_ Mor...,.(.\'. nposses.sc.sa left in verse and a
risht ie verse , then they coincide.
It f~ from t he C1Cfasc that ifj : X .. Y , thcnr I : y - X .
Here arc lOme importUIt examples of etn qoriet..
I. The col1cdion of wu and thei r mappinp .
2. The c:ollcak)n o f mccric spaces an d tbcir con tiDuou s mappinp.
1. The collCC1ion of lopoloaieal sp.aca and their con tinuous mappings
.. . The <:olieclOon allinear spaces and tltrir linur mappinas.
~ . Th e <:oIIecr.Oon o f grou ps and tbeir homomorphisms .
6. The oolltloo of pair. o f toPO!OJ,ical19&OCS Uld lheir c:ontin uous rnappinp.
By a PQ;r 01 (opo/0llul spaces <X, ..4), we mean a sp ace X an d us SUb$PilC'C A .
The moPpin i 01 P4fnj : <X, A ) - (Y. B) Is a mappin, j :X- Y such tha t
[( A) C B.
Exen:i#1.
2". Show Ihat In ca teiories ofExamplcs 2, 1, an d 6, the ho meom orph lsRU and only
the)' an! equ lvalence.s.
J O. Verify thaI the equiv alences In the cate, ory of Exam p le 1 arc bijective mappio8s
of SCII.
4 . Sho w t hat Ihe eq uivalenc es In Exam ples 4 I nd ~ a re isom orp hisms of linear
spaces an d Iroups, respectivel)'.
2. fUNCTORS. We wID considernalural mappinp o f one categorylO another. t.e., t he
mlp pin,. wh ic:l1 ~e t he identity t1emmu U1d compositio ns of morphislN.
Here we enunciat e th is eooc:epl more prcel.sc:ly.
DEftNrrlON l . Lc I . atld !Jl be twO au,ories. AOOWlrialttjWlCN T from.,llt'lo 9
is. ma ppin, wlUo::h associates each objea X from .,IIt'with an object T (X) fro m !iI .
and U$iansto c:acb ntOt'J)hismj : X I - X) in JII"" a morphism T(f) : T (X ,) - TtX:J
in 9 . ...hlle the follow. relatio ns ar e InK :
( I) T (l x ) - IT~ " ro T~ . TlI )TV}.
Properties ( I) IIlId (2:) of a funetoo" ~ be visuaiJ)' repo-cscnted as follows: an)'
commuw ive di.qram o f the ca.lqor')' d is mapped by I functor iDlo th e c:on-cspond-
ins commutative diq:ram o f Ihc catqo ry !Jl:
x. fiX '

I, \. ----,----"'1 ""
IC,
91'
_~ """" > - .... ,
.. ~ ,. r(o,,- .. ~ :>'"
om

EXJo..\lPLE 7. A c.ovviant tIInccor is .. c:on-apondCtlOl:assodatin, a lOpOIop:al ~

with the set of all poiD[J W I mab iI up , and .. C9'!IUIIIOUs ml,ppiq of 5~ with ..
mappina o f ICU. This is .. flllnc;tor Crom th e Q Uiory of Eumplc ) 1.0 the CIltEJOry o f
Eulnple 1. II II sald to bc/Mpifwl, sina it 'fOrJelS' t he IO~PeaI spa strtK"
tu re.
Similar ly, " co" ariant fl,lnttor from the c.tc, ory aC metric IpactS to the CIl1c:aory
of topolo p lp,oes .... ith the IOpoJo,y induced by t he m etric ' forget s' the metric.
DE.RN ITION 4. A contraWJriant fu nctor T from a calcllory d lo .. caleg ory 51 is a
mappiq whitb assoa-tc:s each object X from ,g( with an ob ject Ttx) fr om 9. alld
e.ch IJlOrPlW.m f :XJ - XJ with:ll morphism Trf) ; TfX~ - T(X l) from
Morg(Ttxil . T(X ,. wtliIc the follo'll'iq; rdwollS ar c fulrdJcd:
(I) T Ux) IT (.\')' (2) Tfd) '" T {f) T CI)
In other words, .. OGIltravananl funaor tnnsforms tbe almmulati.c d.iqralll o f ..

I x,'(___ 11
a llc,Ol'J' AfilUo the commuta tive diq;ram or .. Cll!q ory 9 , rnersina; the-arrows:
1/1. '
L ._ '\11/1
~---g;--Xa 7(1(,1 T(gll l flC,1

lmportaat eu.mpies ofthc funaon I11died in alicbnic lOpoIogy are bomoIoO

110UP and homotopy poup fultdon. These an: f\UlC1OfJ r' QIn the dtclory of
lopoloPeal spaca to the utCJOl')' of IJ CKlp'. in the IlCX!sedloll. we sbalI d....d1 at
knJt.b OQ homotopy ItOUP fuQCtoQ. whereas bomolou JIOUP f'uno:ton will be <<In-
IicIam iII 0 . V.
Wc naw lCIJIder aD eumpJe o f how I. f'ImetOr 10 the a.lqory of S10UPS Il I.~
plied to th e invesliptlon of IiOrDe 10poloalcal probleou. In the previouS se<:!lon, the
ml.PPina u.ll:lUion problem 'wu enuncia ted . We now form ulatc it &J foUows; let
A C X be I. subspace o f 1\ topOlogical space X, i : A - X thc ratu lal mappltlg
asscxbItinlll1y point a e A 'OI'I lh It~lf. bUI In lhc space X (I.c ., J is an embeddina
mlIPpin.a). an d ." : A - Y I. ml.PIlUta o f th e ~ A to I. ' PUC 1'. TlIe INIpplnl
;;, : X - Y u tends the rnapp\n& 'I if and only if thc dlqnm

as COI'\l.lnull.tive.
By meaDS or I. fu netor T (for eumpk , covariant), we c:.n deriv e an al&ebrlic
problem, ~ . b there a homomorphism T l$ ) su,b Ihalthe diaarAm
 Ch.l. H omola py Th cory
'"
It is clar thallhc $Oln bilit y o f th e orlJinal problem ~ntat1s th at of OW" llIa:cbr ltll:
problem . Th us, the exislen o f Ihe hom om Ol'pftl$Jl\ T c.;) is It neo;emsy t ondition
fo r an eIlun:do n ;; of th e mappina ....10 exist. For ....am ple, if the ho m omorphism
T (/) bappeos to ~ zuo. and T(f' ) nonzero . tlw.n the homomorphism T (;;}don not
uist (oth~. eommutati";ly o f the ~ would be ";olated), ItCId then t her t is
DO e.ttension ;' of the mapp ing ",.

3. FUNCTO RS OF HOMOTOPY GROUPS

In th1J 1ICCtion, we shall reuaec Ollt steps 10 the .aucty of topics touching upon
mappin, spaces. i o some CItSCS . th e sd 'I" (.X Y ) turN out to be a JI'Oup . 5ClJI'lctimcs
Abdian , and may be helpful In cons.1Ntt ing various al,ebraic functon on the
ea!eJOr)' of 10 pok)P::a! ~ and their continuous mappings. The: eolUtnKtion
and use of th CJe fWlCton form the basis fo r homotopy thCOT)' .
I. The Homotopy Group of a Space. Note: at li rS! that 10 each
lopoloaical space Y a"ch :ODtVluous ma ppin,j : X I - Xl of IDpolog.iul spa~ X ..
Xl' t here cOt!"C$ponds th e N1tllRl ma ppin l
1'Y{/) .: "'(Xl' n - 'I"(XI ' Yl
Mo re:euetly, if 1~1 e 'I"(X 2' y) then there is a u:ll qu . clem ent (~Il correspond -
ida 10 1ll'1 in 'I"(Xl' Y). Similarly . 10 M Y topologIcal space X and coruinu.ous map-
pina g : Y. - Y1,the:re corresponds the mapp ing
'l"x(g) ; ...(X, Y1l - .. tx. y v
Eun:lse.r.
1- . Dtsc ri be Ibe stnll;ture of "'x(g) a nd prove th e COlTectn lW o f t he dertnitiDn. of
.. Y(fj and " x Cg) . "
2- . Ulin, the nOles Jivcn . show that for " filled Y, t he:QIllTcspoDdcn oc X - 'I" (X .
Y) is " COfltravaOanl functor into lhe calCSot)' o f sets , and the eolTlCSpondence
r- n
'I" (X , (for a nltcd Xl is a C:01lllriant fu.nt tor .
The co rrt$pOOdcr1ce (X, Y) - ...(X , Y) iJ AId 10 dcrtne a bijU1fCl or fro Ql the
C&t~1Of}' of topolope:al sptlCC$ to the calqory of sets, wh ich is covariant with
IC$pecllO tbc If:<Xll1d ltIJumtDI aDd COGU'ltYariaru wilb respec t 10 the flrst ,
" bi func:tCll" " on the cateaOfY of pain o f toPO)O&ie&l spaces lk!crmined by the
COITC:SpO~ (X, A ; Y, B) - r ~. A. ; r,B ) may be coosidued in uimilar Wlty .
Note lhat the ho motopy F~ , I) between mappinp j and, : (X. A ) - ( Y. B) of
pair. o f splices Is. u.ncIcntood to be a mappin, o r pairs F : (X x I. A x I) - (Y,
B ) 5uch thM
F~ . 0) - f f;c)Jf;c, Il - ,f;c}.
E:rrl$r ) - . Da:c::ribe t he struerure of the ma pp ina
'I"(K. AI(/) ; ...(X, A ; Y l , B I) - r (X , A; Y1 8 V

nat urally induced by a co nl.inuow mappin, or pai raj : (Y I B .l - ( Y 2 B v . a nd

Yerify Ihal Ihe corrC$po nd cncc (Y, B ) - _(X , A; Y. B ) 15 a covariam funct or .
'"
l n lrodlld,on 10 Topoloty

DEFlNln ON I. The pair K, r~ is alled a /xlM!pt>ilrl spoc~. the base point bei Da
%0 e X.
Now, _ r", the pU (I , af"). wtlne / "Is I n 1I-dimc:lISiolUJ cu be. and iN " its
bouDdal'y. and a.nociale ltte pair (X. x~ with th e ~ :I" U" at" ; X , x t;}:
Rammbu thal the dements .. (I" , iJJ"; X . Jl~ ~ daJscs oCtile mapp\n&J o fpain:
.,: U . '/") - (X. ~ whid! art homotopic to one another and o Ren aIcd
~. EadI o f lboe rna pPinp CIl1ks J" 10 X . and , I" to the point . -, .
In addi
tion , tbiI pr ClpCrt y sbould be prcsenocd WMD the mappina .. Is dlll.A&! in lhc C01,lrW
of 1M homotopy. Thetets .. fj" , iJJ" ; X ,r~ and " CS" . Pfi, X. x~ coincidt(corrapond
bijecdvel)'). Hue Po Is base point of the 59bae S", In riel , _ noted earliff
th&I the raetol space 1"' iJI" is ho meomo<phie to thu pbae S ". the interior Ii'll of r
Ihe w oeI" bijeaivdY COI'TapondiDa under Ihis homeomorphi$rn 8 to thuet S" " Po>
Md the bo tmdary ar" bcinll lransfonned irno the point p oof the Iphae 5". A f'tfQ lil'fl
homeomorpJrls". i5 then sa;d \0 be pven, viz.
fJ : (I". iJl" ) - (S". prJ.
Reece, 10 Illy rnappina r.
(S ". p~ - ex.
rO!. there ~rrespondJ the mapplna
16 : V" , iU" ) - (X , ro>. and vice versa. to a mappin : U" , al ") - (X , ro>o the re
oormponds the mappillj i:
(S" , PO> - (X . r o> whKh coincides with 16 - 1 on
S~ ' PIJ> and eanics the poine Po kilO x o'
:uIri# ... . Show lbat this correspondCllCe bctWD lIIlappiDJs cnswesbijcctjon be-
IWIl ...~~ PO: X . xd and. ...U, ar; X ,xr}.
Th\lll. we have lIlVCII anolhu Iatupretal.ioo or t he 5C1 Y{I" . iJ" ~ X , xr} . .....1c:h
ma kes it possible t o COlUidn th e case ~ II - O.
ERniu ' . Slto,," tha t the set ...~o. P~ X.xol is lhClet or path OODlponcntloh hc
_ X.
CoDKlll.uCDlly. _ have dcrl1lecl a eonriarll fUDClOr (X, xol - yU" , al"; X . xo>
rrotn thc QlqOfY of base point spaces 10 the C<lICJOt'Y 01 KU .
The stnlelure 01 the se t Y(l , i1/ ~; X. xo> ill 01 the grutcsi int erest .. lar &II
homolOPY lJleory is ooncerncd.
THEOREM l. Th~ $ell "'V" ; in ~ ; X, xo> . If > I, 1$ 1I1f Abtrllan , roup. This ,roup is
caffJ /In n-di,"~lISionoi hom Olgpy , TOl.lp of lh ~ SPII X with Ih ~ baR' poin t "'0. X
lind is dnro lM by "'w(X. xo>.
PROO F. l.t't 1,,1, I+J E ... (1~ . al X . xr). We d~flne the sum 1.. 1 + r"'J
W
, as
r""l + '\Ill ~ I.. + #1. where Ihe mappin ,,, + '" is defi ned thus: leI
1= (' 1" 1' " . I,,)e l" . tiE 1_ [0/ I) , i '" l , .. . If ,

""" C.. + +)(1) ..

. (2I t ' I}. ... . t~)
I #(21,- wben
I . ' ! . ... t~)wbm
0 " '1 " 112,
In " ,. " I.

Th is dot&ition can be illllSU1ltcd visually by Pi,. 56, ..bere thc squar c r~ u; ehe
r!ltt (I" I ~ of l be cube I " .
We ckrJnC the zer o c:kment .. 1M dass of Ibe CODSIaltI ma ppina I: (I il r ) -
- IX, x~ ror whiclt'U" ).. xo. and show IhaI: 1,,1 + IIJ .. ".) for any 1.. 1.i.e. ,,, +'
 e ll , } , Homo lopy TIteory

I}~-~
o J. I 0 1 ,"",1 0 ,
, "
is hemorapic 10 '1'. In fat! . t ilt requ ired 1I0motop y i, dClcnn ined by tile map pina
+: {I~ )( I , iJ[" x n- (,x, xol,
wher e

+(t.r) =t(.. ~11 tl" " . t.. ) when 0" I, " r: I,

Xo wbCJl _ _
, +
, I
" t l " I. r E I.

The bomotopy +(t . r) is ~csented JcllcmatiaIly In F'!&. 51.

.........
6" . Verify lbat !he rq.a1ily (tl + hoI - 1,,1 b also valid .
1". " plain th e reasofl wh y the equalit y I'fJ It,] .. 1001. wben Itli .. I' l. can ace
be proved in th e same way U llle I&st two SIaIement s .
FOI" any {"J. tbe in.,crsc dement In ..... (X,xci) l,the elass h> '1'1, .. ~e , : I" - I~
1
is ckrlll~ by th e form ula 'I' (I) .. (I - tl' 2, ' n I~). Th us. (l"lf )(t) - ,,(1 - t l ,
fl ' ... ,I~ ).
To .,cril y that 1,, 1 [",, ] .. (I I. we show Iha t I homot opy belwttn the map-
plnas". + <P"I and I i, iPYe n by the mapping
Xc O " t, ,, r12,
,,(21,- r , II ... .t..
+(t , ' ) "
t " 112, ,12 " I
{ ,,(- U 1 . 2 - r, t 1. ... , t. ).II2 " I, " 1 - rl2,
"'0' 1- ,12 " 1. " "
In Fla . sa . Ihis homotopy is reprcxnt cd diagamrnatically.
~ 8" . Verify that the conditions for the hDmlMopy o.t pOSaR fulrilled .
r llllUy. we AYe 10 'tCrify Ibe ~sociativily o r addition Il'I '"".X.}rei) and tbe com-
mutat.i...uy of addition wbm" > I . We rim prc ve lh.t associatirity.
Let "'I. l'fl. u.J"
,"".(X ...~ . We shall sbow W I
(I_I + [# J) + 11<1 - kol + ([.. I + L-J).
 . /r.O} 4> II,tI

ill II
,
> ., --------- II
, i 111' c
> '" c l~ 1

",. " "' .

From tbe diqronmatie POint of view, this homotopy is aplained quite simply
(F'. .. :19).
Now: to sho.... that if n > I , then I'P J + 1,,1 .. ["'1 + I'J. remembe r tIll I

We shlll verify l.hat the mappinSJ" + oJ. an d., + <P are homotopic to the ume
rnappin . (Hcnce. it (oUo w, that they are hom oto pic to one lUIother.) Co nsider tbe
bomotop y, II. ~);
 C h. 3. H omolop y TMOI)'
'"
~~d
I~. , "'II" , '~
.r~ ',.U 1
il .
l , J ..;
H
-2 .. -
o , 1
'i ,0 1
. ......
, 0
~
, 1
2
, , I 0 1 1 0 ,
~

,
1 I 2" ; ;
YI.rW ,
,,
.,.,
o 1-., I , ,, o " .. 1 0
IT
Fl&. 60 '1. 61
F'"

It is eaJ)' 10 see ,hat +, (I. 0) - If> + ... and

~~2t .. 211 - r.l. 1101 "'2

" 1 4;1/
'1
2
1
I. fl
, ,
t' ..
"'(21 1 - t, 2l 2 I) , t. l. 1 , 112
112 , ' 1 ' 1
Consider anot her homolopy +2

0 <" . ' ;'l~,' .. i 1 " I.

, .,
' ,. _,~ " il "
,- ,
',. 0 4; I," - ,-
,- , O"". C_ . ,
I

- ,- " 'I" , .

II is ea sy to verify ,h., . l (f. 0' .. + I(f. I). and

 Inuod wc.."" IOTopolosr

The bornOlopie$
Th l&l. We M.Ye
.\'.J .re reprllKn lai ion Fla. 60 &$ d1qrams .

(. )

We perform i similar colUll'UCClon tor the sum "I + I(J. LeI IJ5 write OUI tne
hOll'lOloples:

,
' <', <-, .
x, .
,
x,. 0 < '1"- ,
l. (u,- 2I J - ,
t, -,-_- ,-' I), n. ". ) ' '
1 "'J" I

II ' ollow-s t rom anQl hcr hom otopy

 Ch l . Homolopy Th,""I'Y

Ihllt "t' 2(t . 0) - "t',(I . l) a!ld.... 2(t.I) ... 4>1(1.1).

The homotopies 'i', (t , T) . i'2(1. s ) are represen led in Fig. 61 as diagra ms . We
find lhal
if! + 'I' - "t'1{I, I ) - "" 1(1, 0) - "+'2(t. I) = 4>2(t , 1)
Fina Uy . ....e obtain fro m lhe lasl chai n of homotop ies and the chain ( .. ) that
'I' + >f - .1(t . I),"f +' 'I' - + 1(/ , I ),
the refo re 'I' + y, - Y, + '1'

TliEOR.nM 2. Any mupp i.ng/ : (X . x o> - ( Y . y O> induces the group h om omorphism
r(1". 'J~) {f) : r ,, (X. x O> - Tn I Y,yO> . .
THE PROOF is left to the rea der.
H im : Use the construction in Exercise 3
Th e h omom Ql"phism .. U~, ""l{f) Is denoted by In and called the ,, di mens ional
ho mOlopy aroup homomof1Jhi5m indu~d by the colltinuous mllPP;"fl I .
Thu s. the fu nctor r n n > 1. acts fro m the cales ory o f base poi nt sp~ and
thei r ccralnucus map pln8S 10 th e eategory o f Abelian sro ups and their hom omor -
phisms. Therefor e. if
I: (.X. xa) - ( Y,YO>,g : (Y. y ,)l - (Z. to>
are continuous mappings th en fzf)n '" g"ln' wher e I n' If n (gf)" are the co.re_
sponding ho momorphis ms o f n -dlmcnslona.l homotopy gro ups .

2 . The Fundamental G rou p. II will beinterestinS to co nsider sepa n tcly the

~,

TI (X. xo> = ... (1 . al; X . x.) ct ... (5 I, PO; X , xo>

which Is endowed with a grou p structur e in the sa me manner as " " . n > I. and is
applie d in many problems. By general de rmltio n, ea<;h elemen t ofrl (.X' xo> is a
homotopy class I'l'l ol a certain mappins'l' : (I . aT) - ex .xo>. where the image tp(l)
is a loop in the space: X. start llllt a nd ending at the poin t Xo (Fig. 62). The dir ectio n
fOI circ umnaviga ting the loop Is given by a parameler I e I . Th e produ ct 'I' . of o f
twO sud t loo ps 'I' an d y, i ~ defined as a loop in X such Ihat Lhe image ('I' of )(1)
 ImrodueUoJ'lI(,Topology

.() (:).
.c:zo
ruM over tbe loo p ", 3.5 the parameter t changes fro m 0 to 112, and the imag e
(", . 1/-Xl ) runs o ver the Ioop"i- (Fig. 63) as I rllflles from 1/ 2 to I , vi;!;.,

('" . ",)(1) =,~ ,, (2t ),

"'(21 _ I),
0 .;; t .;; 112;
112 .; I '" I.

As can be seen, the product of loo ps is d<:fined in mu eh the same ma nner as the
sum of spheroids. Th e dlfference in a.erms (i.e ., sum and product) is expllined b y
the generally accepted custom of employing additive notation (Le., the ' + ' sign ) for
AbelilLll 8fOUPS. The composition of loo ps describ ed abo ve is not always com -
muta tive. Therefore , the prod uct (",I . (1fJ = l'" ofl (gencraUy speaf ing, not com-
mutati ve) may be dermed on lhe group _,(X , xO>.
;~ 9". VerifYthat the J,roup lr l o f tile wedge o f tw o circumferences is not com-
muta tiyc.
DEFINITION 2. The group - l(X ' x O> is c:.Ilcd the fundatnUltal t roup o f a
topological space X wlth a base point xo '
PROPOSITION . The ~l
of theproducl .
-.ex.xO> is II group und er the d~ribed product opera/ion

PROOf , Note tha I in the proo f o f Theo rem I. lhe condition" > 1 w at used. only
",h ite pro ving the commutat ivily o f the group _.. , where the second coo rdinate o f
the spheroid was talrlng pan in the necessary homotopies. Therefore all the previou '
steps o f the proo f for Th e(WC:m I can be used fo r '0" 1(x , xIV without introducing any
changes. In doinS so, the unil and inverse elemell\s in "I tx, Xci are defIncd uaclly
in the ~ way. viz. , 6 ~ ["p,!. where " oU) .. Xo is a constant iooc : fo r each
[..J e lI' t<X. xc). !",r I .. (",- I, where .. -1 (1) .. ",0 - I) Is the loop circu m-
from the proo f or Theorem L. .
navigaltd in.the reverse direct ion. Th u~, the required stale ment reucws directly

In ord er ( 0 disl.inBUish the difference belw een Ihe sroups lI'ltx. xei> :1IId
..., ex . Xl) of the hme space ha Ving different base points XoaX. XI (1 X, we shall
need rome mo re concept s.
 ClI. l . HomOiopyThe ory

. '"
~
~,
~. .
" -jI
})

Thepro(}ucl "' I . "'1 of pa lhs "'I and "'1 such t hat "'2(0) .. "'I ( ll is defmed in
the u.mc way as the produ ct o f kxl ps:
1{2t ), 0 0;;: I 0;;: 1/ 2 ,
('" . '"'1Xt ) ..
[:;(21 -1) ,1/2 "'/ (1.
1

It is evident thal "'I . "' 2 is a path in the space X. A COIIS/flnl path in X is a palh
C_ : 1 - X5\lclI thaI C~ (I) _ Xli rorl II (0 , 1]. The re~~pIIlh ora pat h ... iu pat h
........: f _ X such lItal ",f!;, I (n .. ",{l _ I) . Since (",_ I . ...XO) = (", -I . ",X I), the
p;lth ('" - I . w)(1) is a loop al Ihe point ... (0) .
ExercM 10 . [kaw th e pllih (",~ I . ",XI). Show that [", -I . "'\ '" e in 1l"1(X ' x,) .
THEOREM 3 . A ny plIth '" : I - X joinl1l8 points Xli ond XI' t.e. , ",(0) .. %0,
",( I) .. x l' jndu.~ the uomorphism 0/ rroups
Sr ::r1cx, xo>- " ICX, XI)
whkh d~nds only on the hom otopy d lUS 0/ the path "'.
PROOF. Let [,,1 E
given by the formula
.,10(1) "
l
" I (X, xc). Co nsider the mappins ~ : (J,
",(1 - 3/ ) If 0 " , " 113
<p (3I - I ) i f 1/3 " I " 213,
an - (X, X I) wh ich is

",(3t - 2) 1( 213 ... f ';; 1.

Th e palh H I ) can be rep resented visually as the loop <f(I ) = (", - I'<p . ", )(1)
(Fig . 64): we thu.s :u socia le each element I<p] e " .(X, x,) with II1l d ement
[","I E " I (X , x l ) , an d obtain a mappin, 51: 1"1(X, xtJ - "I (X , XI): 51 happens 10 be
a group homomOr;lhism. (Verify! )

xol, where
,, (t) ... (w .,10 . ", - 1)(1) =
1
Similatly, we associate each elemen t [If) E ...(X. XI) with an eleme nt I<pI E 1"( X .

",(3t)
oji(Jt -
If 0 ... I " 1/3.
I) if 1/ 3" t"
213,
w(3 - 31) If 213 .. t Iii; I.

We rhus obtai n a map pin,

Sr- I : " 1(X' x l) e .. . {X, xol.
Exe~ 11 0
Sho w tha I Si - l is a grt'lUP homomorp hism and t hat the hQttlQm()f.
phisms S j - I and S'j'ate reciptoe&l. r.e. Sf _ (S'j'-I)-I .

Rnncm~ lh t path in ..,."" X U . J nlinuou $ mapJlina: of bnN ' ' IMCRI.

,,' f - X.
 Inlf'Qd"", lon to T opoLou
'"
Thus, 5 j' is an lSOlllorpl'l ism It is ckar from iu eolWfUCuon dlOI l il rnnalns
unalLcffd und~ .. ru:a!.-cnd hOfllOlo py o f the path w
Jtf~ 12- , Prove that iff : X - Y is . cootin llO\K mappi.... tb m fora ny ~lh ..
jo ull lll pc)IO(S Xo and x" the d iqram

11,01, _, I - ,,--_ _ '",IY/ f_,}}

'.
Is eotnmulative. Here ; .. f w Is .. PlIlh jo ining the po intl J'o"o> a nd ! "" ,).
II follows 10' once from Theorem 3 that if .. spa~ X is pa lh -eonnected, t hen the
I1OUpl lI', (X. xol at different poi ntsxo" X an isom orphic 10 each Qthu and U1n be
co nsidered as ODC a bSlIltct grOUP "' t (X). Th is group is ca lled l.tIc /undQ~ntql ,roup
or tbe plth-connccted space X .
W e shall now addu~ another faCl: Ib ! foUo." fro m Th eorem l .
COROL LA RY, Any ckw!ffll ra j E 1I'1(X, :r ol dif_ ..n lIluomO/"Pnu m S\- , aJIM
l'I:n4p lI' l (X ](0).
Paoo,.ltI vlrtue of Tbeomn J. there Is til isomGrJ)bbm$ \"1: lI',(X,xol- ",(X ,xol.
ailKX a q loop It the point )(o- 1n &dclJtioI1. the isoalOfllhism Sj' ooJ)' depends on
11M: bomoto p)' dass 01 th e DIlh a
All imponaat daD o f spaca is siaaJed out by the foUowin, ddW li on .
DI!.F1NmON l . A paLh~~ed spKc Xis said to be 1<O~ted ;ran, t WO palhs
wI : I - X and w1 : I - X sucn Ih lll ", (0) - "':1;(0) "" xr' " ,(I ) ~ "'1<1) ., x ,
bdona 10 the 5&rne bou)otopy clus in "".". iJ/~ X . xo U x tJ. Le. are homocopk In
tbe d lW o f paths SIUtinJ at x. Md et>d.in. at x ..
THEOIlEM . A pg th-conM'ael:l' Sj'lllI X if 1<OIUI ttd if tiM ON)' if ,,",(X) _ O.
Ttll5 1JleoTm\ dcscribn l-connrard waca ill terms o f (M it fun d&menlaJ
l ro UPll. The proof il easy. and .... e shall skip if.
Eumm.
13- . Verify Ihal Ihe Euclidu n sp al;e R n is l-con nrard . an d s' a nd lhe ION S
S l )( S ' are not l-e onne..:trd.
14". COIUlfud an clu mp lc o f eonnected space with non -isomorph ic: gro ups
""tCK, x~ l! different poinu xo'
H UfI : USC: lJle: _ pic: of . -..ectcd. but lloOt pa~_cd .page r..- Sec. ' 0 , 01 . II .

We: IIhaU _lirlYc:sliplc: bow I\lah<:< ~ aroaps dc:pcIod OlD . " at! a1ioa of . baM
poinl , TlIoo hoIllotopy ..ouP ".lX.
zJ ,_ OIl' 10 "'.r'1 iJl lhc: _ _ r " W l'luIoduMou.l
IfOUP r ,(X. xJ """'"" ilJ ba.sc: poUu dlanaa.
THEO I"l' A.."pt1tIJ .. : 1 - X ~ pohtts z 1Id Jr l .~ 1M ~
S : : ". (X. z ,l - -, fX.zJ
 Ch .3. H omOiopy Theot y 13 1

Ihptndin, on 1M hom otopy clou ''''Ie ,..(I. M ; X ''' o u x ,). In addiflon . I or any mofJPUli
I ; X - Y. Ihe dlqrom
'.

'.
In whk h S~ LIoll fromorpJoJ.sm dtltt71J/~ by lilt polh ;;; '" l~baWffllIM.poill1s yo - li,r~.
Y, li,r,l a commutollVfl.
We will jU$l o utline the ide;!. IN:hiDl! the pr oof o f thi s tlllrem . LeI ,,,] .. ,.. . (X, x ,) Iu
_ in th e eM< o f m e fl.Indame nt&l grou p , the d . _lit [" 11$ usoclat td with an t1tmenl
[-'\16" ,.., CX , xJ . Th is proce du re can be lepr tMnttd visually as JII1Ilins a ....hilker out of Ihe
spher oId II the po inl x, 10 the poi nt ", (l ) &rid .xttndlnS lt along III. path .. to th e po lnl X o
(F\B. ' S).

.,
FIg. 6~

Th lJli ...... oblltina mappina S;: : 1r~ (X.Xl ) - ,..~ (X,xJwhlch Is 1tI 110m0rph 'lm with the
rcqu" .... 1 propenics , Here, we have om itted all tlH: <Ietaib .
A ~OroUlll)' (0 Th t()l'cnl h ll to that any d ement ["'16 "' , CX, xJ dctertnl nes an autom or
phiMn nfthe JI'\lUp ,...(X, xJ .
ThlJli. the group " ,tx', xJ aeh on tlle llJOUP _.lX, xJ U Ihe p oop of l utom Ol'Jll'lUlN .
1\ i. IlDW natu ral (0 defin e lh e followinl l entu liu u ioll o f r-eceneeted Spaul.
DEF1NITIOl'l<\. If, for . l pate X and ilIIypolntsxO'xt Ii X , lym S In we '121m. p;tm componen t ,
th e isomorphism S : : _.CX ,x ,) - :r~ (X, xJ dots not depend on we clloIct oflhe path .. join .
ing x o ta x , then Ih. """"" X II said to be " .simpl, (orIwmOIOPJ' Ilmp k in di_JlSIOII tI ).
Extm# U . V...ify Ibat a l--eonneet<:d space I. ' simple.
We le:tv. the Ploo f of the fol.lowinl slatement rc the 1Clld....
'rHEOREM 6. A spa X is n" imple /f i/M only /flor i/IIY polnr x oe X , 1M ,roup 11" t lX, xJ
am lrivially all 1I". (X , xJ . i.e., dOQ ,, 0: aliI' 1M tlt ntm U 01 _. (X, xJ ,
1\ immedial ely follows fr l>m Th eor em. lha l a l-oon""" led 5pate II ,,-sImple fo r all
n ;;' I .

4. COMPUTING THE FUNDAMENTAL AND HOMOT OP Y

GROUPS OF SOME SPACES
In fhis section, me fundamental group of th e ciccumrerence, and alIo of a.n ar -
bil ruy M p - or Nil-type c;k ed surface will be cal cu lated . The n ecessary com-
bin at o rialteclt n iq uc Is based o n t he results o f Sec. 4 ,01. II, and pven at th e b egin -
on ln tr uduetl.l>n. 10 T opololY

Din, of tile xdion (see It.ems I ud 1). Meanwhik.the topolop:.u invariute of me

Euler dtar.aai:stic: of. dosed mrf.u (sa: lInn b aublUhed . Further. the pro!>
km of computiq b.i&het" borr\O(0 py P'O'Jpt is dlsclUKd. and thcir applic:alion to
,",obft!Jl oooc:eminI the fi nd poUlU ~ .. c:ontinlK)\lS mappiq is Jivm (th e B.-ouwer
lhrorem and the fundamental thCOfttD o f a1&dnll).
I. Line Paths on a Surface and Their Combina torial Homo-
toples . Consider clo$Jed S1UfaceX aiftn. 1.1 m Sec. ".01 . II, by in subdiviPoft.
ThU; mmas that. devdopmml n is Pm. and the $\Irt.oe X Is horneomoophklo
t lw (.aor rpuc l1IR . wberc R b all equi...uenoe determined by uie
homeoInorphlmu or the ckvdopmeal..
"'lIin.
Denote the prod uct of !he rui<luc das$ mlppln. 11'; D - l1IR u>d t he
homeomorphis m p: D/R _ X by)t. Th eo the rnapplnj: If: n - X is the one ae ter-
min1na the subdivision of X into the ~es of pol)'Jon odl es and vcrtioes of the
de velo pment (we will o;a11 thexlll\alCll of od&cS the N IQ. IUld thCKl.mages erver-
tical the ven1ees of ihc subdlYlslon). An edIt of . subdMslo n Is lheximlIac of two
cdaes. II and ._1. or Q lIlId II . We wW d enot e It by tile let ter 11'; the J(in'ulI C or
verta. A will be deno ted by the samo If:ttcr A; and we will caU jnttnfN' poill /$ of an
edp lIS points whieb llJC dl ffa"t:nt from the vcrticu.
We ahaII require the foUo wlr., lwo dcmcalal')' opentiolU over SUb<!iviiON: (I)
~iac I new VutQ; ; an memo.- point of In mae ill ckcland 10 be IIC;W vena. of
tbe A1bc11vision~ (b) add.ioa' DC'W edF: eee of the: poly,OftS of the de'YdoptllCDI ill
A1bd.irided intotwo by Its diqorW. Thcx-imqe of thls diqoo.aI in Xis ckd&red 10
~. oew C'dae of the dc:t'dopm.m1 .
CoGsider an qCIII ill the develDprneM rt , and let 1': 1- "be an afTme I'lloIClpltla
(linear petbJ UDder whidl the poinu 0 aDd 1 are mapped Into th e vertK. of the
edae. Then me _ppiq i _ Irf ; I - X determiDa I pllb on llIe MlIfaccX , wItidl
we: wiII eaII the~/tl'7 pill" . It Is evident that the imaae Of UI dcmmlaf)' path
either ~ with one of the vel'tke$ of the I!ld~" o r the JUbdi'lisioo of the MIt-
face or com plet ely coven th e od&c. Tn the rll1l ease, &II d emerl1.lly path Ii oDI\S1IAl
Ind oonsidcm:l to be- zero (y ... 0) . In the second c;I6C. Ihe bqinnina o r the linear
palll l' either coincidn willi th e bqjnning of Ibe ori ented edge ", OT willt 111 e tld .
Aa:or<tlnJl Y, we will denote In eklnetItary path by tl or tl - I 0: Cl II OT T.. II - I ,
rc:spoc:tlvely) . We will Ule the l&II\e notation rOl" -:; if ,. ; f - II-I , IlSSIlmilll Ihl t
lIt - 1)-1 _ II.
T'bUl, to cadi oriented .ed,e 1I(lr- l) oCthe developmenl, there corrcsponds an
elementary path 1I(lr- I) In Ihe . ubdivision .
DEI'lNITlON I. A fInile pTodul:! oCdemmlaty pa lm in ubdivision n o r. nureee
X is uJled I liM Pfdli . A do$ed liDe JIiIth is caIkd I /iIw loop .
By Dcr.lll.itioa I. I 1iIIc palh ), can be- written in ee form oC Ibe prod ua of
dcmcnlar)' paths A = AIJ. ... A~. wilen: Ai = tI,"
I or Ai _ O. QmittinJlUDC:S. we
usoria1c the pith A with e wont .. (A) .. II,~ I ... " 1: I indica linJ the order and <Ji.
lceUoct ofdlQUllIlol~ or the tl!l&e' of the AJrl"ace X aloac the peth ),.
COIlSida"!he boundary r / oC. poInoo Q.- oC. ~ n. By l$$OCi&l.iDl
each ed&e of the boundary wtlb an dcrne:olU)' IlItb II dcxribed above . we 5ball
 C lI. ) . Hom(HopyTllcory

assocIale the who le boundary wllh the tine pa lh AI in X . determined by Ihe word
" (),i) '" .,(QI )' whereas the ....o l d ", (QI ) in tum desc ribe. a plan fer gluin g Ihe
polygon Q ; (see Ilem 2. Sec. 4. CII. 11).
For uample. a line path A co nespondina 10 fbe o riented boundary o f the
po lYI Ofl Q which rep TeSCl'lISthe 10ruS development b ee Fig. 41) is determined by th e
word w().) = pbtz- 1b- l.
DI!F1NJTION 2. A co".biMtorilll deform utio n 01 Type I (T ype II, respectiv ely) o f a
line loo p). is an Inlrocluetion Or d elet io n of an pp- 1_lype combin atio n (o r the wor d
",<Q I) into the word w (),). respectively, determi ning Ih at line loop in X which cor-
respo nds to We oriented boundary of the po lygon Q, o f the i1evelo pment n .
DEFINITION J . Une paths y and r : in II ar e said to be combintt/orittlly hom otop k
in II if one Is obtai ned from th e ot Mr using a finlle n umber o f T ype I or Il co m-
binato rial de fo nnll tions _
Note that any ue e palh in a sub division n o f a surface X CIIn be eoruidered as a
line pa th In a subdivision II I wbieh i. ohWned from II by applyina a rUlile nu mber
of (.... o r (b)-typc o pera tiol1$.
LEMMA I . L I!!I II :subdll>ision "I be ObfQfnft/ from Q SIIbdi vulon n by QPp!yirtg (I
fini /I!! number oj (a)- or (b}-lype opllll1lfiOll$. 17IenjOl' allY lin l!! loop A in U I tht~
0;1$/$ Q Ii_ loop A ' in " ....hkh u co mb in llrorlQII)' homo/npk ill III to {hI!! l oo p ),..
PROOP. it ia obvious th;u it l ufra<:es to eonsidn the case when il l is d erived from n
by havinll appli ed o ne o f the operations (a) or (b). Let III be Obtained from II by
subdividlna an rose q mtQ twO new edges b and c (Ihe operal ion o f . ddin, a new
vertex havina been ap plied) . If the loop Aco ntains Qne.of l be oom bina tiolU bb ~ l.
cc- I, b- 1b , ,, - Ie, then ;1 can be omIlled having ob tain ed. loop which IS
bom ot opic tc x. Having omi t ted all such co mbinations , we ob taln a loop eil her nOI
COnlaining b "' l. C"'I at all or co ntaining them in the form bc ( :z Q) Or
c - Ib -1 ( c Q- I): in ei ther case , it i. the req uired line path ). ' from Fl.
No ..... Id n I bC' Oblllincd fro m II by :itdding a new edge d whietl sub divides a cer -
tain polygon in " I Into pans E an d F. l.fIt the bo undary pat!lli o f E and F be ud- 1
and dv, respec tively (Fig _ 66) , If the line loop A Ind ud es th e edge d~l . (hen we
replace it by the path .. 1 (or u " I). The loop ).' th us olKaiM d is combinatorially
homo lopk to A and is a line loo p from n . _

8 Ra. 66
". ' a t' od llCllon 10 T opoloJu

LEMMA '2,141 D, be oblrrilrftlJ'fHPI n b}' QIt (4)- or (b )-l)'pe: o~nzlj(Jn. n.elt IJ"Y
liroe lo op ~ m n wltklt is comblNltorillll~ ItOtrloiopit to u ro Ur n t. rdlIJUo borCO'",
bfMtt>ritlfly llomOlop;e ro uro ;tt Jl
PIt.OOf. By the dati. rCD, th eft a.Ws It. S1Cq\lCJl o f line 100Jl$)' ':" "00 " ,. . ..
v, _ 0 in n I' "' bere v,. 1 I. obtained fro m ,,/ by me ans o f o ne co mbinatorial defa t -
mat;oa . In addition , " ,. .... v, are nOI, , ,,n"taU)' speakin,. loops in n . For ea.:h
loo p v,. I ;so I , r . we COIlJlr\lct a line loop "'I hom otopic to it in n JO lhal each
loo p "'I. I in t he :sequenc e a ! loops),., " \ . .. . '''', O. is obtai ned fro m .., VI' one Of
mo re corn bllW ori ai ckfonnat ions .
Amlme thai n, is obtalned from n by subdividirla an cd..,. inlo edt:e. ~ Ilftd c
(i .e. , by an (a)- type operation). Thm ",., U$Of:ilt c eacll loop vj with th ckloo"" . hay_
ias ~ 10 In ed JCdlrrermt from h i ' and c, l wsameedlC, (IvIedaco-1 10
1M cdw: b * I, an d DOlhinalO lhc ediec l l , It is easy to "crtfy d'l. ' Ibm !h< tnJl$r~
from ",'0 ", . to i .. I, ... , ' Is per fonncd by Typ: I CIt II co mbin:llOfiai defor-
mation .
Jr. however, " I is obulincd from n by. (b}IYJlC ope ratio n, then we an oelat e
an y edge d iff eren t from t ile wbdivlding edge d with lUdf , an d n p!lIc:ed (d -' ) by
Ih" patll u(u - ') , Jr, now , 10 oblain V/+ I, ...e inse rt or ddet. e the co mbinatio n dd - 1
in vJ' Ihen the ~mbinaliOll uu - 1 sho uld be inl ertcd or dtleted , respect;vtly. in "' i '
Type II defo rma tio ns in 01 will eo~pond 10 Type I or Type II ddormat ions in
n. e
2. Combinatorial Approximati ons of P aths and H cmctcptes.
We will show her e that Ml)' c:ontinl>O\lS pcb in triululaJ.ion K is homotopic: 10 II
lil'lC padl . C'l tl. llI.JO .stud, the rdal ionsh ip bet _ c;ombinlltoriai and OlI nlinllOus
ho mol optes.
Heru fier. we co n5Oder onl y raed-md homOlop>cso f paths and klops .
LEMM A 3. u r til triGnsu/II/io" K 0/11 P4r/ OCf' X "'" ,ivm . ur >.: I e K ~ til eo'"
(I" !IOUS /Xl'"I" K, ),.(0) . ),,(1) ~j", rhe wrtK:es o/ the tritl" ,,,/,,tio". Tlun '''ere f:lC-
irIS II tiM PIIth /n K . wh kh I.t homotopic ro iI.
PItOOl'. Subdivide the line-uJIllem ( .. to. II wilh a finite nllml:>c1" o f polntt (ttl~_ o
Va .. 0,'. .. 1) inl D-tr\denlly m1Iline_:a.cpncnts so Ibat for cadi int erval Vc _ "
ru l ). k _ I , .. , .II - 1. mer e may be a vertex A c _ K w eb that tile imllll'
),.tt'_ I.'h ,) o f tU imen21 may lie . holly m tbe star S lAt ). the' lIn>onof the open
tnan&ks and cdp of the trillllJU1a.tioo K .c1jaeatl to II eertain "",rtex A. and the
ven"" A . uxIt. SinceSl,Ac ) is an opeD sa in X . and),. is a con lmuOU$ :n l ppl l!&. Ihis
can a1 W11)'1 be Kltic-o'cd (see Ex. 7, Sec. I). Ct . II) .
Now. we associat e each po int ' t e I Witb lbe venes A ~ E K. Nou. mor eover,
thai for an, . .. 1. .. . . 11 - I,
),.(('k' I ,
C SVt c) n S (At. I)'
where S CAt) n S Vt t .. , ) obviously con lain l the tria ngle whkh is adjaCCI\\ to botlt
A t l\IId At . " TherefDre , If A . '" A , . 1 tlten tltey ar e jo il\cd in K by an cdtc wlticlt
...e will denote by 'c ' Let A; ; 11.1" 'k . ;l - 'tc
be an eleme ntl ry path which is th" 6_
Ictl$lon of the indill:atcd eormpotodcnoc of tbe Ve"fca IIId pointS ' k' '.1'. "
If
A ~ "" A t ~ , lben OR comidn >.tto be equal to uro. The produa of elemen \llry
 01 l Homotopy Thoo. y

paths 11 k determi nes a line path ),' : I - K caUed a lme opproximal/(m of Ihe porh.
'"
Th e paW), and ), ' ace homo topic; 10 one anolher. In fact. ill virtue of tilt structc re
of the path), ' , fo r an y point If: I , t he images ), (I) and), ' (I ) lie in the same: closed
topological t riallile from K. Therefor e, they can be joined by a ' Hne-segmen t, lhe
home omorphic image of a line-segment III a lr,ang le of Ihe development; CQn&c:-
qutntly, i' is natuta lrc give a linear defcrrrsuion of the po,nt JIll) int Q th e point
), '(1) which determin es the req uired homotop y, Not e, mor eo ver, thet poim MI )
does netleave that elO$C'd triangle, edge or vertex, in whiclJ it init iaUy was In the
course of the homoto py,
II is necessary 10 di ~tl nauish betwC"n line loops which an: homoto pic to a con.
slant one '" ' he to polog ical cr ccrnbmatorial sense. We will call .3 \oQp whsch is
homotopic IQ a constant one contraCfible or comb inalorially contfQetib ~ loop ,
rupcctivdy

LEMMA 4. A COfIlraclible lirl e loop), Ul a Iriantllllal' On K t$ comb/natorialfy COrltrocl .

(bl e in K.
PROOf'. U1 a line loo p ), be given by a mapping o f a Iine-segmem t : I t _ K. Let
F : It )C ' 2 - K be Ihe ~n tTllction of the loop to a vertCl< Xo E K , i .e"
Fl/, " !J) .. .", Fl1, ,,UI .. Co : I t - XOE K.
It is d ear that F l lOl >t/ l : /1 - Xo and FI [ll " l l : 11 - Xo-
Since. F is a contraction keep ing the ends of th e loop fIXed , th e ediles A B , CD
and BD (Fig. 61) are mapped. into one poi nt "'o- We mack those points onAB whose
images are the vcnices of K , and dra w vutk:al Jtraight lines tllrouilt them . Then, by
drawi ng additionally other vertical and bor;wntallincs an d diqonais (fig. 61), we
will ob tain a &uf rLCicntly floe triangu lat ion 1: of the squau A BCD for lhe image of
the star S(V) of th e t riangulation 1:: under the mappmg F to lie in the star SeW) o f a
ecr1ain vertex of the t riangulation K (tltif follo ws teem Ex. 1,~ . 13 , CII. II).
We no w associate the vertex V with t ilt vertex Wand per form a similar ope ra-
t ion over aU the vertices of the triangulatio n t , Then we extend this mapping to the
edges of the triangulation I: In pr~ y the same mann er as we did In the proo f for
thc lem m a on a line app ro!timation o f a Jllllh . The mapping whl~h we ob tai n, i.e .,
F L : I: l - K , where I: l is the union of th e edges o f lbe triangulation 1:, transforms
the subdivided side AB into a certain line loop;; in K .
We now sho w that ~ is ~ombinatorially deformable Into ),. In tact, dur ing a line
ap prox lmatjon , no po int o f a path leavcs th e rrien gle, edge or venu.iIl whlch it was

Fig 61
'" lOlroduClJon (II To pololY

~~~--e-~
COCO COCO
Fi 68

posjlioned . Th erefore, the loop;; con sists o f Cbe same d~ntary pal bs as). (if the
null pat hs ar c neaJcetcd). Howeve r, Imerally spc:aldna. some edges CiIIl be: r un
scverllJ times in differml dirmiolU. Th us , we can make a transfer frem ;; to "). by
Type I com binatori al <k:fonnat io llll.
Note now rnat in the tr1lU1gulation 1:, the subdivided sideA S can be transformed
into the subdi vld bd broken Hne A CDB ...ia rombinatorial deformations of Type I
and Ii by sUCCCS$ive ' squeainJs' o f a single trian&1e (fig. 68). H ow ever, each of
the$e com binatorial deformations a pplied toAB det ermines . due to the structure of
the mapping F l' it.: own Type I or 11comblnat.Orial deformati on o f th e loo p X In K
(yerify l).
Th us , we haYe.-tlown th at by rnc:;ons of Type I and U <;Qmbinatorial deforma.
I;om. the line loop )." ean be ITamformed into the loop J:. and then into the F" imag c
o f the pathACDB. m , this image is the poinexo and lhtrefore ), is w mbinatoriaUy
homotopic to a COll$l4nt.
We lea ve th e pr oo f of another t wo UIICompJkated statements which we will U$(:
lat er to lhe reader .
Ex<m=.
I" . Prove t bat a line pa th ~ in a su bdivisio n n , determined by the wor d
<oJ(>..) _ (JJl- I . is homotopic to a coostlUlt path.
2" . Pr ove that a line path ill a w bdivi$ion n eq ulll to th e image of t he boundary o f
so me po lYlioD of the de velopment n b homoto pic in X to a co nstant path .
It foUoWl from Exe rcises I an d 2 !.hat any combina to rial homolopy d elerm incs a
lUual ccmtinuou s homotopY bet ween line pll1hs.
NOTE . In th e na t uee. weshall have course to a , pccial case o f rhe combinatorial
techniqu e which we devel()pCd above, -viz" subdividing t he circumference 5 I.
We r....a finile num be r of po inlsA ' , B ' , C ' , ... on S I an d specify a homcomQf-
ph ism '" o f the bo und ary o f a co nvex po lygon A BC ... in S ' so t hat ",vi) .. A "
,. (8) '" B ' , ,. (C ) - C" ." . We will say that the bo meom Olllhism '" determ ines a
subdi v4ion of 5 1 wit h the edJC$ A"'11 ' '" ",(A B), B""t: ' '" ,, ()JC),
c"A ' .. ,.(c:::i). ... and vertices A ' , B ' , C ' ... . l ine pat hs and Ty pe I com-
binatorial deformation s are de fined nat urall y here . II is easy (0 $(:10 that Lemmata
1-4 rem ain valid for :wch :wbd ivislon.s, with the operations over (b )-t ype subdlvi-
sicns a.nd Type JI combinatorial defOnn&tio ns vM ishintl .
1. The Fundamental Group of a Circ um ference. We no .... can
calc ulate th e 8l'oup '1"1(5 Ij.
THEO ReM I. T1Ir r ro"p ...\(Sl) is AM/ian ruJd isomo rphic 10 t~ group Z.
To prove th is theo rem , we shaU require the fol lowing auxiliary statement which
w ill be w engthcned later (sec Theorem 4, Sec. 4, of the pre",nt chapt er).
 -:
r'l. 69
c

L." IMA J . Pot j.llldalMIf,lJI ~'Oups oj If~ic IfPIN:U li lY isom orphic .

p a OOF. Let X . Y be IOpok)&ic::l.l $ pa(CS with !:we poillU.ro. Yflo respectivel y. and
'" : (X. Jet} - ( Y, yo>
ho mcomorJ)bbm. Tbc:n lhe homeomorphisms of the fun -
~tallfOU pi arc defi ned :
...(", ) ; ,," \CX.Jr r} - 'r 1( Y'YOl

and due to the fun ctori al propcn y,wc h."c

... (", - 1)'1"") = ...(",,_ 1,, ) _ 1.. ,(X ol'
11"(") .. (,,,- 1) .. 11"("",-1 ) l .. ,u ol.

therefo re. ...(l"1 .. Ir (,, -l)r l .

T HBPll.0 0ftOp n lI!OIt,E.'olI. 8 y the !ast le-mm" it l u m e n to compUte the fun damental
IJOUP o fa plane u iaflaJe . Let 4 be a ld anaIc with ycn kesA . B. C . o riented cd an a .
b . r an d Ihc bate ve:nu A (Fii; . 69).
We firs t com pUte the Il'oup 2"\ CA, A). Lei ), ~ an arbiuvy loo p in .6 wilh tbe
oriain at the po iJlt A . According 10 Lmvna J, lhc rc uUu a line ktop). ' in th e
homotopY d a n o f 1M loop A. (JI is clear l hal the trianaX 4 Is II l ubdi1iisio n .)
AociIoIin& eadl cdl;c Q , b . c with loops , . It . t tI((Ofdina to \he roUowins rv1c :
iI ::a alb. b _ b- 'b . t .. ee " t, wu h ow that tlKda5sa o rthc loops 6 . 11 .t, wtU<;b
IlCf:d not n ~ be differmt. arc s en e-rat on o f the p oup ...\ (4 , A) . ....... y line
loop), ' eorL.llisu o f c!ancDlary paths th lt tofTeipond 10 lbe edSts , i .r..). - ",{G, b.
,rpIaem.
c) . 8 y rad1 C'd. r by its ~S loo p In th is QlM"cssioo , we obtein I
_ kJop x " ","' . lJ . ~ . II is US)' 10 see lhal Ihr Ioops~ ' an d ~ ,. an: cera-
binatori eJ.Jy b omo topk.
In fea, this rrplat::elnml o f en ed&t'by & loop m&k~ liS r"st ' raid'! ' lhr ori&in o f
e e cd se from Ihr r....ed vert ex .A , en d then , h&vin& puscd lhroup chis cdac,
' r"' urn ' to A alona the &bonest p;u.h (FIS . 69) . Th r rdon . dwilla cadi Sl.ln'livc
rq)bcrmeoc o f en cd SCby loop, we mUS! , .ner ret1l<1lln& to A from the end P of
the prrviou s ed&/" 's t&n' for tb e ori&in o f Ihr nut ed&/" i.e ., for tbr same poinl P .
Th IlJ, . n " !h ls rcp lacnncn t,&rm - ' . fonn Pith is ilucrted bet ween each two ad j .
oern ed&e:s of the loo p, l.e., .. path whid! i5 comhmllOrillly homotopic: to ttrO .
Consequently, in the ho motopy class of the loop A' , a line loop A .... hich is a finite
prod uct o f the loops lJ , b, C, and their inver se' can alway s be fo und .
Note no w that t he loops ii, c. are homo topl<: to cons tan t loops. Therefore , the
loop lJ (or, mo re precisely, the homoto py class determined by it in "' 1(<1 , A)l is a
unique generator in th e IIrOup "', (<1 , A) . The element 4 is non-trivial, bause if the
loop IJ were contractible then, by Lemma 4, it would abo be combinatorially con-
tractible , Le.reducible to zero by a rl.ll ite num ber o f combinatorial Type I eercrme-
tions , whid! is obviously impossible. Ccnsequemly, the loop"," is not combinatorial.
Iy con tractible and the refo re det ennlnes II non -tr ivial element 11 e ", .(.<1, A). Simi lar-
ly, any clement 111"1 E "' I III , A ), where I '> I, is non-c.ri vial.
'Thus, '"'1(4, A) is a free cyclic gro up generated by the clemenl l"], i.e. , an
Abelian y o up Isomorphic to Z.
Exf!~Ue )o. By lIeneral~ing the structure o f the proof of Theorem I , prove Ihlll. the
fundamental gro up o f the wed ge o f m circumferences Is a free group with m
&tlletatou .
The follQWinll the orcnl ISa ....,ful inslrument fot e aleulad nll lhc fundamemal Stoups of
mcee C(lmpllca~ . patel.
THEOIlEM l (VAN JC.AMPENl 1.41 X be a t apolaf lcal spa~ oblainrd os ,h., ,,,,ion
X .. X , U X,o/ O/N" substl$ iX, flnd X ,slJch Ilulr t~ sptlC'<:J X " X lond X = X I n X~fl"
p"11l.tOIlMCI~ "lid lltJ_mpty, flnd ~r p " X rr Cons/de , tire tOf1lmlJt"rl~ d?agrDmgeM rDtftJ
by Ille cmbcrldin, mflppillgS:

~", IXopl ~
", /ll"p l 1"'0 ",/ll~J
~ ",Ix.pl --<
Then th e sroup .. , (x , p) is a fatlor Il" 0up of t~ free prod ua .":I(,X" p ) 0 ",ex"
p ) by the
normal I.lIbstlMlP Ierler.ted by lhe >tI (6"" ' t> - , ' Q" e .I(X D' p,]. In Ol-h<=r WOld ., lhe
ilJOUP . ,(,X. p ) i. l~nt1"aled by th e 'Ollie. or the .!c m.mtl" ,(X" p), i 1, 2, l\fId tho only
relallon. bcl"'een the , eneratO" are deri....tt rd at,otU In each o r the atOIlpt " I(X, ' pl . i _I,
2, an d lbe ' d at loll& "' ,', '" = <J ':n-, wllere
1 (> Ie ", (Xo' pl.
~.
4 . U.lns the van Kun pm thWTcm , de , ;ve 111<: It al ernen l of E.erci$e , .
'0 . C akul i le t ile fundamental gro up of the ! p"CI: <;OIlsi5ling of two d lcum rerenees jomed by
l,nc -seJItICnl, rsu. 10).

Fill 10
 01 . 3. Homowpy Theory
'"
4. Th e Fundamental Group of a S u rface. TurnIng our allen tion to the
fundamental groups of sur faces, we may assum e on the basis of Lemma' thai a
dosed sur face can be given in subdivided form det ermined by a canonical de~lop
metn.
TH EOREM l . Let X M II Type 1 or 11 cloud slJrjQcc delerminN by i/ word'" oj ,ht
l
jorm 0lbIQ ! Ib l l ,., 01J"a; Illi or Q lo ~7l'1 '" Oqllq' rtSPCClivtly,and It / Xoli X be
II ctrtQill point 011 Iltt $Ul'JOct (i.t., lrilln,uliltion W'r lcxj. T1ttrf '"'t CK,xolis a gfOlJp
willt gtntrotono'l' Ill ' ... , 0p' Ill ' Ill . ... . Ill/Of at. 01' '' ' Il q , f't'Sj1(c/ivtly . and one
dtjining reloljoll '" = e . where Il! is Ihc ident ity t/t~n l .
PROOf. Let Xl be a dosed surf act , 9' its canonical developm ent determined by a
polygon Q and the word "'( Q ). Let Xl .. x(Q I)' where Q l is the union of all edjes
of the polygon Q. Since all ihe veruees of Q in the de velop ment !P are C<juivalent,
their images und er the mappin'lf coincide in X. Co nsequently, the 1m8.Je of each
edge is homcomocphi c to a eoeemrerence, and Xl is the wedge of ciIcumferenca
glued at the point X o whictt Is the image of the venices of the polygon Q. In addi-
tion , the number of the etrcumrerences in the wedge equ'a1s11' if the sur f,," X has
the type M p and q if X has the type:N It foUows from one propeny o f the fu n-
damental grou p of the wedge of drcumferens (sec Ell., 3) that:l"l I' xo1ls a free ex
aroup generated by Ill' 11'1' ... ,Qp' Ill' Ill> ... ,bp if X has ee type Mp Of by 01'
01' ... ,Oq i{ X has tbe type N q. We denote th is group by G .
We shaD now co usider the embeddin g mappinlJ i : X l - X and the hom omo r-
phism of the fundamental &To ups,which is inductd by Lt. viz.
I. : '"'1(Xl'''-ol - :l"ICK.xol
We will calculate th e grn up .,(X.
xo1 as follow 5. First, we prov e thlll I. is an
epimorphi!>RI . Then. using th e theo rem co ncerning epimoillhisms , we nbtain
:l" 1(X' x ) '" :r ICK, ..-) /Ker i . .. G /Ker; , .
Th e ealcuhuion of the kernel ~rl . will complete the proof o r the theorem,
We first pro~ that i . is an epimorphism . Let as :l"l (X, "-01 and K some
trlangmat:ion of \he sur face X . The n. by Lemma 3 concerning une appro~lmatlom ,
there is a line loop)o, (in the subdivision X ) in the homotopy c1aS$ of II. K ma y be
assumed to be obtaine<l from t he carlonical subdivision .9of the surface X with the
aid of a finite number ot (a)- or (b)-type operalions.
Therefore, due to Lemmata I. 2 and Exerci~ I, 2, in the same class o f
II E :l" ICK, xo1. the re Is a line tc cc x ' (i.e ., made up of th e edgC$ of X 1) in the sub
division 9. Thus. a cenaio class /1" e '"'I(X ' Xo1 ls defined for which Lt is obv ious
tha t i . (JJJ ... n . The surjcetivit y of " is therefore proved.
We now ta ke up the tu k of cal culatina: the kerncl Ker i . of tile qlimorphi.m i .
1.d .., E1 Keri ., and h a line loo p of the subdi vision 9 from the elan of ..,. Then )o, is
obvio usly contractible to a point in X . Accordi ng to Lemma ' . there a islS in 9 a
<:ombinal orial co nt ract ion of " 10 the ven Cll xl)- In othe r words, the word ", (). j
..hich determines the loo p h is rtduced to the zero word by a (Illite number of
Type I o.r II com bina torial deformat ions. It then be<:om=s d ear that the word <o> Q..)
". Inuodu~ io<I lO TopoIoa,

may only COfl$i1t of e:ombin.rlons of th e fo rm

(1) ...- ' ;
(2).or more compla, AIdI as
"";'-PIt"'It - ',J"lti ''''l'i 'w,. (. )
whue ... . , .. Of, . ., "'1 . ""J .. .. ; . ,.111. 11 are lbe wor'd:J oflbe p;tel:l $Ubdivi-
!ion. and I, m are Ialqral C'l<poDCl1ts (th ey may be: boO! poIftivc SlId Del&ti..e); and
(J) oombUwioN lilniW to ( .), bw. with oth er putitians of tbe word... into
cotllpontnts. Tb.iI fo lJows from UN: liven 4evdoprncnt DOt bavm, MY bOWIl1ill'
....sa Olhu than ...
It G ~y to .-lba1 1)opc 1 tcAnblutorial dc formatlolU u.e., add.itiolU or dde-
tioIIs of all ... - l-Cypc CDlllbiDaliorI) do not tab lhc loop" out of iu botnocopy
du&, siDc:e 1M loop lIIl'-1 is boaioto~ to US'O III XI _ We may UIUlOC, thanks to
lhia fact thlC lber t an no 1'Jpc I wmlrinioN. in .. ().). The COIJIbi.naDoou: o f type
( .) an limplifled by I:Ombinatorial Typt l 4c:fonnal loN as follows :

(- ) .. "'Jll"IIIJ,, - I" i''' I~-IIt~'' il ...

_ - ~_ . '
,,;,w, .. w,,~-I'",It'; X II- I ~- .

-I -I, " . _, . _1 10 1: 1<" _'._1 _I Jo . - 1 - I

i:~' ~~~} ~,, -'"' " : :0"') 1"'," "'#'r"'" ... ! _"'~_:,,:;." ...1_=:;.. x I
Il<.I"It -I/l' - I", .. wJl~JTi - III- I",- lwJltdt - 'w ..
1' .. ,,: , 1 .. 1_'-'11,,-'-"'11-''''-
_,_- "' -;~r '"
''''1 ..

.. a,.,Ia- 1wJll""'i ' ...,tIw"'/I- I .. allo- t "'4"" W; Ih1",hi '""

~-. "
w
" _.' _ .- n","'t1 -' ..
-',-1
.. ~Q:,IWJ.~-;!"""I3 -:-' (.. .. )
Hence , It I, usy 10 dcd llCe lhal any combination of form ( .. ) is reduced to form
( .. " ), i.e., 10. rwk prod uct o f combinatioN o f the form aJa - L(. ), where / It a
posltlve or ntplivc intearal exponl:lll.
Thus, for lUI)' element IX) E Xui. , eee exlsts tts repn:sm taUYe. viz., tine
)oop A whose: word w(>.) toIISi!U o f c:ombirlaltolu of the form (a) only. COnvene-
ly, it ill obYiou' that If a lillc loop Ah u WInd w (>.) ant)' CClUisrina of com binatiotlS
o f the fOflll I . ) . Ibm It dClmniDcsan element from Krt l .
E.xociK 6 . P'r(noe tbat tile Xl of wor ds of tile t!esaibed fOt1rl is a normal subP'OUp
N of Ihc &!'OUII G and is emffUed by th e d emoenl .. . .. (Q ).
It roUo., from the computation o f the kemd Kerl. and. Eutci$.e 6 that
Iter;. _ N . and there fore 1I'ltx,.d :: GIN . nw LaUct equati.l y is UlUfYilknl to In-
lIociurin , lbe uniQue rdilDOII '" .. c amonllhc: l enerators of the . 'OIJp G .
We now tist lOIIIe corollaries III lllecn nl J .
COkOt.LA.lty I . 77wjw.. t1lI1Mflttll VOMP 1I' 1(RP J, P ) o/'llcpnJjtiYrIJID- R}>Ju a
qdi(, , 1OO4p Z, 0/ onhr 1-
".OOP. 'The $Ur r~ X _ R}> J canonical dctck'Ipm enr wtlose ward Is
jl'CJSK$Sft
4't4' I' the~ron: (X. x~ is. cydic IlOUP hnin. one IflICTllto r at and the ddlnin&
tdaticm or c.
 0 , J, HOtDOIoprTheory ,.,
COROLLARY 2. ~ /N1td1l_"tIl16roup 01 till! tonu .. ,(T 2, x~ is II l'ft A Ntill"
6rollP willi 111'0 ~ton,
f' 1t0 0P. Th~ tonlS r poacaa: I canonical d.cvclopmcnl wllh the wor d IIbt1-'6- ',
and , COI\MIQumtI)', __ obtain that the IJOUP " l (r , .~ b aenerated by II , b . The
rdUion IIbtJ- l b - 1 '"' I! provloda I CiOftdi1ioo foc iu convnutl1iYity, viz" fib "" N , .
Ocomttrica1Iy, to tlIe &eeera1Of II , o f the tIlDdammla1 ~ of th~ projea.lve
~,tbefe ......u e:spouds its ~lllte (lee 1M moddsof RP in Su. , 01.. II). To
the aeneraton III ' 6 1 of the flll'dazDe:ntaJ PtNpoft be tonu r 2 , lhe eo n espond iu
!"aBllel and meridian , the IWO principal DODcorlltlCtlbk loops 01\ Ihe tOt\ll .
~ 7- , FInd ali t wl\al reomelric mamin. th e ,e Denllors of !he tundunmlal
IJOIlP' hi ve fOt th~ ~Ilr rac:a M ,Nt.

_.
The fundamental crou p orJe knot c:omplemc:nt pla)'J IIlI imponant pan in knot
ela.ul rlClliOll,
EJttrc/# . - , Prove that th~ triv ial knot is not eqlliv alent 10 either lite trefon or
rl6\lre-of-eiabt knots.
HI" t : Show thal !be rundame Jllli Voups of the c:ompltmt:tlll lD Il J 10 thcsc bwu ....e JIO(

5, The To pological Invariance of the Euler Characteristic of a

Sur face. Lcl X aad x ' be IWO bomoomorpbk elosied I\,q"facr:s with somesubdivl
sions n, n ' ; let x(ll) and x (II ' ) be Ihe.- EWer eharaetcristi<:s caIeu1ated fClali ve
t o th~ fIIbdiYisions n , 0 ', I'QPed.lvdy. We dWI proyc that x (D ) '"' :II:{I]'),
'Jbe ckvdopmeat n (11' ) is redl.lOCd to the canonical try t:q\Iivaknt Type 1 0' U
trIMl'ormulons (dcUnnIoed by tbe nwnbt:r of handla pCp') or Mo bilIS strip'
q W ' J Ihat IR pasud to ee $Jlhere). 2p {1p ' J, q(q ' ) _ the nwnbcn of acllt:rll on
(connected by the dd"mir\J relation ... = t ) o f the fllnctammtal fPllUP of tftulltf.ce ,
0wiIl. 10 the bomeomofll hbm of X and X ', Ibc lP"0upl .. , (X) UId " I ex- ) are
Isomorpbie. Therefor e. If dIc o::anoniea.I 1)'pC of the ckvd opmaw rt, n ' cor-
rc:IpODds 10 l)pe I, then '2p co 1p ' , wtteocc: :II: (ll ) .. :11: (11') in virtue of t he
equalities x (ll ) '"' 2 - 1p IIlId. :II: (Il' ) .. 2 - 1,p' . The CIIC o f Type II c:ItfIOniul
dadopntenu a.n be: eons lden:d in an an.Uogous manner. Th Ul, two diffe:t'tlll M p '
type sur raocs of dJrrerent l ent,. (this is equally tru e for the Nq-type surf.celI) art
IlOt hon'ltlOmofllhic ,
T'NO M p' and Nt - (q .. Il type sW"faoes art not homeomorphic tUhe r . Th is
foUows f, om tlH: faa. thai th e rundam cntal l"lllpa of an orient able sUl fa ce: M,. o f
ICI\lISp and a DOflorien t.ble fIIrfa.ce N q q .. I, of se nllS q are nat isomorphk:. In
fact."j(M,d is I group wiIh ~n.tors a l ' .. . , a" b,. ,., . bt",~d the dc:fUlina rda
Iklna1b"" b . l -/',11; b; 1 .. . . whcla.ub e Fou p ,,\VV. ) is lP"oup with
p DU'alQn Il l ' flq vid th e de ftniq rd.Itt'on"" f''''1'''fiti' , - e . It is dtt.l that
th ICK aroupl are not isomo rp hic if 1p "*" q. If we: US\tJDe.~ , that 1p _ q .
then :I" \(M ) is not isoInorpltie 10 "1 (0"0'. ) beca ulC in !he r&CIor lVOUP
T'lN1Vl" IWjlJ... ,(N,)) of dlc IJOIlp ,. , (N, ) rc:Iarivc: to IU c.ommlllant t,. I ( N,) ,
:I" (N. ,I, then: U I coset o f order 1, wftidl contains Ihe eJane.nr. fI ,fl l '" fl. , Tber>: are
I)() dnlIeDU of the KOOIId ordc::r in the factor IP"OUP ,, \(M,.)lI" I(M,.) . .. ,W,.)J.
~ the dc:meN fltb", i 1bjl , .. ttjJ,P; Ib; I orthe rn:e F ou p 'lridl Ihe.menllon
ttl' ... , or,. b, ... ,b,. 11 eoolaiDedfri U1e cammlJt&lll o f this arou p,
'"
Note that the ~ rw:alio" ThaKem. 2 o f Sec. " . 01. 11. is now pro ved com -
p lely . The p:nU5 o f a $Urfaee aDd iU orieDlabil ily or nonorimtab ilit)' com pl n.dy
detennine il$ topok)&icaltype.
6. On Calc ulating H igher H om oto py Groups . The cakulnion of lhe
hom ot opy lfouPS of sp;w;cJ is an important b\lt a di fficult p roblem. Mrthods for
cakulatlna these lIfoups have been wDrtro QUI. H oweva. when they are a pplied to
conc ret e cases, consi derable d lrncultiell are encountered . Ncvenhdcu, certain
homotopy groups have been ulcu l. ted fo r suffi c:iml.ly 'a ood ' sp~s and. pla.}' an
Important ~ in lTWIy problems.
The follo w\na1heorem enables us to red uce thc com pu taUon o f th e h omot opy
aroups of spaec X to th at o f the eon-espondina: croups of spKl:. y which is
homotopy eq uinknt to X .
THEOREM 4. q J :X - Y ~ lJlto,"otoPY ~II;lIGk~ rM n / ()t'tmy point Xlii X . 1M
Irotnowwrph is,"
I,, : r.. (X ,X) - ..... (Y./(r))

....hich is ind llcH by I. if an i.romorphism .

Pl OOF. Le I a map ping, be ho motopy inverse of f . and 'fJ a represemedve of . cer-
lam elass (op) EI ..... (X. xol. Then f.&IN> is . rcprcsmtl lin o f its iIna&e MII I.. I. The
sptlennd '" Is ' attathcd' to point Xo- Md lhe sp hero id f.I..f)p to the point
WX'tt~ =:0 :1:0- Ihe fo nner brio. homOiopic to the Lw cr In virtue o f rI - l x - Sup.
pose lhat the poUlI Xo sbifts 10 painl :1:0 under di is hom oto py, desrnoln, path
...( , ) ill doina 10 (FI, _ 7 1).

l..u w(l } i.lIduce an isomorphk mappina ... (X, tol!! ".,, (X. xoHiC'eTheo~ ~.
Set. 3}. Th e holllO)p)' of lh e 'r. heroids ,. &nd CtJ)p geDc:rIleI' lhe homoloPYo f the
spheroids U I" M da from s:- l.. I. Therefore, ' J ill,,] 1IJ"'1 .. la l _ S ::- l C",l ,
which me ans th ai the foUowlna dlagr.un is comm lill tlve:
 Ch. J. HomolOllyTht<ny
'"
S,mifarly . it may be lh o wn (Iry it you! $elf) t hat the dlalt:ltTl

y"~ ly, fCJ"lJ ~w, ,

...b',A " I~ -..f'f/'oIH..,/J

_....
'II commutative, whe re ... : 1 - Y is a p.uh from t he point f~ 10 the point
VU)(.I"o\ equai to / .... II follo ws from the rommUiumly of tbe$e diql:ams (tuin..
into ac;O\I.Dt thai S~- I . S: ) - 1 are ~) tbat f~ , ... are ~ . C1

,. . Pr~ lhat the on e-poln t space &lid the art um fereDllll: s ' have different
~op)' t)1lCS.
10". Prove that the two.dimen5iona1 di$c and t1'Ie Iwo-dinxrWoa al cyliDder over a
cin:umferenoc ha .....di fferent bomoIop y types.
A1tho uih it has DOl yet. hem OOlDllletely r~lvcd at pnsent . me pr oble m o f
tak" lat iJI, me ",o ups - i(S" ) has ltim u1aled tbe devdopmmt of man y brandteJio f
modem topoJoay . Hat arc two very dinmtt cases , vit . .t. " n and k > " . Though
rcq ulrin development of a special method. the fanner Is dancntuy m oqh. We
list the followiJ\l reJiulu witho ut proof- :
_ I(S" ) .. -2(S~) = ... = "-,,. (S"l '" O,1r,,(5") .. Zf1l ;;. I).
Hence. It follows. in particular, ttlat the sphere S" is noncontlllclible 10 a"y o f
lu poinU .
Th e lOCondease has not been fully investiga ted , an d the diHicultlCl increase wilh
the il'oWlh 0 111 and Ie - n , Here are lom e of the limplffi rnulls:

1rl (S; .. Z, -.($; = Z2 . ... '''" .-+ I(S'') '' Z 2f1l ;:,. l ).
This refutes lhe intuit ive assumption lhal Jr.t(S " } 0 whClIt > n.
Tb Ui. WIlen n - 1. 1.. .. . the sroups ",,,(S" ) are free Abdi:m Itoups with o ne
, eneralOT v, -r" beinJ th e homotopy class o f the identi ty lD.Ippinj Is- , S" - S".
The mullipM: d assa I . 't" can be imagined all the homotopy dasscs o f ma pplnp
.. :S~ - S " UK:h thai 'twisl' the sphere S" onto itsdf I times . In addftion , if I > O.
then t~ onent.hon of the spbe re under the lIUl PP;01 " is said to be praervcd.
wlWst it I < O. the orieatatiorl as said to be cban&ed (cf. t"e bomotopy dasses fro m
1rICS I .
xociu I I " . Ltt S" be: a sphcf e with the 0Cll1re at tbc: onJin o f th e spatt R " " I.
SIlo.... thallhe m.lppi.tI. o ( S " into iudf p n .. b)' the WflQpcln deJlC'C
"'1.Xl . ... x" I- ( - X I' Xl ' 1).
determines alsomolopy eIas eq~ to ( - -r..).
lt illqulle simple lO proYe tJw 1r, ,(X.... ~ - 0." ..
l . if w JP&CCX is contra<:l-
ible to a poinl (Thcomn 4 should be applied). In parlaeutar. _obtain the foUowirl
 Imroduction 10 To poloay
'"
for the dUI:D~ and . pace R" :
-.tW") .. 0 , .... t (D" ) '" O. "'t(R" ) e O. k .. 1,2, ...
7. Some Applications. We first prov e an important prcperty cf the sphereS".
THEOREM ). T'Jwsp/wot S " (I .e.. the boundQry ojrhe disc D" +I) is nOI Q nlnlCt oj
D".. I
PROOP. A ncccsary condition for lb e existence of an ()\teos}on of It mapping was in -
dicat ed in Sec. 2. It was fonnularcd in term$ of a functor to the catCJOl')' o f v aups.
We apply this comlitiorus, lakinlllhc fu nctor"." \IS the functor T. We know already
th at r ,,(S) " Z . ..... (D"+ l j "" O,an d If lhc sphcrc S" were a retrect o fl) "" l,theD
we wollld obtaln the foUowina commutative diagram

where i \$ !be aubeddina o r the eph ere inl o the QaIl . and , th e required fClr8Clio n.
SiDOC ..... is It covariant fI,lllClOT. it wo uld ccnveet di asranl (I) Inrc the commutative
diq.ram (2) which is of form U). The laUer is co ntrary 10 its com mutativity.
Thercf~. t!H: llS$wnpt ion thai there is It rct~ion , is not vidid.
With t he ai d of Theorel1l S. the fo llo wiug int crating th eorem , whieh hu impor-
UIlI t applicat ions , i. proved .
THE FIXEo.POINTTHEOREM (8 kOUWER/.A "y rontt""ous rnappi"t f : D" + I -
- b" + 1 of II1II (It + l}dj~1lSio1flll c/og:d btllt (dl.srJ lsuo itself poss_ at ltG.St O"f
fued point, ;.~. , lh~rr uttl.r <l poi", JC. e b~ +1 such ,/wt /(;c.) ... JC
PROOF. In fact, i f there is no such poin t , Le., fOI any poin t JC E D ,,+I.f(X) JC,
then the 1ine-5e8ftImt join ina lh e: pomt /(;c) to the po int JC can be c:Ilt mded beyond
the: pointx to meet the: sph ere SIt at. certain po in t r (;c). Then the rnappingr : .0"+ 1
- S" , JC - r(x ) I.s an a teosion of !be id mtity m apping of the: iPhefe S it to lilt ~ I .
But we hl.ve just provl:d that th efe is no such extension. The contradiction proves
the theorem._
8. The Degree o r a Mapping. Th e gro up " ,,(5" ) - Z is dosely relat ed to
the nollo n Ortbf desree or I. continuous ma ppingf ' SIt _ S", whic h is o ftf n used
in analysts . l.<e1. .,,, be a generator of tbe grO\lP " ,, (5" ). The nf . h ,,) = a'Y". when:
a is an integer, andf. I. homomo rphism o r t he yaup .... (S " ) Indu ced by th e ma pp-
ina/. The number a ;5 called the tkrree ofth~ ",llppiflS land deno ted by d~f(tbe
.5i gn of dcgJ does not d.epend on the cOOlee of a aenfratOr).
Exwrcisu.
11" . The mappina o f the Wlit eir cumferfneo:: s' .. ~ : It 1 '" I) o f the comotex
plane is given by th e fonnula f (t ) .. t " . Sh ow that deaf " n.
U . Show th ai iff; 51 - s' I.s a kxaI homeoRlO~hism. then the number of point,
in the fu ll Inverse imagef- 1(;C1 of an y polo t JCE S is co nstant.nd cqUai lO I dCilI.
lbe notion of the degree of. mappina is al so introduced neturally for th e mapp
inas! ; S7- 5; from on e replica of the sphere to another. (To do this, Ihe bui.
 0 .), Homotopy Theory
'"
classes .,.~ l n ...~ (S1 ) and 1'~ in:Jr" {Sil$h O" ldbc: fi,,cd , and thcn ! . b'; .. d e&{
"y~ , ) Since 'Y~ is Ihe ho motopy d a.s [ ls "1o f the identity mappi ng. we ha ve the
following relation fo r the mappinBf : SIt - SIt:
I. h~ ) " f . (l s. ] - l/IS") - Ul ,

m e-erore. dcg f ')'" is the homotopy elMS o f th e mappingf; thu s, degf Is 'the
number" of the homotopy cllLS$Ul
If I .. I is the id entity mappin/l,then deg ! - I; if I - 0 (homot opic to t he co n-
Stant mappin g) thcn dqf .. 0; l f /: SIt - S" , fl : SIt - S~ arc IW{) mapp ings, then
thcy a rc ho motopic if and only if they arc of the same UcBTe e: d es f '" eess. We
abo adduce one useful fo rmula, v1~ . , deB V t ) .. (d e&.n . (dc U) Ihat fo llows from
the retauon lIB l .. I. [g ].
The not ion o f degree Is used while !.nvC$(lgat ing whether it Is po"ible to el\lend
eontinuOI1S mappings! : S ~ - R " + I , (0) to the ball ])~ + I bounded by the sphere
SIt. Since the space R" + I " (0) is h omOlopy equivalent to S" , their homotopy
grou ps are isomorph ic a nd there fore we ma y spea k of the deg ree o f a given map-
ping, usually called the churacUris rk (or rorutlon) of Ihe Vt:CIQI'f ieldf: we denot e it
by xsw(/) ,
LE."'l:MA 6. T1II! rondilion xsw{f) - 0 u nt:UMilryand sufrtclt:nl f or Ihl! utension
/ : l>w + I _ RW+ I , {OJ of/hI! mapping! 10 exist.
The p roof is evid ent fro m our noIe Ihat the mappinll/ detl'nlline:lthe homoto py
f - 0 by the fOO'lluJa
!(.r. ,/) _ ! (rx }, x e S" , f lE 10 , 11
(if s" is the sph ere o f radius I and centre at 0), and vice versa .
&trdst 14. Co nstruc t the extension /when f - O.
An ob vious coroUaJy foUo," from Lemma 6 .
CO ROL LARY. 1/ X $A if) 0 then ony urensio" / : fi~ + I - R w hiD a terti . s.e. ,
Ih ert: oislsapointxo eD ,,+ I,](.r.o) _ O.
This corollary is o flen used fo r the proo f o f the existence o f a solution to th e
eq uation ] (.r. ) ,.. 0, where! : l),r+ 1 _ R" " I is a given mappinll.
E XIl.MPL5S.
I. It is ca.s y 10 verify lh at with Ihe cond ition s of the 'Bro uwer flxcd-point theorem ,
the mapping J f,x) = - I (x ) + x either has a zero on S ~ or "X $" (/J _ 1(/ : s ft -
_ RH " (OJ is homoto pieed lat he identity mapp ing/Cx. t) .. - rf (x ) + X , XE S W,
o '" I " I) . Th erefo re. j ha.s a ::TO in fr l .
2. The fundamental theorem o f a1&ebra : a ccmptex pol ynom ial
/(t) = ~ ... + Q ~ "' - I + .,. + a", _ lt + a...
has a root in the eornplell. plane.
We d en<lle lhe circum ference on the .;:-plane (l: : It 1 = p j by S~.
LEMMA 1. For asufftc~nlly larse P. we hal'll'
Z
/,S~ - R ' [OJ.
,., I hl rQd ~ ctio n 10 To polo lY

und in mJdifion X3:(/) .. m .

PROOF, Consider the homotopy
J(t , l) - z'" + 1(" JZ",- l + .., + tI", _ IZ +"",), le iO,l j.
We have an estimate

tj (t, I )1 ~ Itl'" [1- ' ("1"':"

1:1
+... +0", - , _1: 1_"'1_,
-
+0", _1_)]. Id * 0.
Itl '"
It is evident that there Is p :> 0, sufficiently large fot 1/(:. /) 1 > 0 when 1;: 1 =< p ,
I e 10, II. Therefore J ;S l - R 2 '- [OJ is homotcpic to the mapping g : S; -
- R 2 ,- (0). , ez) ..
t"'." AceQrding to Exercise 12, XSI (g) '" m; lhc~rorc
"s,(f) '" m as well. To complete the proof, _ now use tlie corollary to Lem-
mo: 6.
FURTHER READING
AJ rcprds the daWca.l topks o r homotopy theory tovl:Rd in thil dui ptcr. we le.:om
mend, abQ.;c aU, Hom",opy 'TMtJry by H" ~um 14)1, a.I it providesa lborough iJl4 quite
comple(( accowJlof homotopy theory. In IldditiOll , tile ,e:adlo" will find ;l llSe ful to ! the ac-
cQUnl. of ~ lopi<:s (i~ 1CHnC: inst an~5 , .wme whal (MmaHZfl! . 1nI1 qUlle detailed) 10
Spanier" Aigroroic TopoioV [7}1. W. ah o rtllUllU:nd H onrOlopy Thrury IH I b Fudl s d
aI. and Mod"" Gtomry (ZlI] by DIlbroYin CI aI. as boIh of Ibem ere notable for Iheir
Seon>elrio;a!lP\lfo.=h . The: d ..mmll tn holIIOIopy lh<'Ol can be fO\llld in First Courn oj
Topok)gy. (;eo"'d~ ClHJpters (?O] b Rohlin aDd Fw:hs, wllich colllalnl a 1)'SlenJallC ap-
proxh 10 llomoto py &fOUP Iheory. A Sooo:l book of probkm s rdal ed 10Ihll chapter is pro
tJItmSlR ~r,J' {61 ] by Novikov el al.
To sludy tbe nollom of category and fUlIClor, see Macl.:lnc= 's Homo/0V (SI ] (Ch. I,
Sees. 7 and 8). These lO~are.wo wdl covered ill Spani"'sA lp-fmIlc 'TbpOJou {711 (Ch. I.
Sees I and 2) ,
A consider ab le pan of tile book by MasscyAlpbrail: TapoIoV : .Allfnrrodunlrm (52] is
de'o'Oled to fUlldammtaJ &'Oups and. rda lN Il)Jlics, 0 11. 2 and ) tid", recommmded for 1I1
inilia! stud y of Illese 10pks .
or
In OIlr proof of lbe lh<'Olmtaboul llle fuDdameruai p oop a l urf~, we quile closdy
fo.illow lMrlnH:lIthr Topolcrir (711(Ch. Vlij by Se:ifm and ThreUrall. The: lhrory ofthe fU n-
datn<=nta!s rl>l;lp II alw u poulllkd visually and fully by DuiJro\'ln CI al. in Modtnl (;eorMl, y
I28J.
A strict 10poloskal llleofY of liIe dear" of I mBpjling and lhe vector field cb8llClerillil:
(based On tIomoIoIY thc:0I)') may be (ound in CombllfOlort~1 Tope/DIY III (Ot . XVI. Sees. )
and. $) by Alaandrov. Some BppliciltiOllS oh lu: lhcol1'of III . degree: of I mappins are Biven in
GrorMlrk Mtlll od$ oj NonJlRta, A"lIIysir [471 by KrasnOM:lsly M d zabrtiko .
 Manifold. and Fibre
Buradle.
We co nsidered the ge ner a l pr o pert ies o f t opolog.lcal spaces and
their mappin gs in the p revious chap ters. However. th ere a re space s
with other struc tu res in topology an d ils applications, C.I ., smoo th
mani folds and fibre sp aces,whic h pla y an im portant part in many
bra nch es o f modem mathematics . In this ch a pter ,we study smooth
manifo lds in d etail as well as tangen t bundles whi ch arc naturally
related to them . We cover t he c:lemen t$ o f the theory o f cr ilK:a.l
points o f smooth funct io ns o n manifolds and d eal with the:
d ements of fibre space: the ory.
 1. BASIC NOT IONS OF DIFFERENTIAL CA LCULUS
IN n-DI MENS IONAL SPACE

I. SmOOIh Mappin g s . Remember that R" is the space o f orde red .se'lS
x _ (xl' . .. XII) o f /I real numben (see Sec . 2,01 . II) e~polnlS or vec tors. We
will ass ume that R " l1 stQndardly em~~ in R" + t , i.e . point (xl' ... , x,,)
from R" will be iden tirled with the point (xl ' . .. x"' 0, . . . ,0) fro m R " + t . The
numbersx p . x" fro m the set (x l' . . . x,,) ar e ca.IIedthestlllldllrd coordina ty
of tht po int x .. (xv . . . x,,) in R" .
Let U C R " be an o pen ser, Ivly mapping f ; U - R '" can be rf:pre$Cnted (sec
Sec. 2. 01 . II) as an ordered set o f m functions:
/(x.l" ,x,,) - V1(x1' " .x,,), f , (x .... . x,,) . . . .J"'(xl" " . x,,.
R m is said

..,
DEFINITION 1. A ma ppingf : U - to besmOO/1l (or d if/t rtfll fob le) of
deMC'. r .. I . on U ifeac:h functioftf,t.,t => I . . . . m , halIall con tln uo us paniai
derivatives,.cc-"'"''-;;:::-. 3 1 + .. . + $" - 3, On U foreveryorOc:r \lp tos '" r
,)'IX1 . ~.x"

inclusive:.
Smoo th mappinp / o f ctass C' are also called C"-moppings and written as
rec:
If aUthe fundion s/ t possesscontin uOlls pan ial derivatives of My order the n the
ma ppinaj is said to be i'l/initd y smooth (I e C"" ). Continuous mappings Il.U called
CO-ffUtppill&S. Il ls obvious thai the following relation s an': valid
CO :> C l :> . . . :> C':> . . . :> C-.
In Ue au \he runcl.ions /~ are anal ytic (a function il said lo be 1l/IQ171k if ilt T aylor n-
paI\5";oo oonverlU to il in 1M ncipboluhood of eadl point), the mappln.. /ls said to be
IlnllfYfk if" C"). ~ foUowlna SCI incllU;on Is val id C'" ::J C".

DEFINITION 2. Th e matrix

o f the fInt derivatives of t he mapping I .calculated at a point Xo is called Iht Jeco-

biDn m atrix of t ht I/'IIlpplng/ at Xo and denoted by ('\

iht )
I "0

Th e Ja.cobian mat rix detenni na a linear mappinl R " _ R"':

..
,

~
t~ ~ ~I~ ,~ ~L.~ + ~ii~~
whkh II called tbe dtri"'llli"O/rM ~J'iIl8I'"the poinl XOand denot~ b y Dx!.
deri vati ve is a 'l.incariwlon' of the ma ppi ll&/ . 1..1: . , th e .rrllle mlppinJ
ICX,} -t (D"f!(x - Xd comdde. wi th f(x) up 10 inrmltcsimab o f higher order
tban b - xo' . More prec:lsdy, Dx/it . unique Iina.. meppins of R " lo Ii. ' ' fot
which

"fV<""c:
- -,-,f",~~~::-::(".:Dx"l"
""'~C:-:C''''-
~-0 Il$ x - xll'
Ix - Xo

A corollary to the thec rern abo ut tlw: deriv:ative o f a C'OI11posite functwn is lhe
roUowinJI $lI U:mm l (t he 'chain nile'): undrr Il,JuptTpt)JlIion oj moppinv f
IIw it' .JocobWr m.uicu tire mul l/plit l~fMr. Le
.rKI,.
(':':') I~ <:01.....(:) L
n.: "'00I'o f this is lefl to the rnck:r as an aatiJc:.
2. The Ran k of a Mapping. Let U C R" be III opm 1d . / : U - R -
IAI Pplna 01 c:bu C'"(T :or.. 1) . The "",* o/tlre 1ntJPPin6/at a POint .ro ts the rank o f
iu J acobiatl matrix cak:ulata1 at the point.l"o and dcooted by ran k.1- b equals the
dimension of l he subspace In R- , viz.. , the irna.ae of R " WIder Ihclinear ~
Dx!- Sif\f;C lbe noDI: of . maim aulDOt ~ the lIumbeo" of rows I'll et>luUll\$, ~
mult ha ve nul l: !tI " min( If. m) . Po lnu at wtIic:h ran t .J - min (II, m ) are uid
10 be "',1447,. {alsO noncril ktl/ (K n(Jll.SjlffJIftu) . and poiii'li II which .... 1: ~,j <
< nUn (n , m) ar c said to be /fOIln lultlf (also crir icol or s!JI,Wltlf).
Th e 5Ct ofrCSu1ar polnl. o f a m. ppinB/ i$open in R" (owln Bto the COQllnuily of
the panlal daivatl~, l he determ inant for which the rank of tile Jacobl an matrix is
found. is differ ent from zero In some neighbo urhood of . TtBular poin t) . The let of
rq ular points may be em pty Wve JOllI e eJlllJlpl ) .
a. The Implicit Function T heo rem . We nOW adduce the theorem about
implidt lUnctill.s malls proved in the COI.U"SC: o f analysi s. We shal l rep rrsml po inU
of the space R" .. - .. R" x R - in the form (X. )'), where x '"' tl"l' . . ,
x,,1e R" , y .. II" .. . )'.)8 R- . let U C R". " C R.'" be opom seta.and (x~
y~. Ux V C R""
iRWREM I. U / :U x Y - R u tI Cl.~ .J1JCc. y~ .. 0 _11(/

'" ('!\ I ..
Iy ) U.. N
O. tlwtt ,ht~ ui$ts _ open n~hbot.ultood W~ C UoItll.
poJtr, xo_nd _~ , : W~r} - VsudI rh,u , ~ ,. )'. Mldf(x,&~)} .. O/or
 ClI. . "'_ fmdu lld !-' Me Bundlu l SI

lI11y X E' WCxo) , 1M 1nllppUI" Mbt, wlliqw. FW lh rrmon. , a C lI11d

'
( ~) .. _S- IA . ( I)

~ 1M _ ,rXy:s B IUId .AI tmI obtllbt td f ro m ,h~ fflQlrkcs

(: (A"'71) a~ (~ (A". YI) '

retptlwly, 011 nplacillg '~ ''''IlIMIII y by z(A").
NOTE. If ! 6 C', r ;;t J , the n, G' C'. Thi$ sta temen t foUowt: from equali ty (l l.
ene corollary 10 Ihe lmptieit functio n th eorem i the Inverse mappinll th eor em .
THORllM 2. LeI V C R ~ IN IIIIO/H ll set .! : V - R ~lImllpplll,oJclQS$ C'.' ;;t I,
Xo e V II ,.""Iar poi", of the mapp ln, f. Theil Ihtre txlst o~n neigh/xJurhoQlts
V(xol, W(f(xo'O of Ihe po ints X o lind / C;tol such IhDI / Is /I hom eom Dfph Lrm
V(.rol !. W(f(.rol and r I Ii Cr.
Pl OOf . Consider lh e m.ppina F:R ~ X U - R " given b y t he n de F ly, xl
r - f(.rX,y e R" , )( e U). Drooce Yo - f(.r~. It IS obious t hat F e C' an d

Fl7.x~ .. O.SiDccrankJ - " , it foUows thlldct (:;)1(10.'" .;. O. By the

im plic:it fllndilxi theorem ,t hen aiR. an open M'l&bbowhood W lyol C R" of Ihe
poll>I 7o and a unique mappina, : Wlyol - V IUd! that ,lyol = x.o Mel fOC' any
76 W lyol,
FO', ,0' .. y - f (gO'll - O. (2)
Put V(.rol - ,( Wlyoll . Since V(KQI .. r
'( WO'oll, we find that VCXol Isopen In
vinUI! o f t ile co nlm uity o f f . lbus. , : WO'oJ - v(.roJ ill a ma pping <;If ope n seu
an d , due to (2), we obtain , .. / - 1. Morcovc r, from Ille note to Theo,em I, we
have f- I e C'.
DEFINITI ON 1 . A m8ppinl L : U - v or an open set VC R" on to an open set
V C Ril ls eaUed a C'-dlff eo m(}'I'hlsm, r ;;t I. if (ilfis a homeomorphism o f V on-
to V, (U)! e C' and (ill1J- I G' cr.
Exercise I". CollUruCl the C""-difrcomorphi$mJ : O:(.r) - R".
Th e inverse lIliIppinl theorem m.&y now be fOl mulllcd as follows . 1/f: V - R"
IfCf C". nVlp pi", . ,;;tt , qfan DiN" ~t V C R" in R " , IIl1dx o G a Nlfulllr point off .
IJrtll IMn aUt opvI MjzhbC1l, hoodr Y(xol, W(f<xoll 0/ lire {JOUIU z ,, ! {;lol su ch
"tllt ,Ire mappifflll ; V{;lol- W (.rol) & II C'-diffHnCNphism .

"""....
2" . Prove thlt a diffeomof1)hllm bas no nDnrquiu points.
HItr,: Uto the _ e.boW !he Jacobia n 1lUnU. for tile IIIPU~ o f IDaPJ'lIISf.r '.

) . V:t f : R " - R I be a ma ppillJ o f dass C'_' ;;t I. ShoW' lbat !he: OOl\reguhlr
", lntrOductiaD.lo T opoloty

ccteu oUarc charactaued by the raa t hat the fuJ I putial derivatives off...... i.sh
chan for all variables.
. ' C urvi linear' Coordinate Systems . Let U. to' C R- be open xu .and
f ; U - V . bomcomorphiml . The position of tva)' poIDt Y E V may be apcdl'kd
by means o f the . aadatd coordinat es y " .. oJ' . of the point y . b ut th i' QII u.o
be done with tbe bel p or tbe a an<iard c:oordinates or tbe point x .. rib') IE U .
DEFINmON 4. The standatd c:o ord inal es o f the po lnt r l(Y) E U ve termed 1M
'CIl",i/iMw' coonJiMru o f t he poi nt J! E V.
In ot her WOTds, instead of 11M: ~rdina tc pl-.ncs .1, _ bj< I .. I, . .. n , -
to.uide!' In y the im..,es. under thc homeo morphismJ. o f t he cootdinuc planes
Xi .. til' i .. 1 . . . , n. io U, Ihe IlltCr!leCtkJa oft htK lml3CS dncrmlnin, the: po si-
tio n o f th e poi nt )l. TIle term 'c urvilinear' coordinate s mer ely reflects th e rlet thlt
the: new ccoedlnare ' planes' In V arc, llenera1ly speU ln8, 'clll'Yilin cST' (A.g. 72).

v v
Y.... 72

NoIc that in anatysb, eu.rvitintu ooo rdina1es an not u$Ually inlrodlOlOCd by

rne&lISof a homeomorphism, bUI by usiJla; a C"..c1iffetJmOrphi$lll, where the ordu o f
Sftl oothM:U ,. 6epa!cb 011 the problem under mnsi6n'at ton .
Jr . (uott>oD, is siYal 011 V as a fllnetioJt of t he . &Ddard roonliDatcs o f pOOlt
)I. th en it QID be ~ as I (un.ctloo of tbc sundatd coonfulat uQf a polnt . ,
l.e., as a func:tion o f lh e eUl'Yillneu tolmtinates of tbe point r - In analyslll. such an
operation Is lermed a m OIl,e of WlriQbIa . In Olha wor ds , we replace t be coo r
din'tea In ee evese imqe apace o flhe funa ion , . which ;s equiYll!ent to consider
iq the fu nc:lion V ln$1e4d o f , . It goes wilh ou t ..yinl lhat m appiogs an d s1m iltr
eltal1gea o f variables ean abo b e eonliidered . Th est m anleS ar e al so mad e III th e
space o f Q1app.!na images, l.e. , lf , : W - V is I mappina of, set w e Rift th en in-
$lead of the a udard coord ina tes of t he point , (rl , t: e W . the curvilinear coer-
din lles ot itic: point , (d determi ned by th e honteomOl'llhlsmJ I.Te eonsidem1. Sudt
ehM&t' Is equivalen t 10 COflIideriq the mappinJ r 1, ins tead of . mappina , .
Not e th al the rank o f . smooth mappill, is Wlalt ered USldn sm ooUl dtan,e of
yariable:a .
, . A Theorem on Rectifyi ng . Tbu ,tllfdtrnf emMddill6of R - into R .. tis
mappin, R - - R" .. . spedfted by th e l;:'Clr1UpOndence
(x l' , Jr.. ) - ta"1' . x 0. .. . 01.
Th e stalldtud proJtiolt of R - + " 0111.0 R js tbe mlppirl, R ... " - R det er -
mined byt~ ~c:e (rl " " ,x.'x. .. I' " . x. .. Ie) - (xl . , .,).
 C h . 4. M a nif olds a nd F, bt~ Buodles
'"

v ,"

... ,

Fig. 73

THEOREM>3 (O N REcnF YINO A MAPPING IN THE NEIGHBOU RHOOD O F A

REGULAR POI NT). L~t U C R~ be On open Rt.j : U - Rift 0 C ' mop pin l, r .. I
ond Xo <l re, ulor poinf ojf.
(A) 1/ n ~ m then th~re ex ist 011 open nellhbourhood Wif(xJ) oj the poInt f<XJ.
Qn open sel WI C Rift, on d a C"d/f/eomorph ism F : Wif<Xoll - WI {uch lho t Ff
on a a m ain Op tfl n elgh oourhood V<Xol C R" Is (he standard etrr~d",g of R" ir uo
R ift ( Fig. 73).
(8) l/n ;;;. m Ihen th ere ex ist Onopen neighb ourhood V(xol ojthepoln / x o' an OJH"
H I W C R~, ondo C'.dl/fmmprph lsm F: V<Xol - W such thol fF - J On /h~sel W
Is (he s /Qndord projt(:tio n 0/ R~ o nto Rift ( Flg . 14).
Consider th e fi)(1llllng of Ihis the orem fro m the poi nl o f view of coor dinate
ch81lgu. In case (A) , the d iffeo mo , phism F -I determines th e curv ilinear coer-
dina tC$ l~ I' , .. , t ",l in th e space Rift, in whose terms the mapping/ is of the form
t l .. x" . . . , t il '" x"' t " .. I = 0, . . . ,. t ", .. O.
[n ca se (8). the diffeomorph ism p- l deterrnlnes the cur vilinear cOO1"d ina tes It I'
. , t~l ln the space R" , in wh ose terms the mapping / is o f the form YI .. I' e
.r; ~",.
The idea o f Ihe proof i$ 10 com prere the given mappin gs 10 ma ppin g$ o f spa."c:s
o f the same dimensions , and, by appl ying th e inverse map ping l heorem , 10 o btai n
the ncary coordi na te chan ges.
PROOF. ( A) Rep resent poims o f the space R '" .. R~ x R '" - " in the form ex, y),
where x .. <xl' . . . , XII) e R " , )' - VI' . . . ,Y", _ til Ii R '" - ". Giv en tha t rank

,,/ = 'I , o r rank (~ I "" n. we assume , at flnt, that th e det er minant made up
ax) "n
". Int rod ucti on to T op<>1ocY

- ,
..
w,
~ ,O'

0' -
\. ~

o f U\c: fIrS' .. rO""$ of 1M J acobiaD m&IrUc (ID I.. is differ"'" (rom eee. Con

sidu lbe ma ppin F, : U x R" - ~ - R- 3iwn by lbe ruIc F,(x. y ) '"' !(.r)
+ (0. y ) , The Jacobiarl ma tl'll: o f tbe: mapp~ F 1 .11 the poinl <xc,. 0) is o f lbe form

*L: ~ L.
.. .. .. .. . .. . .. . 0
'I' j .. .. ,'1.
ax, .... ax~
I....
~
"', I ~
.'f, -, I 0
"'. ~
. . . . . . . - . . .. . .
'f_1 ax. I
,)z, ,.., . ... ", :roo 0

By lh e assumption , the dctClTllmaot ill the upper kfl-b and co rn er is Olh u lhan eere,
lhc:rdorc rank '" orl '"'
m , 8 )' the invcne mappinl th eonm. th ere ai$t o~
~. lt~o- 0) a nd W 1V'<KJ) o f Ihe poinlli (x000) an4/{,1tO>. res peaiv" ly.
 4. !'1aruCok!s aod Fib.. Dundl r:s
(' ~.

'"
such that the mapping F II "' ~ 0) ; W{xo, 0) - WIl'{x ol) ;$ a C'-dlffeo morphism.
Thertfor~ . Ihe ma pping fI ' : W11/(;(0 - Wlx O' 0) 1$ al.w a C'-diffeomorphlsm.
Put F ... fll . In virt ue of the contintlity o f the mapp ing!, there ubts an open
n~igbbourhood V{xO>ofthe OOinlXO e R~ such that!(V{xol) c W I I/<x6ll. Then the
mappingF!; V<XO> - Wlx/lo 0) is valid. The maooing F!u tile standard embedding
of R~ into R'" on the neighbourhood V(xO>. In fllct, since the mappingF'i l is bijec -
tlve and F1(x ,0) .. !{x). ....ehave(Ff)lx) co F(f{x .. fl lif{x " (x,0) .

In case lhe determinant of th e first" rows of the h cobian matri;c ( :: ) I"", i,

equal to zero, Ir ls finl necesswy ( 0 renumber lhe coo rdinates in Rift (in othe r
word" 10 male e a , pecial change of coordinates in R'" by means of th e
C"' -diffeomorph ism It ; R'" - R'" ' 0 thaI the delermlnant made up o f tile fill t n
. matrIX
rOW5 o f th e Jacoblllll . ('~ - 'f
a"
I"0
may be difforent from zero). We con-

struct the C'-diffcomorp hism F for lhe mapplnu '- 'J lIS above. Th uifg - I will be
the required C' -dIffeomorphism for the mapping.
(B) We represent the dem ~nt:l o f ure space R~ .. Rift X R~ - '" in th e form {X,y ),
wnere x "" {xl ' . , z.. ) e R"', y .. o., . .. , y~ _ "' ) 6 R II - "' . Let.~o .. (x'l,
fl) .Fromlhedata.wehaveranlc: ,c;.!=m,or ran k
UO .n (..!!.....) 1(,II.A
a (x,y)
= m. ,

Assuming at IIut thal. the d~lenninllnt made up o f the fust m columm of the Jaco-

bian mat rix (-'1....) "".r'>

a ~.y)
1 is different from zero. consider the m.pping

F : U _ R'" x R II - '" given by the ro le F(x , y) _ (:C, y ), y). Th e Jacobian

matrix o f the mappins F at the poin t ~,yOj is of the form

::: I ~.~, ..,~~ L. 'I, 1

I ' J", "'--r'
'I,
. ' ._J>.." " ';, ~-_'"
1
- \P , r ,

'1.1
J
'I.
. r.J>.,: . . . ~
1 ;;-, "'- ....
_
1oJ, _'"
'r'
Itt ...

o
o

o
 Int,od"" limI co TopoIoay
'"
By tho:" ",", plion , lb onnminanl in tho: up per lefH :lMd coma' is diffen n t from
zero. thcteJ on: rank (A4. ~ '" n . By lhc: inyenunappia. thcorem.Jhere c::ilit OpeD
qhbowtloods V(r'.',;u) Mel W(F~. ~I o f th e poipu tr". y"') &lid F~. /1>,
repectivdy, sud! that the m appina
F I I'<O-. r'l : V{Jr'. yO) - W(f~. Y">. yO)
is . C"-dlf(~orpbi$Ia.. Tbe mapplnajF-1 all lhc: ndltlboW'h ood WV~.
Islbulandard projection or R ~ Olllo R". m fad,let t e W(J~. yO) . Y"I . Slnce r
.1').tI
Is bijel:lNe, lhc:re is. uai que poin t a.)
ill the neW!bowbood Y~.yO). fm- whith
t - (f( , II). ,,) . and "'0: f1.nd that
IIr 1IifU. , }. ,,) - fir l (fIf , 'II. ,, lit. 'I ).
In ~ the determinant made up o r the fU'St ", co lumns o f the Jaco bian ml tri~

(...!L)I(0'1."" equal, zero . It

a ~ . y)
is fir" necessary to renumber the COOl'1:llnau:s In

R (t.e" to dIanIe the coordinat~ by mean, of .. C--d.iffcomorp hiun

, : R - - R ) 10 th at the detemt inant mack up o f tbe: nnl m columns o f tbe: Jaw-

bian ma uh (aVI )I(0'1.""

1(r .1)
ma y be dilfnent from tuO . We 00llSUUCt. C'.

d itfeocD orpttism F for the mappia.. l . in th e m lU'lnCT dcsI:ribcd above. and t h Cfl
F, -I is the roquir cd. C'-diff~ for tbe: mapplnJ/
6. Lemma about a Representation of Smooth Fuaetions . We ad-
du heft wother resu lt wtlkb Is DtICUSU)' be fo re we UD 10 1IIly flUth er .
LEMMA t. Ut 1M . C' '' 1.~,ioIr (r .. 0) ~If 011 tI COftW'X Ifl ilhbourllCJOd
v~ 0/ . poitt t xO Itt R". 'nrelf tJr~tw am C'-fiI~I/oIu I , : v~ - R I, i . I ,

surlr Ihal l(.r ) ./~ + E , / (.r) (.r, - xf> and, m omlYN ,

,- ,
, " II ,

II "~ at tr').
..
"', ,
PIlOO. , Put
, /(.r) l at ~ + l(.r - xO)clI ,
"'-
By appl ym, the dmlentary IratUformalions tAo..... from an alysis, _ obl.ain

/(.r) - If/? W !. +: - .10,> dt .. 1(tl (.r/ - xf) ::, ~+ t(.r - ;Il) )dt
, .
-L
, oo I
(.r, - xf> r::,~
J
+ t (.r - x"})dI . L
, oo .
(.rj - ~'l(.r)
b~ .... Let f be a fun etion of dus C' 1, , :> o. Ji veo On a CQlIYU
nci&hbourhood "~of a po ltll xO 1lI JtA . Sho....that

fl,r) f W? + ~ ~j
,- ,
- z't):, ~ + r

'.J- 1
(1"/ - .f.rJ - ~I,rl.

2. SMOOT H SUBMAN IFO LDS IN EUCLIDEAN SP ACE

I. The Notion of Smooth Subman ifold in R " . in the courses o f

analysis and analytica.l .ftlmetr)', Inl()()(h surfaces in the tlltcc -aimcn5ional Eucli
dean 5PK'!' lb M are IPvm by an equation: fl,r . y), whCftf is a smooth fllna;on
o f l W'O varia bles dd'"med in a rqion Doflne plaM (r.y). ...e Q)llsidcred . Mon:c:o m-
plCll IlItfac:es(e .... closed) which are aiven on their plUtkuw regions (l .e . kalIy)
by cee of ttle foDowing equ ations t .. P I.r. ,
y q(x, ;z:). .. r(y, Q are abo
msidned. Th e limpkst eumple o f slldt a swfao:: b the $phni S1. Other objects
It udi ed in anal ysis met anal )'tical loomdly arc 5mOOlh Cllrva Jiven Ioca1Iy by oar;
of the l}'Items or equtiom,;
..... (d.
{ ]I - \Io u ):
{Jr:
=: ... lJ').
j{y):
{y.. . . (.-),
: .. ~(r).

AD tbC$C objts are mlbrlCC'd by the sin gle Mlion of smooth 5IIbnanifoid in a
EIlC1.ideaa IP'O=.
We oow c:onrider a subset M in R N 1.1 lopo1opeal sp4CC equipped with Ihc
lopo101)' lndllOCd fro m R N . Let be. poiDl o f M. and Ul,rj ils opc:n nciahbourhood
(U1M ).
DEFINITION I. If a homeomo'llhl, rn " ; R~ - U (r) , n " N , u Ilsfyinll the /;Ond i
lions (i) '" Ii C', ' ~ l ,u.ml ppi n. rrom R~lo R/Y,(ii)ran k ,,,, '" n for any poin l
, . R ~ is linn, t hai Ole pair (U(,l'). ,/,) is caIlcd a elrrv1 ill lire polflt on M of ( 11;1$$
cr, or a C'<htlN on M .
NOT&. II laDows fr<Wn dcrmilian that the C' -clw1 (V(r) , ,.) at a pointx is a C' -<:hlU"l
at any poi nt)' IE' U(r). Th is a plains the fact tha t the pair (U(r) .,) is also a Ued a
C' -chan on Itt .
Th"",I O specify. chatt I!lftlIS 10 specify locaDy the SO M (i.e 10 spcQfy the
nci&hbourllood U (r in the rOt'Rl
XI "1(,1" y~).
xJ ~<rl" .. , y~). ( I)
", Inl rod UCLloll ,o TopololY

wher e ..,. , _ I, . . . . N au the l unniolUl of clUJ e.which determine the

homeomorphism .,.
The nc~boIIrhood U ( ) i. o flen Q Ual COOI'diml(c,.~1tbt'J urltood in v iew o f
tbe fact 111..11 homClOmOrJlb bm (I) detttmilleS lhc: curvilillCar mo'rdinat u )' 1'
:I.. on ....CICt U~). whieh ~ DOt,'efIcraUy ~ ...,wed to the 51l1lldatd (001'.
dinalts of the arntria ll spaa R N.
OeFINITION 2. A mappin./ : A - R;" of " wbxl A C R'" int O the space R" i$
QIled
C' ._ ppi", . r ;;t I, on A U If C' (A if lor ea ch poilu. x eA . there a ist an
opeD nqhbourhood O{Jt) in tbe spllcc R N and . C'-m.~J : O(l" ) - R" 5Ueb
t hal ]l... n Olr ) = j .
LEMMA 1. Th e hOmnHl'lol'pJlIsrn ., _ 1from I)if"llIjri (m 1 Is of ctass e .
'- 1l00P, Let x E U (;to> e R N. Th cn ., - , (x ) E R" . Since ran k ...-1 ).... = n, b)! the
th<:o rcm on rect.ifying mapping (see See. I), ther e ClU 51 an open neighbourhood
W(.Ir} C R N of the point x, an ope n set WI C R N 8.lJ.d a C'-d iCCeomorp hlsm
F : W (x) - WI sud! Ibat F'", on I certain nc iah bourhood Y C",, -' (Jt c It" of the
point ", -IW it the st andar d rm btddlna of RIO int o R N, Let, : R N - R" be th e
standard projection, it belna ' eYid~nl lhat ' " C'. Co lUilkrini the mappina
I F : W() - R " , we o blain ltull , F E C' an d6F1 w""n (1"'01 a .. - I.
Dcfinltiotl 2 enabl n US 10 , encral.iu: the AOlion of dirfeomorph.iSlft o f Opal Ktli
of th e space R (SCI: hem J , Sec. t) U foDows: a ho meomorp hism / : A - 8 of
subKUA C R , B C R " bQ1led aC'-difj'eomoqJhlsm If/" C' (A ). , l e C' (8 ).
It follows from Lemma 1 lIlal conditiom (i) and (iI) o f Dc t-'niticm I o f a C'.
dian W(), ..) are equtnJent to .. beina a C'-di ffeomorpftiml .
Now we live the basic de rmi lio n . ....
DEFINITIOH J . A set At C R b called an 1I1flmuuioJull SIIbnuurifold iD R N of
N
class C' o r a C'...nlbmtutjfold If .cla of iIs poinu JlO'"SICS a certain C'~.
We will dcnoc e Ih is IUbmAlllfold by M" and wril~ M" Ii C', indka1in,thllSthai
it Is of d _ C'. In ocher words , a $et M In R N is an n -d imenJional submanlfold if
for ClIch o f it5 poinu, a ~rdlnate sysl em may be COI\nructed; eadi ~rdinlle
IYII~m il d elermiRai locally land caned alOQlI <:'OOrdinllfe sysl~m) , but the wh ole let
of coordin ale systems 'em b races ' the m tire subman.lfold.
The de finition o f . chan may be extend ed to the cue whe n r ... 0 , ami ni n. con -
di lio D (iI) in Definilio n 1. It is nalural th at In tbis case noth lna can be ded uced as
rqards ' he differentiability of the homeom.o."hism . They sa y t h ~D t ha t M" is
lopolOlK'tlI _ .. /fold and write M" II! c4.

_
Note mat fo r any polotx o f a sUbma nifold M- of ~1ass C', an inf'mil e , .ennaUy
.lpe;Ulna, numb<:r o f dlans isWlmftined. Suc;h a set of ch arts I(U.., ....)) o f d_ c
.....ese osw:n sets IU..) (orm a cov mn, o f M" Is caIIcd a n /111M/or lhe SIItmulI'i/oid
M"'. Th~ aI1as ( U.. , >I for the mani fol d M" determines the lei o f coordin ate
m u ms that 'KrYe' Ihe oJe s ubmanifold . T o specify a submanifol d, it J.Q(rl ttS 10
sped ry lUI. alta .

'", Show ell&! if two charts IU , ..), ( fI, 11-) such t hai un fI ~ 0 011 II c-
subm.anirold M" are &ivcn,th~n Ihe mappiDs +-
I", : I" - I (U n V ) - "' - I(U n V)
of opm leU of Ih~ space R - is a C' -diffeomorphmn.
 eh 4. M;uufold. aod Fibre Bundles

2" . Show that if a sufficient nu mber o f repuces o f the sp ace R " an: ' glued toget her'
'"
by means of the homecmcrnhtsnu "'- ' "" th aI are determined by the charts of a cer-
tain atlas , then we ob tain a topologlClil space ho meomorphIc 10 /of'. (eL the
development o f a two-dimensional surface , see sec.e. Ch . I I).
Th us, the choice o f an atl as det erm ines a sewlng' o f a submanifold M " fro m
n-dimens ional spaces by mea ns o f a system o f charts.
2. Examples of Submanifolds.
(I) A pair (R I , I I), wIIele I R" R l - R I ls the identity mapping. determi nes
on e C"-chart fOI a1tx e R I and makes the at las for a one-dimensional submanifold
in R I of class em.
Extrrin 3" " he w tha t a pair (R t. ",, ), where "" : R I - R l, is determ incr:l by the for'
mula ""(.>') L xl, is no t a C'-cllart (r ;;lo I) at the poin t x = 0, bu t makes the Qtlas
fo r a one-dlmenslonal manifold In R I of class CO.
(2) Similarly to Example I , a pair (R R, l it .)' where I.~ : R" - R R is the identity
mapping, determi nes on e C""-clla rt fo r all x e R ~ an d makes the atlas for a n
n dimensio nal sub manifold In R~ of class C"".
(3) Using the stercoiTaphic pro ject ion (Fig. 7j). we specify an atlas co nsisting o f
two chart s on the sp here S 1 C R J The n the seu Cit - S 1, IN). V 1 .. S2, !sj
form an open coverillj; of the sphe re. The stereographic projections from the North
an d SOuth pqles arc of the following forms ;

""1(1') = (_X
_,_ ~)
1 - Xl ' I - x )

""2(1') - C:t.. ) ' I : \) .

respectively, and au ho meo morphism s from VI' U J onto R 2.

E::urc~ 4' . Verify that the mapp ings ll'i"' , ",,; 1 are o f dus C"" , and that in each
point)'E R 2, rank yll': - ' = rank Pi' I _ 2.
Thus, the sphere S~ otrith the at la.s cODsist.ingo f two ch arts (V1.ll'I I), (V 2 , ""i' I)
is a two-dlmensionai sub man irold in R l o r class C"'.

"
N
""(4) By means of ee st ueographic pn:ojcclion Inll od uetl on 10 T OflOloaY

($el: Exam ple J), an atl as consi sting

of t wo d1 aru (V I' " II), ( Ul' "1 I), where

' l lx") -
x,
(r,='i----, I x. )
"'If '" l
X If + 1

( x, ..
I + It" +' ,I +X.x" + 1)
can be given on the sphere s -. The sphere $ " with su ch an al l&$ is an n -dimc lUion al
w bman lfol d in 11." + I o f clasi5 C"".
U)The graph of a mapping . Let amappingf: /I." - R"',fe: C' begiven.
Co nsider the graph r(f) '" ~./tl')J c 11." x R '" of the mapping (see Ex . 12,
Set. 9. Cb. II). The ad.., on r(f) will be givento cc nstst of one chan (R". " l, where
" : 11." - /I." '" 1ft is defined by the Connula ,,(x") = k , f(;(. Thus r(f) is an
,, -dime nslonal sub mani fold in 11." + '" of d lW cr.
Eu<c"'.
' 0. Show that the set o f po lnu (x. WI ~) of the plan<: 11. 1 xE II. 1, X * 0, is a on<:
dimensional sub manifol d in /1. 1 o f class C"".
(j0. Show thllt any set in 11.". coD$istlng of iso lated points. it the uro-dlmcruional
submao ifold In /I." .
(6) Th e solution set o f a system of equ ations . Let there be given a
syst em of equ ati ons
J,(;c l' ... , x,,1 = O.
f ", (;c l"" .x,,> = O.
whert / t .. . / ... : R " - R 1 an fu nctions of class cr.
r ;;. I. Let n ;;. m . The
famil y o f funct ions/I ' ... / ... determil\e$ aC-mappina J : R" - R "' . The soju-
lio n set o f lbe system will be denol:od by M . It Is clear t hat M = / _1 (0).
THEOREM I . lAt Il set M be nontmpty. If Jor ew:1I poi" , % e M. tilt nm k oj tht
I tlCOOill" /7IQ/m ( ~) L equtlls m , 1M" M is 411 (n - m ).dimensiOnOI SIlb-

mf/n(/oJd if! R" 0/ c/ll$$ cr.

PROOf" Let %0 be an arb it rary po int of M. From the GaUl of the theorem, Xo is a
regular poin t o f the mapping J . Aceordlna 1.0 the theorem on reo:;:tif yina II mapp iD,
<_ Sec. I), thne a1sl an opa'l l\eigh bou rhood V(xol C R" o f lbe po lnt ...O' anopct'l
set we R'" an d IIC"'-diffeornorp hism F: V(xDl - W such Iha.tjF- t on the set W
Is the stan datd pro ja:l.ion of R " ODto R .... Without loss of Sc:l1era!it y, we ma y
assu me that W is a certain open db c D;<YDl. Yo = F'(xol; th en
(fF- I) - I ( O) n o;Vol - R" - 1ft n D;<YJ - 0; - "'<Yol.
 Ch . 4. Ma nifol d, an d Fib<. Bun':I. ,
'"
o

171& 76

(Here R " - m = IxE R" : XI .. . . . = x'" .. OJ is a sub5patt in R ") . II is clear th"t

a diK U' - "'\YO> which i , open in R" - m i5 the imag e of the Jet M n V""ql under
the di ff~morphWn F . Thus, the open neighbourhood V(xol n M o f t he pOlfitxo in
Mis C"dlffeomorphlc: to the open d isc D; - "'<xol, and therefore to the: SpaD:
R" - "'.
As an exam ple, C:Oluid.r aa:ain the: sph ere S" C R" + I, determining it by the:

equation xt + . . . + ~ + J - 1 "" O. HC1'e: ran k (:0 at any poi nt of the

sphc:R equals uni ty. Therefore, the (:()nditions of Theorem I are ful1llltld (fOl' any
r .. 1). Thus, we have proved once qai.n tha t the: sphere 5" is an II-di.metWonal
submanJ foJd in R " + I of c:1ass C .
Consider the case: of t he conditions of Th eorem I not being fulfilled. Let a sel
M C R3 be given by the: equlllio n.d - ~ - r, .. 0 (Fig. 76) . on the set. M ' 0,
the: structure of the Iwo-dimens.lo;..;l C"' -$Ubl11f.lllfold 'rnay be: 5pc:cified as befon:.
Bc:s.Ides, at the pain! 0, aUmino rs ofl-hc: Jacobian matrix ar c zero, ilI\dits rank is nal
maximal. The set M is a simple example: o f an algebrai c: manifold , an d the:polnt Oa
sill$ular poinl of th is man ifold.

3. SMOOTH MAN IFO LDS

I . T h e Notion o f Smooth Manifold . Th is ncncn i, on. of the ntra! no-

tions of smooth topology an d modem analy, ls. The: method o f iruroducrlcn of
coo rdi n ates on a ser ma y be: generellzed with out a$SUminsth at it II., In the: space:
R f'J. The develo pment of Ihis ide:a leads to the notion o f smoo th manifold,
Let M be: a topological sp ace. U e M an o pen set, and V' : R" _ U a
homtOmorphi.m. Then the Itandard cOQrdinat n I!'l (x) ' . .. ,!',,(x)l of the: point
",- I (x) in the space R" at e natur aJIy assumed to be: t he: coo rdina tes of a point
x E U. Thus, the:hemeemorphjsm l" det ennincs th e coord inates on a part U of t he
space M. The pair tU,,,) i! caJled a ChllN on M. For any polnt }{ E U, Ihe chart (U,
'1') wil l also- be tmncd the ch llrl III /h~ point x.
Let (V, ..l(V' : R ~ - U). (V, "')(11': R ft - II) be: two charts on M, and
un V ~ 0 . Then 10 . ach point x El un V, there correspo nd two ,y ste"," of
:oordinate$
 InlrodllCtlon 10 Topolol Y
'"
the o;oordinatd o f lhe poi nts ,, - l(.r) E ,, - IW n Y) and 'i< - I(.r) E r 1(0 n V}
whicll . If-nerally speakm" are different. Both syllem.l of cOOJdinat~ art 'equal In
ri&hu ' In d lt sense th aI thue uisu I uamition hom eomorphism
Vi.,: ,.-I (U n Y) - ~ - ' (U n V}

rd. tilll both syUetm of COOI'din.l.ta and permi ttina to elptess tbe fo nna eeee-
dintles tofllU1uow.l y In IftlJIS of lbc: Iallcr :
EI '" X('I l" 'I . ) (I )

(. - X. (" I" " . 11.)

and, convtTsc ly. conlinuolI$ly u prcss the:latter in lennli of the ronner :
~ I Z )t I n !' ,E. >,
'I . '" x"UI .. , E.)
In fonnu lac (I) an d (2). Xl' . . . X"' Jel_. .. x" r.ianiry the coordina te functions
o f th e m3pp ings "-I, , '" (x l_ . x..) , '1-- '", .. (.trl ' x.) .
ll lOmeUlrICS ba PlXI\l lo be nC'Ceuary in analytic problemllhat dependences (I)
and (2) should be diffnm tiablc r tima, r = 0 , I, Th is mtaM W I the
homeomorphism V i,. it C'odiffC'OlllOrphOOJ . (Foe cemVUliellc:c. we taU
bomtomorptWm CO-dilfromorphiml).
DEJ'ltl tnOH I. '1bc dwts CU, ,,). (Y ) on M are c:alkd C'-c'Om/K'libk i f on e of
1M rol~ coaditioJu is.. fulfilled: (I) U n V .. 0. (Ii) u n V 0 and t he*
borDcomotPhisrn +-'" :
\l'-I W n II) - .. - l eU n Y} in C""-ditreornorphl$m.
OEFINtTlON 2. A xl o( dwts llV. .,..)1on M u called a C""-mkzs 01" an I1tl4s 0/
~ C' If any two o( i" <:hal'lS are C'-com pali bk and U V.. ... M .

NOT", Ali ltom eornorphlsm i ",.. In lbe derUlition of 11 er-allu act from 1M same:
space R-.
ThUl, IptClryina an atl a on M , we thereby int rodu ce coordinates in the
neiahbourtlood of act! point x e M t ha t are cal led local coo rdinates .
Let a C'.atlas !(U.., 1".. ) be glven on Mand. therefore , lOCa l coordi nates be tn-
troduced In the neighbo urhood o f each po int. In ma ny pro blems of analysu Ier
various reasons it u con vt:nltot to Introduc e new !lxal coo rdina tes (by mea lU of a
f
C'Cl1 ain eha.rt lV . which JhOllId be 'eq ual in ri&h15' with respect to the on,mal
coordma tes si ven by Ille cbaru of th e C".atI.iu [(V..' .... )1. Th us, the: ch art (Y , 'it)
mould be C"-emnpatibk wit h each dwt (V..' to..) o f the Ji'letl C"-a das . If thi s con
diUon is fulfilled lheR the set of ~ f(V. ....>I V (V. # ) ~ . C"-I tlu. Sinn: I C'.
atlas {W... ",..)l U lV . #) ~ deri cd from the C'-al1aI (W... ... )1 by addilll an
'eq ual -uHi&bIl' chan . il l, natW'al to cons.idc:r theK atlaJc:s as eq uiva!cnl .
DEf iNITION 3. Two C'. Uasa j(V... .. .)I f(V,. #,)) are laid 10 be PqIIl1iOI,nll f an y
t wo c:lwtl (V. ' " ..), (v" I,> an: C'-eompa tibk In ot her words . t.. o C".. rluts an
equlva!cDt if their union is a C"".at1u.
 e h 4. MaAirold. and FIbu Bundles

Eu~ l ~ . Show th&! t he relat IOn whieb _ intradUttd o n 1M set of C".at!ues is

'"
an 'lQulva lence rd alm .
II foRoWl from Elten:bc I lhat the set or C""alJasq on M decompo_ mLO d is
joint daDd of equivalent atla$cJ .
DEfT NIT I()!II4. The equivakno class of C"'-atlucs on M IS ca.lIed II C"'-stt1lt:l wn
~M.

Ea ch equivalentt clau of C'al1a5u o n M is determined by IIny of its represea -

lati vct..t.e a "YeO C"-structure ea n be rcslOred by any of iu C".aIWoes. Thi$
rema rk undcrUes the fa et Ih&! a C'-stru et ure o n "" ma y be q>e(:ified bysped fyinl on
it o ne C"-&t.las from the g1vea C'struct ure.
The union o f all C" atlases from I given C'slruClure is also I C'-Illu called
maximal. Specifying I C""slrucl ure is equlval c:llt to specifying the maxima l a lIas .
SOm etimes the maxima l It las is caUed I C'st ructu re.
CO-structures are termed ft>polor1cal strur:fl;1't:I; C"S1 ructurcs (r ,. 1 .. . OIl )
Ill: calIcd smoofh (or dlfjtrtfft iIJf) st ruclUres.
DEJ' INITION , . f'r, topolOSicai space M with 11 C'''$Cru et ure liven o n it is Qll1ed a C".
mQlli/oid (or . " umi/old olrloss C'). and the d illltftSlon o f the space RIO from wh ich
Ihe hOPlCOmOlllhi$ms of dlans let is ca1Ied the dj~ of lhe C"manifold .
Similarly 10 C'"-SlfUI:$ ures. c:'-manifolds are said to be topo/06icrz/1lIId C
manifolds (r :a I . OIl) pn()Olh. SomelilM$ (for bl'CYity) C'"-manifo lds will be
sim ply reJo:ned to as manVoJds .... d C"'-at1ues u lllliut$.
If in conditioD (Ii) o f Definition I. Ihe homeomorphillTlS .;,- 1.... .. - ~ u,:
analytic INppina:s (". _ 1,., ..._ t+..
C"') . theD. the charts tv, ...). tv,~) on Mare said
10 be CW-(;OmpIltiblr. C'-atlasu. C'4nIc1ura and C"'-manifoltls are defined
t\;Ilurally. C"'-SUUetllres lIlDd CWmanifolds arc ealkd "',""ylie strucr..1U a nd.
IIIUl!yllt numijolds, rnpedivdy. To indicat e the dimension of . mani fold , we win
wri te M". and abo d im M " .
l\IOTIl llMo c1illWRsioII of a CO-m.;ul lrold Is ill i,,.-ariant. I.e., ;rldcpmdenl or 1M dloou o r an
li t.. In facl. ir M . d",ittl .,Ia04
[(U~ . '. l](...~ : R" - U.). [W, . +, JI(~, : R'" - V,l
a nd " '# "' . tben chue would be fOlS U~. v, I\I~ Ihat U. n v. ". 0 an d til<: m' PP;1I1
Vil ..~ : ..;; IW n V,) - +i I(U. n V,l
_ uld IN:.11 bOlllCOmolJllti'pn. This '" conti V)' 10 ,b. Broll.... t th<:otan s1af.inS lhu _ anpl )
open ICII U C R". Y C R'" m.ll~ IN: ~ ooI ~ in ~ .. hn II - ... (Tbu Ihlcem
WIll be:plOYfd llI<kpmdmlly or lb. lubjcct-illau... o ! Ihis ~IPu:r In See. 6. 01 . V) . For C'.
I'WltroW.o. , ... I . til<: COITG;tDCSt or t.hc ddillition of .s:-n......
is ~mc .

Note Ihal a CO-strul:lllft on any space M is uni q ue (tillt fo llows from the defini -
lion) ; bul If r "" 0 t hal M m.ay M1rnlt scvcnl dirr~ 1 C"-sUUClUtn . In filet . the
.tlas c:oruistins: of one d\an (U. ,,) . where U "" R I. and " ' R ' - R l is; Ihe idm lity
mappiJ:tc. dft~ th e s(rod uce of . c-rnan1fo ld 00 R t . The atlu C'OlUistina o f
_chan (R , " J.,hen ,, (.1") rI. also detemtittes tht sl ructure or a C- -ma ni fo ld
'
".

_.
laI roChld , on lo Topology

on R I . It is easy to ~erir)' thai the a11aser 00llSidc:red are not cquivaletlt and,
thonfOR', lhe C-.Itr\lo:lum. ckIermined by them ~ diffcmll.
II baa been proved , l'TIOrtlOVU, that I' lJInt, aists on M tt ie:asl one C"-5lrueture
(,. ... I), lbm there uist iormitdy man y C"-WfUdura CD M .

2'". Show that the atlases

((RI. "Ill. . . KR I, IPk)]' .... ....here: " "IX) '" X + I, k O. I, .
specify different C-struct ure:s on R I ,
3 , Show tha t an y C'su bll'lanifold ln RN is I C""-manifold (see Ell. I, Sec. 2).
We list another fo rmal ~I)on of the notion of chart (U.,.) when me
hollKOQ\Ol'Phis:m " acts from a eenain opm set of the space R ~, which,generAl,
spa.ki.na . 6oc:l not coinci& wilh Ule whole space . lJIlhis cue . alllhe notion. in
trodl.lmt above can be def1Ded by eutt17 lbe $&mC (ormulatiom;. Ho\lo"eVC. !his
dOCI no( lead to ICllcnliw.iOll o f the notion of C'otrWMfold. 11I r~, in this C'-
5b\Il1Uft., . C'...u.s KU... ,,)I ell) be: picked such thai. IIIbomeomorllhislns ". act
oa it [rom opcB disc:s D. iIo the ~ R", Sina: tbere Wsu. C"-diffeomorphUm
J. : R - D... tile C"-4l1as IW o ' " .. f"ll b eoolainm in tI'l r C"-Slrvcture IIld (XXI-
au. of usual dwU.
In lOme ~. h is am pkr 10 spuify VI atlal; consi stiDl of genc:raliud charts.
We 1riI1 use this ciralJlI$l&nCe if n~ ,,"thout (nave.

""""""'"
I. Any
p&d with the llIUClure detenni. nm by th e atlas ((u.. n V,
!<U... ".)
-
is a ccttain atla from tbc C',trvctUtt givtD 01\ M"~
'I.'
open SCI v or a manifold M" of clus C' Is il5elf I ma nifold of class C'IUP.
t (U
..
n 1'))1. _ hM:

2. Spoci!1 on S1 C R ' a c--&I1u conslstint of sb: clwt. Pu t

Uf '" ~ '" (,rl '.l'l' x) E Sl : xt > 01. u; :: tr E 51 ; x... < 0). k = I. 2. 3.

$p:Ofytbe IHmleomorphilm) ,,; : R1 - u;. ,,;: R Z- U; :

.,t.",:(.rl'.l'~ - (oOk VI xl 4. .l':z, .l'~
..;; "i : ~l ' xz> - ~I ' * v, - Xl - xl, x~.
";; "'i :(.rP.xv -~I'%l ' * V1- xl .l"tl,
where !be sign on the ri&hl -hand side is chose n in acoord ance ";Ih th e '+' er' - '
&ian on lbe left-h and side.
Similarly, a c-'Itlal consiSlIna of 2(1'1 + 1) mll'lS can be spocified on lhe
sphere S".
To make & gJal Cl\lJll.W o f COIISIf\IQi(l:dli in the scudy e f 10 poi opeaJ. spaca
pouib1e,_ needthe propertie:s to be H&lI$dotffand to be counlabk (for a base for
I lopolosy). These PfOpeftIes do not . acno::ra1lJ ~, follow from the derutitioa
of. 1IlIIlifold. This QlI be illustrat ed by !he foIlowiJl& uamples.
EXAIO't.eS. 3. A __Hausdodf nwtifokl M I of dus C-. Coluider the iDteJVaI (0,
3) and bre&k It iDto three stili (0, II, (2,)), (I , 2}. We irttrodua a IOpOIou on lbeir
 Ch, 4. Manifolds and f ibre Blind""
'"

,
I
i
Flo. n

fonna.l (dbj olnl) unio n m. 77) IS follows : lbe nriahbowboods of points in Ih~ sel
(0, 1) U ( I, 2) U (2, J ) uc: Ih~ same IS in the topoloS)' illdu ced by (he real straigh t
use. Al tO th e point$ XI - 1, Xl 2, their neipbourhoods V~ the SCls (1 - e,
I) U (2, 2 + e), (2 - e, 2) U (2, 2 + e). 111m th~ poinll X I ' X l arc not separated .
We leave iI IS lin exe rcise to show th aI the struclllre o f a one-dlmenslonlll
C- -manifold ma y be spedficd 00 th e oblalncd IPaoc In a na tural fashion an d th at
Ittl! manifold possesses a COWitabte ba.w .
4 . A manifok! M of da.ss C- not ~ . countable base. Considcriol the set
M . R I )C R I we define a topoiOlY on M IS Ibe Cartesian product topolo8)'.
where Itle rmt f.ao r R ' is CZldoWed.nth the usua1 t opoloJy, aDd the second .nIb
th~ d1Jcrde. II u as)' to abo_ th at lb il iI a HalUdor ff onNlitmnsional nqnjfotd of
dus C-. whose topokJc 60es not possc$:I a oouot&ble baK .
011 the bub; of the last tWO aamplcs, il non-Hausdorff manifold withoul
C'OWItable base can be tol\$Il";K1cd easily (by tak in. tbdr 0u1csian produd).
Eumplc 4 CODtf*1IcU!be int uitive idea o f th e plue bdnI a manifold o f dimeD -
sian 2. Th y a r=mst&DOC , even taken into aoooUn! independently . impds US 10 im-
pose ~ a manifold the condi150D that !be base should be countable.
The manifol d M" js usually aulUlXd lo b e H ausd orf f and wisfyinJ Ihe second
c:ountabilitJ wom. We wit! alSO do it without fuM e, eeeee. Thm, it is tal)' II;)
prove that the manifold M n II a loealIy compact and even paracompaet space .
III fact , the ltxoal co mpac:ln ess follows fro m the fo Uowin, simple exercise.
Ext rr i# 4- . Show th ai if 1U .. > Is a chan on M n, X l! U and D nh..- l (x .
jjn(,, _1 (x.)) are an o pen and a dosed d isc:, respecti vc!y, In R n with the cent re at t he
PQinl ,, _ I (;c) and radi us I. then ,, (Dn ll,' - I(l-)})is a nciahbou rhood or the poin t x .
open In M - and whose closure (in M ,? Is compact and cquaU "<ih,,,-I(.l").
Th~ paracompadnns of the manlrold M - fo llows ffOm ilS Ioca.I compact ness
and the b ue: coUlltabllit y (due 10 lhe tOJ"oll&l')' t o Theorem " Sec. U . 01. 11)_
2. Projective Spaces . Thedefin.llion andmffUCIlltopolo&ically cquiva1cnt in -
tcrprcta~ o f the projcdlve spaces RP" - I, cp" - t , II .. 2. were IlVUl in
Item 1, Sec. ,. 01. II (see also Item 1. Sec . 3. 0.. I). Th e Jl ruaurts of
C""'-manjfokls IUoJ be de fined on th e spaces RP" - 1 and ~ - I. We illll$lrBle the
idea of lItuodudll' tbc Ioc:a1 coordinales on RP" - I be jo,o . Consider RP" - 1 as
the SCI L - IfJ o t ail Jlrai&hl lirtel of the space R - pusln l t hrough the orilin. Each
stq ht line inlcne<;U one or moTe h)'pCJJl1anesof the tOml x,_ 1. Fa. o ne ot th cse
hyperplanes X i '" I an d pic:k OUI of L the conection U,of al l Jl nUshl lines Intersect -
... luo od<M;l_ ' 0 T l>p<>iosr

Fla. 71

ItI& lhc h)'perJllan c Jr, .,

1. Then the position of the ltniahl linc I E' U, is determ in-

In l~ wiltl 1M hyperp~ Itl .. I. Naturally. 1M coo rdinatcs (f ,_

v
ed by the Cartesian coordinates (fl ' f f _ \' I. f~ . . . . f .. _ of i(J pol nt o r

f, _ ,. E;o . . ,f~ _ ,) may be lakell .,. tile IlXal eoo rdinates of th e mai, ht line: I
(see Fit. 78). Th~, we have the hllmeomorph..ms
-Jillf) " (E\, .. , f' _I.E" ... , E.. _ 1) : U/ _R" - l , i .. I, . .. n.
The Ioeal eoordinatcs f\ _. f" _ I lUC also c:al1ed the pr oj livc cooldinates of
me s!.raiah t JiIlc I. II is 1101 difficu lt !O aprcl$ tbe loca l c:oord inaus of the:stnish l
line I in l aml of lhc coo rd inates of an ar billllTJ poiDt x .. (.rl' n ' x,) of lhc
stlllllllt litlel:E\ _x,l x;o f l _ 1. ...' _ ,I x,. . '" x,. lx,..... E .. _ I ~ 1t" IX,
no

n e atlu Or II cbutl ( Ui' " /),1 = I, ... If . whnc " I " #,- '.
~amiDa 1M
SUUI;I1,lfe 0( C""-manlfold of dialmtiocl II _ I 011 RP" - I, We DOW dlow the
C""'<Ompa lilrility or lbedw'Uortbe.ou~cd . ln fa.-t, kl t c Uj n UJand
., .. x"x)' . . . '1- I = Xl _ " 1l1'1, .. x, ... " Xl" . . 'I. _ I .. Z,/x} be t be
\oQI roordinat a 0 tbe Itrlll &bt 1W: f in tho! dl~ fUr "!>.For ck:rmitcoesJ . let
I < j . Thea the: fo lSowill& relati ons arc evidrnl

" 1'''/ - fl. ''', _ / ", - f' _ I' '' , ... 1 '1<., " ~ i""
"J-I''1, - EI _ 1, 1I", - E' _I '''/ 't, - Ep .. . ,,~ _ I''', '' E ~ _ I'
which obviollsl 'l sho w lha t the local coo rdinate5f l' . . . E~ _ I infhtild'lsmoOlhl'l
drprnd on thr coordinates 'll' . . . . 'I _ _ I'
,xon. ~ . Verity thai fo r e epro.iC'C tivc cpace RP" - Icont.idrnd . tbe eolIection
o f pain: of diametric:llly o ppcul tc poinu or tbe sph cre. S" - I. local coordinates IN.,!
abo be &ivea in the above IlWlPCf .
~ 6- . Sbow tbat the c:ompla IJC'Ojrctivc space Cp" - I possasr:I a C- -alias
to.m n u.,; it into . C--rnanifold of ruI d imension 211 - 2.
 Cb 4. Ma",rold, and fi ll'" DaDd In
'"
HiII l ; COn SOdnJlI, C'P'" - l .. o.c,", or a>mp!a SII';&hi koa lA C-. spa;&f1 llle MIAS b1
........1 of ,1Ie fOfl nubc olndlar l.O lhose In lbc Q1 c Or RP" - I.

A ccnail'L manifokf .\f'" of cla.u C' on ...h idl lbe p oop ZJr ads can be eo ruid ered
in I mor e gcoeralized manoa (5 Sec. 5, 01 . II). We will t.1Im.e th Al th e orbil or
tadl poii'll COD$W . IInder th is actioo, o f k diffaenC cXsnclltl,
~/sIt 7- . Let 11 : ZJr- H {M"') be a homolll(lfJlhiml o r th e IJ OVP Z t (k belng
pri me) Inlo tbe &fOIJ9 of homeomorphisms of M", dC1enninin. the act ion o f Z t in
M", and let. be the Imeri tOf o f the uoup Z t . Show that th e eon.dil ioD h, (lr) "" x
for any .t e M" is cqlllva!ent to Ihe I$IUmptl<ll'L that the orbi t of every poii'll co nsiUs,
WJder this act io n, of k different dements . In th is ease , Ih e , ro up Z t Is: sad 10 IU:f
wi/lloWI fixed points .
M UIlIe. Iurt ber, that t he ehans of t he form (Is,U,., " ,"..) arc C .., om p;ttib le
with the eh ans (U" " ' ) of the C'-at las o n M".
Coll.llde r th e fa ctor space M"t ZJr. It is also a C'-rna nl fold o f dimen sio n n . The
allu i5 ,pecifi ed as follows : let 0 be the orbil of Ihe pOint x . an d U( OA) the
nela hbourhood of the orbit in M i t ZI<' co nloistilll or as the orblu 0 )' pa.$Slna
throup the poinl$ y of a su mcim tly srnaU neipbollrhood Y(lr) of a point x in
M"( V(.1") must nOI COlI.taio any pain; of poLnuy, ", (0) an d must lie whololy In so me
chart of the manifold M "), ThC1l th e Ioo:al coord inates orl lle pOOll y E Y(lr) in Y(.1")
wi!! be called the: loca l coordin at es oflhe ofbi l O)'E' U{O,). Th is may be seen to be a
<,...w.
Note thai the condi tion. for tlle chans (Jr...U.., 11, " . ) and ( U" "') to be compa ti-
ble Is not: bur densornc (see below Theorem Z. Sec . 5) ,
Ex~ '-, Veri fy tblt the ienf spa.cc L (t , k l . . k.) is a C:- -lDIIli f old or
dimension 2n + J _
), Induced Struct ures, Let 101" be a C"-manifokl , and f : lot" - N ..
homeomorphism of topoioPeal sp&De$ M" an d N . Th e structure of a C'-rnan ifold
eallcd the Sf nJCru" indwud by fml y be introd uced on N in I nalurnl manner- . ViI.. ,
If 1(0 10".)] be I C'-atlQ for t he manifold M", then I{f( U",>.J" ..)) is II C'-Illas
on N.
E.t t'dH 9". Veri fy Iha t [if( U..).Jl'" l ) is, in feet , Ihe I tlu determ inin a o n N the
strucr uee of a C'-manlfold of dlm enslcn n .
The described melhod o r spccifyin&IIst ru etu"" happcllS10 be q uite use ful whde
speci frin a th e struct ure of I C'-m.a.nifold o n Ille 10 po iOlical space N : ~ can speci fy
the $ltUet ure o f a C'man ifold on a ' simpler' space M ho meomo rphic to N , lind
tllen ind uce the SU\letll"" of . C"-ma nifold on N . ~ C--stru eture is . iven in this
manner, e.,.. 10 various models o f RP" - I.
E.lt.t.NPUS. 5. If is CI$Y to see thaI l Oy o~-dill'\Cnsio,." ~ CO-manifold is
ui.J!&\l\.Iblo:. 1bm Ift'J C'Of\MCtcd , Of,,:-dimcnstOnal , oomPKt CO_manifold iJ
homeomorpllK' 10 lhe citc:umfcllCC S ' (stt & . 6- , see. .., 0 . II) an d therefo re
llIe C-~ructll rc iJ III{1ually md\lCCd on it .
6, A two-di meuicxt.aI, oricntablc,c1oscd SIIrface, as sho"", ill Sec 4, 01_ II . is
ltcInicorrlorpfic to an 101, -surfltt (i. e.. I sphere ,.;th p 1l~1es) which an be fUJiI.
cd ia the space R ' as a C--sulHnanifo ld (which is islluil1....,ly olmous). Thus , o n ent-
able dosed w rf:lCeS ar c .,nd o...ut with the C "'_mani fold Sltucrllr.,.
,., hHroc!\lC(lon 10 TopoiOU

X~.
10". Specif,. t he C-manilold sUuch al'e (KI l.he boundary of the cube / - _
.. \.z .. "''' . . . x,,> . IXiI " I. I .. I, . . . nl. iDdud lll il from Ibe sphfn
SO' I.
11- . Show IM I lbe mapping
(.l"t.,1'l',1'~ - ~,.xt. xf.X""l' x r J. x r 3)
is . ho meom orphism of the projective pla1lcRpJ e r ne I subxt in R~. To lnduce the
SI TU CI U ~ of the smooth manifold Rpl by th is homeomorphiam mean s (0 realize
thereby Rpl as a subset In R'.
12". ConJlnlet the realiza tion of RP) in R'o.
. Matrix Manifolds . WcUldow the: 5Ct M (m . n) or all m x If matrlen wil h
elements from R I with the lopoioo' induced by the: nat ural mapping
i : R- - M (m , II ) :

(.l"1 , x_) -
( ::~~ ~,: ) .
x(Ioo _ 1)10 .. 1 _

Then the hOllleomorphlSlTl I indu eeJ on M(m. n ) the stru~ urc: o f a c- mani fQld of
dlmeTlloion 1M .
Denoting the subspace o r ma trices DC a fIXed ra nkle in M {m, Il) by M (m, " ; k ).
wespcrify theSltudureof.C--manJ foldof dimmlion k(m + If - k ) onM(m , n ;
k ). Nou-. befoulwld, th' t if YE M (pr. III and rank Y OJ k, then by mtuehanJina
the I'OWS and eolwmu, the malm Y _ , be transfo rmed 10 lhe fOnll

(A, I B,).
c; J Dr
wbne A r is IlQn-slnjular $quare m8tri,x o r order k . In Gtlter words , there U1Sl
IIOnsinaulaJ square 1NI1ricu P r E M (m, m) , Qr e M (n , II) weh tha I

P l'Q (A T I Br ) .
r r c, I Dr
We sh ow lhat rank Y .... k if lUld only if Dr ., C 0 YID r III fact, it follow. from
the c:qul1lty

( _ cjAyI IJ~O_ )(~I~) (~ I -C~ Y~~r + D)

"'"
 Ch. 4. Miln,folds and F1 bre Ilulldkf ",
It C:1llI be seen from rhe lau e!" equality Ihat rank Y . k if and only If
D y = C yty lB r
No w let X Oli M (m , "; k ) and X I" vbitnvy matrlll from M(m.". k). DenOt~

Px.XQx, _
o
(Axx.. xo IDx.x.J
C
Bx. x!\ .
Xo
wh~ Ax . .-.. n l Jq~ ma lrill o f o rder k . ColUid er an opeIl neiahbourhood
V( XO> .. rX e M(m.,,) : cktA x . x, .. 01
of the ma trill X o in M (m . n ). Th en U(,XOJ - V(XOI n M (m . If ; k) is an opm
ueilhbovrbood of X o in M {m . n; k) and the mapplnt
"x,:U<XoJ - R- - I- - .""- . )

specirMld as fo Uo....
x _ (Ax' X'I Bx. ~\ _ ( Ax,xoIBx.x.) !.. R _ _ (IIo_t",, _ t l
Cx . x Dx, x.} Cx,x, 0
is. homeomorphism (I beiog lh e natural ma pp ina). Therefore (U (X g), ....~ ) iJ .
dlan . Speci fyina thus I chart fo r eyeT)' manu: X o li! M (m , n ; k ). we o Cwn a
C--etla!t on M (m , n : k ) .
E1c~I'Ci2 U O. Show th e C--oom pa libUlty o f the const ructed atlas .
Note that M(k, n : k ) may be Interpreted, as the set o f o rder ed sets o f k linearly
Ind~peJl dm l vectors in R "; M (n , n ; n) is dt1lottd by OL In; R) (genera l Unear
&roup),
,. Grassmann Ma nifo ld s. One nlluralaene r&lluttion o f the projOC1lve SP iCe:
RP" - . is the: Grassmann manifo ld G.(R ") con s15tlng o f all. k-d imf1ll ionll
SUbspacCl , k ... I. o f t he space R " (wh~ k c I. this becomes the pr ojectiYespice).
We eq uip th e JPlee G. (R" ) with th e topololY Induced by the nat ural mappina M (k ,
n: k ) - G..(R " ) , associal.1ntt each IIUltrix

(' ''.::: . ~'.". )

.x. . . . . .xu
with the l ubspace In R" spanned by the Vector
.x, .. (xiI' . .x",), i _ I . . . k .
Nole W t G.(R" ) is bomeollllOl'phic to tbeorbit ~ of M (k . ,, ; k) ~ th r ClJlOlC1 to
!be {Joefi) action of the ,group GL (k , R ); lhoe dement C E GL (k. R ) ae.ts on UK de-
mml Y ,," M (k . " ; k) in ac:'COrdance with me n de Y - C Y (the matliJl pt"odud. ) . In
other wo rd s, the space G. <R" ) is homeomofl)bic to the fKtor space M (k . " ; k)/ R
witb the foUowriq oequivakDoe relation: X' Y if there aiIts I sq ua re non-$In&u lar
matrix C of onkr k such that X .. C Y. To QJCdf)' on G. CR") tbe lInKIure o f a
C- man.ifold. we will equip M (k . If ; k) / R ","lh t~ C-lIf\1eture and ind uce me
C--stn ..:t un o n Gt CR" ) by the homeomorphismj : M (k , n: k) / R - G. (R" J. Th e
muifo ld that ......, lie 10 obUM is c&lled Ihe Grassmann _ I /o/d.
'" hnrOOUd ion to T opolo &\,

1...Qcal cocrcmeres on M(k, II; k )/ R m ay be grven by the :.mawg )' with th e pro j e<:-
rive space RP'" - I if M(k, n; k ) IS considered in place o f Rm,O. t he subspace
L _ TX , TEGL (k , R l, XeM(k , II; Ie ) , in place o f lhe straight lines I _ IX ,
leR1 ,O, xe R"" O. and the SCI Hit. , I. o f metrkes from M (~, II, k ) for
which the SUbrnat rix made up o f co lumns II' .. , i., is a unit matrix is cons idered
in place of th e hyperpl ane JC, _ J. Th e sub spa ce TX i!lt=ts the Set H" . . . Ik i f
and on ly if the ! Ubmal m X 'I' . . . i. made up o f colu mns ' I- . . . ,'. of t he mat rix
i.
X il non-singular (r.e., del X I ). . . i. *- 0), in case XII. ' " is non -singular , lilt
'intcr~~l tl)Jl poil)! ' is. as can be easily seen , the matr ix Y ~ X- :( . .
d eterm ine the cha rts, Fixth e set Ill ).
.. I X. To
. /0 (i.e., fl)< the num be" of the colum ns in
th e matrix X E M (I.: , f1; k ) and co nsider th e set Vii' . . I. o f all subspeces TX
who se inrersecticn with H , . ' " i~ is nc ncmpry. In other words. VI" . . . 1. is the
set o f subspa<;es TX such thai the sub matrlx X " , .. . It for the generat o r X o f the
subspa ce rx is non- singular. It is natural 10 assu me t he elements of lhe matr ix
rit . . . . ,I. _ l formed by th e co lumns i i' . .in _ ~ o f t he matrix Y, which are
differen t from i l . It to be local coorc jnares. More precisely, t he pair
( U'I' ... . 1, "'1"
' n , It' wller el<'i,. ... It :'' '' (/(, II: k )/R - R~ C/I - ~) is a hom eom or.
phism given by th e correspo ndence

x- rh . . . ,I.~ .. '" (Y ll
Y,u
YI(" -~))
)'k C/l-k)

(YIP' .
is a chan on M(k , n; k) /R.
Extrrise U-. Verify that Ihe mapplngs ",. . ar e nomecmcrpbtsms.
The atlas ( VI,. . . . , I.' l?or~ &arts determines the structure o f
",-! ... "
t he C"'"ma nifold of dimen~on 'k In - I) on M(k, n; k) /R.
Extrrw 16-. Sho w Ihal Ihe manifold O, (R") is homeomorphic 10 the man ifo ld
O. _ ~(R ) .

6. Products of Manifo lds. If M n , N m are C'-manifolds then the st ruct ure o f

a C'-manifold of dimension m + II can be natu rally s~dfled on the topo logical
product M x N. We leave it to the read er to verify .
Two examples of me products of manifo lds arc the cylinder,R 1 x Sl and the
k-<limensional torus y.t: .. s ' X . , . X s ' (Ie fa ctors). According to the above -
said , they are c-mani foJds o f dimensio ns 2 and k . respeclively.
7. Rie ma nn Surfaces. Cons ider an cumpk: which is importa nt for {he theo ry
of fun ctions o f a complex varia ble. tee M l be a two-<limensional smoo t h manifold .
Regard R 2 as the compl ex z -plane . Let ( V" , <p. )] be an atlll.l on M 2 such that the
t ransilion diffeomorph isms
<pi ''''Q: <p; I (U" n U_) - <pil(U" n U6)
are complex-val ued anaJ)'tk: Iunctlo ns o f l in the regiol1ll ",;I (U" U U 6 ). Th e
manifold M Zwilh such an atlas is called a Rief7lQnn surface (a bstract) . I I. complex
 Ch. " t>bnifold.J and Fib,e Bundle,
'"
analylk: serueture is determined by a n Rllas eq uivalenee slXb t hal lb e:transil ion dlf-
feomorphisrns ar e compla.vaJued anaJylic fu ndio ns .
In particular. the wrnplex t pl.ane C is a Riemann su rface. iu eomplu; a.na.IyllC
_ noClu re bcin& Biven by the a ll.... eonWlinJ; o fa unique: chan (C. I e ). whae t c i$
th e identity ma ppinJ; .
Tbe sp hCO'e 5 1 0::: J,rE R l : ~ + ~ + ~ _ 11 is a lso a Riemann aurl'aee .
Sped!')' o n Sl an anal)"lk: st Nd ur e: VI =0 Sl' INJ . U1 S l ,(S!. the Ioca.l eoce-
dinltd of lhI: pou.t P (x 1' x,. xi) in UI' V1 beina. respectivc:ly. of th e form
x+ix x -Ix
tl-~ tl = ~
I - Xl I + XI

The coord inale t 1 is given rise if t he sp here s- (.-: Fi8. 1~1 ls stC'l'IOO8rap h ically pr o -
iec ted on t he eq uatorial plane fro m.Ihe po le N . while : 1 ar1sc. if Sl is projC'l;tcd from
Ihe pole S. If P e V( n V, then t . ". O. t1 '" 0 and, evidenlly. t' tt'l c t , Helice .
the lransition diffcomorp hi.sm t . - lIt1 iJl an anal)"lle function . The: . " u:nded
t-plane: (z-sphere) C 1$ endowed with a compla anal)"l ie sr rucrure by means o f t he
ho meomorp hism ODtO S'.
T'hc two .meetedRicmann Sllrfl ce ofmefu ndion w . fi(SCC' Sec:. 4. 01 . I) b a
rompla a.naI)"lk: mani fo ld . and the &lIa1ytic st ructure on II b introduced Via me
homeomorphism to lhe t'-sphe:n .
u~.. 11~ . Describe the rorrapondina a.l1aso f the t wo-5hcclcd Ricmlllll w rfaee
of me: fu nct io n 1010' = Vi.
II b proved i n th e t~ o f funct ions of a c:omple:Jl variable: t1W. any analytic:
fUQetkln on the t -pJanc posse:sse:s In abstncl Riem an n su rfaoc and dw. any com -

.brak
pact ab$lra.e:t Riemann surfa ee can be tn1iud as t be: Riemann surf..... o f . eatain

8.
fun ct ion .
The Co nfigurati on Space. The: co ns id ered eumplcs o f smoo lh
man ifolds emerge nat ur ally in variow m/lt.hema..tlcaJ problans. Th e nolion o f
manifold is u nltunlUy \I.5c:d. in applied 1CimDC$ too (e.J. mechanics 01' ph ysics) 10
describe the set o f positions (i.e ., Ihe confia Unl lio n 'f)/lCe) o f a system. W e adduce
Ih e sim pleS! exlm ple.
Consider I hin ged penduJum swingin g in Ihe: ve:rtieal pl8.llc. Denote t he poinl
where t he pendulum is attach ed by O. th e mn ae by 0 1' and the:end orlhe pendu lum
by Oz. Each poul io n o f th e sySlem is gw en by t he d irect ion o f the rod 00 1 and o r
the:rod DID' or by t he pa ir of an gles". >It (Fia . 79) vary ln ainckpc:ndcnt ly In t he in -
tervals 0 " ., < 2..... 0 " .;. < 1.... Th ~ oonflJufOllio n spa<:e:o f the given syslem is
lhu , the C arteMUi prod uct o f IWO circu m rerence:.s s ' )(
dimensional to n ,,, r' .
S. i.e ., me lWO-

mrcise IS- . Describe: the eon fiauration sp.au of I plane two-hi fl,ed pen d ul um
More compliauc:d co n ri&uratioa s p.aocs _ ,e in tbe II lId ,. o f more complex
nteo:hanieall)'Ste:ms consistiq of a Ifeata number o f point ma.ue:s and unOn'J oi na
mo, e complu; pallern s o f dis~ . These COnditiON are IUU&Ily liven ,n the
form or eq u.at:io ns 10 which the coord ioaus of al l the: poinl masses sh ould la lW'y
(tl1c:sc equations ar e called .eometrlc rc:bl iOIU). 11 is ttte se:t of ,eomeu i e rd.tions
thai deterrnina (WIder the correspondin, condilions) ATlOOlh manifo ld in t he
 Inlroducuoo 10 Topolo&7

0,

0,

space R :M. wtlere " is tbe: number o f poin t masses (Sec Enmple 6, Sec. Z). An
order~ Jet o f coordinates in R lio of II po int rnus.cs dctennillC$ a po!Ition of a
mhankal systC!ll in the co nflSUratio n space .
9. Mani folds wit h Boundary. The nOl;o ll of mani fold introduced abov e
does nOl. embrace, however . a Dumber o f . eometrle objecu , e .s -, the n-dimensi onal
c:l0$0Cd dUe. rurfaces with boundary. etc. In flet , lt is Impo ssible to find '"
neighbourhood which Is homeomorphic: to the spICe R~ (OT ils open Pat'l) of po ints
on the boulld ary o f the d isc jj n. Thi s dr&wbll\:k is removed by intro ducing Ihc
nOl. ion of IJumifold with boundary.
Consi dertnc subspa ce R" - I of the $pace R" . The formcr subd ivides Ihe sPace
R" into IWO half-spllCn:
Ro:. - Ix ., R" : x,," 0) andR': '" lxe R" : x" to OJ.
lbc boundary of each of which b~ng lbe subspace
R" - I= lx eR" : x,, "' Ol .
Th e h&1f-spKC R~ lM)' suve as the simplest CUIl1ple of an ,,4Unen.l.ional manifol d
with lhe boundal')' R" - I. If now a ocrtain D\lnther of hall-sp;><a R~ are 'alued '
("Ictha tatina cart: 10 'puc' a boundary with. boundary, lhen wc wi U obtain an
object called 1Jl 1I-dlmmsi0n.tJ I1WIi fold wllh bound&TJ, where the boundary is the
resull o f '''ulna' th c replicas o f tbe whspaa:s R" - I IO,eth Cl"; it is lIS
(II - l)-dimenslonaJ mani fold iUdl.
Ld" us describe: the manifold with boundary in aralCl" detail . Let M be I
topo6oakal 5P&.aad N ill subspatt. !;;tcnd Ihe nodonl of chart and atlas. An
opcnset U e M and . honwomorphism ., : R" - UOI" R".. - U fOfm a pau- (U ,
,,)eallcd a dtgrt. Axt or clwts lI U ".>1
iH:a lled. C"...l1/ou fou be pair M , Nlf (I)
M _ UV. :(2)j f_. : R~ - V. , thm " . I _ 1 : R" - I _ N n V. (a chart fO<'

the wb:spacc N) ; (3) lhere is a subset o f charts [( U~. _,.). ", : R".. - U,. .suclt that
 ClI. 4. Mu i fold. and Fibre 8~1l <lln

'"

flo. SO

He U U,.' (4) lhehomeo morph lsm$ ....i l....,, : ....; 1(0.. n u~ ) - ....i '(U" n U~l
,
ate di ffeomorplliWlS of dUll C' (Fla 80) .
NOTE. In the ease when th e homeomorphism ..; I"".. ad s between sets whi<:h ar e
opm ln R ~ but Dot o pen ill RIO . the properties o f Min,: smooth (lnd di ffeomorphic)
lU"e Wldc:n lood in the ~ o f Ddillit lon 2, gee. 2.
II ill evident that the XI. o f dtans [<N n V'l )' "', 1~ _ II fo rm, a C -atlas on N.
speci fyfnJ: lbe st NCIure o f .. C -lII2nifold of ~ o It - I on iI. The-atlas {( V
,..,>1 is said to dttelmiDe: on M the strudure o f aD 1I-dimetuiooaJ C'-ntllllifoid wil h /I
bofmd;zry N. The bouacIary is wuaD,y deooted by 1M".
un:Gt I ~ . Prove that the leU iD R" liven by the Inequalities xt+ . __
.s:
+ <; I .
bouodary
.zi ... -. . ... .s:
S" - I.
OIl I arc lHlliD:nsionai C-maoifolcb wilh the (QlfI1I\OfI

10 . The Existence of Smooth Structures. We nO'o'l' make lOme rem.arts

rcprdina the pos:sibility o flntrodlllCilll smooth structures . Whit ney hili prOYed lhat
if there exists a C'-struetllre (r OIl I) on a sp ace M. then there &!so c:xisI.s on it a
C--SU\lctUfe (and eYm a C""-llrodure); 1lWf~ . a C-."llll may be chosen fro m
tbc rnuJmal ltla$ for tbc: Jiven C"".J!ru d ufe. The e.loeplion il the case whe n r _ O.
II I. kn own that a Cl-slructu re may be introduced on any Clmamfold of dim ension
If " .. (an d hen ce a C--st rutlu re), but for any fI OIl 10, there: ~ist Cl-man ifo lds
.....hich do not ad mit the introduction of I C I-struC't ure.

4. SMOOTH FUNCTIONS IN A MANIFOLD

AND SMOOT H PARTITI ON OF UNITY

Th.b and the w bsc:qUCll t lllons ate deTotcd to the COftIU\letion o f tile ckmc:ttu
of analysis 011 smooth lIWlifokis .
I. The Notio n of Smooth Function in a Manifold . A (utIClion
defined In a manifold M" e&Il be eomidcrcd. 10eaUy 111 1 fuaet im of the local e:00I"-
<IiDalcs of a poin t % (E M". Le as a flltlClion o f Ihe I II1lldud eo<trdinatcs of Ihe
po ittt ..; l(.l) itt R" th al. ate &1Vd1 by I certain ebart (V. ' " .), % E U.., Tl llU,_ li nd
,,.
Qutselves within the: ran ac o f the: l\Otions o f analysis. and , in panicular . can d enne
aDd investiaatlt lbe not ion of $lll.OOI:h functio n .
DEFINITION 1.l.d.M" beamanifoldofdassC'. ,. 010 I A mappin, f : M'" - R ' is
c alled . C'-jI4/fQioIt (.I"~tioltof da$$ C') hr " ICtl:clllKNrilood of Q pobtt ~ III M~ if
there Is . dlart (U... v>.) .l:ir" U,) for M" such tb allhc mapping/... : R" - R' .. a
C mappill& onto R" .
xrrr:ix 1-. Show t bat the defin ition of C"-(unaion In a neiahbolUhood o f :I
poi nt does Rot ckpmd on the choice o f a chart.
DEFlHIT ION 1 . A function I : AI"' - R I is caDed C'-lu rlCrjOll Oil /I <W1l1irt sel
A C M" i f il is C""-functlon in :I neiah bourtlood of clch polnt}l E A .
We o rten have to consi der I f unction ~vc n n ot in the whole manifold M". b ut
on ly on [u subset. Definitions I and 2 a rc extended , in a natural manner, to the ease
o f fun ctions-! : U - R I ddine<! o n an o pen subset U C M~ while choosin, the
charts ( U... 1". ) 50 Ille.t V.. C U. However , lh csc definiti ons should be cl!llen de<l lf
(1,1 0<:1:1011$/ : A - R I d efined on an ar bitrary su bset' A C M" an eonsidered .
DE. i NITIONJ . A (unction / : A - R '(A C M"} is calkd a C'-llIflCtion 0".4, if ror
1lIl)' point y 6 A ,lhcre aim I,lI open neighbourhood U(Y) C M" o f the point ,. and
C'functkm ", ; Ue,,) - R I MKh that fit, " I Ut.rln {I .. I I utI\
nA-
1t is easy 10 see tJw eadI of llle IDeal coordinates t ,(.I"),; " , . . , If , of a C'-
....nifold Is a C'"-tu nakln In k$ domain.
In a lpeeia! Q K of Iwo-dimcMional ma.oirokb, viz. (abWlCt) Rimwul sur-
f.ce, one Unpor\aD1 dus Is rOfmcd by lmp1cx-vaIl1Cd l"uncliGlU.
Let M 1 be aD (~) RXmann sudace, and I : M 1 - C a fun<:tlon on it
aKuminl its YllIues in the field C of c:ompia numbcn. n.e function I b said to be
rquklr fI/WIlylfc or IIolom orp ll ie at a poi nt Pil E u 1 lf, white bdftJ 6 pressec! in
terms or Ihe IoQII coordinates t .. + (P). 0 .. +(Pol in a nei,shbo w1'lood o r lhe
po illt P". il is. regula r l,lIalytic: function ort in . cntain circle IzI < r, i.e.,

I l. -l ld) '"
...r Q~. ,

where the power series 00 lh c n aht co nveraes in the e1rcle It I <: r .

A f",ndlon/is sald 'o be QrIld yt/c In 1I cert ain o pen sel U c M l if it il a reau h...
analyt ic fun ction at each poi nt Pil l!' V .
Functions o n the t sphcre ar c usuaUy liven in t he local coordin ates on a n open
se t V I (see Itelll 7. Sec . 3), i.e., u fu nclions ... = Wet) Of! t he .t-plane. To in-
"a ti, ate a function in a nciJh bo Urh ood o fthc po int COl , it is ncassary to ha.,e lea 0 -
Pl"cuio n in tcrn:t:l of c e IOQi coordinarcs On Ihe set VI. The lat ter is adtic\rcd by
rcpladnl.t by 1/ .t: we obtain th c rllflCt.ion ", .. w (l /d .. "' I(.l) wh ich we in.
vnaipte in nci&hbowbood Of the oripn.
~1u :2 - . YuH)' that the runctlon w .. 1I.t is defined in a nciah bou rhood o f lhc
poInt.t .. .. of the z-sphcre and is ho\omDrJIhic: 'I th is point . The arne tuk fo r the

run etion It' .. i:. ~ .

_. z
 Ch. 4. Monlfo ldi and Fibn O"ndks ru

2. A P ar titio n of Unity . The main inSlru men l o( maniro ld theory In tnllurer-

rillll from loo;a l lUllUDen u to global is a part ition of unity.
Let M" be a C"-man irotd,and lUJ its open covmn,.
DE.F1Nl TlON 4. If ., : M" - R I is :l function then its SUpPfNI supp ., is the dOSUfC:
of the Jet lr : .,(..1') .. 01.
DEFINITION 5. A famil)' of C""- funetions {"'.II : M" - [0, III is caJkd a pGrt. fHm of
lJIllt)'of daJl C" w bordinau: to a toverins tU,,1 if (I) eath o f the Jets lVPI' "''' i5 rom-
pact and conta.incd in. eenaiD $leI U.' rli) the famlty Isupp",J fom 15 al()QJly tillite

OOYtrin, o f M" , &nd Oil) ~ .....e(.r) .. t fOf aD)' point.lf t! M"'.

TIM: sullltlUlUon in cond ition (iii) ma tes K lUC since at each point .lfo nl)' a finit e
numba" of the functions '" is dt fferent from zero in -new of eondJtion (ii).
THEOREM I. For till)' 0fM" c:o'Rri". tlf. C""-MtUrifok/ M". r .. I , .. . ... I~
autr its su/)onJiNlte C""-ptlrtilioll of Ullit)'.
To prove Ihis fundamental thtorem ,1'l'C need several lemmata.
LEMMA I. Fo r tlnYJ ER I Ihueo:ists" C""! unction ht : R l_ IO, l l wdl thot
SUPP h t C (s. c. ).
PROOF, II is easy to veri fy IhM Ihe fu ne:tio n

h(X)={ e- ~: ' wh en x >s

0 whe n x l( s
is the teQu ired (Fi&. 81) .
Exen: i$t ) " . C Otulrue:t t he gra.phi o f the fune:ttons h_ . V;"}. " _t(-x) and
" . 11(..1') -+- " . I2( - x ).
LEMMA %. For turY s > O. /Mn UlSIs /I C-fune:tion ' t : R" - 10, JI &fI,('h IJtq!
I ...hen JIc; DsIl(O),
, 'T) _
[ 0 when X E" R"'D, (O)_

Fi, _I I
'"
eaoce Cons lo:ler the functIon
ln1<od ""I ;OOLo T opoloi Y

I.; R 1 - [0, I] (Fig. 82) given by the equ&!i ly

'.(x) "" h_ .(x) h ~.{ -.r) .
h _.(x)h_.{ -x) +1I./1(x) + h' Il(-X)
The functicn ' .(x) '" '.r(ld) : R~ - [0, IJ is obviously tile required.
NOle that if Xo e R is an arbitrary palm, then
,_
, .... -x,y ..
s
[J
0 when
whcn x E D,n(,riY.
J{ e Rn'D.CxOl.
L eM M A l . UI AI" ~ (I {;!mo nifo ld (f .. I. .. . . "") ond U C M" lin OjNfl set.
Then/or any point Xo e U, theft o;i$I Its Of)ellllclgil oourhoods VI (.rO' , V2 (xol fll1d Q
C'-fwnctIOll f; M" - [0, I]. such Ihill
( I) V,(xol C V1(.rol c U,

(2 ) f j,x) _ [ I when )( e V1(.r0!,

o when x e M
n " V1(xol.

PROOF. ~t I(U... ",.J! be a C'.allu on ~ and let :COlO U.. n u. ~in cc 1~ set
V..n Uu. open, and "'.. Is a holllf:Omorp'llsm . lh u CI....; I(U.. f"'I Uj " open In Rn
and therefore there a iSls a dis;:D.('I'; l(xo1) C ""; I(U.. n lJ). Furthermore , since
"'.. is homl:OttlolPhism

.....(D.rI2(...; I~ 'P,,(D.n C<p; lexol) C <p.. (D.(",; 1<x0l C U,

therefore, the sets VI(.1(,) '" lP o(D.n(.p; tI.rO))) . V2<.to'l '" lPo(D~(1P; I(xo) lal iJfy
condition (I). By Lemma 2. there exists iii C"-runetiQn I,."
(x) - ,~(x - XO) such
lhat 0
_ [ I when x G D. / 2 (l"; 1(x0).
l . . ..o(x) - 0 when X E R~ ' D, (l"; tv-iY).
Then lhe functio n

n _ (,s. %gO;<>; t (x~ when x E V:(xiY,

when x EM!' '\. V:(xO)

evidently satisfies condit io n (2).

LEMMA 4.uf M"be 0 Monilo/dolc1o" C', r _ I, . . .. 0>; K c ue M" , whv e
1M Sf!1 K is rempru;t. ond 1M Sll:t U is Optn . Theil Ihen fXt$lS 0 C'-!uncl/on
I : M" - [0 , I] SIKh thot
11$.) '" [I o
when x E K.
when X E M" 'U.

I'IUXlf . By Lem~ J, ror any po inl Y E K, there elliSl open neighbourhoods VI (y),
V:O') sudllhal V10') C V:(y) C Uand there is a C'.runetlon/..{x) : M" - [0, I]
 0 . <l. Manlfold s .nod fibre B.ofldlc. on

"", _[ I
,. 0
when
...hm
}t. e V\01.
:ceM" "VzO')'
Due 10 me compactMU o f K . in an opa:I eovm lll lY\O') I,. Kohhl: wt X. ' finite
subcovcnn. 1',<1.. , _. . V,(1) _eontained. Pu t

,(.w) .. II (I - / ,./;.)).

,,,.. ; ~ I

, (:c) '" (0
I
wilen
when
xe f( ,

}t. E M"" U.
I wlien XE X ,
IV:) : l - ,~ -
[ o when X 5J.r " U.
II is cvidult th at / EO C,
LEMMA S. A ItKlJll)I /I,.IJ~ cowri,., IUjl SIlCn InQ/ f'f1dt ~/ iii Is compt QM COlI-
/lIfMd Ifill ttrfQ Ifl U"'. mft l nwd~ Q nj/nc_ftt O/ ll ftyOIN" CO~tI, IV.J 01 11 c-
trlllni/oid AI" . r = I . . . . _ .
~00f'. Lel lW.. .. Jl bu C',aa1u oa lhc manl.fold M". T1Ic Idt W, n U",l form UI
opta COYcrin& IIuII mlflcs IUJ. Since: '" Is a borncomorphism . tbe ad
",; 1(1'. n U",) 1s open iD R- and th l;l"dore. fO'l"UlJpoUll JtE v. o U. ' thcpoint
.. ; '00 b contained in the ad ,,; '(1'. n U.,) wiTh a otnain disc: Ds", {!" ; l(.ll)). Fur,
lbn'more. since... is. homeomorphism.
...(Dst0V2(,, ; I(x)) ... ~.WN:V2( ..; I (x)) C ". (D~ .. ; ' (x ) C V, n U"'; (I)

rnor~vC'f. ainc:c the Kl D~(..;t (.wl) is c:ompatt. U1d M" Ha lLJllorrr,

". (.DAAI1("; l(:c:)) is COlllPoiet (J Sec. IJ. Ch . II ). In vtc:...of the pancomPAa nC$S
o f the mani fold M" ~ ~. 1). a locally finite coverill' {Ujl ca n refine the o pen
OOVeMnl 1". (D' II)1l(,,;l (.ir))) o f M" . Th en each U6
is contained in a cerlain
v, (D s<oInC"' ; I(.r) ). Sinoc
ii, C e, (D' VV l('I'.- I (x))) .
we Ocrive from (I ) thaI
u; c ...(D...,,, ; IV')) c Y. n V.'
therefore iii C V.. . TI1e CO/nPld l'le$S 2 ( Vi (oUowl fro m The: rae;t tbill U , is a
dosed NbKl o r th e compae:t Sl*>c ... (Db)I2(" ; 1(.1'))) (sec Sec. I ) . Ct . II)
nre PaooF O I' TKro-.o.l I. ApP!r'na Lemma S Iwlcc. we We. klc;allyfinlle CO'U-
iD. 1V;1wbk:b is . ref1Demc:nt of lbe liven CO"~ (VJ. ~ an open)oc.ally fmlte
c:oUinS (V~' l which is a n: rlllcrnent..9f lfT,l so Ihat caeb U;' may be compact and
c:ontalned in a certain U;. and cub ~ compact and COfllained in a certain V . FO!"
each U;' . we fIX one: set contaWns U~ of the systnll Vi and redall-'\llC il by U;-
P' Inlfod uet,on to Topoklay

No.... by appIyillll.anma 4 10 t be set J( ~ U;". ~ find the corr e$pOlldin,; C'-

funetion/.. : M" - (0, II ' udl thaa
I when x t!! v,, '
I ,(;.-) ( 0 wile xE M" 'U; .
Conslder the function

(th e IWIUftI.lion in the dcDcnNnator is performed over the ratlF of ind ices of the
W veriOI (U~') lUldhu meanlP. Jince tbe eoverlllJ (U;l ill kK:a1Iy Iln ite an d thadort
at each polill J( e M" , only finite number of the f\anetloft$ I . is different from
:mol. Since SIIPP 11'1. = aupp/,. and the 'Stl .mpp! ., is compact (u II. d osed subset of
cr,
the co mpaC'l space 1;.), tn e set su PP"'rll also compact. It;, easy 10 I thllt 'P., 4i
and thus we ha ve obtained th e Tequl~ 1)111'1100 or unil y.
DEFINmON 6. A funct'on / : A _ R IIA eM") isC.ll:lt II. C"/wtre'ilm 00 a set A If
It b. tatriclion 10 .A. of. C'-fuDCtionaivm Of) an 09<.... ilUbKt U of die manlrold
M'",whkh comains A .
E:xM:U6... . lhiq 1M unity partidon IbeormI,prove th al Dtfinition ) of II. smooth
rWlttioll sivea on sec A C M" it eqll.ivaknt 10 Dd"1.llttor'1 6-
3. The Algebra of C,V'-f unctio ns o n a Manifold . Comider nowthe.d
d'(.w-) of all C'{Wlt'tiooJ 011. C"-mani1old It''. The fUDCtioal (rom d'(N") m ay
be MkIecI lOJl'It\er aDd multiplied by real number. iD aatwa! fultion : if /
iii 6tW"'). 0 E R I, Ibm for cadi DCM!)l EM" , _ put (f + l)(x) ... f(x) + , (x)
and (<\1)(.1'1 cifW. Thus . d\M" ) hu been taJ)Sforrned hllo a lor J pacll".

10 an ""riln
Moteovu, uaual multipllcat\ocl U,llX) - M' , "') ,x II! M" transform . t1'(M") in
om- ine Reid R .
Let x be I ceruin poinl of lIIe manifold M". Consider the followlna: ~ui valence
rellrlon on the I1gebnl Q(M") : f . - f 2 if !h e poin t x poaseuc. a neish bo urtl OCld
U(x) lum llll ' f . Iu f 1 1j,( Call the equivalence t lus the " e,germ (Of the runt .
tlonl) at the poin t x~ denoi2 the tOlalit y ot all C"'a:CITIII at the polm x by Dtx). II
b obvious Ibl.l ~) is alto an lllp bra . We now give Moth er dellmt ion of tI'(x) .
If the difference a1&ebra (7(M" )1 ~(x) i$ oonlid~. whe; ~ (.x') il lhe idea! o f
aU th~ (unctions from rbe lint Q(M") whim auume lhe Ul"O value in a certain
(~ on the f\lDttioD) ndahboW'hood of the polnt x. tbm ill demenls CI.lI be
. .tunall)' IdtIltlfied with the IffI'nI of the runaionl at the point x . II is eu)' to see
1II1.1 t1(M")/ ~(x) - 6t%). The K1 o ( lenDS d\l') could also be defined IIIthe lei
of C". fUlldions in the:JlCiahbourtloods ol llle point x and .bit:h ts fac101W:Q with
R:SJ)IIlCt to the: same equlvalmo: rdatioa 1I$ in tbe d di"l'ioa ot 6t,r). Prima facie , .
0"" objm II obtUted Uttec we conPdcr f\IJld.io<Il defined only Oft parr'of 1M
manifold M". It foGowslront the f~ exercise th l t this .. not eertecr .
EXem. ' . Letfbe I. ( utldJon of dau: C" dd'"lDed in an open nci$hbourhood U(.d
of point x of a tIlalIifold AI" of d ass cr. Show lhal t~ emt dosed
 0 ,4 , Mu! folllJ and Fib re Bw'IdICf
".
aeichbourhood YW of the point x , V(.l') C UOOand I C"-funo ion / defined in lhe
wh ole manifo kl M" such thlt ] 1ii,", IV(.).
HIlt/: Use LaRJaa 4.

Thus, ee a1&ebrlil: SII'\II;I:UfCS o f the IIII1OOlb. funetioru dtM~ ) and 1Ulr\' d'tr)
haw been COllStnIacd on I NnOOlb manifoid. All int eratiDJ qudion IJ'lses
..-haba it is poUIo lc, ~vasely , by meansof the II&ebru dtM") and &emu dt,t).
to restore tbe Slf1K'[\ll'e o f the INnifold . We show be low ullin IhlS can be eeee.
fi n t of an , we f1ll., uiomatic:ally, the: most OIeruilll propc:l1ia of the alpbras of
fllnctio ns in llmOOl:h ma nifold . Coasickr a lopoioPcaI $pile>: M and rc:a l fllne:tions
I,II' . . . ,I. d e:f.., ed on M . We will SoIy rhat / C'..smooI },f? d~purtb on IlI lIlutI(.
l /olu f l , .1,,(' "" I) if there exists C'"-full(t kl n U( 11, It ) o f , ui
varil blo '1' .. . , I" defined on R such rhat
J ()l) .. UCNiC), . .. '/.(;<, Xf! M .
If equality (2) is val id on ly fo r poinu o f . certain set V c Mthen \Wi will SlIytha t
the: flillCtlon / srnoothly depe ndl on the: flinetIOIll!I' ~ .. , I" on tbe set V. Call a
C"-sI'1tOOth~ on a topololical'paa: M a nonemp!y let .#(M) of real functions on
M , ....hich satilfra the conditions:
(i) lilY fllnctio:ocr, wbidl Imoothty depends on Ihe funClIoM from .I(M).
bdotlll to .l(M},
(Ii) an 1 fUflaion on M, . hich eoincide:s with fu.nn ion fro m .1(/11) in I
ndchbowtlood of c:adl point x G M , bdoqli to "'(/II).
Exuci# 6- . Veri fy thai for a C"-manifold M", th e alaebn or C'-funclions d'(M-)
SlIlisrM:ll tbc:eondltioas fCK . C'..moolhn.ess.
It fo \lowl. from comtitioa 0> rhal th e set .I(M) is an al&ebl1l under the natura.!
~na o f addilion and mu lllp\leatkla of functio ftli and IllN m uit iplicaOOft by a
nllfJlber. The not ions o f C--aennJ"of a functio n / I; .#(/11)I t . poilu x, o fche idc4I
.#o<xl and o f t he lei o f C"-&ums $ (x) "" .:I'(M)/ $o(.) are dc:fio ed in a o:alural
matlna.
Now we take up th e co nstruction of t be C"ll rudll re 00 M. Lt:t Itf be a
topological .space with a C"4IlI00I hnlW -'(M). lei the fo llowinl condit ions be
fuln llcd : (I) fOI: any point x e M , [here are gCTIn' f", . .. . J; e $ (;l) , a
neighbourhood V(.), rePrCSClllltiva!' : ( V ()l) - RI , i I... ,II, o flhe lemu
'" luch th lt the rnap pilll >/Jy ;;I - Vl (y), . .. f' (,), y e V(.lr) is a homeom or
phi$lll o f V(I-) onto tbe spa cc R ~, (ii) for allY po int y e vI;<), the l erms Ji. .. . ,I;
of the fllna ions/I . r beIonI: to -'0'): (til) fo r lII y gentl 'l e .l(y), iu
representative: 8 C"--smoothly dtp'tllds on / I, . . . ,r in a ne!&hbownood o f th e
point y . ThuI , speci fyinJ a COOt'dinate S)'Ilem in a neiahbourhood VI;<) by meani
of the homeomorphism lOy . ".;; 1 : R ~ - V(.r), we obtairl a sysrelD of chanl
1(V(.), 101')1. wltidt . II can be casU)' 'lUificd with lbe hel p o fptopcrtks (d) and (jiI),
prodllOCS. C"-atIas Oil M .
~ 7- , Show that the s)'$lal'l of dw11 !CVW ..xlI yiddsan al ias.
Th us, tbe diffemctial st rucl llre of a C"-mJUlifold induced by the a1ad>ras $(M),
M bali hem dc:rUlCd nn M .
'"
;dfrille' . Sh ow th lt if M" it C'.manifold;uld 1.1'/,1')1.... .,. are t he rouC$pond
i"',
a1&cbru of !.be ,mas o r lhc C" -f\ln<:tions on Itt " , then the dif( a"enlia! Slruc:IU",
ddamitled by Ih~ ..oincidcs wtlh the suuaUle of lbe manifold M".
NOn. Conditio lU (i) and (iii) maho us conc:Ill6c: thai the eonsidtted $mOOthnew on
M COllSists of COI'Ilin~ fUllCliom. We o;oWcl. also lllSidu C"'oQnOCCMeu on &II
.bAraClIlel: M and ind\xz the wnkot topl)Joo on it 10 !hat aD me functions: hom
l ite ~ misht be cont.inuoU$.

5. MAPPI NGS OF MANIFO LDS

I. The No tion of Smooth Mapping. Le1 w define and inve$i,lte

Imoo t h rnappinp o f smooth manifol ds, whk h an naturaJ 8en~&lizatlon o f dif-
ferentiable functions considered in an aly sis . Let M ", N'" be C'"-ma nifolds, , jIo I .
Regard[na M~ . N'" u topoJosleal spaces, we may spta k of co ntin uou s mappings
f: M " - N"'. The struct ure:l or
( Ius cr, given on M " , 1'1"', ad mit inlr<><l ucio
rw'rt'Wcr dQlI o f roappinp . The mapp ing/ ; M" - N'" I;aD be specirted nat urally
in loeaI coo rdinata. Viz.., U x,.
MY' ill an arb ilr&l)l po int, (U. ", ) a nd (V, 4<) ar e
ch r'll oillhe manifo lds At' . N"'. rcs~vely. $Uch thai Je t: U,ff,xl E v, and W /,I')
is an opm nei8hbowbood of the po int x aueh t hat W (.1r) c U , f ( W (K)) C Y. lhcn
t~ mappin,
. -'f'r' 'r -I (W(..')) - . -I( Y)
b ~ th e COOI'diMtf! rrprr:szmlilfioft of fM t7IlIPPitqf in a nl:i&bbourftood o f the
point lC. Sudl. r~tiol\ m abld us 10 involve the l\(J(ioD of 5Qlooth rmoppin,
of RA 10 R- wllidl iii st udied in analysis (soe Sec . I).
DEFTNmON I , A mappm,f: M" - ~ is aJllId a C"-nttJPPinz (IImtlJ'Pbll of n tl,U
C') br II rtf!lp botlrltood of IIpob!r x E M" if some ClOOfdina te r<"lH'ts<:n lat io n o f me
mappi"lJ in the Dei.lhbourhood or the po inl x is a C"ma~.
EJCert:&e I , Show that t he denn ition of a C -m-ppln l in a ll<:;ghbourhood of a
poinl dCJe:ll l1()( depend o n tbe chctee o f . coord ina te rcprnmlalJon.
In d efinil\J a Im oolh mappi na in a ncij:hbo urh ood of a po int. it is natura l lO
con,ider mappJngs defined not in the whole ef M", but in an open nci,bb ourhood
or the poln!.
Defin ltJon I cae be resta ted in o lher term~ for the cue o f .subman ifold$ In H,N
Let M", t r be $ubmanj f~ In RNI a nd R N " respect ively.
O FI/'oIIT ION 2. A m&ppbl, J : M" - N"" i~ c:alkd a C-mapptfl, (ll mQppf"t.of dms
C) I" Q~~rlI00doftl ptJint lC E M" ;f t ha e exUt an opcn scI U c R" 1. Jt 6 U
and a C".mapp iIll J: U _ R lil that cOincides ..,jthfOft un M".
MrcUf! 2 . Sito w lIlal OCfmi lioas I and 2 are eqllivalent for the c:ue o f sub-
man ifo lds in ~.
HI .. f : ll the property or JnaPPiIllp of dlarts 10 be d1tfe'O... or'~.n.. (see l..aama I. Sec. 2).

We now COIIlt' ove r f,om kN:a.l ddinil io llll l O aJobaI .

 Ch . 4. Man lfol4> . nd Fibrc Bundl es
'"
DEF1NITlON 1. A ~Ppinl / : M" - N'" o f ma nifollb is QUai a C"-nt4Ipplfl' Ill'
InlI'ppu., 0/.:4= C") if it Is a C'.mappln, in a neithbouttlood of each poi nl JC e M".
11 it evidml lhat Ihc notion of C'-mappll\ Is a fCPC"ralLuLiOll o f lhc: notion o f
CO"-f unctton.
Similarty, lhe notion o f complvl analytk f1ll\d.ion on :II Ricnann sulfaor is
cen~ Into !he notion of complu analytk mapplna o f JUC1IWlfI S\Irfaa:s (i f __
requ ire the coo tdi.nate repfescrl illion to be ana.Iytll;).
Eurci.Slu.
) . Veri fy thal Ihe ma ppin. w _ .fi of a t..-osh e("fal RicrnILlU1 su rfa l;c onlO lhe
t-5p hcn Is aflalytic .

AO. Verify thai the mappi ngs w .. l i t; and w '" E Q~ considered as ~ppin8J
, ..o:rt
o f Ihe t;-spher e O~IO thenuelvcs ale analytic.
DEFINITION 4. A mapp in, / : AI" - N" of mani folds Of cia C' Is call ed a C'-
dif/eomorphiml If (l)/is bijoetive. (11)/./- 1 ar e C'-mappinp.
Excrn. S". Why cannot a diffeornorphUm of man ifolds o f differen t dimensions be
defined ?
Two C'-mani folds M" , N" are ~d 10 be C'~ifI~furKNphic if there crisls :ll C".
diffCO/IIOtphisrn/ : ].I" - N". .
Eurc" 6". Show tha c t he coIlectioa of n-dlmaulonal C"-fIW1 ifokb 1..-\4"' . If .. I,
forms t; a te&ory W;l OSC morphisms ar c C"-mapplnss o f rnaniJoIcls. Show WI Ihc
cqu lvala1c cs 00 this c:arq ory an C'4iffeomorphisms o f manifol4s .
THEOltEM I. q M" 'sll' m (llil/oid o/da# ~ (lnd N"' lI'nwmifold 01 das CO" with the
srflldun IndIl>CCd by l~ h otrWOmoqlh ism I : At" - N". th~tf M" QlId /II" fUW C'-
diflcomtNphic.
eecor. u is easy 10sec thac fhe required di ((wmorphbm Is / .
Thus, by ind lleina th c Uru<:l lIfe of C'.manifold on a 10poloVca I space N via
the home omorph ism/ : M" - N , we Il1IIU form / lnfo a C""-dl rreomorphism.
THEOREM 1. u t f : M" - N" N a C'-difl tOmorp hiJm of C'trIlI'll i!olfh M" . N".
T1I tll tht "lI~pping/ : M" - ,.,. IIJ' (I ho mtOmorphi.sm o//opologlca! spQCtIS !nduces
Oil N it If C".$/rvN" re r:o im:idin g with Ihe orillinal.
Pl OOF. Lei [( U". ",,)J and [ev", 11-,,) be C"~tlases on M" and N" , resJ)llvcly. We
show lhaJ. an y chan o f lhe af lu {U'( U,,),f....1is C"-r:ompa tible wilh an )' ch an Of lh e
alln f( V" . 01<, )1, r.e . l ba t lhe ma p pin ,

'fi ' (l;): (I.,.)- I(I( U.) rv V.s> - 4-i ' (/(U. ) n V, ) (I )

ill a C'-d.irrC'OlI>Ofllhism for any ... and (J.

In facl . srnce I is a C"-d itrCOfT1Clfphism . its rcptC5<tOIW on in the IoeaI coor-
dinates o n Ih C' optII secsr l(f(u. ) n V,,) c U f(U. ) n V" c: V,
'fi II ",, : ,,; I t r I(I(U.) n V.s>l - ~i I(/(U. ) n V, )
'" In lr OOuc liOtl lO TopoJOIY

ISII C'<dif feomorpll;sm. 8Ul

op'; I V-'(f(U..) n V~) I = (f'P,,)-lif(u.. ) n V,,);
rherefcre , ma ppin g ( I) is II C"..,jiffeomorphism, which proves the l.tatt"nw:n l .
From the poi nt of view of general topo logy , we do not ma ke any d isllnclion be-
tween homeomorp hic spaces. II i$ natural to agree no t to distioi\llsh between
h o m~orph ic ma nifolds M" and N". whece t he manifol d N fl is cJldo~ With the
struc ture of the s moo th manifo ld induced by the homecrnerphism f: M" _ N".
But Ihen , acco rding to Theorem " M" an d N" are diffeomorph ic. Conversely, if
lhe manifolds M", IV" are diffcomorphk if: M" - N") then they are bo meorncr-
phic an d , accord ing 10 Th eorem 2, t he ho meomo rph ism finduces o n /II" the strue-
tu re o f II smoo th mani fold which coincides with the original. Th us, the adopted
agreement is eq uivalen t 10 t he pfllb ke not 10 dist inguish bet ween diffeom orp hic
man ifolds .
Xerc~ 7 . Verify thai being dirrwmorp hk:: is a n equ ivalence relat ion for
manifokb .
A ques tion nat urall y ari ses whet her the re Mist bomeo mc rphic bu t OOt d if-
feom orphi c manifolds . This quest jon was resol ved by Milnor who shewed chat ther e
ar e exactly 28 smooth ma nifolds (Of the Milnor sph eres) whieh are homeomorphic
to S' but not d iffeolT1Orph ic to eacf other-. It is kno wn also that if the d imension o f
B. manifold is less tha n 4, the n h omeomorph lty entails diffeomorplti ly, i.e., fo r a
ma nifo ld o f dimensio n less than 4 , dirrerenl iabilily and topology c1assificacions
coincide.
2. Regular and Ncnregular Points of a Smo oth Mapping. Im-
mersions, Submersio ns. Embeddings and Submariifolds . Lei
f : M" - IF be a C'"-mapp ing of cr-mani fo lds " :;;t I .
OEFINITION $. A po int x e M" is called a ' eg u/", (IWn m lictJl, or nonsingul",)poin t
of a ma pp ing / if fo r a certai n coordi na te representati on
", - I/'F ; 'F -I(W~)) - Ij- I ( V)
of the mllpp il\fl/ in a neighb our hood of Ihe pel nt x , the po int 'F - l ex) is regular.
Otherwise the pa illl x is said to be nonregul", (Cf/ficol, or singu/o,) .
E:terc~ 8- . Show that the definition is indepen dent o f the choice of a coordi na te
repl"C$Cf11at lon .
DEFtNITION 6. A poi nt YE N'" is siud to be 'qu/tl, (no ncritical , or nonnngul",)
Wllue o f a map ping / If its full inverse image / -10') e hher consists o f only regular
po ints of the ma pping f o r ts empty.
O therwil1e the pa int Y is called II. non ",ular (critical. or singul" , ) vatve,
Lei fo t a C"mappmg / : M n _ N'" o f C"-mani foJds , eac h poinr .r e M h be
.egular . Such a ma pping is callC'd (i) a C'".im me'sion when n " m , (ii) a C!-

The Milnor sph.....,. Can be &i_ es .ubmllnlfohU in R ' o ... C ' ((t l , . " , ;,lJ by lhe
ly>letJ\sof tW<l lua tJonH :" -1 + t~ +
It ... 1,2, _.. 28
+ t: z:
+ ~ ; ... O. It, l l + ' . + It, I' ... I,
 0\. 4 . M an l fold sand Fib.~ 8und lu
'"

FIB. 83

,. ,

C5 R'

Fig. ss

nlbmerslon whe n n ;;. m, (iii) a C'"-im mersloo Is call ed a ~-4!mbeddlng if f is a

homeo morphism of M" onto th e subspacef (M " ) o f the topological space N'" aod is
usually den ot ed by i .
EXAMPLES.
1. The mapping]; R 2 - R ' Slvcn by the rule](x, )') .. X is a C--submersio n .
2. Th e ma ppin g f ; R I - R 2 li ven by the rule /(x) - (sinx, sin 2x) (Fig. 83) is a
C"'-immersion b ut not an embedd ing since it is not injective. Th e ma pping/ I(O , 2~)
is no t an emb edding eithe r, though/ is bij ect ive o n (0, 2'11"). In this case , rbe ma pp ing
I -I is 0 01 continuou s. Note that the ma pping f l(o . j (Fi g. 84) is a C--em ~d d i og .
3. TIle mappi ng / ; S' - S1 given b y the rule 1t:X, . ...
(.r , y, 0) (Fig . 85 ) 'is a
C--embedding .
4. Let I l /1 : R ' - R ' be functions of class c:T he mapping J > if"
Jv: R I - R 2 (the c urve is or class C"") can be co nsidere d to be a ~ mapp in g of
l
manifolds 1l , R 2 with the natural C"".s trl,lcture . Eluc idate the co nd utons un der
which the mapping/ is an imm ersion. Immers io n implies th a t any poin t x e R l is a
regular poin t of the ma pping
(i /I'LI - Ifl ill - f ; RI - R l
 ". Jnlrod _ ;on 10 T opoIOIY

FiJ . 86

(here , . ,. ' . , an _lhe iden tity ma ppi np o r R 2 aDd R l). l.e .

""'" (tf!J.
dx ' d/2
dx ) = J.
(2)

Th ill . f is a C -immc,nion ir all the dmvative, ~ . ";{: are neva- to

simultaneowJy .
A curve $8.U,ryina condi tion (2) is caUed a cu rve with o ut sinaul81 point s . Th ose
poinu at which ~nd ition (2) is not fulfilled ate CiLlIal. .singular pain /s of the curve .
E ., ., fo r Ihe curve/l(;c') _ r. f 1 (,x) _ xl (fl it _ 86), the point 0 is singu lar .

, . The curve dr awn In Fig . 87 (eolUIOlcr:ed by mean s of the Iraph of th e functio n

r _ $in..!.. ) dClmninQ & C""-imm ersio n. b ut no t all embed ding o f the hai r-line
x
into lhe plane lhouah the map pi~ is bijective.
Anolher exarnpk o f. aimilar Idnd is sh'cn by th c immcrsiorlf:R I - C )( C d eta"-

rl'Iined try lhe formu b. / (.x") _ (~- ~. 1:1.'-2'"), when. !J. is lrT1llionaJ. II is easy to
x
verify thai. Ihis is. bijective ma pping (of rank I) and that " s irna,ge lies o n the tOt'US
51 X 5' aDd ~es it (bcins evuywhere dense) .
Note th ai the noncompactlleu o f the str aigh t line played an Impo n am to le in
th e sJvcn examp les. In filet . the following theorem is valid .
THEOREM 3. Y" II t7Wnllold M" is compact (lfId I : M" - N'" 1$ all InJectlWi Immer-
sio n, then ! is an ember!dlfl'.
Th e proo f follows from the fact 11'11.1 an injective, continuoys ma ppin g
/ : M - N or comPIIC1. space M on lO f (lJ) C N u homeomorphism o ntO ee
suMpaoc / (M) { ICC 50:. 13. 01 . II}.
N Ol c tha t an y C"-Irnmtnion f : />r - ,.,.. is C"-cm beddi.,. OD cert ain
AelSh bourtlood of eadI pomt x E AI" (th is fo llows fl om th e rheoretll on l':'CtifyioK.
ma ppinz. see 50:. I).
 O . 4. Mal'li(oIds and fibr~ 9ou>dIes
'"

~
/ ii; z
ExAMI'LE 6. Amappiq j : R" - R~. H ~ n , o f dus C",r ~ I, det erm ines an im-
meniou in RN If

ran k ( ~) l,. " (3)

at an y point Y e R" . Thus,jpoueJSCs no nonregular points an d , by t he t heorem on

rect lryill.g a ma ppin g, is a loc al homcomorphtim between R ~ andf(R") . If, in ad d,-
tion. / is a ho meo ll"tOTllhism o f R" on to / (R ") then f is a C"oflIIbcddinl.
Eztrc~ 51" , Veri fy IIa.I th e notion o f eh an on a C"-a.bnwtifold in R'" (see Sec. 2)
is eq uivalent to the C"-embcddina o f R" iJl R N.
Vert o ftm lI\&Difolds lie in ot her am bimt manifo ld$. It will be too Jmen.! to call
...y ~ manifo ld a subm ani fold o rlh e am bient manifold j ust like a su bset I:Ildo...
cd, in a lopoloJical space, with all arb itrary lopoloJ)' wiD not be: tcnned. a subspacc .
It is n~ to Im~ rca",n.able restricti ons ir "'e ~lIire th.altherc WSI a $impt,.
td ation bet ween the st ru ct ures of an embedded an d amblei'll manifo!ds . Mean-
while. th e notion o r em beddi ng proves useru t.
DE FtNITION 7. We ca ll any SII bspace M 1 in N'" whsch is the lmaae o f a certain C"-
~boddilJ8f : M " - N'" with Ihe C"strueture induced by the h omcomorph.isrn/ , a
subman ifold of the C'ma niJold H"'.
The su bml.niloW and mani fo ld i tnKlUrcs happen to be retalm in the fo UoWlng
li mp lc fashion : ror a cenain atlas I(U... p.)J or a mani fol d ~, Ihe in tersc<Uon
U. n M': is (i f nonc mpIJ) the lmqc of the subspace R" C R - '" R" x R" - ..
under me homcomorphUrn >p. ' the rCSlricdolU ..,, ' R"; R " - U. n Mj detcnnin
ii'll an a tbs on the suhmaJlifokS }.f'"I'
Th us . a slIbma n, fold in Nt" i:s given 'oea.lIy in the cOlTcl pgndlns loc al tOOT-
dinllCS -E"" . . , -E"m on the manifold N'" by t he equation! (" .. I 0, . .
( '" .. O.
&uc~ 10" . By aoolying Ih e t heorem on rttt lfyln l tO the co ordinate repeeserueuen
or the cmbcddin g f, cons l lUct the a bo ..c l llues o n Ihe maraifokts N'" a nd MI;.
Th u interrela tio n o f the man ifold and Ill bmanHoid it NCturcs may be assu med
10 be !he bllSu fo r th e noLion o f su~nifold .
,.. Inlrocl",,"on 10 TopolorJ

DEf iNIT ION ' . A su bspace M l C tv'" is eallcd all ,,-d.bncmio~ SIIlHwanifo/d o f a
C"-manifold N"'. " " m , if , in a Ji..cn ltnl~har C of l he: manifold N"', Iheff a i$u.
family of m ..u [(U..... ...... :
R " Joe Rt- . " _ U.. svdlt ha t ,..CR") .. U. n M 1
when U~() M I" 0 and M 1 C ~Uo . Moreo veF. lh e mappinl s .... IR. : R" -
- u" n M 1 determine a C'". atlas spcci fyin' lhe structure or an n-.dimensional C"'
mani fold on I'dl (Fill . 88). Such a stru ctllre on t he ma nifold M 1 e N'" is eoJlcd a
S(!'Uclll,. compatible ""lIh thc sl ruct U/T of the ,minI/o ld N"', o r loim ply thc J'I I'U(" uno
Of It sub_ milo/d.
The cq uh'1llcnce 01 Definitions 7 and II is obmus.
""""",.
I I " , Verify m-t l( U.. n M .. ... IA.JI, (U.. n M l 'I' 0 ) Is . c'-aJlas <Ml M I "
12" , Lee M- be . C"-5U bman lfold iDR'" _ R " )( flN - "(_ Sec. 2) and (U(X) . ..)
Ihe dl an at poi nt x e lor . Show III.aI (i) that Clti"" ;II C' -diffeomorph ism
;; : R N _ O(x) from the sp~ R N onto . cera in . open in R "', neighbourh ood O(l')
o f lhe pain! Jl, slid! tha t
f/I R ,, - .. (4)
(Ii) the set o f chl m
1(0(%). ;i)n M" U (R H. ' ....> (~l
forms a C"-atlu on RN (in 1M SCJUe o r Defll\ilion Z. Sec. J).
II rono M from &acisc: 12 that RN 'llrith. tlaJ 15) is I C"-manifo.ld . and M" . d~
10 (4). is ils wbmanifoid . (This jw tilles the lenn a 'C-submm fokl in R!V' Jiven in
Sec . 2. Ho~ . IO ~ morepreciK , t},e lerm . 'SlIbrmnlCokl or a C'-manifold R""
shoWd be used inst~d,J
'f:JtAMpu; 1. The t:Q1l.lor or tnc: sphere S l (St'c Elt:unpl" J) is a submui fold ,

Ext rdse IJ - , Sho w that t he graph c r t he map pinaf(x) a Lsl, XE R ' b no! Il sub-
ma nifOld o f R Z,
Subman l(olds often emerae I'IOt as imaa es und er ccnain ma pp inSS. bUI as inverse
[maI Cl. The (olklwiJlg im port ant theor em happen s 10 be usefltl not only in cce-
Slructina new mani folds bul alilO o llen (acililatC$ th e pro of ot the fact that the
spaca und er InYC'!tiption possess (!'Ie man ifold sereeru re.
THEOREM 4, tAl I : M" - N- '" ~ M) be " C' -n>"'II of C'-mturVoids
(r OJ I) . ""1 - SIIbmlmil o/d in N'" oofISU,ill, of OIIly rqlliv 1'<11_ of1M moppmrf.
n,en M 1 ~ r ' (Nt> is eil"~ empty or " SIIbmonifO/d I" III" of dimensJOII
/I - m + Ie.

PROOP, An ume thai M l 'I> 0, Let xobC' an ar bitflry po int in M r Sincc N1'b aUlb-
m~ n ifol d , t here u isu a cha n ( p", ~ ) . ff~OJ e P) from the mlll ima! a lias for the C'-
st ru cture liven on N'" such lhat t he pa ir (r n N t. '" IIll) is a chan of the muimal
I tlas for Ihe C"ll ruttllre on ~ , Let IU, ,..), (.rol!! U) be a chl tt of the maximalallu
few Ihe C'-~C1 ure pyen in M" sUoeh that flU) C 'P. Th en, (rOfO the d l t. a lYen.
,.. - Ilxo) is I L"t'gIllac point of l~ fWIppinl " .. : II,.. ; ,..- I( U) - R - and , by Ihe
Iheo rem on reaif)'irla: I lMppi.na , there t:ltist an open nc'-&hbovrhood
 ,,,
YC,.- I<.ro c R,. of lhe point ,.-ltza). an opc:n Jet W C R ~ .and a C-
dUfeo rnorphisll'l F : 11(,.-'(>:0>1 - W , such UQl llw:mappln, .F- 1 on the Sd W is
the standard project ion o f R" onto R- . Note t ha' ,,(V(,.- l<.ro>)) IS an opm
nciahbowhood in M" o f the point .Ko an d the pai r (,, (11(..- '(xJ,
",F - 1) is . chart
or t he maximal alias for the C"-S\ruct ure ,iven on M". Since flP- 1 is the stan dar d
proj: liOll, and thc set
or I/ (",(V(", -I (>:o>)) n M 1} C R'"
consists o f polnll o f t he fo rm (>:1' .. . x r O . . . , 0), Ihc SC1
F ,.-I (,,( V(,.- I (.x'Ol n " 9 C R"
Q)llJists o f points ofthc fOC"m (1' ,x. o a,x,. .. " ). Thus , the
than (.. (V{,.-' (.l'ol. <Fr ') In At" ~ the p roperly
c" r- I)(R" - .. .. t n W) .. \IO (II(.. -' txo>)) n M"
(HCI'( R" - ,. .. It G> IK E R" : X .. I .. . . . . . x'" .. 0].) Sudlach art can be ( o n-
SU\let ed for an y po int X o& M I " Th is pro ves tha t M[ is .. su bman lfol d ;n /of" o f
dimension n - m + k .
EXAMPLE 8. It (OllOWI, in part icular , from Theorem 4 that the Inverse imaae o f a
regular val ue o r th e ma pp ina f : M" - N'" Is either em pt y or & submanifo ld in M"
of dimension II - lit .
TIle follo win. fulHlamcntal fact Is pven witbo ut proof.
THEOREM j (W Hl TN'EY) A ll )' C'-mtUlijofd M" N il W cy..mb/drd ;1I 'Ire =/i_
. " " sptta RlI<.
The tbeorem may be: &iwn another en unciat ion : ' A ll)' m/JIII/old It" u d if-
jHmOrphic to (I SIIbma"i/ofd of lite & d ldl" spIIr% R z",' .
Since we agreed no t to di sting uish bet ween d iffeomorph ic mani folds , it ma y be
seen from t he laller t heor em that the abs tract n ot ion o f ma nifo ld is nOt wide r than
tl"t o f subma!llfold in Eudid ean spaca, and we could co n iine our$Clves to the ir
conddera lio n only. Howev er, th is is not al ways exped ient . Many pr ob lem s lea ding
to man Ifolds can be Wived by & ~Itl plcr meth od without '.\YoM nl an embeddin g .
3. The Sar d Theorem . Th e Noti on o f the Degree Modulo 2 o r a
M apping . The fundarnentalthcorcm about w q.....ntiry' of nonregular ......u u
of a IIUOOlb manifold is used in anal ysis q uite often .
TIlEORI! M 6 (SARD). Let f ; M" - ;-r W (I CY-mGPI'U16 ...1 C"-mtIl1i/olds. if
, ;a. mu(1I - m,O) + 1,lhmt1fenolU'e,ukt,vuluaol'Mwwppirr, f l o,m(l R f O!
1rtetllllU "ero ill N"' .

.-
Omitti ng quite II complicat ed pr oof, we ma ke it clear that II subse t A of a C'.
manifo ld N '" has measur e aero (mesA "" 0) if A "" U A k , where each A k is can-
,
tam ed in. M:I Uk of som e ch&t\ ( Uk' "' k ) from t he atl n a n N'" and "' i l(A k ) ha s
mcaure uro in R."'. Thus , the Sud t heo rem Jtldes that thue is a ' relallv ely sma ll'
quar.tlty of nOPrqular values of the smaadl mappin. / : M" - ~.
Eurriw 14 - . Verify that the stl o f re&ular values is everywhere dense in ,....
,..
In conclusio n. we inu odlKlll' lite COI:I.(:q)t o f lhot de:&ru modulo 2 o f a mapplDI
Tho. imponanl chllRCterisli c of rn.appi1l&S PfO..-a lO be quite uscful in applicatioN.
Let! : M'" - ~ be. C"onw.Pplnl of C" -lDUli folcb (r ;J I). Moreowc1. let ..... be:
c:onneued. Wldf prop . If YIIIi"" is. reaWat walue orltlc ~ppinaftherl r ' (y) is
Il,lbrnani fokl in M" of c1lIMnsion uro Of mlpl y. Sincells proper. the wbnwlifold
r i O') u oom~ aDd lhcrcfon consI~s of iI tillite lIumba" ofpoinu k (,) (k - OJ!
/ - '0') - 0). Usinl tbe Sard lhCQl"ClP. it o;an be shown IhaliM resid~ da.u mod 2
or the n um ber k (y) 60es not dcpmd em the choice of. rq:vla, value )! E N" of the
IN Ppm. J. Th is residue d ass II c:alled the dq~ mod 1 of t~ mapp l" l l ~
denOled b y 1k12(f).
We indiea te 1M slmpks! applicat ion of this no tion .
T HEOIUW 1.ljdq2(/) .. 0 f~n /~ muppi",J issurj tc llw.
PIlOQP Corider an a1bluary )fo e ...... If YO E/f.M") then , obvio usly. r I (yr) 010 0 .
If ' 0 e/(M" ) then Yo is rCl ular valu e of the llllIpp inll: I . an d mcrecver
r l (yr) - 0 . Th erefore , t{/'ol - 0 and dta,;(f) O.

6. T ANOENT BUNDLE AND T A NGENTIAL MAP

l. T he Idea of a Tan gent Space. T o in YUl ip ,u moodl mappinp fwther

it Is MCUSIlr)' to COl1$U\IC1 an anaIOllue of th e di Hamllal or. runnion. i.e., of.
COI'ICCflI w~ ldI is widely ~ In anal,as. A t-.genli-.! nu.p deflMd and AuclXd ill
Ib is sIJOn is sud! II aml'l':lliu.tion . BIll iI is necasar)' 10 amcnliu the notioa or
tanp:nl 10 II ~ (and of tanacnl plane 10 II wrflC'l:) a l fi rs! . 'The nec:e:s.sily ohuch II
~muon is also QlQI:Ii by app6ations of the DOIionof manifold in mcdI anks
aDd pb ysk:s. As it was mentioned in Sec. 3,Ihe c:otlflJUmion spaoe: of a mechan ical
s)'$laTl iI. as rule $IMOth man ifol d. EadI poinI o f this mani fcMd is a C'Crtam
position o f. mo:h.anicallYJlem . Under tbe action o f forees. the mecll.anical , yAnD
Men ilS posit io n. The po int o f Ihe oon fJgUn.tion IPIC'l: alrrespondin , 10 it mova
dC$(:rl biAa. cerlain t raj ectory. v1L. a pa lh on smoo lh ma nifo ld . An impon illlt
dllsract cristicofthl.l motion b velodty which changes with time:. galcraUy speakin, .
The SIl~le of II m l!Chonictll SYSltm .1.1 each given moment o f tim e 1.1 the pai r ~. It) .
where ;xis the po int of the man ifold cor respondfng to the pcstrtc n of th e sySlem .t
the moment unde r considerat ion, and It 1.1 t he disp lacement vdodt y of t he poin t x.
The c:olleclio n o f aIl l1atcs o f. mechanical system is eaUcdph~ JJHK'C.
A qu estion na tural ly arises what mat hematica l con cept can be auoclated with
l he pb ysica l notion of veloaty .nd, mort:~ . how to dncri be the llo tlo A o f phase
spaot with matMmaticai flaOUr . The solAno .. of Ihis qUdtioD IS plompted by the
simple:st ph)'Jical aamplet;. Th lls. whe n a poinl mus mova alo .., a CU~, it!
veloclly am be in l.e"pre1ed as certain YCCtor which II t.arlge'" 10 th e <:Ilrvc' an d
dito:<1ed ~ tbe path 0( UIO( ion . If a poinl mus mov es acrou a tw04inmlsioNl
sur face then its vdoeity is interpreted., a een:a.iD vfl:IDI t an aCllt to the &inti ....rrace

A pP.... / . X _ y or _ !.OoOIOP<:U space 'o .-bor is saK!IO bcpr<>prt" lf the ....

vn "" / - '(.t') 01 ..,. CDalpIQ .OI K C Y II . - .paa .. X .
 01.4. Manifoktl aDd. Abl e 8,,,,,;l1u .
,
and Ih~ paUl u lf. The: sc:t o r.u poui blc >docit~ al ,. t;ivcn point of. eerve (resp .
rutf"tot:) i5 thus a tan l mt suai&htllne (resp. tan&tlU p lalk). Tbe set o f aI. poui ble
vdocKiu adlII issiblt U,. aiven ~tion of a mechatt ical sySlcm QUI be nat uml ly in-
tl!l"'prettd in ,. simi laf way, l.e .. as. ~ taftlent V~Of space at t he rorrapon.
dins poin t of . Slftl)()(h nwtifold (Of Ihe case of . aencral c.onfi,....atjon 'PUC" .
2. The Notion o f Tangent Space to a Manifold . Befort p vina"
precist d~rtnilion of Ibis notion, it shovJd be noted that we 'IriIl now tak e intO ec-
count the fac! whc:lher wc consider thc n-dimmsiona.l EucUckan Sj;lal% as ,. ~nc
lp8CC (Wl4er the Euclidean metric) Ol" mdow it ad4ilionally. with thc vco::tor 5pacc
struct:urc. In th e fanner cue. t nc c1cmc nu o r R - arc $:ai4to be poinu . an 4 vC'C!ots ln
the. latter ; we w iU also call R n a vecto r space (pr cvW>usly, ..c did not make any
diu inctlon between these notioo , ). Thus. e .I ., consi dcrina thc deri valive
D~(f) : R n - R m of a ma pp ing/ : R ~ - Rm al a po inl Xo (see Sec. I. 01 . IV). it
$IIould be cmphasittd that it u n its o ut a linear mapp ing or vector spaccs. Let R n
be a subspace of R"'. W~ cal l the pair (X. v) I! R'" )( R ~. wbere x i po int and v I. a
veetc r, a vector v fi t Q po ln l x (a Vtor 'mark~ of/,/rom IM po}nl x. a veao r with
f~ 'orili,,' fl l l M point x) . LeI x be an ;arbitrary po int in R"'. We will cal l t he ecuec -
tion o f all vectors v E R" muked off from a paint r, the SIX' R - mIlrb d off/ rom
the POUlt x , Th i$ collect ion p o _ lhe natural lUUetur~ o f Ihe ,,-..dimenSlonal
Eudidcall s pact which we wiU denote by R;'
COmi der now a smooth R1 bmani fo ld M" in UI~ Eudilkan SI'&" R IJ (sec Sec. 2) .
DEftN ITION l. Let: M" be a C'"-l\IbmaniJokl in Rtv (r .. I). X6 M" an ar bi(ra ry
point . Let CU .. )bc a chan on M" , X II" U. Th~ 'fln.en l sp% T r to th~ manifold
M" 1\ . point x is tIu: ~ matkcd o ff from th e po illtx. l.e. the itna&eo f the
veetoc" space R" under lbe ma ppin. D ,, _ 'w'":
R" _ R IJ.
R.ccall that the linur mappi na D,,_'W'" is Ji ven by Ihe J acob ian ma tti"

("')I .
ax .. _ 1,,)
Since rank ( "')
ax I.. E".
-I",
the IlIl\aenl spac e is ofdimemlon /I .

We sho w lhe indepe ndcnce o f Ihe definition of T,.M~ from the ehoicc:o f a chan . Lei
(V.~ ). x E Y bc an Other ehan . The commut ative d iagram (on t he left) lteneTates the
commu\ ativ~ diagram of linea r ma ppin g! (on the rlaht):

<.
., '/ItflvJ "' ., . ..wnvl 0'-"'/ "
R~
0 .. . \. " ..- ,."
, fl~

Since .... - 1..:..-1 (U n V) - -I - I ( u n V) is a d iffeomorphism . 0 - I (...- I..)

:R- - R - is an isomor'phism UK! tbcrcrore. dmex in. lbc bnagc by 'm.~e have
lm D,, _/(.d(.... ,"') = R" . Fun her . we oblain
ImD.. . ,to1" . Im D ~ - ' ln l "" {"' - I.. ))
.. ImfI D". ',",i IlD"_' wf"4- -I.. Il" Im D,.-,w of
,,. I nlroclua" ", t .. Topol OllY

wh kh prons Ihc conoeana s o f Od i nifKln I.

The danenll o f . he space T,/'4" ate ca lkd I ~ ltlll~' wc,on to }.(" I ' 11'><0
po intx.
!'or a nanirold M 1 in R ). the 11UI&1m1 spac:c T.,M'I is " t wo-dimensional p1a,M
p.a$Sing t htoud\ the potnl .... which tolndda wilh the U....CI'lC plan", 10 lhc S\lrfaa:
M 1 U$UAlJ )' o:onsidcrcd in an al)'1is.
Ex.AM' U1 I. Lcl VC R " be an open set alGSide..1td as . t\l b!n&nifokt in N it. Then
for an y poinl Jt IE' U. we ha.... T",u _ R;'
E.l;1~dthe notion of tan&ent space to the case o f bilf aJY manifolds . In flUs
QUC". genma lly speakina. it is impot.ubl", to spea k o f the: dcri vati.... D _ I .,.
H o~u. ' rom Definitio n I (o f a lanient space), anol hcr ap proach can be"d~Ul:
l.
U I (U, 10) be IIecnllin chan on a submani fold M" in R~an d if IE' U a po int. 11Ic
veclor <X. D JIP- I (h fr o m R; Is call ed t h",coo rdllto' e repruttllotio n Of fll " l(mB"'"
welor (r , h ) e: T:I't" In t he chart (U, ",) . A que sllQfl ari ses how fhe eccre tnete
r",prnen lation s o f the ,aollm l vector II in ... anoUli chll1U are related . Let (Y, of) be
another ch art , JCe V . Diffcrc nll ll ln& t he mapp ina .. _ I _ (IO - l ~)o,l, - I, we shal/ICC
ch, 1 the coordinale rep rese ntatlonl o r t he vectcr (.l'. h l in the charts (V. 10) (Y. '4<)
arc ,e1.ted by the eq ualit y
I
tK.D.. IO - ( II :- (.l'. D~ * '''J(IO- I -r)D..'' - 1(11 . ( I)
It is 4aUl rai co identify . t lUl&Cnt vector with lhe JC1 o f .1I its coordina t e fe1lrQCn Ul'
cioI:u. This nou: Qn be usumed as t he basis fD<" . new de rmilion o f a t aJl8cn c >'tor
wh ich b JU!lab lc fOl" .,. arbiuv)o manifold.
Let Jot" be . maniIokI of class cr. r- ;> I . F.... an ar bilrat')' point X E Ar and con-
sieler tbue! T ohll triples (..1'. CU. 10) . II). wh en ( U. 1")lu d1art at th e poin t x . lIDd II
>'lOr Ortbe~ R '", We d dine an ~ce re~lion on th e >el T u roUowl:
(..1'. (U. !O) . II) - (..1'. (V. ~). &,) II - D *-I(>1(!O - I.. ) CI') ,
~ 1*. Verify I h.l this relation .. an equivlllence rewio" ,
The equivalence d :us (,r . (U. 1") . h ) is call ed the tu,,~t I1t or- at t he poinl JI,
an d' l he tri ple (..1', (U. !O ) . II) from the equivale nc e d Ull a ~preRft{Ulil'e of tlw
(u" sen{ vector In lhe ch art ' tU. !O)' Moreove r. we will cal l t be veeeer " the vector
componen l of 1M ~PfW('f1{Uli... (..1'. (U, !O). II) and de note it b y II; ,
We n e~ l consideT the set o f all t anllent vec tors at a point JI, Denotin ll it by T;/01~,
we Ii" a chart (U, ,oJ. x e U . an d co nstruct the ma pp inll
r.. : T..-M~ - R~ (2)
l ha t . ssocIates each. I an,;~t ..t or with t he o;om ponc:l'Il It of iu rcp r~tative in Ill"
chatt (U , ..) , It is obYiollS that ,,, " a bijtiOll and th cn rore the st ruC!. ur e o f lhe
n-di mcNional ..tor space R" h IUIolunJ1y transfened to lhe SCI T,.M". A more
de tailed namIn.lw.. o r cJlis fac:a shows Wiehe a1s dlnlic ~ral.ions o f IIddi cion and
nwlliplk:abon by . n um ber are inlnxll.lC'ed On T/of" in Icnns Of lhe COI'TaJ>OU4lnll
operatioou ovu lhe Vt'CtOr eomponenel of Ill" repruen w iva of t he tanaent ..ectors
e-a&, ( I ) cItmooutrat.. how iI>t. "*"" .... ' h a~ ..rtbc.dlal t,
 o..~. M. " jfolds and Fibre Bundh:s
'"
in tile chosen chart (U, .,.) , If t he representa tive. of the ta ngent vector s are given in
differe nt cha rH Illen Ihey should be repla cC<l be forehand by equ ivalent represe n-
teuves in the same chan. Th us, the algebraic op erations on TJI"'f" are defined as
follows:
(l) l(x, ( U, 1"), lI)l + !(K, { V, \IoJ, g) l = !(,x. {U, ",I, h + D~ _ I(,,).,.-I "" )(g J ,
(2l q!{x. (U , I"l,II )] .. !(x, (U , "' l , a h)f.
Extrdstl 2" _Prove the com :clncss of t he de finit ion o f the algeb raIc o perat ions and
vffi fy that th e axiOTll S of th e vector space are fulfHled,
Thus , we related each poi nt x of a manifo ld M" to a vector space called the
tang~f11 5JXre~ to M" al the point x and denoted by Tp .
Th e dime nsion of a lllllgent space at each po int equals fI, i.e . the dimensio n of
the manifold M". In fact, th is follow. from bij ection (2) (with rhe given defln ltioo
of th~ algeb raic ope rations) being an iso morph ism of vector spaces .
We add uce hu e anothe r co nvenient definition of a tang en t 5pace. Let M" be a
smoo lh manifold and x e M~ an arbitrary point. We ca ll a smoot h map ping X : (0 ,
b) - M", where (0, b ) is a <;ertai n interval of the numb Cl' line co nsidered as a
matli fold with the natural C"' stru ctu re, a PnOOt'" curve x on the manifold M".
Tw o curves XI an d Xl o f the set of -'I\loolh curves
)( : ( - 0, 0 ) - M~ , )(0) .. x

arc called equi valent ot 0 point xif for a ce rta in cha rt (U, .,.) cont aini ng the poi nt x ,
the curves .,.-I X I' .,.- IXl in R~ pOSilCSS the property

_,d (.,.-l X \)(I>1 ,d (.,.- IXl)(t~1

__
I , ~ 0 I '.0
Exele w ,
JO, Sho w Ihat Ihe defi nition of the !ui va!ellcc of the CU",C$X I')(2 does nOI depe nd
00 th e choke of a ch art .
4". Show thai th e eq ulvalen ce of curv~s at a point is art equ ivalence relott ion on th e
,ct or smooth curves on a manifold .

DEFINITION Z, n ,C eq uivalcnce class Or smoot" curves passi ng th rough a point x is

called a tongcfl l 'lJeCIOr to the manifold M" at lhe point)t.
LEMMA t. The se l 0/ eq uil'U/ence cfasscs 0/ ~oolh <:urvcs 0 /1 0 manifo ld M " Ihal
pass fhr ough a poim x is an n-dimctlSlonal vector S/XICt.
In ract, havilll fixed a chart (U , .,.), the class of eq uivalCfl t curves al a polnrs may

be associa ted with the ,, d imensio nal vector CI =

,
~
dl
(",- IX) I .
I 0
Co nversely, each

vector CI det erm ines a Sfra igh t lree in the-space R" passin, th ro ugh th e point" - t (Xl
wilh the 'slope' a. while its image under th e mapping 0,# ...ill de term ine a smooth

curve X III R" j)lUSil1g t hrough the po int xand wch that o '" ~ (.,. -IX)
dl
I .
, ~ 0
Thu s,
", lot,oduc lion 10 T l'lpOlo n

we have . b1.teClive correspondence between the eqUIvalen ce clasKS 0( curves u a

POtll1 It and ~IOB or th e space: R".
Dd ine the alsebraio: opcl'111iolU on the: K I of elaun of curves equ ivalcfIl at
poin t il ia lila t this bijection m&)' become an iso lTlOlllhism o f ftCIor spattS:
(I) l hc sum lx,1 ... lx:l of two ~ i$ a clus lx~ Juc h thai

~ (,,-IX\)1 , . 0 + .!
dl dl
~(", - IX~ I , . 0'
C,,-IXaJ l/_0 - ....
Vi> the product A!xl o f a Dumber ), by a d3S$ Ixl LS class Ix~J 5UCh tba'

~ (..-IX:J1 _). d~(t ..-IX)1._0.

dl , .. 0
E.xt,d.~ S . Show th e validity Qf the int roduced operation, and verify that the ex-
iom s o f Ibc vecto r space are fulfllled .
Tbe e -dlmensional vector spac o f classes o f eq uivale nt ,"Urvet.1U a point Jl on a
manifold M" con stru cted above is Wled the langtttt spocc to M" al lb e po int x . and
lis elcl:ReIlu an called (O"ltnl ,,t(ln. It 1$ still denoted by T,.M" . Note Ihal for
RIch. derlllitioo of a tan gent $pace, thc i$Omolllhlsm r... : T#" - R~ ecrre-
,
5POftdln, 10 the chan (U, .. ) , x IE U, is &lY<:n by Ihc formu la

Ix) - ~ (,,- IX)I .

c1I ' _0
It ii I'l&WraJ10 QB eM triple (,r', (U. ,,) ~ (...
df
-IX)I , .. 0
1M rr~fQ"W of IIIe

Itm~l ~'OI'" [xl in the chart (U. ,,) and the vector ~ t"-'dl the WClorCO"l
ponCl' of fIlL ~ItIQtiW. dl , - 0
3. Tang ent Bundle . Th e t. ...s ent IIPKC' T.Jot" <;all be defmed for any paint x of
a $moot h manifold M". Ou r nellt pro~ lem 1$ to l;Otn t ru C't a topological space uti
even a Imooth manifold from all VectOlSo f t his family o f WCIOl" spaces thai dept:l'ld
on Ihe pol l'll x,
ConsIderi ng th e di sjoint unIon TM" .. U T;?I " o f all tangenl spaceS 10 a
ma nifold 1Yf". we de fine lh e projection :II ; TM" - !of" by ma pping eac h veclor
fro m TJlf" into me pain! x, Thm
..- I (x) _ T/-'~ .

Th is inw:ne ima ge: ' $ caDed 1M- fi bre over the point x.
Eaeh chart ( U . ,oo) o f a mani fold M" Will defi ne t be eha.r1 ( r -' (fl). ~ ..) in TM"
~ .. : .. - I ( U) - R" X R" (3)
u fo llows: usi3n to the Ul'\ICftt "C'd0l''' ~ !(x. (U ....). .... )1in the fibre OYer a painl
& U a pair <.... -'W. ..,pl. where ~A . . as defined earlier (sec Item 2). Le .
~ I' - (.. - ' (x) . h .. ) .
 Ct>.4 Manifolds and Fibre BundlO$
'"
s. (V, <p). h,.l being a represmtat ive of the vector in the ch art (V, 1"). h is ob _
Q

vious th ai r is bijeecive, t herefore the weakest topology can be inlrodllced o n

,, -I (lI) so that r may beco me a con linuous mappin g and even a hom eomorpbJ sm
(see Sec. 8, Ch. ['f). Since t ile set of all che rts on ...- l (U) fo rms a cover ing of TM" .
by declari ng !lIe eol1ec:tion of all open sets in all chans on ...- ' eU) to be the base for
the t<.>pology. we thereby const ruct a (<.> pal og y on TM" an d conv ert TM" inl o a
lI;Jpologkal space.
('IOTE. Aco::ord ing to Ihe formal defi nilion, the pairs (...- I((l), , ;1) sho uld have
bern caned chan.s on th e space TM". We reversed t he homeomorphisms for con-
venience (verify thai this cllang e is inessCt'lli aJ).
Thus, chan (3) enables us 10 intro duce local coordinates on lhe sel ,,-I(U) by
spifying the coo rdinates o f the pai r (<p- l(x), h,.) In R" x R" , We will C<l U tile pair
(,. -I (x). h"J th e coordinatt teprtSetf tul/On of the langent vector 0 in the cllan ( V .
",) . and t ile vector h., the vector compo nent (in the chart (U. <p of the ta ngent vee-
tor.
This termi nology is [ustifled by tile following state men t.
LEMMA 2. 1/ M" ;',H1fU" i/ old cqc:fass C', r ;:;. I . then the colltion j( .. - I(U). ' ,. ))
0/ all m arts 0" the $pQ r:t TM" is a C' - I.ollus.
PROOF Let (V, 'P), ( V, y,) be two chans on a mani fold M " , V n v .. 121 . Let
(,.- - I (U) , T) , (...- I( V), T) be the eo rrespo nding charts on TM~; th en
(...- I ( l/) n ;- 1(11) _ ...-Itv n V) '" 0. We hav<:th e commll1alive diagram

t../ i'lufll/) '-....t.

;
R " ' R"
~
R",R"
t.t~

whae the ma pping

T~?; ': ( ...-I (Un V - ..~( ,.-I (Un Vl)
is a ho meomo rphism o f open sets into R ~ x R" (the transition homeom orphism
from one set o f coo rdinates 10 ano ther) . II suffices to show that r e:' e C' - '.
Since ' .u .. (,,-tv-). hi ) ' r .,o - (Y,-I(Xl, h 2) and h z - D -'<4(f - t<p)h,. we easily
obtain that ,.

whellce "~T; 'eC' - I .

'l
Note that U"ansilion tr an$fo. mat ion (4) i. o f a special for m : the coordinat es of a
point x arc tra nsformed: by means o f the diffeo morphism rV '". and the vector
component II of th e tangent vector II by means of the linear oe nsrc rmaucn
D _,,,,if-I,,,).
.. Th us. the: structure of a smooth manirold o f dimension 2n has been con structed
on the to pologi<:a1 SJl8DC tM" . Due to a $pCCiill form o f transi lwn lnUl$fo. -
mat l<.>n (4), such a manifold i$ called t he (ongenr bundlt o f the ma nifold M~ . Th e
.new term underlines th e structure o f the manifold TM" wh'ch ,olUiSll o f fibres e ver
". lnuoducllon to Topo logy

v,

Fig. 89

r :l.I;h point ill M" that ar c tang ent spa ces. The smoo th man ifo ld stru ct ur e d eter-
mined by the al l"" o f charts of fo rm (3) is called the III"Br nl bundle t lrtlClllre .
EXAMPLE 2. Co nstruct the structure of t he ta ngent bundle 1 fo r the cir- rs
cumference 5 1 C R I . Considering 51 <IS the set of points e fI ts e R I), specify on 51
Ihe C-atlas of the two charts

V I "" [e"':se(o.%",)} ' ''' I (S) - c" : .) -

(o, ~ U !'

U2 - [e-r:se ( -",i)J ''"2(5 ) '' c" : ( -Ti) - U 2-

In rael,the set VI n U 2 oonsists o f two connected components VI' V2 (Fig . 89)

and the transitlon homeomorp hism on them is of t he form

"'2 1<p , (5) ... S : ll'11 (VJ} - <pi 1(V11. 'Pi J"'j(.s) .. (s - 2",) : <PI l ( V2) - <pi I( V 2),
an d IS ther efor e a C"'-di ffeomorpbi sm. The charts o f the alIas on t he lansen! bun -
d le are t hm o f the Conn

0 \ = ... -t (UI ). r..,: ,..-l(U I ) - (o. ~.) X R ',

01 = "' -I(UJ ....1 : ,. - I (U 1) - (-"" I) x R I.

NOTE- Since D fV'2' I" I) .. I ll" Ihe tangent vector determ ined by l he represen tati ve
(X, ( U I, 10 1) ' II ) il'l lh e cnan ( U p 101) is of the rcrm c. ( U~, IOV' II ) in the chart (VI '
1
I"z) ' ClUing the mani fold TS from Ihe direct pwdul:u (o. ~ ...) X R I , ( -",

~) X R I alon g the di ffeo morphism T~T;II - ("'2' 1" 1' ' Il l) , we obviously obtain
 C h. ~ M an,rold5 a Dd Fibre ~ ll nd ( OJ
'"
the direct product S' x R ' Thus. Ihe tangml bl.mdle rs' is homeomorphic to
S l >c R I. .
E:xen:lre 6 0 Let Vb< an open set in M~ . Show that the tangent bund le of the .set V
regarded as a sub manlrold in M" coi ncidu. with . - I. ( V). Descri be TV. v C R ~.
Remem ber that we discussed t he: phau 5P&CC of a syste m in Item I . The state of
a s)'Stem can be no w ch arac teri zed by an dement from TAr'. Le . t he tanac nt vector
/I over a point x . Then,"( characterlzes the po sitio n of the 5y5to:rn in t he cottfigura tion
space , an d t he vecto r a from T,.M" speci fies ure ~Ioeity of the $)'stem.
4. The Riemannian Metric . The tangenl bundl e is related to the not ion
which i.l.lmpo rlant in gtollletrie problems. viz., that of the Rlem an nian metric on a
mllllifoid. COnsider a C"-mani fold M n , ;oJ l. a:rd Its tangent bun dle TM" . Let a
symmetric , positive-d efinite , bili near fu nction A x( u, y) thai , genera lly speak ing.
depends on x be defmed in each fibre o f TxM". We will auume t hat thte depecdence
is of class C" - I in the sense that in thclocal ceordlnares on the cha n ('11' - I( U), ' .. )
of rhe tangml bu ndle TM", th e bilinear functio n A...(,; IU.,; Iv) in a fixed basis for
the vecto r ~ace R~ h as a matrm A ll "") whose demeolS are C" - ' f\Inetions on U.
The form A ...(u. ,,) !s called the R~mQ1lllJtJn ~tric of class C" - 1 on the
mani fold M". 1t is often spec ified In th e toeal coordinates o n th e tang ent bundle as a
bilinear f orm
1: QU(x )U,v,. x e U,
'.'
where Ill' . . u n' " I' . "n are t he coc rdtnares of Ihe vecton U . "of t he space
R n. 1be Rieman nian rn.ctric trlablcs UI 10 measure the ItrlJlths of VCClOU an d the
angl es between them in 13IIacnt ~aces. e.g. if " E T..-M" then Ihe length I vi... oj Q
-m;lor v is defined by the equali ly "'I~ _ A.,.(", ~). II will b e InltlCSling to consider
t he question of ex.lSlcnee of the Ricm anrUari metric on sm ooth rntlnlfolds.
THEO REM I. 0 " Qfl)' C'-mnnVold M" , r ;oJ I , (here exislSQ Ri ttllo"fl ia" mtlric oj
druse' - I.

Pll:OOF. COll$fder a certain at lll$I(U". ",,)

o n th e rntlnifo ld M". Let !V"l be a local ly
nnlte,open co"e riflg o f M" such th at each Vp lies in a cenajn U" (such II ~verina is
there du e to the parac ompaet ncss of M") . For eadt P. we fix a eenam num b er
a '" a(Q ) and const ruct a C'"-panition Is!,! of unity which is subo rdinate to t he
coverillll ! V"J . The idea o f con structing a Riem lll1 nian metri c is (0 construct on each
Vp (u a submanifold or M" with the tan~nt bun dle ".-I (V,6) ru own Riemann ian
mt lrie A:(u. ~) . and t hen by part ition ing unity, glue the 'g.IobaJ ' Riem1UUlian metric
from them:
' S)

xm:~ 7" . Verify th at if A e(ll. v);s a Riemannian metric on VJI(fo r each P). then
formula (5) determines a Riema nni an metric On M" . .
. It rem ains to construct a Rieman nian melric o n V/!, By th e previou s const rue -
hall. V" C U" lI')' therefore ",-'(V,,) C ". -I (U,, (II~ and ".-I( Vp ) belongs 10 the
'" lnlfocluctkm 10 TOJ'Olou

dlatt (..,-I{U.. tI~. ,. ~; o rtbetUCC!l1 bundle TM" . ThUS . we otnin th e tnawint:

.,6 "".-111: ,. _ I( y, >- <.,;J, (1', x 1l". (6)

Conslder thc bilinear form 8 (11, 1') .. Il t V, .... . . ... Un l'~ with the tenstanl
mat rix (a/J(x .. (fJ/jX'v bc:ina the Kron ecker d d tl) in 10Q\ tOOrdinateJ (6). We
no....spa;i fy R1elnUuliaIl me tric OD V, by the nj uali ly

A~(II , ..) . B(?~). u... e Tj>t".xeY._

...mere ~ is . rCSlricticMl or y6 10 the nbfe T"M".
5. Tangential Maps . While pudytq srnoolll mappinp or sw1&CC$ (rap.
C\lt'Ves) in anaIyIil and its IpplkacloM,lhey often \IX the line:ariutlon md.bod which
eonmts in rcp1aci1ll 1 surface (res)). alnc) by the lang en t pilUle (rnp . strai&ht Ilne)
in ncigbbo urhood5 of 101I)e poillt an d its image , and replacing I ffiBppina by ils
c1irrcrm lial. l.e., by linear ma ppinl _Th ill method ad ntits I cttcra!it.at lOD for the
c:&.$C of mawinP of llJIOOth mulirokb. .
Let! : AI" - N'" ba a JJDOOth mappina ordas cr. r > I , of tmOOlh malli fokb
or the same daN . LeI x. AI'" br; all ar'biuvy point,arwl ( U, " XI', lit) dwU: in the
*'
m&IIiColcI.I AI". "". ~veIY. sudt llw x U. ftr) Iii V; we assume abo tha!
I {(/) c Y. Comida th e rcpn:teDtaUon of the mtlppiq: / in the Jivm. C'OOfcfillalCS
r 1t", : ,,- l UI) _ . - 11)
and ltl dew atlve
(1)

oeF'1Nn1ON J. Let " Ii! T~ be aa arblUvy tan,att vector , t I point x , and (...-, ( U,
.,), 11 ) its r~~ in the dlan lV, ,,). ~ u-r lNIpp(n 1
Tz (/) : T/'f" - TNI"".
un4et whIch the 11IlIIrnt veetor G' with the representative o.(U, .,) , II) i. Im,,-
formed Into a 1lll18Clll vector b with the repres-ent alive ({(x), (V, rJ- ),,) in nu Cllarl
(V, f ). whCfe , D D . _ l ,") (~ -lj.,)h. is called Ihe I~nt/ol map oj f lit the poi nt
xE M".
Th us. WIdera ~11aI ma~ polnt x Is 'carried' by &1T\.lppU1aI. and the ve<:-
l<H" COIl\pODalt 11, t:OITespondiDt; to tbe d10sen chart . o f th~ langent ved.Of is
tr&DJfonDcd by linear In&ppiq (7).
Ex~
<huU.
,e, Show tha i th~ lanstnllal map TJ doeI not depend Of! the: cboic~ of

The vtrlficatlon of Itle Collowm, baJic propertiet o f the lllllaential map b left to
the read er &II I simple C!lIerciJe:

....
(I) to tbe Identity D\.Ipping 1_ : /of" _ M", th ere corresponds the ident ity ma p.
 Cb. . MalIlrolds ud Fillfcikmdles

entails the. commuta tivity of ure tanaential map diaanun

where Y '" l td , 'l: = ,0').

........
The collection of aD w.mtial ~ jT...(()J.... ...,. detemrlnes a w Rent bundle

T(f) : TM" - ~

ea11ed a mgp 01mIJflijuldr tflflgUi tJal to f.

USlna iIffi()Oth structures on TM" and TN"'. the rep,.:sc:n tatlo n of the Il'UI pp ing
T(f) in the cor respo ndinll charts can be writt en. Indeed , let ( V, If) be a cha n a t the
point Iv). an d (U. ,..) a c!'lart at the poi nt x , and moreover . / UI) C V. Cotl sideT
the clwU (1' - I{(/). r,,). (. - ,(V), r, )In tbe lanpt bundles TM-. TN"' , rapective
Iy. To II tan'~1 vec:tor #I I! T - I CU). th ere c:orrnponds th e paU (,. - 1",). h ) in the
dian r ; simibrly. to lhe Cam b Tf,f}tz, there c:orrcspontls the p&r (i - 1M .
D. _ 1 J~ - 'f",)h) in the ch an r l We ha ve tbe fo Uowina tran sition t~fonnatiotl
r .,T(f}T; I : 0'. 11)- (cr '/"xn. D~(-r lf,.)1I )J (51)

actina fro m the set r ( tr - '(U) C R" )( R" to the set r ",C.".- I(y) C R'" )( R m It
Is clear that mappin8' (II) Ll o f unoothness clul C - I.
TblU, with each smooth mapptlll o f manifolds o f dass C . ' ;;a I . smooth map-
pint: (8) or d ass C' - ' o f their ta llJCfl t bundlesc:an be a.ssodated . For the tangenlial
maps o f tanpnt bundles, properties (I) and (II) remain valid .
The defini llon o f . rq ulu poinl or . smooth ma ppill' o f mani foJt1s (_ Der. S,
Sec. S) ca n be reformulated in ttrm$ o f tln.ent ial map. Let / : M" - N'"' be a C
mappin8(' ;lJ l.of C-manifol4s .
DEFINITION . A poin l :r I! /If" is called a " ,,,IQr POint o f ;0. mapp ing / if
rank T,,(/) .. min (n, m) .
E.'nrci$e 9- . Verify lbe tquivaJcnQC o r Def..,ltlon I to Definitlon 5, Sa: . 5.
The .dvantage o f Definition 4 is in iu bcinSSlven in Invarian t form , u . in a
fonn ;,:uiependen t o f the choke o f <:oorwDl te: , J$ItmS.
_.
'"~ lnu od uetioa 10 TOpOIo&J

6. Orientatio n of Man ifolds . The noliofts of tanatnt SPaDe and W1JCD1

bwldk enable III 10 ckflllOe the cOlK'ePl of orientabilit y o f smooth manifoldJl b7
~ !he dd\rLitioll. of an orimtable SU1faa which is qWle importalll in

~lM:r tile notion o f oriented 'ndOr $paoe~. T_ buts (' ., . . " . ) and
II . . . , I . ) in R- are pjd 10 ee OrlM $U1IC orirtll"tk'" it the transfer from ooe
'-sis 10 tbe other b camed 0111 by a linear mapping with .. positiV1: dd et minan l .
E:u rr:iK 10". Show thaI OTIClltalion Isan cquivalen~ rclalia n OIl the; Sd of all basel
in R ft and thaI the numbel" of equivalence classes t<juals 2.
A.space Rft ls aid. 10 be Qriented if ece o( the cqul valmcc classes o f the bases II
find in il.
COnsider .. C"-I\lbmanirold M"" iilI I... !he space RtJ. A wbmanifold M" Is
said 10 be oriNItllblt If orien wions .illeadl lan&eJl1 ~ T/of" and an at!aJ {fU...
...J] in lot" e.-n be chO$efl ..a lhal !be CDn npondina diffC'OlDOfllhtsn:ls
"if : R" - U.. pr_~ the otjcftwiolls, Le., for allY poizlt E Up.the IllllJCl1d aJ
map T~;I : TJtf" - R" lIUsf_ lhc dlo~ orimwion of tile Vec'lOf &p&Ot
T,)r intn .. rtud orlmtation of tbe m;t SI*C R".
Otherwise. ee mani fold is said to be IIOIt-tJI'kfllobk.
An atlas U1tiJryin, this conOitiDn II ealkd aD oriMtm, atlas. It is d ar IhaI. for
lID orimtllll au.s. tIN: diffeomorphi$ms " ..: R" - U.. al C compalibk with cadi
eth er, Th.. prt<:ise tIlCanina o f this rompati bllily is expR:UeC! by the folklwilll excf-
cb e.
Exuci# 11. Show Ihat ally two chart$ (U" . '1',,), (U,l ' "'Ill from an orienc.1l1, atlas
arc p<')5itivclycompatible. i.e., possc:u tht property of the lk terminant of Iht maw-
in, Dz 1.1<1 '''i I..",) : R!'- ROto be po$iti~ for &IIy point x e ,,; I (U. n V, );
ron~Y. if any tWO charts of an .tlas we positivdy <:(1l11patiblc lhen the l lW is
orimtiD&.
The propcn, y aPfUKd, in &crc:i.se t I is U$ed ill dd inin, au orimUble manifold
RI').
(1lOI n ec:aa arit y ItlIlhedded in
W'C iDuodUtt IIA equlYalmce rdalion on !he Jet of oriclltina atlases : two orien4
iq atlasn aft' PqIIiNlml if t!lcir WIioII is an orimtill& al!u.
11I'C choice o f o ne of Ihe cq ulva loma: classes is ca1I'Cd I D OIWtrIQtIott 0/ 1M
manifold.
EurcLsr U ' _Verif, tb3t for any manifold. th'C nulIIbcr of th'C eq"';vaIcncc cla.ua of
orlcntina au-:, is 'CV'CTI . and in lhe usc of I connected man ifold equ.als 0 or 2.
Th'C simplal uamp1e of an orientlble mini fold 17 the Ip.~ R O. In this caK . the
lOlLl conslslinll of one chart (R". ' 11 0) is orienting
Exercise 13. Show that any manifold 11'111pouc:sscs lIIl at1as conslstill' orone chart
1.1 orimtable.
,,0 all,
_....
Ert1"eUe &iva us another uamplc: an opm XI III RO and. Ihe-dore.
open disc D" are oricntable.
ll>c Cartesian prodUQ of <Jmlllab l'C malllfokh is anotber eumplc of an aMnl.
allk manifold. we ka~ I"" proof of Ibis fact as an excfci5c 10 the reader.

t.. ConIlNn an oricntirt& atlas on ~ .

 '"
U . Show that t be mpro ld Gt (R ~) is o ri...nable for.n evm II. 0 < k < II.
As to non -orienttblc man ifolds. Ihete arc, for uample , MObius ' !li p aru!th(,
projecti~ spl oe RP" - I for an even n - I > O. We do not p vc the proof here . If
n _ I ;, odd [hen RP~ - I is orienl_ble as il follo....s from Exercise Ij O.
NOTE. Mind that when " .. 0, n _ I, any manifold M" I' eriemable .
TM nod on of orimtaliOllen.bles us to perfect the deJr cc modulo 2 o f" ma~
ins . 1M nOlion iotrodvotd u. Sec . S. In consickrina " mapPin a o f omote<!
ll'IalIifoids. _ will COIlllI the num ber of poinu in ee inVll:l,Jc I~ o f fql.I1ar
nruc alacbrlio;aIly ..i1h + ' ~. - ' sip, d.tpmdin&on whether Of" IlOllhc l.angeP-
tbl map at Ihis paiD t prexn'1'S the oricnI.llion mher than ooWllana il modulo 2. As
_ 0 u in th c QSoe o fthc dC'l1Cl: modulo 2, it..-n be sb<nm tha t Ihis nu mbt:r don not
depend on the choice of. reJular value; !his i' calh:dthe dqrn (oriented) o/a map.
pin. f and d enoted by de& lj). Thcorem 7, Sec. S. ;$ valid tor the detree lka (f) . In
the case of smooth nappinp of sphe re" the dcgec of a mappinl 50 defined coi n-
cides with the degree o( a mapp illl introd uced in Sec. 4, 01 . til .

7. TANGENT VECTOR AS DlFFEREl'ITlAL OPERATOR.

Dt FFERENTlAL OF FUNCTION AND COTANGENT BUNDLE

I. A New Definition of a vector - we eeeueee the nudy of the taqenl

taor and Fv-e lts d erutitlon in terms of the differe lllial i<m wilh respect to . vecto r.
Th is en ablu lU 10 li ve a new interp retation of the lanaent bu ndle .
COMid(\" th e Euclidean space R~ and CO'- (ull(:lion 1 de fined in a
neig!lbourtlood o r a po int xO f; R~. COnsidn the YcelOt" space R~:tO o f all
I1-4imensional eeton at lbe point xO. If (JI, v) is a yectOt" f l om R;o. Ihen the

detivatiYe ! / txO +
d/
,..)1' . 0' whCR l ;;ll Dis. nlUllCl'ieal par_n, i5Q!kd the
dHfllQfi~ 01 rM junerio,,1 with ~ 10 rhe ~Ot" y at Ihe pQIDt,...o.(In V1atysis ,
VCClot v o f unlllcngh Is usually considered , and dirceliooa] derivative is spoken
0(.) We ha ve the foUo";na fo rm ula in Ihe coordi nate system

! /~+ t ..)1
tit ' .0
_(01:)
ax...
" 1+ " _ + (01
ax~
0
) v~ _
~
(pad /(i, v), ( I I

..ncrc XI' _ , x~, VI' . , .~ lie ee eootdinatel o r th c poinl X and Wd or v.

Denote dc ti vWYc {I) by I ..( i. For a cert ain..mew v and poinl~, _ bavc obtain-
ed the ronespoDdcnce f - 1.r.;!1 detennlnina a certain fullCtloa (funct ion al) t;o
whicll i$ livm on lolIlooth funct ion r in nei,Rh bourhoods of the point xO and with
vt1\1Cli in R I, II U o bvio\1S thilt Ihis run c1lonal is defined o n the ItrmsJ"oof lolIloot h
(unct ions ilt the point JIJ, T hus, we have the mapping
t;o : d(xOJ - R I. (2)
From llIe dlCrlJl ition , lhe fo UO'inJ propertic of runaional (2) can be deduced:
(I) t;o<!l) .. M t;.<I) + . f/I)f;. r.h (thIC formula rew llIe dcri 'l1ltiYIC of
prod uct ):
 Int.oduet'OII to T opokIl J

(2) I;.</) _ 0 If/ _ 0011$1 (th e form ula ftM" the det ivalive o f a con$tant) ,
(3) 1;.(0/ + Il l) - Dr...(/') + JJ~ lI), D , (J e R I (the Iineark y).
Coruid,.,.the let 1I1...0 f all fl.II'ICt io Dats I : ~ - R ' lilat satisfy p.roPt1't~ ( I),
(2) a nd (3 ) . It is evident th llt llJ"4 is a veeee space and t;oE 11I... Now, i f th e VUlor
' ranacs O'Iet ' t he St>llCC R~ the ma pp iroa
R~ - jll... v- l .. t;o (3)
Is Sivcn rise.
T HEOReM I . Mopping (3) /$ an Isomorph/$m of (he vector sptl~ R~ Qn d l/l..e.
PROOF 'The Imeati ty o f mappinS (J) follolllS from form ula (I) . Mappina (3) is a
monomorphism : If 1;0 _ I~, lhen (gad/~, v) _ (gnldf(~ , w ) fo r an y funct ion
/"'hkh is smooth in a neighbourhood Of ~ pu uiD3f(X ) _ x/ (th e coo rdhweorthe
poiflt x), ~ obtain the equalities v, _ wI' i 21< I . . . , n, i.e ., v '" ....
Prove that mappifla ()) is epimorphk . We have

/ (x) - / (;1') + E
11
AII(xXr, - * ,-rp. (4'
where

and A U~
A /<x":l ",
..,
-'f (xO). / .I, . . . ,n,

are funct ions o f cla$s C- (sec Ex. 4. Sec. I) .

(S)

Now,let I : ~ - R I be IIfI arbltrvy lu nctlonal nem 11J..... Using u ioms ( I).

( Z) IIfId (J). """ ob tain from (-4) tha t

I el) - Et
j .
A ,~/(t, - Xl> = E
1_ ,
A ,txO>t(t;).

whet e I";) is the Q1 ue o f I on th e aenn o f the fundioa x,. i.c:. , Oft the coordinat e
of s ,
U5Ula ( S), we obtain. rlDaJJy. that

(6)

where . 1 .. I~t), . . . , vlt '" /(.tlt )

Due to isomorph illD (3). the vector space R~ can be identified with the
"-dimenslonal vector space [Il... o f all fulKti ooals $It lsfyinS u ioms ( I), (2) and (3).
8 1 means of t he eoordi~te Sysl.em 10 R It U1d using eq.,.a1ily (6) . eac h lUllche RI I,,,,,,
eM be auociatcd. with th e differ-entia! oper&t<w

. I
,1:
. , ,' ax,
- ,p
(7)
 ""
( 'E._I "I-I
a"'l.!'
-ax, I ",-
' )l - E. ('I) ,~ ' jJ

ExrrcJJlt! 1- . Verify th at the set o f all differe ntial o pe ra tors (7) form s II vect o r 5oP3Ce ,
and Inc ind icated tor respo nde nce $pCcifies an lllOmorphism wilh t he vect o r space
In..
Th us. _ ha ve anoIher iJo morphWn , t.e., that o f lbe vector s~ R~ wll h Ule
YKtor spAtt of diffucnUal <>pen.tors (1). Und er Ihis isomorphism , to the bas is vee-
tor t , - <0, " _ 0, I , O . . 0) (whet'e I is in the i-th place). Lhcrc ~pond$lbc
differential operator ..!.
iI)f/
I.
~
2. Tangent Bun d le s . The rruerpreranc n of the spac e or vectors I t a point JIl
glven in It ~ I lea.d lIto the co rrespondi ng general izat ion o f Ihls notion for smooth
mamfo lds.
I,.g M" be: a ma nifold of cluJ ~ and ~ . point from M". Co nsider the a1&clml
6\t') o r gcnnJ of smOOlh funct ions al II point ;/J (ieI: Sec. 4) and t he fUndio Mls
1.,0: ~ - R I. (8)

Exrm2 2- . Let <U. ,.) be d UlIt ~ point J!' of. ma nifo ld M". Veri fy Ihat the
fU nclionlll /,p dduml necl by the equalit y
'>'Jf!> . 1;'tJPJ(f.p) J e ~
for a ny vc<:I()I" YE R ~ spttlfib fu nd io nal (8) u. t l$fyin g axioms (I) , (2) a nd (J j .
DEfl NITION L The set o f all funClion als (8) Mtist)'ina pro pe rt ies U) , (2) an d ()) u
eaIled the ftl~tIf ~ TP 10 !.he IJWlifold AI" at the poin t~.
The lanaenl T#" is a YCt;tor sp..e wilh lbe na tuntl a1&ebraio; operations.
$pace:
An in di vidual demmt
all he paUll~.
'.0
from T~ Is Q1Ied. ttl~t ~or 10 lhe IIlI n ifold Itt"

Th e co rfe.lpondencc: I;- '(.00) - 'to (see Ex. 2) happens 10 be an isoll"lOfl)hism. o f

the speees R~ - ' c.o.<'I and T#". In fac:t, lhe lineari ty of the mappl ns is obvious. iUld
IIle inverse ntJ PplDg Is given by t he formula
'~ - llA(J) .. ',<1(1.,0- 1), ' If dl ..- I(.tl)
.mae 0'(,.- ' (.(") , ~ are!he alaebras er ce gcmlS lit t he poinU .. - I ~ If R",
~ 6 M". rupectivd y. II is convcnlml lO _ 11K, hence forward, that the: func:uon.aJ
I" is pven DOt only on the aerms Ie d'(il) bu t also 011 the fWll:lioltS I which ar e
defined in a nriJhbov.rhood of the poi nt ~ (we SCI ',..cCl) - '... (1.
and wnle I,.oCl)
instead of 1".(1).
Let ., : M " - ,.,.. be a smoolh map ping o r mani fmd s an d ld ~ I! M",
:I .. + f;f> 6 N"'. T lle ma ppina: + mdll ccuhe ma pping 4 : dtA - ~ belwn
Ihe algeb rat o f th e gw ms &Q:Q rdinl to the rule I E" 0'fJP.!, I - J, f ,.. This
m ables liS to deli ne tbe Ian l..mllal map T..o+ : T....". - Ty;/'I'" by the rille
T . .<.".. . -
IJRo whc:fe I~ - I~.
"" Int ro<!lICI' OQ 10 To polo lY

The _dion of the IN.ppinp . , 40 ill shown in the (olJowina diagrams

Eurcisr 3- . Verify that I~ is lhe WlJen! vtor It lhe point ,o orl he mani fold """
and that T~(.) II , linear mappiDJ.
Thcl anpnt ial map T~.) is e n ee denoted b' C I", (o r d ~) .
Enm>u.
. Show thai UI..,.l. J.-o - I T..ou"" lr : lor - ",.. : ,.,. - ? are smooth
lIQpplnp of manifold s Ibm. 11 ) . 1... - (e , )~ l ).....
S , Prove ltw. i f + is a diffeomoJl)hism . then ( ) ..,0 II an i$Omorphism o f vector
spaca (and t!lerefor c m "" II).
We no w PIi" on to th e c:onstru<:lio n of the tan.tl11 bundle. J u$l. like in Sec . 6,
PUt TM" .
..U
~
TxM" (disjoi nt union) . The probkm is 10 determine the 5lruc--

lure of the langen t bunc1tc on TM". We spa:;fy the project ion .. : '1M" - M" by
auocillin. In element 'x *! T~ wilh po int Xl! M". Let (U, ,,) be lOme chan I'
the po int x , We <:(lIl$l ru Ci the chart on Ihe tangent sp ace C:OlTupondln a to t he chart
lU, ,,)
(9)

Let 'x"
T/4" . ibcn W l ~nt vector T _ Il.ol il deflMd on the alleb ra dt", - Jlzll
acrord1llllo Ihe rule .-
T,.- IW (g) '" '... (11"-1) , t " d\,.- l (x) .
In vi"" o f tbe bomorphism. of the space of diffenndal operators and the tangent
spuc <sec Ell. I), we ha \'C!
a a
' .. - I t,o1- v 1 - + + P. - . (' ~
u l olr.

wtlere th e di rr a ettllaJ opua tors

...!....,
ad at the point .. - 1(%) _ (x l ' . . or..) and

" - (" 1' .. . ".) is . YflCIOI' deteTl'lirlcd UDiqu.d)' . Mapp ina (9) is aive'n by the ~
respor'l(1enoe wfIidl is linear on each fibre .. - 1(x):
l"-(.rl . . . .r..: " .. . . . . ".,) . (II)

The bljeairity of t his INIpp ina ia cvidml; as in Sec . 6, we dcrmc the lopoJoo on
TAr by IRe condi tion ror the continuit y of mappinas ~ for all charts of . ceruJn
aliu on Ihe manifo ld M". "
 C h . M a " lfo lds and F ib .. Bu nd les ,.,
Show Iha l ma ppin&S (9) an4 ( I I) det umint Iht $tl uClu . e of a (anaml bund le . If
( V .;) i5 :anoIh er cha n at th.c point ... lll ts'l th e 1311&1:111 Ve<:1.Or ' .. - luI is <k tenm ned
ii milarly:
r.._ I ~ .. "'I -
llYI
+ .. _+ w. -
aJl.
( 12)

wherew - ( wI " " . ..... ) ba vtetocatthc: J)Oint . -I (.x) - 0'1 .. . JI.).and lhe
mapPing .... aeu aeeo rctina to t he rult t~ - 0- . _. . JI,,: 10'.. . . . 10',,) .
Ut U$ caku lale ...,.. ; I. W e ha1le the foUOWlnl mappinl o f clUJ CW:
(,rl . . . Y,,) - ,;,- l"'(.l' l. )
- tJ.- ~ I,, ) , (.KI ' ) , . ,<+- t )" (x,, ,.t,, ). (Il)

Exp rc.uing wI' . . . , "'" In terms of VI' " " a nd 5ttling ' e tfC..;. - I (.l' . we
dertve th e fo llowing equalit y from (12)
a,l a,
'''- 'ul(8) - w, -aYI +...+ 10'" _
<Jy"
.

.", I ) - T._I~ !z+ -I"').

T.,._II>')!z) .. I~ (go; -I) .. I..<n- I
.... -

Now . u5inl form ~ (10),

T. _ I~!z) - "I
<J<n-- I ",)
~_ + ... + y
-arn-- I .. )

..... 1 a....
an d oomparlna two exprcssio l\$ fo r '.- Ito:l (,) ,

" " 1:. a (po -l,.)

1:
_ ,
w/ _
<Jy,
-
I _ I
"J
ax,

Since 1M aerm , e d'\>/I -l (x is arbitrary. we ma y put "(Y I" .. y ,.) _ Y,. Then.
from ( Il), we obtain:
(g>/l -I .. )(.x l . . , ...,,) .. <+-l..>,(xl" " ...... I ,
an d f rom the p reyiaU $ equalit y ,
"
-,' 1:
,. ,
, x . ) _ I, . . . ,1'1 .

Trandonninl the coord ioates as in (13) . the vector oomponcnt o f the lan s en l vector
is lransfon ned by linear tno$fonnatio n (I.) wllh the J,a,eobia n matm

( a("a~I,,) . t.e., b y the linear tnnsformation D.._1W(.p- l..). T r.msfonnatlons

(13) and (1 . ) smooth ly depend OIl t he: poi nt ", - I(x) a nd lhUl determine a tn lUfOf '
 I n1rodUCIIOll to Topol OSY

IT\IItion T.,T;I o f ~lau C-. The special fo rm of Ihis coo rd inate transformation
means t ltat t~ at las !<. - I (U). T..I) o n 1M ddmnin~ tlte smoo th tan gent bundle
'1 truct ure.
rri<tt 6. COnsider the EuclldCltll iJ*=C R~' wilh the stru cture ,given by Ihe atbu
co n'lisllng o f o ne ehart (R~ . l ,ll. l . Verify tha t TzII.~ Is Isomo rphic to R;
We IT\IIY now eonsider TR~ 10 be the set of all pain (X. v) . where XE R" and
v (I R;' We I1I1lY also anume th at

TR~ '" [(x!' .... x.;Y I .!...

aX I
+ . . . + "~..!!..) J'
ax~

where X I ' . x~ are the ~oordi natCll of JC. and YI' . . . Y. are th ecoordinatcs of
Vi the mapplnl T I eetermtnes the only chart of the OOt'Tel,pOndlnl allas on the
tanacnt bund le Til':
( XI '" x~; VI a: + . . . + v. ~") - (x l' . . }t~. "I ' . . . v~). (IS)
1
Thereby, Ihe d incl produl;t structure is inttodl>Ud on TR which is 'IlIid to be tbe
tri via/ tangent bund le.
Ex~fC~ 1. Show that mappin8 (9) dc<:ompo 'IC5 ;nto the product T.. .. ' 1... (\0- 1).
act ing acc ording t o Ihe role
I (,,-I) ( XI' . . . }t~. YI .!- + + v~ ..!.-)
" - ib' , ax~

T,.._ o,.. . .. Jr., Y l . , Y.l.

It is oflen co nvenient to wor k not with Ihe coo l dinate I'CprcscnllltiOil ofl he vee-
101 IX" bu r with its Image (",,- 1) . 1... the veclOl' COttIponcn t o f Ihe lallCl' being

"I .!.. + .. . + "n..!.- ' On eha nginJ a chaI1 (eba nglll(j the ~OOl'd;natcs). its 1;001-
ax, ax.
dinal es " I' ... , ". in the basis [!.J
ax; n
I _ I
arc lra.ndormed by fo nn ulae (14) inlo

the coord ina tes WI ' , lI'n in the basi s [!.J" .

ay/ / .. I

3. Tangential Maps . l.cl ~ ; M" - N '" be a 5mooth mappln8 of manifolds .

f or c:a<;h X fj M n we have a linear mapping (40 . )... : T;/vI" _ T where 1""'.
y = to",,) . The reby, the m.ppins to. ; TM" - 'TN"" i.l defined . Let us verity IM I

.
' . i5 a 5D1ooth mapping of !angenl bundles.
l.cl (U, ,, ) be a chart althe pol nl z , (Y. ':') a Chan at the poi nl y, I...E T~ and

'.
t - (' . ))~. Due 10 (I I) . _ have

,~
... (x l" . x n;"I' ."n) .I, _ (YI' ....."'; .. 1' . ", ,,, ), ('
 e ll . 4. Man;fold. and Fibre BUndln

and it III no w rectuited to find the tr ",nsfO' " Ull ion

r ",( ). ; I : (Kl ' .. , z.. : Pi' , p ..) - 0'1" " .J'.: 10'1 . , w. ) . (17)

Sinu (of- '.. " I t-",; . z ,,) .. (y , . . , y ..). it rtmaUu to find Ole re lation be-
IWCftl [I'i) and [wil. If t e ~~ - I,, th en tlte lo llo winl eq uati l;es are 1'a1ld
' '''- '(,l {t) _ /1 Wo- I) - + . ))(#_ 1) . I..Wo - 1+) - I.. CI.-,,_ -I)
- .. . I",~ - ~ ).
Bu t ta.kinJ inlO KlI>O\llIt thai the fust aDd th e lui: funetiollAls are equal to

,OS)

~, (I ~

Icspcttivd y, we obWn, jusr like iII ded ucina ( 104). by equ alirinl (11) to ( 19) and put -
tina J'j' thai
~
. a(". -I~)f
wl _ t.J I'J ax " . 1, ... m. ('20)
/ ~ , J
Hence, ma pp lns (17) Is of class C-. F nnn uia (20) .rftnns
the r. ct esublishedQtli""
th at th e vecto r componellt o f a ta.ngent vect o r Is t ransfo rmed by means o f lhe IinQt
transfo rma tio n D_-1r.".loj -''''),
A. T he Differential o f a Function and a Cotang ent Bundle . Con-
sider the nel io n of a YKI01" Jr> E T..oM" o n th e funa'toaf ./ E d'(:cO). U lhe fUndioft f
is nxcrl men there arisa a 1lDear f u.nct lo nal on the IJlK'Ii' T p.r : 1:.1> - 1:.I>f/) . This
funetlOn:al l'l ~oted by the 5YflIbo i tcVl... and <:&lJC'll the dl/Inrtrritil oflMfi...dion
/ al m e OO'int ,/).
by Qelinil ioo. (d/)rJ... _ 1,..f1l.

n us. (4/),... bdOl'lP 10 (TxI"" )", the spaoe (OQju.ple to the ~ Tp.r baviq
the oahrral vector SU1.Idure.
let ( U ...) be a chatt 111 the point ....and t-"~ _ I the IOQJ COOJdinat c:s of a
point E U. Below. we idartify WlI;eftt vectOR wiI~ Ihdr alffespond:in. diffen:rr -

tiJ,1 operaton. Le I [!.- Il"

b , ...-J' - I
be a ba$il for T p . and (4r,J... me di fferential

of the fu llCllon .>'j(l'). Ihr:Il

( 2 1)
 11I1('Dd O,lCllo o 10 T opoIOS)'

(I5IJ - 0 ....h en f ot J. 15. .. I) . Thenrare l<<h,>..oJ:' . I is the buis dual or

f .!-I ) " in (Tp ""') - . Hence ;~ rolLows also tha t (T..Qtf")W coruist. or all
lb ..,oJ, ... t
j

possible linear combinatlon , !lIl(dlt l)..,o + ...+ a~(dx,,)..ol with real coefficien ts.

For an nbiu-ary fWlctio n f. J E' ~ and vector 1..,0 .. "I!- I

<lx, ..

+ .. . + w" ~ I.
fix" r>
1ft have the decomposit ion :

af a/
(d/).d~ " IPJl ... " I - (xO) + . . . + "" - ~ .
aXI ax"
By meatU o r (21). we ob~ain

(dx,>rJ~ ... (.....,~ ( L
,. , ",
and. subs titutUl& in the previous equality, we" find:
.
(d/).d..o "" (L
,. ,
::,(xOW,dx,)..o)/~.
Due to th~ arbil rarine$' o r I.,. II! T..,M", we hi ve
Of ./
(41)...- .. - (,.rOX""',)... + . .. + - ~dx,,)....
h i h "
Rqll.an, xO by an arbitnry po int x iii U , the IaUI!!" rannula CID be: R""ritlm in a
mon: con \lmknt tay:
a/ a/
(4f)... ... - (,.r) <k 1 -t +- (x)dK" . (22)
aXI ax..
Here {<kIt' . I are th e bu ls differentials al the po int x , Formu la (22 ) j ult ifies th e
nalDC o r a 'dirrcn=n~iaI' ree (cVJx..
Let us ded ...ce frOll'\ (22) the rd allon be tween the dirrtren lillb o f the coord inate$
o r variou . 1oca1coord inat e system, at the poinlX. Let ( V, .. ) be .. <;han that dd"mes
the coord.inat.es b'1(l'>t", ... ,. x E V. If x E U n V Ihm the toCIJ\:Iina te$ F,(,.r)r. I
In(( fyl tlr)~ ... I are n::lated by lhe Iran sronnalWa r
I,. <see (11. From (22). we
n ave Ute eq ualit ies

(dY,l. ::' (.l)d.r l + . . .

,
"",
 Ch_4. Manlfolo:l. ,md Fib r~ 8undles

therefor e

(dy;)... .. ~ d (V 11O ); dsJ'i ... I , . . . , II (23)
,. ,
.... ax)

Thus, in rransnio n from one system o f lo cal coo rd inates to a not her , the dlfferen
tials o f the coord inates con sidered as functions o f a pctru o n a man Ifold are
Irarl$for med by fo rmulae (23), l.e., by lhe linea r tran sforma lion given by the J aec -

bian matnx C (t~~ . . )').

Consider the disjoint un ion PM '" U (T..-M") - . We ccrurrucc the scu c-

ture of the: vector bundle on r M". Th e natural projection p T" M" _ M" is
defined . Let (U.,,) be a chart on M" , 1x,(Xll the: local coo rdinates o f the pomr
x e U . We <kfille on T"M" a chart
a,, ;p -l(U) _ R fI X R fI , (24)
by !fl)ttifying the mapping "" accord ing to the rule

E op , - (x " . . . X,,; ll l . . a,,),
,. , '2.l'
where I: afix / is an element from the fibre p - I (x ) .. (T,/If")- .
; . ,
Let uSshow that 1(P - IjU), f1 II is an atlas on the C--s lrueture if flU. \O)J is the:
atl as on the: manifold M" . Let (Y, y,) be another chart at tbe point /c . det~rtnlnl ng
the local roo rd inate! l>'/(xlY;' _ I' and
" . :p - IW) _ R fl X R" (26)
another chart on PM" . It 15 clear Ih l l p - I (U n V) "" p - l (U ) n p -l IV). Cense-
quently , if x e U n V then 10 th e elemel1l E, of/x"
,.
Ihe coo rdinates in ch art (26)

may be assigned:

,.E, apx, - "' I' " .y", b l " , btl)' (27)

We co nclude from (25) and (27) ' hal the de ments in (T~I") . celncsce :

,.E, ll, (dx;)... ... n"

 Inll od ..ctiOO lo To polOS)

It is not oompli<;!uet! to d~ !he relation bo:I;wa:n 1/1,1and [bil from (28). In ree,
sutKt itutlna th e a pres&ioJl (bl).. rrQfft (23) in (2&), and then cqua.lizlnt the coerri .
dems of !he same diffeKfltials dx; on bOlh sKSc:s of lhe eq uality , we obtain:

whne ck:nOleS Ilie 09CJat ioQ of trans posina the m. tlU . H en. the vector compo.
MIll o f IJ1 eleromt of th e fibre p t~) is allered in lhe coord inate repr esen t l.lion on
Chlnl lnc tbe coordinates by. rule wblcb is diffneRI from tlult for the vecto r com-
pamnt of the tange nt vee cr, viz. , it is IrlnJforrrM.'d by meal" o f the ml.l1iJ1
,,(,r
( ---a;--
I,.,)'.', Wbe/elU the vecto r co mpo nent o f the (M aent voctor is trarufonned

by the JlICObian matrix ("("~lll') . The quan ti ties whic.h chanle by Ihis ""Ie

on el'Ianatna w coordlnlte syst em are call ed (Ovtors. The elements of t he set

(T.,M"'l ~ ~Ied COWC1(W$ QI 1M poUlt X .
II b dear IIOw lhlU 011 ~ c:huu (2.5) f rK a.II dlaJ1s o f .ttrtain atl as 00
Jot", ....., will trllUfon:n th e set of a.II coYe:ton, Le. T"~ , intO a smooth manifold;
th is manifold is called I (oIQIIIMI bwfdlt.

8. VECTOR F1BLDS ON SMOOTH MANIFOLDS

The conapu tnated in th is ttloD are im portant both for I V elt number o f
mllhematical disciplines (rueh as di ffentia.l eq ul tion s, dynamic: syst emJ, lopolOlY
o f man ifolds) and for IWl1(1tlo lU to mechllIlks and ph ysics. Hen:, th ese relat io ns
will be o utlined in lhe most demtJItary form . For th e u mplid ty,o f en un ciations, we
shall co nsider all the obj ects to be of class C- , callina them smoot h, JU' 1 like we did
in sec. 1.
I. The Tangent Vector to a Smo oth P ath , Let M" be a smoo th
manIfold . ReeaI1 thl t I pat h In M" Is I. contin uo us mlppins x : (Q. b) - Itr of an
interva l of the num ber lin e Into the topologic.tl. SplCC Itt" . Sin ce (a , b) i ' I smooth
su bmlnifo ld in R I, smooth m.applngs x can be co nsidered ...hile rd efr in. to the
p"th lI.I smoo l lt .
Let l' be. smooth patb in M"', and 1' (/ 1 a point of lh is path, t E (P. b ).
DEFIN ITION 1_The IQ.nt ~I'" f (J. path x at ~ poin1x (l) is th e tansent \"UtO,
1" 11CO tt1e manifcKd ttr at lbe poi nt .1(1) determi.ocd by lite equali ty
d
I, VI({) . djlfx (t)) I , ,]E d(-( (t )) . (I)
 Ch 4. Manifolds and Fib,e Bundh's

ExerclJ e 10 . Verify lhal th e r,.ht.hand side in ( I) deteul\ ines a tange nt YC(tor to the
""
manifOld M n
Th e t allgent \'101 10 the path )((1) ~ usually denOled by x " (I ) . LeI us find th e
coordll\at e representation of t he vector x (I). Let (U, ", ) be a chari at the poml
X(I) . Co nsequently, if g e & {<p - I rx (t))), then

whe re ~ - tX(I) ... tl"l (f), . . x n (/ Is the co n u pond ioll pat h in R n H ence. we
derive the ccordt nates or t he vector x
(t) ;n Ihe cha rt (U, ",):
W:1(f ) W:n(t)
rJ~ tl) = ( x,(I) , ... Xn(I);~, . . . , ~ . (2)

Here x (I ) "' ~i (f ) . . . x~ (f is the vecto r componen t o r the laJI8ent vector.

If A~ (.. . v) is th e Riema nn ian metr ie 011 M". t hen the len glh Ix (r )I~{, ) of th e

'I ';;f"
tanaent vector 10 tlie path and the \engtli Of the portion o f the path when
' 1 ar e delennined:

rr -~rr"
S:: .. "j vA~(t)U: ~",,
' (I), X'(I d l .. "
Jl x '(t) I ~ ("lit. ts
" "
in loeo.l coordinates, formu la (3) is the fo llow ing

"
S'l ...
" !,
r Sq',,"{!) ~>~ <It = J", ".c.,C,T.~"(''')'')",=,''''-,.
wliere ' u"-'l is the eorr~pondln8 matm of the bilinear form.
2. The Dynamical Group o f a Phy sical System and Its In -
fini tesimal Generator. The nOI;ons of smoolh parh a nd iu tan gent vec rce
find natural a pplica tio n to th e mat hem atic al inve3tiga l ion of physkal syste ms.
W e will speak of the set of all possible stares o f a.physkal system in some proc ess
an d cal l it the phase sp ace of the system while assuming that it is a smooth ma nifold
M". Then x EO M n eeneres a possibl e stare of Ihe sy stem, and the corresponden ce 'a
pclimx _ a stat e' is bijective . Th e state of the sySlem varies with tim e in accord an ce
with a law of physics, and th erefo re the po int x co rrespond ing to Ihis $late changes
iu posillo n F wil h time . We will ass ume th e process 10 be detetminate, which m ean s
that th e stat e o f the sYstem i, d ctetmin ed uniq Uely, in future and in the past, by ,ts
present state. Such processes are described by t he dynam ica l group of a physical
system defmed a.s follows: if It (/ M~ i' a point marking lhe m ile o f t he system al the
present m oment (when I _ 0 ). th en to the Slate of the syslem at a moment t. there
correspond s the point X "" X(I . Itl. x(r.lt)eM n, x (O. xl " x. Thus, the point x
describe:!; the path)/ c x{I . x) , - ... <: I <: +... called the phase traJecIQry (Orb'l)
'" InlroduellOll (0 Topo1oay

o r the poin t x, For any I e ( - .... + ao), the transformation V, : M" _ !of" is ee -
fined by the rule x - X('. x ). Due to the detenninllCY prin ciple , we have :
U t , + rl~) U' l (U ,,x), 'I' 'ze ( _ OIl , + 00).
Hence the family of the transforma tions {U,l is a grou p wilh the inv.:rse element
(U,) - I - V _I and the unit clement U o - I",.."
This grou p is call ed the d)' lIl1miC'Q1 group of the physical system. We ,will assume
that the mapping R I )( .AI" - AI" : (I, xl _ u,tr) is smoo th ; in Ihis case, the group
or IIII' diffeomorphiSlJIl ju,J is said to de~nd smoothly on t. From th e point o f view
ofphysia:. to know the dynamic'll grQUP mews to pCl S$CSS a complete description of
the behaviour of th e system wit h time . S uch a desc ription is not always poss ible .
The laws of phy$ics are generally formulated much simpler in ' infi nitu imal
rorm', which means the following: CQnsldcT an orb it x(l) = x V, x) and its tang ent
vtor x ' (O)(at a poinl;c). For any point:e EM". we putXlKl .. X (0) . The co nec-
lion o f tan gent vectors IX(x)] is called the vectorfield 00 the manifo ld M": this field
is aJs(I called lite infini tesimal genero for of fhe dYJ1lflflJ(al group. A pbyslcal law is
lUuaIly elqlressed by describing an lnfml tesimal generator. Bm then th e problem of
cons trueting (dcsmbin&) the dYnamical group Is given rise.
Below, we shall study the noti on o f vector field in Steater detail .
J. Smoo th Vector Field , A lItttor rM/d on a rnanifoldM" isa mappIng
X : M" - TM w (4)
such tbat Xtx ) e T,IoI" for each x eM". A vector field is aid to bc smOQlh (of class
C-) if mlppil\i (4) is smootb (o f class C- j. In local coordinat cs. lhe vector field is
of the form

(
X I" x. : X1 "' t. . X n)!....
ax.
+ ., . + X . tx ]. , . . , x.) ~) .
i)x w
(')
Exerd$t 2 Show tb al the smOOthness of a vector field is equivalent to the
G

sltlOOlhncs, of th ~ funct lons X/(K I"" . x~). 1 _ I .. n.

Let tI, be the grou p o f diffcomOfPhisDl5 of a rnlUl lfo ldM" , depen ding smoo lhly
on I . and let x (t , xl .. U,(x) be the or bit of a po int x,
DEFINIT ION 2. A vector f1eIdX~) is called th c in!initd;mClI genertl l or o/th e group
U, if fOl" any orb It xV) .. x u, xl . we: have :
x (0) '" X(Xl (6)

E:u~IStS.
JO . Show that cquillity (6) is eq uivalent to the equality
X (I) '" X(x(l) , t e (- ee, <).

H im : Use the OQuality ;t(/) '" U ,(;c)."lJ . 1l0Up property (Il. U,(Xl _ u , (x ) .

4G Sho w that the inrtnit es"intal gcncrlIlor X(K) is a smooth vector 'teld .
 C1> M. nifolds and rib .. Burll UG I II

Conli d u t he problem o f ' e( t;inj: a sroup V , for . Ji..-en IITIOOth ve( IQl' fi~kt
X~) . We ....i lllooll: for ' he:orb!1 x (l ) _ x(l . <r"oJ usi na condition (1). In local ~r
diDates. we have a S)'5Icm of dif ferc:ntial cq Wll ion.l

: . - X I"', (. ) (1 )).; - I . If , (8)

where (,1< , (1), ..... (1 is the coon:t~c spcci ru:.alioll o f th e: path x. an d X "
. . . X ..-c the: COOl"dmalC:S o f t he: vecto r com po nen t o f the t angmt w:et0l" X ,",)
(_ (1) and (S . TIle fUll<:llons XI"'" , )
de:pend mIOOllIly on"" .
To rllld the orbit (more Pl"c<:iscly, that po n ion o f it which lies in the: elan), il I,
n_ry t o find a w tuuon o f s)'Ste:mo f diffenntial eq ual ions (8) such th at sat isnes
the: c:ondllion xt (O) - ...~ .. , ",,,(0) _ ~. where ",~. , ., ~ arc Ihe eeee-
dlnates cf the point xO. Usln a the t heaty of ordlnary di ffcre ntialc:q uati ons, I unique
SOlu tion xV) .. X(I. x ) mlly be found for a 5ufrlcicntl y ' lI1ll11 li.ICrvai - e < t < e
and x from a certain nei&hbou rh ood or the poin lx e, x lt'. x) depc:ncIins smoolhl y on
I. x, But 10 COlUtrua the JI"OUP V,.
It i5 necessary t o ex te:nd t he solution x (l . x ) 10
the whole axli - .... < , < "" for Uly X eM". TIIu aIInot be: a/w ayl do ne <-n ex
amp le: bei ll thc equation y ' '" r01\ R I ) . H owever . if M" is compaa then the re-
qu lred utenlJon exiil S ...tr.idl c an be easily vcrirlc:d by the methods of the Iheoryof
ordina ry di ffe:ratual cq u.ations. In this t beo ry, the rollowin, theorem is proved .
nreotl.eM 1. 1/ At" is 12 ~Io nIllJIifo/diUJiJ X I2SIftOOlIt wetai' ftdd llour
dwkrlNrIsW-U1flil5lmtrl~toroff2 ~ ~ o /diIf~wIw/;Il
dt/NttdJ smoo,1t17 0" 'M ptITOlIWt f:T.
Not e Ihat orbir..I u e o ften called illl~rlJl CWYa o f th l w:et0J" rldd.
XA).lf'U I . Let M 1- z. Tr;t' (I.e:.. the ease oomidercd In rnedJa:tic::s, when Q" Ii
ce conti,:lItlIIion space wbich we astUlDC hcrcaf": r 10 be a smooth m ani fold) . LeI
tbe loc:aI coo rdin ateS in Q" be (ql ' . . . , q. ) . an d ' hose in TQ (q I' ... q . ; "I'
... v.J.
The: \ICCtO<' r~ ld on TQ" o f thlt form (th lt vecto r OOIlIpon ltnt)

with smoo lh fun eti on s "' l (q. vl . , . , .... (q , v) is said to be sf)iol. The Int ea r1l1
curves o f Ihis field are dC'Sl:ribc:d by the: s)'Stem o f di ffer en tial equations
dq/ d "/ . )
df '" "" dl - ,",(ql ' , q. >" , . ' ,v / - I ,
'II'hkIt is cq uival a ll to lhl! s)"' '':1'1'1 o f the second ordltf

~ -,"i (qt,... ' ".' ~''''' .C:.).I . I,.. ..... (ll)

O&ss>cal mcchan ia oper ales wil!'t aq.....uo.u of fann (9).

EHrd.2 ' . Find II' . L" ., whrre II' : Tet' - Q'" is th e pro jection.
 Inu-od uction 10 Topology

4. The Lie Algebr as of Vector Fields. Let c" (M" ) be th e set o f all
smooth ma ppin gs I : M" - R I. A smoot h vecto r fldd X on Mil detennines th e
ma ppl na ~ (.M" ) - ~ (M") b)' th e rulel - X(f) , wh e-re X(f)(x) - X(x )(f) for
an y point x fro m M ". If (in local coo rdinates)

It is ob Viou sly . linear mappina o f the vector 5Jlacc C'"(M").

U X . Yare two vector fields th en their prod uce, t he commutQtor (X . YI, may be
d efmed by t he formula
IX. Y j(f) .. X(Y(f) - Y(X(f) .
&tTC~ 6 . Verify th at (X . YI is a vector field M d calculat e it in 1Qca1 cooIinatCll;
show th at (X, YJ '" - [Y, X l;
It is evident th at the see of aU vector fields on M" fomu a vector space (over the
fldd R I) uncSel' th e natm al opt"flltions X + Y and a . X . Th e ec mmutatcr IX , Y]
depend ~ line:ul )' 00 t he f.etors X , Y. Thus , the set of all vector fldds o n Mil Is an
algeb ra taI1cd L ie algebrQ.
;,ceTC~ 7. Prove the Jaco bi identity

[(X. YI. ZI + [(Z, X l, YJ + UY. Z}, X I = 0

for an)' th ree vector fields X, Y, Z on M".
The: set of all vector flClds o n a smooth mani fold is not anI)' a vector space hut
also possec:s th e structure of the module over the ring o f smooth functio ns on M".
In faCl, for IE C"" (M" ) , t be prodllCl f X is defined which is veclor field
if X)(K) - f (K) X (lr); it is clear thai th Is Is a sm ooth fidd depend inS bo th on/
an d X linear ly .
The st ud y o f the s1l'\1Cture of th e L ie al&ebr ll5o f vector flClds is one o f the m ain
tr ends in modem to po lol)'.
, . Covector Fields , A smooth m apping A : M" - r oM" under which A (x)
belonp 10 T"'xM" , i.e ., the fibre .over the po int x, Is tailed a smooth CQWf:trn-field
on M" .
In Ioeal roo:iinatC$, the ficld A is givcn in th e form
A (x") = (Kl "" , X,,; QI(K)dx 1 +...+ Q,, (l")ck,, ),

where Qi~} IlR smOOlh functio ns in t he coo rdin al0:5 (xl ' . .. x,,) of i he poin t x .
Iff e C"' (M") then A (x) .. (cV>" is a cc vector field on M" . It is smooth, since in
IoeaJ coo rd ina tes the COV(lCIOr compon ent (4f)" is of (he form
iJf iJt
- WI + . . + - dx~ .
iJx 1 ax"
and th e cOOrdinlll0:5 ~ of this CQvco;lor are smooth Iuectio ns.
U.
 0 . 4 . Man ltol<b and fl b<~ !lll ndl.. m

EXiUofPU! 2. u t M lA z r et' . wh ere Q" is the con r"lIra tkln space o f a mcchanil;a1
sy stem . Let (q l" . . qll . P j . . P II ) be th~ local coord inatd on rQ" . ...he re
(P I' PII) ~ th ~ coordiDll!d ot t he eeveesee at Ih~ poin t (q . . q ..) E et'.
If H : ret' - R - is smooth fulI.c tioa t bell
aH itH itH all
dH _ _ l!qI"" " '" - - dq. + - ~ - dp.
aq l iJq.. itp l <JP ..
is a t;OVCCCOr rICk! on th e manifol d T-go. Lct us fo"" a YC<:tor field on the aamc
manifold. vii .

L_ _ _ _ _
aHa -aH - it +aH
- -a + + -itH"
- .
lJp l aq-. bp.. itq.. aq l ap l iJq.. itPII
The irll qral C1Irvcs (ql t ) . . . q . (t ) : P I(J ) . p .. (t o f Ibe field L aatisr~ the
J)'Jlcm o f di ffer enlial cquatioiU

d.q1 _ - ~ .~ _~ , { _I . . . II . (10)
dt bpi d.t &I ,
1D mcchanla. th ey chooac the f u.nai oll. H 10 be the IUm Of kiDr tic and potent ial
en ergi es , and ea.ll s~ncm ( 10) the ~lItll;OtU of "",,WII ;n H t,lmiltOIll#n form.

9 . FlBRE BUNDLE S AND C OVE RIN GS

I . Preliminary Examples. Man~ proble ma tlaturally giye rise 10 spaces wh leh

are IJTaII,Cld . JocI.1l~ . as the d ir ca product s of IJHICCI . AI present. Ibey have been
Sluclicd q ui te thofo"ahl~ . Ho...cvcr. we will on l~ t ouch u pan the YCJY fLlst eoneepts.
COD.l ld cr CJtan:tplcs of spaces havill,. locaUy. the dlrca produa structure .
Let M" be a smooth manifo ld . 1M" a !anlca l bu nd le and ". : TM" - M" t he
projcalon of t he l an,ent bundle o nto th e ma.n1fold . It is clear Ih al for lUIy point
% If M" . the fib le .. - I",) is bomocomorp hic: to !.he l pa ce R " an d . m o reover . for t be
ooo rd in lllc ncilhbourhood U of t he paint x ; we ha vt: th e b<MncQm Ofllhl sm
.. - I (U ) _ U )( R " ( _ Sec. 6) . H o wever. amctall~ lJlClIkin, . one cannot I.SICft
that Utere CJtist.s a llomcomoTphism TM " M" )( R IO ... fOl' CM.II.lp!e , in Ute cue
.m cp Al" _ SI .
The t anJCftI bundk II ....anJcd loaJl~ (which is. ccr1aialy coroDasy 10 lIS
dcrmitioP) as the d irect product U x R " . That lhe Iphcre S l has a simila..- stntCh'!'*
is more N rpri$ins IIDd rcl.atcd 10 the propcrtles of complex DUlIlbcn'. We sh aH COlI-
IU'UCI aD cutIJIple o f a _ppm, o f Sl IO SI for wbkb the Ia.YCrSe i.mxgc of any point
is holneomoT'phk 10 the circwnfcr cooc . CoNid cr S l as a spbcR in C 1 i .e .
Ss .. {(l:: I . t V: lt l , l + 1%111 .. I).
and Ihe Iphere 51 as lhe exI en.ded comptcx planc (t ' lplocrc): The fo rmula .. (tl '
l V _ t .I.l:) dcrmc& the m apptlll ". : SI - 5 1. Fo r ), .. c.... "'e h.aye 1I'(>.l"1'
~V a .,.(:: t " . IbcrefOle .. - 1(1::) _ S' for ... ~ tOS ) . Remcmber t hai t he
 I ntroduction 10 To polo lY
'"t -.phere
Sl poueues the C--manifold IoINCtW"l: with th e local c:oonlinatc t In the
rqion V I . 5 1 , ,", ..d lit iIl ll:tc repon U1 .. S 1, 0 1_ Sec. :no
Codtick'r the direct prod uct s VI)C 5', V I ]1( s t. Thc: aets ", - I (U ,). ",- ICUiI
lWl1 OU! lO be bo~ lOUJ x Sl anll V I ]1( S' , rapcaively . T O ilhoW h.
we derme l.be IUppitla " : U I - S by th e fonaula

"~I - (" , +' le13 ." I +IIt )

lS
.
It b cYidau llw ,." '"
11 (1 IlIld tile set ".- Ik). t III VI ~~s of poinu of the
(_ ""'(c), when ). "" ei" . 'w. dltrlllc thc mappln. ~ : V I x S' - S ' bYlhcfOl"
mw.

wIlcnt prE ill the projce:tioo of the 4iRd. prodl>l;t lJIlto the ftnt .Iaaor COll:l'
mlllllli~. Similtrty. we ckfme the aappGl : U1 l( 51 - S' by the formula

- ( +A"
. (l / r.).) - ,
"1
A. (IIt} ) V tGU
I IIt l 1 " 1 + 11/:11
1.AES.
I
with ...-I(V a) _ j(U 1 )( 5 ' ). It Is dear !.hill th c4!q;rafn

Is e:cmmuwiYC.
nllas, UK mappioJ". is arr aoard 1oCI11, (ova the c.oo,clill.llenci&hbourhood' of
SI) u the projedioB o f tbe ' dina produa: . HoweY" .the .sphere S ' is noc
homeomoI~ to the dlrct pnldlKt $1 x sl (thor; f~tll1 aroups of Ihcse
JPMB bda& ftOft-domOfllhIl:).
The cSc:K:ribed IIllIpploa b; calkd th e HopI _p~ ; it is rcmal"kabk ill 1I'Iall7
r apecu. lb. , for _ pie, tbe Hop! ~ det ennktel th e amcral.Ol" of tJlc
pup "'J ~ l) .. Z . Noc c !hit for aay 11"0 pointa or. " .5 1, the cirrumfeu_
.. - I ~ ) and .. -\(11') ue b k ld ill 5' (Fi&. 1lO).
 Cb. 4. MalUfold<and Fib,c Bundles
'"

Fig. 90

2.The Definition of a Fib reBun dle. The uamples co nsidered in nere 1

nat ur ally lead to the follo win g dcl"mition .
DEFl NlT10N I . A IrxulJy t ri vlal /ibn spilt% is a qu adruple (E. B. F . p ). where E. B .
F are spaces , p .. su rjeo:;tiv<: m applna o r E c ute B. an d, moreov er, for a ny x E B ,
the re cxists .. nel&hbo ur hood U of the point x and a homeomorphism
'I'/) : p- I (U) - U x F suc h tha t the diagram

'~:~'
wherc p r i!I the nat ural projection, is contmut ative .
It foll ows Ir em tb e de finit io n that for an y point x fro m V . die in venc: im.....
p-l ~) is bo meomorphic 10 th e space F . It is caIkd .. fibre over th e point x ,
The I~ E . B . F are called the (OlllJ $JXI . W base s~ aDd thejfbn.wh Ue
lhe mapping p is ealled th e projtctlon, res pectively. The neipboW"hoodll U in
volved in o.:rlll;tlon I are call ed r:oordinilte nt ifJt!JollrJtOQds an d the homeom or -
phl l ms 'l'ucoordi""te or netl/)llng Jtomeo m O(11JtismJ .
ThoUib a wider, t han 1oI;a1ly trivial. fibn: spaces , cla.u o fjl brt b lltldlts may be
cons idered in topology. by a fib re bundle we will mean hered ter a loc ally triYial
fibn: spa~"C.
A fibn: b un<lJe is !I8id to be trivUlI If then: eJIlsts a homeomorphism
,," : E - B x F such that t he di agram

is mun uW lve .
Thus . th e tanaent bundl e TAl- can be w nsiden:d u tb e tOtal space: o f a locally
trivial fibre spa ce with the base space M". projection p _ It . Le p rojo=o:;tion of the
lange nt space: onto the manifo ld M". and fib n: R -. '" neig hbourh ood. U e M".
the coordinat e neighbou rhoods of the mani fol d M" may be laken .
The mapp!ns w nsi dttod above 1$ th e pro.iec'ion orlhe H op fb UD dle , l.e . e f the
\oat.1ly tri vial. fibn: space whose total space i5sJ-, base spa ce SJ r.nd fibre SI.
'" I l)I f od uaion '" To polol Y

We now list lOme other examples or Ioc:ally lriYial fibre spaces.

EXAMP ues.
I. T KEMOBIUS S'n1PM (i.e. th e taaoupOlCC o f tbc:direct produa (0 . I I x 1- I, II
relative to the eq ui....lerllz (O,y) _ ( I , - }') is t ola! spate wah t be b ase sJ*;eS
(the ' m~ian ') an d fibre I-I , I].
nc pr o}eWon pr : 10, I ) )( 1- I, I) - (0. II actOn, accotdiliS lo the rulePi' ~.
]I) - z Induca tbe resi due dau mappm, p : M - $ 1, Le. the pro)eajon of th is
fibre bUndle.
2 . TH I! OIIU!CT P'll00UCT X " Y O' TOPOLOGICAL $PAm IT, y forms a t Olal spece
with thcnaturIJ pt'ojedlOn pr : X)( Y- X . Ilbre Yand the bascs~X.
1. TH2 SPHEU! S" is Bt ot al $pi with the buc ~ RP". ,
Obre consistbll of two
pa inu (ditcrac Rt) u d lht: projlio n associalln s a po int J( E: S" wilh III
equ ivalence clau f. -xl E RP ~ (l;c c Sec . 5, ClI . Jl) .
n m SPHlIIUl S + lisa total space with the base spaece p" . fibreS l an d pro jec_
tio n ISJOdBti n8 a poin t x fl S 1" + I CC" + I wit h il l cquivalmce class in CP" (sec
Sec. 5. c. II ) .
Eurcim.
1- . Sho w tbal lM tanJet\t bllncile of a mllllifoldM" is criYialif an d only !f th"." ubi.
II (CoatlDltOIU) vector flekb o n M" sudl that they ~ linearl y independent at Qd1
polnlz e M- ,
2- , Sbow tbat the klcaI.l)' trivial fibre spaoe over alin e.$qfl1fn1 is lrivial .
A 113q,p!na S : B - E 5Uilfy\nJ !he c:ondilio&I ps _ I. is called a ~,ilNt

"""....
o f tbe n~ bundle (,E. B . F .p ) .

) . Sbow lhat the aiJlmce o f aou-teetion is a ncass.at)' c:ondi tioD. for the IriyWl.
I)' o f a fib", bu nd le.
0. Do lben uist a'os,..o:d ons of the Hop f bulldle? (Usc the equw y
"aa ') - 0.)
5" . OIve an eumple of a nolltrivW fib re bun dle wbic h ~ a cross-seailln.
Let. UI e:sublish a llefUin relatIon between m.appln lS 10 tolllspacc an d 10 It.
b_ 'P ace.
DEfi NITION 2. A mappin g "+" : X - E is c:a1I~ a fil' 0/ Q Mapping " : X - B if tor
M)' point ,lrEX. che eq ualil )' p 't ~) .. <a> ,,"l hold s. Th e mapping '+ is abo said ID
cover Ihe mappUla .
The inuod uad relatio n Is cha,.ete:riu d by the co mm utat ivity o f the foJlo wina:
4iqram

Exvdsc 6 . Sbo" lhu i f . r.tll:e bundle poasessca. awa-..caian. Ihea for any map-
pma to Ibe base 1PlIOe. there Q\au lift o f thia m appin . _
 C1> M~lUfold.1Uld Fibre Bund les

We now p ve ;II necessary condition ror t he w stmee of lift o f ;ll nt aPerinI In

t erms o f funaon o f bonIolOJl), VOUpt (see 5. 1.0.. III).
T1-lEQ IlEM I. Let~. D , F. p ) be 8 1c<TJ117 frivitll jibr-r spIIr ..,11,," 101111 ~ ,,"d
bcK spoa 1Ir'~ Pllrtll-eotltVt: ttd. 8ttd X . PIIr'lt"'J1lnltd lopolo~/ ~. FO' IJt~
,fll'ppI", : X - D 10 1I8N 8 11ft ... MlJ4!)rin, 1M cOIIdi l Jon i' to> .. ~()o wll~rt
"'o E! X ' ~o tf. E, pfl!O> " b o '" .t,,). fl i.u'USIlIryI1l81

o
4o~( ..,,(X, ... 5:: p~ (.,, (E , ..o) (l)

jOTt' U II " I.
PIlOOP. If sud! a lift ... e-.U ~. th en diqram (2) is eommul ati~. U.inS funeto rs o f
homol Op)' p-o upt. we obtai n the eo mm utative diaB:llum (f or al l " " I)

>:""j;:"
" ,,(lC._, ) ~"flt.bol
from wh leb the req uir ed illChulo ns fo llow eui/y
LoeallJ' lrivl.1Il fibre spaea po $ICU the fo Unwin, impon ant p topat)' .
THE CO VERING HO MOTOP Y P ROPE RTY. LeI lE, B , F, p) be , locally
tri via! fi bre rpa.l:e whole baK space is H aIlJdor ff and paneompad.. LeI: X be an .,
bin ary topolotPc:al spane : X M t - B a boa\()(Otl,.. ~ j : X - E a Ufl o f Ihe
rnappins: . 1x .. 0- Then Lbere uists uniqu e li ft " : X M t - E of the homotop ),
satisfYlna tbe eondition " IX )I: 0 - j .
This liNeman 'IriIl be prowcl for a special cue in Item 4-
1. v ector Bundles . Let CE, B . F , p) be a locatly lrivia! fibre space . Alsume tha t
U &lid V v e IW(I eoordiDal. e ne iJ;hboW'hood s o f painl x II D. Homeomorp trJSIN
,e",) o f the space F mil)' be p "m b:r th e formula
,~(x)Jt = "~ ii l(x , 11 ) , x IE U n Y , II e F; ,~ (x) - I F'

If W" Is lI. third neig hbou rh ood o f the POUlI x ; then t he follo wing cqualitie.t arc
valid :
,~(K) - & ~ (x),~ I,r).
Thus. for point x IE U n Y , th e homeomorphism ,:::~) ls defmed , i.e ., the
&II)'
m lppin& ,~ ; U n V - H fF) o f th e set U n YlO Ihe p-ou p HfF) ofhomeomor.
ph.iams o f !be space F is p n n : the mawm.,s &' ~ ar e called th e coo n/in ll te IrrsILf/O' -
""" /oiss. If F is kx:aIIy compael and !he topoloay on H (F) is Induced by th e embed-
dina of H lF) int o the 5pu.c C (F, F ) with the compaCloOp<:n IDpok)gy . Ihen the
ooordi nau lransformlltions an: u$il)' seen 10 be eocttinuous (itt Ex. II . Sec . I .
Ot. Ill) .
DEFl NtTlON I . A .-:I(H' bundle is a loca1Iy trlvlal fib re spaee ( , B , F , p ) whoM'
fibre F Is flDite -dirncrtRDftaI ..mOl" I paI;C utd whose eoor4in. e Ir ,-,,"fonnal;OIU
,~ v" ~IIO\IS IIla9J1inlP to th " &TO'l P o f inwniblc liDeat U_formations o f th e
'"
qIMle.F (for f"Wld U IlIId "'i!(.\") Is . fami.lJ o f lMert lble 1lneat o penton wh>cllill
COIlWluously dcpcndctlc on x. u n 10').
E:Jt'Ci# " - . Show ebat th e laJ\ICnt bWldJc: 11rf" ill VK1CM" blmC1lc.
DEf1NmON . A lfIOfJMism 0/ a loaJlIy In"Wtllf lbn SpIICI tE. B . F ,p ) to a locally
ui"'-l fibre IPM'C (E", S ' . F p ' ) bi. pair or OOIKin lKl~ rnappinp H : E - E ' .
11 : B - S ' sudllhM ~ - p ' H .
The Iul equ alit )' im plies tIP! the dia&r&m

E ---!!-.- E'

'j
B "
I"
/l '
is ~ mm lllat ive (the fibr e Is tra nsfo rmed into the fib re) .
This de finition u arulOlOll the ooUeo:tkm of loa.Uy tri vial fibre spaces into I
cale,ory.
OEfTNtTTON , . La (. B. F. p ) V!d (E ' a' . F ' .e :) be vect or bundla wl\o$ot r.brn
F IIIt4 P ' we Cdor I5J'ICQ over the _ f"teld. an d (II, A) . morphism o f (, B, F,
p ) 10(6 ' . S ' F , p '). The morphism (H."') is c:aDed a mMplliml o/.er:tor bwItJI#:s
if for ally point X E B . tile Ju:ptrpo$llioD
- I H ' (.l-)
F~ p- 1tK) - CP T 1Vt (.\" !!.. F
is a lia.cu .appi!lJ. 'lII'IIer'e ",,, Ctt","Jl uc the hocicomOfPhimis o f the fibre p- 1k),
(eJ. ) - IIt (lr)} aDd..ector 'l*'II p . (r ). whkb IIC p vm ri$e b'a the COUUIltItaLi
diqra.m o f DctbUtion 1.
...-.
' - . Verify thai. vector bund.lu -.nd tbeir DlOlJIhiatu (0lUl e:atqory.
9". Verify tt1at by associ, dna . mlUli.fold with. lan&m l bundle. ' unooth ma ppi llJ
o f manifolds with a tanaenl~l map o r fibre spaces, we dcnne . covariant f\lndol
from th e caleaory of smooth manlfolds to the cate.ory of vector bllftd.ltl (over the
Ilt ld R ).
4. Coverings . We now dwdl on one spcdal dus of locally triviil librc spUC1 elI -
ami4in. it til 1JUlc:r dtttlil .
Co lWdtr the cit C\lmfeten<:e 51 ... Il e c ' : It I II. We de fine a ma ppln ,
p : Rl _ S ' by the formLlla p (l ) _ ~'iI.
SiDa: 'P (l I ) _ p (l~ if and only if
'. - ' l " k. 4 e Z . tbeiD_imq;c p - I ~) of ilAy poiDLU:5 il bocnfOOlOll'bic:
to lhuet of iattacn Z 1rilh the diKme lopoIol)'. For Illy poinl t e 51. the: maJJPin&
p 1Io~ maps cadi ron n"'''' CClIIl.pontril o f tbt Set
.. R 1' p- l (dontoS I ';r. 'Themany-valutd mapptq p_ l : 5 1 R 1,p- ~) . ' t _p-I(S', V. ..
i.e . (lIb l)In".poucaa a cou nlablt nlllDbt:r of _vallled brallett a . Dtnota one
of tht1n by.,.
Now. we ckl"1Ilt the: bo1noomorpblsm ; ; (5 1, .1:) )( Z _ R I,p _ ' <t) by the
f_ula iCw .t ) ... .,<-
k ) . We obWn the oomm \llal lve diacram
 0 . " . M aDifoids VId 'Fibre Bu ndles

The f&m!ly of seu lSI' :llll,s-' eat! be tu.m to be the coordinate nc:i&h bo urhood
I)'UmilO that lbe q uadruple (RI, s'. z , p) is a locall y lri vial fibre space whose fibre
Z b c1iscrel:e. SIKh fibre bundles arc e nee ctloolUltcrcd in problenu o f anaI yais.

OEFlNlnON 6. A locall y t rivW fibR spaoc (e , 8 , F . p) is caIl.cd a OOYf'm.. if the

total fp&ce E &l'Id the base: IP&CC B of the IThre apace ue pIlh <:onJltcd and the
fibre F is a IJ*lC with the cllic:nte topok)Jy,

SpeaIcina o f covcrinas , instead of lbc quad",pie W, B , F, p ) aad whe re it does

not intr oduCIIl &n:lbiauit)', they ofim eomidcr th e mappiDa p : E - B wh ldl ls asw -
icction. The f1.brep- '",) OV'Cl' elida point o f th e CD verinl ill bonKomorpble 10 thc:
SPKf: F with lhc disactc lopo lop an d benee Is d.iscrctelpac:c itself.
N011!!. I n the ddlnitiol1 o f a CDverina (and abo of It loc:a1Iy tri vlal ribR.$plleC wllh It
pat b-wnnec:l ed b . space) , t he requirements fex th e homc:omorphism " u may be:
weakened by ass uming that .,u is. hom eom orpb ilm on lO U x F IJ. where F u Is I
spaoe witb the dlxuk topoloJY 4epell4ina Del th e eoordlrlate nciabboumood U _
With NdI OerLnitioll.. n Is cvldmt that p - I(E) - FIJ (bijec:don aad hclll:e I
bomc:~m) (ex DIy Jt " (J. But it h.l ppms 10 tbat F u - F y <bUcc:tion and
bomoeomorpblsln) fOf any coor<Una!e nclahbowboodl U , Y, aad if we put
F _ p-l(l'. ) , wbcTc Jt . Is I certain po int from B, th Ql Definition 6 (ot I ) wiIJ
CoUow (sec Note aft er the proof of Lanma I) .
........=
4. 11Ic fibre bundle o f th e spb ere S~ o ver lbc projeClive space RP'" n eov erin g
WbaR fibre CI)I\SU U Df IwO po inu.
s. The mappl!'lCP ; S I - S I (C' 0 - C ' 0) Biven by the corre spondence t ... t is
a eoverin g nap whose IThre C:OIU i$ U o f n po inu.
A eovcrina whose: fibre eocIsisls o f II points is ea1led lUI ,,. 1I. IM covoin,.
Note I.hat fOt tlIe c:oord ina te oei&bbourhood U o f the coveriDI (E, S , F. p ) , lIIe
invent: imaIep - I (U ) is bomcomorphK: se thc prodllCl U l'C F eoasist.ina of disjoinl
'~ ' , YiL, Ihc open SCU U l'C .. , fIl fi F , and th erefoce , ccmsisu or di, joiot
'shecU' , viz the opm R U IV.. CI . .ii l(U x fIl). whidlarc homcomorJIhil: to U
ltscl r; thc homf:OU\.Ol'JlhiSr an: Po : w. - U , l.e. the restrialom of P 10 W...
whidl ro Dows from the relatioll p .. /XV u u pcessiq; the eonunlltl ti.,ity o f
DillUam I.
Th U$, Ole projedion of the covcrina mapp : E - B is a Jon,I hOfMO#/'lo rphisrn
wilh the dlserete inverse image p - I ~) "'hlch is homeomorphi c:to Ihc fib rc F O\lU
cach po illt Jt I!! B .
H~cr , lIIe con vene docs not bold: lhe eo.,cring of the .pace B by the coer-
din.te ...,iah bourhoodl U eatul ot be constnlCl.ed foc every kx:a1 home omo rp hism
p : E - 8 (fo r t:lIUIpAc, fot thc mapp.iDa:P : (11 , b ) - s ' o f . numbcr inlerval 0lI'l0
lhe circumfcrcDCC , BiVCtl by t be fonnulap(l' ) (COS I, SiM I).
 ImrOClualolll OTQC>OIoaY

The po!nlS from the fibn: p - I(lr ) ar e said to lie 'over' the poinr x, and th e shCEU
W. 'ev er" U; lh e above plopeny of the projo;tioD DC Ute o;ovc:rin, map p : - B
enabl Qlas to 'lift' th e rubsdl A C U to tbe Jheet W. b y COIWderiq!.he invenc im-
..esp; I(A.) and abo 'to tin ' mapptnss, pubs. hon>oIopMs in X . In aa:ord~
..uh DerIlliOOD 2. the path I : / - E ill c:a1Icd lift of tM: J*h 1 : J - B (wtIid1 11
cowriltllhe ~ I ) ifpf "" .

UM.\olA I. Let P : E - B be a eoverina: ma p . Thm th e followifta S1atemel\l.S an:

t rue; (i) uy ~tb l' if) B ~In.'" a point btiE 8 possesses l unique c:ovcrint; pat h 7
inE wtIK:h stllU aI M Y poin t "oEP- I{boJ: 00 i f l' .. 1'1 ' l'1 b the product Or
:r
paths 1'1 aod 1'1 in B then the eoverin.S path i& ;: .. y\ . Y1' wh ere: l , :;1 ecver 'l't
Uld 1'l.respc.ctively; (iii) if l' .. 'l'i I il the path in vene of 1'\, then:; = 'Y;-I.

PRooP. Let l pat h 'r be give n by a mappilli l' ; 1- 8 . 1 - to, I ), g (O) .. boo e ach
point of t he path ,.(t) bel 0lll' t o lOllIe o;:oordinate nd&hbourh ood U" and. Iher e b I
Cl)nQted ndshboUfbood (i.e. an Interval) 0 , o f . point t e I .ueb thllt 1'10,) C U,.
We pick . finite coverinl to,ft OUt of an o pen coverinJ lO,l o f t he line-segment I .
Let oS ~ the ~ number o f th e covcrina lO,lt. Let UI bnak th e !ine-$Cll1Ienl /
int o sepleutJ 4 , ... Ct, _ I,t4 0flCl\lth h:ssthaolbydi.... lon poinu t...l _ 0 , . ..
N , t il - O. t N .. I. Th eD -.(4,) lies in certain coonlinale Mi&hbo urbood U,.
1 _ 1 .. , , N . Thcn'forr, eac:b portion "" o f the pa th ,. livm by th e m. ppi....
1', :4, - B admiu atift 'i'", to the .h~ W. , Ii.-m by t he mappinll.!/ "" P;;' 11'1 : 4 , -
_ W.... _ here p .. : W. _ U, II a homeomorphism O DIO the (:OOf"Iftnllle
oei&hbOurhood U" We ~ . th eet co nlainilll th e painl,.Oe p - I (b'> as W'. and
lift 1M: port ioll o f the path .,." Th en 7 1 s1iUtl1 at Ute point " 0' w hee w.,_ ~ hll
aJrady bun chosen and the portion oft he path 1', _ , lifted , we c:hoo5e u W .., lhe
&beet COAlain ill& the Itmlinal poinl/, _ ICt, _ I) o f the panion o f th e pa1h 7, _ /
....h.kh lic:I over Ihe point/, _ I ( i , _ I)' Then t he por1ion of Ihe pluh 7/ oria.in 'lQ a l
t he polnl Ji _ I ( f i _ I)' We Iifl t hu, al l tile po rtions 1'/, I - I . . . , N, o f t he path
1" Since Ihe mappings Jj : ~ _ E , I _ I.. N are rompatlble 0\'1 Ih e co mmon
Cft ds o f Ihe ad jacent inte ..... 1$4/. Iht)' Clll be combin nt Inlo t he m appinll.! ' 1 - E,
1(' ) -I,<t) for' E 4 f . The ma ppinsJ is j ust wbal determlnes th e path:r th ll coven
the p ath "t . The uniquen CSll Of th e ooveriI\8 pa th follows from p being a local
hom eomorph Ism . Thereby. st. lemen t (i) Is pr oved . Statements OJ) and (iii) are Ib'
vious.
Non.. The 'U'UClure of the coord 'nll e neipbourhoOlb U,, ; _ I, . N . Which
COYer the paLh ", : 1- B l11oWl' us 10 p rove the bija:tivity of tbe fibres F u o"er t he
coor4inate neiabboUJhOOl1l if the horneomorp hil m <P u ilCtl ffom p -I (U) to
U x F u (_ Ddtnition 6 o f a c;.overlna iUld IUbsequ ent rUIOninlJ. Thb II obYiOus
if u n Vo" 0. eeee for % If U n v. we havep - I(I') - F u 'nd p- I(I') - F V" tr
U n y 0 then havina diosest painu % E U. y . V, Me join them with a pe.th
l' : I - B IUiIII the faa th at B lJ pa lh<oDDeeted. Fo r rJtc intlQ.lcd rovenna U/.
the fi tna F u arc baaneomorph lc (ill lhe discsfte t opoloJy). whence p- l(a') -
- p- I (jt ) U1d F (I - F ... .
U..... the ImmIlI ~ .It ill now euy 10 prove the c:overinl h omot opy theorem
m enuotled io Item 2 for Ib e elM o f coll'CriDp .
 ClI. . Manifold< an d Fibre S""dt..

THEOkM 1. (THE COVERING HOMOTOPY PRoPERTY.) lAt (E . 8 . F. p ) M II

cowrinll. X " topolo8fCtl/ $plI~. I : X - E " _ppm,. ""d : X l(I - B "
II_ ropy such tlult PI - . 1x ,,0- 'Then tller-t a ilU If Wliq ue lift 01 tM
ltonKHopy i. r . $I homotopy i' : X l( 1 - E SU(h llull +1x " 0 - I Md
p'i' 0=

flOOP. f or an~f)r E X.the hOlTlotopy. : X l( 1 - 8 ddennines. path,., : 1 - 8

!lne ,.,<t) .. (I".I), I I! / . Th e poiol/(a-) lirs ovn Ihe poinl,.,(O) '" . (I", O) . Ac:-
c:orcfin,lO Lemma L the pub ' .,<:an
be lifted to 6 . 1., : I - E under the (Xlnditlon
lIlall., (O) "' /~) I:a a unique ....y. ~t +(.l". t) = 1... (1). Th Ull. we han a mappina
: X )( 1 - E. It (;()Yen the mapprlll .. since
p"t' (.l" .t ) - p ; ... (t l - , ... (1) " + tr , I), tr, l) e X x I .
When I ... 0 , it is eviclent that "t'(.l". 0) ... I f;r). l.e .. i' 1x " 0 .. J.
The proof of the theo rem II completed with the fo llowln, exercise.
Exur:~ 10. Pr ove that the mapp inl. : X x 1 - E Is continuous .
The lemma on L1ftinl a p ath to a (Xlvcrin, $plI.U and the \:Overinl ho motop y
theorem eoa ble us to Itu dy the relation between the rundarnentll1 grou ps o f th e base
space 8 and the covm llllpace. E . At riOt ,we form ulate the immediate aeometri c
coroDaries to the indicat ed propositions.
LEMMA 1. ~I P : E - 8 be " co'lWin, mtlp to G E . b o .. p (e~ e B bfue poiIlIS.
1JI1'Jl I~ l oUow;", SllI l tlnt " U hoJd:
(i) .({lI. ls ll do~ pGlh in E wit h tlw w~i" III 1M pol,,/ to~ homotopit; to II COtU -
IUlt pGlh. tlrtll 13 = po. is do$J potlt with 1M oriritl III ta poUrl b o lIt1d IIl$o
Itomotopit: 10 II C'OIUIQ/l l pilI" .
(ia) (J .... is fI /HIt1I itI E wit lr IIw orlrilr III IIw poUr / t oC'Cl "l!rifII" fI d<Md ptlth 8, tlletl
1M homotopy 01 Ihe plIlh 8 is I(/ud 10 tM flJltd-.rrtdQ/ thr 11h .... homot opy .
(lli) (J a is II prJ'" itI E wi." the on.il! III Ihe pobtt eo co voi", II dost'd path 8
htJlflo.opk to II COlIS'''''' /HIth , ' ''en .... is lJbo daxd lind homotopic 10 1/ cvn.rlllll'
fXlt h.
paoop. Statemen! (i ) is Obviou5 due to the conUnuilyof the ma.ppinIP. Let U5 prov e
statemem (ii). Let fJ : 1- B, 8 (0) _ 13(1) - b o be a clO$rd palh ill 8 and
I, : 1- B, 0 .... I '" I, f o - fJ Itt homotopy. Depotc the lift o f the homoto py
I, :p+, "' / ,. 0 " t" l , bYi', 1 : 1 - . 0" ' " 1' '''0 _ a. Sincc the end! of
Ihe path /, lie fixed. i.e .f,(O) - I,(l) '" b o for I II t, the end s + ,(0) , i' ,( I) of the
IllI.!h"' , belonl to p - l UI,) for aLi t and ckpcnd OD I contipuoU!ly. Since the topoloay
of the tibrep- J (be>
is disc:~e, the ends o f the path "' , (0), "t', (11arc COtISlant . i.e ..
lh homotopy of tlJ.e pat h 01 ta kes plaoe with the cuh01(O) _ ~I)o .... (1) rlXCd. FlnaUy,
1\'e pr~ SW mlcrlt (Iii). Letf, be a hOlIIoto py of the path 13, Md "', a bomotopy of
t1I.e path .. covmnar.,. Fro m the <WI,I, is I CO<llolMt mlppillJ and/,V) - b o'
...~ ....,(/1 C p- (bciJ , l.e. "', is I ma:ppina1mothe fibre ovcr b.. Slncc the lm-
ace "' 1(/) o f tbe ~t 1 ill ' connected set and the topolOIYof the fibre is
cIiscretr'+ I(/)" eo: In p.attkuIar. ... l(O) .. . \(1) - e. From 5tlu:mcnt(u), + , is
a raed-md homotopy. Le., "', (1) - a(l ). "',(01 ...... (0'). 0 " I " I. Therefore,
 Im.od ""d OJl 'o Topol ol>'

a(1) - .. (O) - ~O' . ,U) - ~O' r.e. the ~th a iii "tosed a nd homotop;,,; 10 a eon
st anl path .
Ln \IS rtudy the rdalioG be!WeeD th e fWldament.al aroups o f the lotal qw;:e of a
c:ovaina and tbe 'but~ .
1bc proleetion p : E - B Ind_ a homomorpbi$1II of the fwuSamCDlai
11", (") aad " 1(8) (lee Sec . 3. Q . UI) . The: ao:tion of this bomomorphism is de-
..-_ps
laibcd by the folJowina lhtore:m.
THEORE."" ) . 17t~ 1IomomOTphlsm P . : 11"1() - t',(8) o.!tlte/limUmurl al .1'OMPS
....IIicJ1 i.r ~ b, 1M proJI1ott of (I ""vrri,.. i.r (I mOftOmorphism .
PJ,OOP. lAxOE E, bOlO B be baJC poillu. and p<xO> bo: let 11" 1($ .xO>. 11", (.8. bO> be
fu.ndamcntal JfOUpI ,and P . : :rl (P. xlii- 11"1 fIJ. "0> homomgrpltism indu~ by
the pro jecUonp : E - B . QlD.dd er me iDvenc: imIl,e P; I(~) o f the unil eleme nt of
the group "1 (8' , bO>o II SUff1cellO show thatp; I (If) _ e ' , wnere e ' is the unit ele-
m~t o h h e y oup 1l" 1(E .xO>. If (a ] E P ;I (/!) th eDa coven thepath l:l _ po. ....hich is
homotopic to aco~anl pa th In B . Accordins to sta tement (iii), Q iii abo homotopic
to (I COl\$t&Ilt ptUh (in E). and thnefore (Go) :> ~ '
Th us , iT; 101l01l'li from Th eorem 3 that the gro up ... ($) Is lsomorpl\ic: to
A1bpOUp of !be IP'OUP " t(8 ) (viz.. the SlIbvoup G p. (1I"1 ($). CollSkler the
cosn.I (e.a.-. rlalu) o f the aubpo"" G of th e Ifoup " , (8 ) . The followiq: lmportalll
th COfUll is valid .
THl!O IU!M4. For tm,""~""_P P : E - B.tJre~ p -I(bO> irilfb(j~'iw~
~nce witll l1le/_iJy of CO#t$ of 1M IJlb8rf1UP G 0/ III~ .1T1IIp 11" 1(8 )

paOOP Ld: \U as:soc:iale th e bocno&opy ~ lIJJ E r l (B . b~ with a polnU jJEP - I (bol

by lhe foUowiDt;rme: _ lift. the paJ.h ~ to the palh a iD E with the oriain at tbe polnt
~o (\emtDa on liftin, a path) an d pllt ~jJ '=' a(l); by Lenma 2 {sutement (Ii. Ibe
CDd o f the peth .. doeI" 1lQ!. dqlmd GO the d10lcc o f a repcaeutative ~ IS !PI.
therefo. the mapp{nJI " , (8, b~ - p - l{bO> . lISl - ~, Is def\ned. If 1IJ 1I. !P11
bdol1l 10 the _e<ct. r
the n 1#11 . lIJ 2 I E p . ("1<' t~): consequently , the loop
III . Il; I 'f>ith t beorl,lin a lbo II homotop le 10 a certain loopJIa. wbere e iI a loop in
E with the orlain at to' Den ote the Un. 01 the loo p fl I . fli ' with the origin at t o by
a ' an d nOle that tbe l~ (r ' and (r ar e homotopIc with the ends nxcd (statement
(ii) of l..anma 2), therefore (r' lIa dosed loo p co verinS the loop PI . Pi I_ But by
Lemm a 1 (statem enu (Ii) and (ill. G ' "" 8, . Pi . The d05Cdmlill 01 the path
gI . IJ; I llnpliCli Ihe winddenc e o f the ori&in of th e' path PI wilh th at o f the palh
12 , and a1Ioo f their ends. Th erelore. e~ "" t (l Th Ull, the mawina IIJI - ~, Is con
stant 011 t he wse1 1i. M UII... hile,l clIffhcm ~ there I;l)rt't$pOnd different im .
qcl . In lact. if we lUmc the eoou&f)'. theD there ' " 1#11 and t.B:!l f rom d iffer Cfll
coseu. but t, '=' ~, . ... hidl mc:am that the e:ncb (alld tbe ori &iru) o f th e liflS of 4 1_
6 1 eoilJOde. h.erd~re. 11 6 ; 1 \.s a loop in witb me orl&in at the point ~f1'
P i$ 1 Pi l ) .. p . Ili l is: a loop (wUh lhe orip at the poinl bO>o wtI~ the
hort)Ol:op)' dus {PI . IJ; II - lIJlI 1IJ1r I o f this kIop bdonp. to P . ( I"I(E. ~o)).
t.e. IIJ I], 16:1are from th e _ coset . which is c.ontrary 10 th e aswmption . Fi nally,
it larWru to Iho. thzt any poinl' e p - l(b.J is t he imqe e, for a flam lISl . Con.
sider a path .. .ioitlina in E the point eo 10 the poiDllo (us.ina !.be cxmd.ilion that Is
 01 . 4. Mani(otd."nd F\bt~ BII""I"'I

pat h-<Ofln eaed) and put#! .. pa; It is . do~ PIltb In B wlrJt, th e origin at the point
bO' the palth 01 ill iu li ft. Tberefo re ell - ~o

COROLlAAY. IrthctoUl sp.aceof theeonrins tl:l~ p : E - B b l <OI1Mded. l.e. ,

r , (E ) .. O. thm the fibe F and the flJDdamm t&l ll"oup t l (8 ) are in bijoam. COl'-
rapDfldence .
PROO". LeI. us ru.XoE" E.ptroJ .. b o IIDd collSider T I (E, zol .. e '. "" (8. b oJ . We
II.vep . ("'I(E , ll"ol) .. e . Consequently. Ibe family o f cweu ~ with the let
"1(8 , boJ Thus., ... ,CB. boJ - p - l (boJ - F (the eq uiv akACC is . bijection) .

D FINmON 1. A (OYerinl (E . B. F, p) is sUd 10 be 1<111_ ' if th e . pace E b

1~.I .e ., "' t CE) .. O. The sPiIOC E is lhen ca.lIed Illll f'l'f!/W l roveri ll, qKIa.

To know th~universal coverinas of certain , pa celli. useful in cakulat lns th~ fun -
dam~1I1a1lP"OIJ P "' I (8) .
E.X/<MPLES .
6. n.. c;overins mapp : R I - S ' , p (t ) co c 2w1J , P .. Z . We !l,now ll1ready (Sec. 3,
01. Ill) l bat "' I(R I) co O. Th erd ore , "' I (S I) - Z (d. Sec. 4, 01 . 1lJ) .
1. The co vmna map P : S" - R p ll with the fibr~ F .. 2:, n ... 1. We hi ve
"'1(5" ) .. 0, 11 ~ 2, wtIeooe "'I(RP" ) - ZI
Howner. the obtained resuIU ate DOl. compku. Havill. cnablW1cd the bijre-
tioo o f th e 'P'OUP "' 1(8) wit h _ IJOtIP, we: eI.JUI.Ot be sure that the bijection
prnCT'\IC$ the crouP openuo<u, I.e.. is a b omoonorphism of aroups. Let lIS
strmp hcn Tbeom:n 4 IIDdthe cor olb.ry in Ihi:s _pea by auwninI that ill the total
spxc ~. tbe ,.aioft COMl* iblc: .. rtb the st ruQute of. cov~ map o f l:Crta\.tl
"'()Ilp 0 is p vcn.
We \If\Il oonsidcr the arou pa arno.a (hom the \c:ft) on the JPlIce E IIDdidentify,
for brevity, an eternent , Ii a wll.h the corrcspcmdin . homeomorphism lie : E - E
(Ke Sec. 5. Ch . 11).
DEFlN'ITION S. A group a b laid to IKI di.Jcntcl)' (or tht G Is a dUaP.te tflVtf/or-
llftllion ,ro~p) 11 th e orbi t 0 o f an y point J ti E is I discrcle subspace I tld,
moreover , there Is a neiahbourlood U()' ) o f th e po ltlt)' eaIle4 cfementory hereaftet
Ilieh thltt the imaan ,(V), , 1Il G cithc:r do nor lnra lltC1 o r co incid e.
DEfiNITION 9. A group G Is said to act in E ftedy (Ot wlthollt fIXer! poit/ts) If
for any)' E E , wh lleYer the dement, 1Il
,()') oil )' c. a., ..
If th e discJ-tle transform l l ion aroup G adS f!'Cdy Ihm the imqes , (V) of t he
elemenlll")' nelgltbourbood U()') CONide=i abov e do not toincide for d iffer CDt , .
DEFINITION 10. A ttansfomw ion 1J 0up G aetJna in E diJemdy aod freel y ucaUe6
I PlOJIVIY.. diA7on till ,",1I$ ItYlnqOtmlllKJn , roup.
a
Let be . properly discontinuo\l.S tnnsformation 1t000Po f . space E. CoauIdc:r
the orbttlP*'" E t a .. B and th e U lliN!. projectionp : E - B (see Sec . 5. Ch. U).
L.EMMA l . W E be II p"III-cotrMdl spruw, _ d G ~ lJictNIliJI,",1U
ttv,.q(WmOliolr , roup it/ E . T1lrn p : E - E t G B U ll covoitta .TltIp wfth 1M
fi bre p - ' (b ). b e B , equal to 1M cwbfl 0 , ol'Mpofllr y, p (, ) .. b .
 Inlro<!uc,ion to TOp<llolY

PROOf . 8y th e definition of an orbit spece, the projection p is a conti nu ous map.

pin. and p-t (b) '" O~ if p (y ) "" b. and, moreover, O~ - O. The pat1l.
connecledn en of t he $pIa: p(E) '" B follows frOIrl the palh-connectcdness of E
and continvity of p . It remains to ec e suuct th e ecerern ete neilhlxlvrhoo<h in B .
Let U()I ) be an dcmentary neiah boutbood o f a -painl)' e e , b ... Oy the orbit plUll'
ing th ro ugh)' and V( b) an open neiah bou rhood o f lhe point b E' B con sistin g of all
orbits D . , .I: E' U()o), pass inS through t he neighbo urh ood U()I ). f or a properly
msconl invoUli gro up 0 and elemen tary neighbou rh ood V()o). we hive;
p-I(y) '" U , (U ). , (U) being ope n in E and disjoint. The ima ge o f ,(V) i'l
,,"
'sheet' w, OVer Vof the OOYcrins ma pp : E - B . In flIet, p - t(v) '" U W, . W,
,, "
beiDa ho meolllorp hic to V, Wice the restriction p, .. p I w ; W, - V is I
homeomorphism due to the ma ppin a P, being bijcd ive 'and open. The
neigbbcvrhood V(b ) U coocd in ate. since a homeomo rphism l"v: p _ t (V )
- V )( G (0 being COIlsidued with the discme topo!osy) given on oPen disjoint
let s WI' by the ma ppingap, : W, - Y x , is def"ne<l for an y lEG .
EXAM PLES.
8. A covcrln. map p ; 5 110 ... I _ L (k , k l' . . , kIt ) ofthe spb C're e ver t he general-
ized Icns space det ermined by t he pr ojeo::lion of t he complCJI , phere ~ (which is
h omtomorphlc 10 S1Io ... I) onlO the facto r space o r o rbils L fJc., kl' .. ,k,,)
relat ive to the action o rlhe poup Zt (see Sec. " Ch. Il). The fibre o f this coverinJ
co incides with the: o rbi t of the grou p Z/r' Le., consislI of k elements . Since
'r1(Sz" + I) '" 0, 'r1(L ) - Z
9. Con lldn E '" R " as an Abelian JTOvp: It contains a subgroup ZIt of all ...mors
whose coo rdinates ar e int ept's . The factor !Jl)UP R " / ZIt equipped with the qua-
llen t topook),y 1$ c:aUed an n-<ilmenstona1 torus"". The resId ue class mapplnl
p : R M _ T" is' coven", map with the fibre ZIt. Since " I ~ " ) = 0, we c:onelvde
th !lt 'r1(1") - Z".
For IDe coverlnll map p : E - /0 .. B , t he follo wing lemma hold s.
LEMMA 4. Witlr tire COrlditiotu of Lemma J, Ihesublltoup N - P. ('1"1(1:." eo)) of
Ilr eJu n dafMrllal ,roup 'r 1(8 , b~ . M11r~ p{ea> = b", is II rlortllill sub,roup. .
P l OOf". Let lP.1E N, (PII E I' t (8, bo)' To verify t hat 111 ... 1P11- I . (Pj . 1.6 1] e N,
we Ii! ttllc palh..,. .. P I I . P . PI to the path i '" iJ I 1 . 8 . 81, wh ere $ E 7 1( '
eo>, PI is from the po lnl t o 10 the po lnl t t ' p (ell - b ooHI I is from the point e l to
th e po int to- Therefore , 'Y is a loo p et the point t l and P"i "" .,. Since the fibre
p -I (b~ is the orbit O. o f the group G, t here is an elemcnt I I E' G such thai
I , (el) '" eo- The homeo~orphism a- I maps the Ioqp 'Y to thc loo P'i"Y It the point , o
so that II lil E 'r IlE. tol. Th e Path k l"i' covetS t he pat h.,. since the mapp!ngp is eon -
nanlo n the orblUof th egroupG; thererore,p(g ,y) '" .,andhl .. p .(II I'il), i. e. ,
hIeN.
Coverinp whose IVbgl'OUPS N .. p . (-rt(, t o) arc normal art said to be
rquillr .
 Cll. ... Mlnlfoldslnd Fib... Bundles

Fo r rq\lw- coverillp, the fami ly of t:mCU o f the &fOllp " , (,It, bo> rel..lee to the
sub SJoup Nis i factor gou p.
Before pa.ssinA OVCT to caktt1atina 'l"1 ~/G ) , we ilttrodu tc aD impananl llOtion
o f t he monoclromy &fOUP of 1 - erina.
Let p ; E - B be 1 CO'I'Criaa map , an d b OE B 1 ecna.Itt POUII of the lmc Ipx.e.
Let \as dcf"J;M the actio n o f the SJOUP '1" ,(8 , bo> in !he fibre p-' 0O> - F. Let
/PI " '1" ,<8. bO>, and e" GP - ' <b(} be an arbitrv)o poiItl o f Ute fibre ovcr Ito nose
w bKrlpt is aD dancnt f1f E F . Let I be 1 lift o f lhc path ~ 10 the point c..; put
c,, ' = i (I ). when a ' is t he sUb$cript o flk fibr e eontainiltl 6U). We Utow w u dy
IhI 18 (1) docs DOt dcpmd oa the choieco f I path fJ from the d ass /PI. but don only
on the class lfJl. Thus, the class tiJl drtmnines the ma ppin'''1 ; p- I(bO> - P - ' Ibo>
by the ruJe t" _ t ... (or the 1l11ppi na "I : F - F by the rule a .. a ' ).
II is CU)' to $CC t hat lhc mlppin, " I coven the I PBl;e P - 1(bo)'
The folJowm. obviou s eq ualities: " fI . I - "I " I '''1 .. 11' if fJ E e (the ide nti
ty elCl1lCYIt o f '1",(.8. boll, ",_I ,,; ' deHv~ flom~:nml I on liftin. path H i.nl tY
thllt the co rrespo ndence" : IPI - "} ~. reprcsmtati on o f the irouP ",(8, bo> by
' homeomorphisms', i.e . ' pcrmu latJOrU' of the dUeret e space p - I (bo> (or F ). Th is
representation tI is called I m OlltJdromy qf tfft co'Hrin6 , and th e set o f peml utat ions
10,1. ~ e .. ,(8, bo> the lI'IOItodrotfly . rollp of e e cov erill .
Thus. the mon odromy tI b homomorphism o f the aroup '" (8, bo> 10 the grou p
of all pam utltlons o f Ute film.
It foUows from Theorem l !b ll tlae poin tc. Ep- I (belis flud for thosc an d only
those pcm1utations tI , for wtIkh IfJ l e p .("I(E, . ,.)l. Thus. P . (" ltE. c. is I
sta bOit)' subpouf i)f Ihe point c. m th ego,ap " I (8 . Ito> Ktlnaon the fi1Ke p - ' (bO>.
M OI"CO'+'CI" .... ~.,j = tI, . {t.) If and on ly if IP ' ) E lP. ("l lE, c. J 1fJ), i.e. to tbe
coset cont&iBin.!be clcDcnt Il'J ( whence 1ltCOf'cm .. follo ws immediately). For dif

rcrCQ1 points c c . lh e P1blt0llpl P. (" , tE , c.. P . (" ,lE. , . I.l"e collj uaate
wi1h rcspca 10 tbat demenl IfJJ e ",(8. b~ for which ...,, ~.) .. t . . In fae:t. if ' is
the eo rrcspondiD i c:ovcrlni patb t~'" the OOIT~peodenoc ., _ -r" '" i -, . ., . 8.
where bf e 7 1lE, c..). cstl blW\CS IJl i50morp lUun betw een " ltE. c. l and ... '.E, ',,' )
transformed by the monomorphismp. into the bomorllhlsm
- ffJr'p. (" 1(' 0' [8]
P . (II,'.E . ... - P . (11, (. l! .. . ).
Lo:t us caleu lal e lhe monoll ro my group {O"~ I for the coverin . map
P : - E I G '" B .encratcd by 1 propc1'"ly mscon tinu oWl trlnlromwion ItOl,lP G .

LE.'otMA S. nc mOllodromy , rowp of I/Ie col'trln, _P P : Ii - E l a '" B

fC/fU1lfed by IIJHOpUIy d i.sl:oit,jtl"OlU ~omultWtl I roNl' a of IIpatlt-1nnrctftl
spa E is /soIIfO'Ph ic to a.
P l OOf'. ~ 'o E , b o - p(t~ bebasc porolS. We b.cp - ' (b~ = o~ , whe reO
is tbc ol'bit paIolo!tta !ltloup the poin l t'oof lb ll: poupG, i.II:., ee
let o f p&nb ~o>i~ r.
E G . Let IfJl " " 1(8 . b~ and . , Ihll: correspo Ddill. lI\OfIodlom, transformatOon.
n eD -
<r,~o> ,,~~. SIna: Ihe pdt 5 from "0 10 '.~~ i5 eanicd by !he
bomco_orpblsat, E G 10 tbe path,6rrom Po to, tI/J' co>.
alId Ihe patb 61 cov en
l he path fJ ,,1#0> - 6 W~~ ' ("e'~.
 Introdl1Cl.ion tD TopolOlY

The ~ _, _ " determines a homomorphism o f Ihc moDOdromy

pou p inlo the IJOUP a . 1n fatt. lf-'J. _',iJ Ibc SIlpcfJ)OSition of - ' I aDd D'l ' Ihen
(.,t,,'Jeo ....j1JII..I~~ .. " 1I.,,r.~~ Tb~fOle -'I. -'I- "1 . " 1'
I~"'~
Funbennore. the pcnn l.lw ioI'I -i' .. 0'0_ 1 correspond. 10 I i I ~ th e idmtK )'
pcrml.llation _, co 10 Ee) 10 '0 .. ~. thc icklItlty clcmmt of thc UOUP G . We
Ulow IIW the bomomorpttism _0 - I , iJ ;I lQOrIomorphism o f the monodronlr
ItOUP in lO 1M aroup a . In face. if I .. so then ..lJIt o .. "~o - "0 for an)'
1 6 C , nd thcrcfOl'c ", b the idend l)' mappin, o f Ihc fibft: 0 .
The I\Iljceuity of th c bomomorpbi$m 0', - II foQo IrOlD t hc ~.
CODJllOl:l.c<tnClol of E cnabl!q \IS to join, b,. ;1 certain palbO' , the poinu o 1.0the po lltt
I .~o. where I . G is arbittuJ to that a b l lift of Ibe loop tJ . .. po and
- , . co '" 0(1) - I . (ea> ther efore DO . - r . ThIU, th e isomorphism o f the
1II0 nodrom y aroup with the 1l'0up G I. rnablishcd
Now It bomcs quite ell$)' to prove the ballk: th r:om.
THEOREM S. For Q oovmn, tMp p ; E - E tC _ 8 't!rlt fQlcd b, Q proprrl,
dl#onlm wollS ,,.,,n:;for maf/on ,roup G oj a JXIIIl' )1Inltd ~ e, til e j (l('lor
'fO llp of tilt: , roup '1"1(8 . ba> rrlaflw 10 1M nomllli subvoup P . ("-Ile, ' 0))'
PWO> - b. Is isomorphic 10 flit ,roup O.
Paoof'. Coesl4cT the botnoIDorpblsm S ; "'llB. bO> - G given by th e OOIIl positio n
of th e homomorphism o f l be 1l0\lp '11'1(8 , bol into thc 1lI0nodrom)' &Jllup of the
OD'VCfiD, l.II.d bomofJlhism o f the trlOllOdromy aroup to the lJfOUP G. I.e. the
homomtJrphism siven by the corn:spondeocc 161 - .., - I,.Th e wYC'St:
in!.a&c
s - t{to ) COIIlUts of those daaa f6 J for whkbl, z .0.1..... ., is thc idmtitymt.p-
pin, o f the fibre p - IfJJO> . Th Cfcfore, S - "ltol P . (..-,(. to aDd the fKl:or
boIllOt!lOfllhism ~; "-1(8. boll,. (..-\(E. ~a - G is. ~bUm.
COItOUARY. If . rot:ria.a l!llP P : E - E 1 0 .. B is Lmlvusa1 U1Cl the Po<l P
'"'t(B ) u isomOfllhic 10 the IfOIJP O .
We hO W 10 b.;.k to Euu1p1et 6, 7, 1, and 9.
The llnivcrsaJ. cov erial P : R ' - S', p C! ) _ e 101l' is ",nenled by a properly
dl3rontin\llOUS trans fonnat.!ODI10UP b)' the tttntJatlon t _ t + n , n 6 Z of the axis
R I. 1'bcr..for e ..-,(5 1) .. Z (lsomo rphi sml. The mongdfomy ll'oUp is abo Z and
&CU on th e fibre F - Z by tl aniJ l lions m - m + n .
Thc universal cover!ng p : S~ - RP",,, ;l 2, is l enellled b)' . properly dbron
tin uou l tI&rtsformation grou p Zl with the generat or t1 : SIt - SIt acti na by the ru le
a ~) - - ;c. The refore , "-/ CRp~ 1 _ Zl. " Il 2. Tb e monodrom)' aroup Is Zl ltld
leU on the fibrc F '" p- (b~ ~ to"o, -xol. ;c {i 5"'; for th e tener'tor .. , we have:
-~e> .. -;cOo o( - ;col a .K/Io Le., .. pcnnUIO the po\rIts oftbe fibre . The amerad nl
dement of the IfOllP "-1(RP", be> cqnespondinj to lbe dement _ is fanned b)' th e
homot op)' dau of the pat h"..,. where,. is a path on S~ joinioll the poin ts xo and
-s.
The UIIi venal ooverinJ p ; s ao. I - L (4'; 1:1, .. . k..) is Imcratcd b)', prop.
u l)' discorttillllOUSaction of the a:roup Z",wil:hthe lencrlt.Or t1 : S :lo .. 1 _ S2Io I.
TherefOR ..-, (l..) _ Z",. the lrIOIlOllrotrly IJ OIIP is abo Z. and ac:IS" on th e fibre ; its
ptleraar COI:fCSPOn4J to the 1ftlUIl10< f'l'1 E "-l (l..). wbc:rc,. it th e iXojo:\iod. of the
PI th in s)o .. I ioinina the poiot;co to the paine "'(%0> ( rtod Q, flP'O> lISinl Sec. "
Item 3, 0 . 111-
 C b M .... ralds and Fibre 8l1ndLu

Fig. 91

The u.niYUUll:Ovennl P : R ~ - 1'" Is, eneralcd by l pro per ly discontinuous.c-

lion ot the &rOUp Z~ With th e Itneratou Q j ac:tinl by the nlle ~I ' ... ,Jel _ I' )C/.
Je' . I' )C,,) _ ~I " " ,XI _ I,Jr, + I, Jr, . l" " . Jr. ). ; '" J _ , II.
Therdore, " 1(1"') - z " and th e lata, lon h j ) , ; = 1. 2, .. . " ot Ihe ItOUp
" 1(7"' ) conla1n the loops ,, / otIu.iDcd by !be projectioop ot the pWu inR" joonina
lh epolntO 10 the points _i(O). Th e mo D04romy ar o up aets OG thef"IbnF - Z, its
aencrvan 0 . /, i '" I. . . . " Ktin. an int qral VCdon (rom Z" by th e l'llIe: (A'1'
. . . , .t:. ) _ (.t . ,.t: j _ I' k, + l , .t:, .. , . . k,,>.
To It\tdy lllIivenaI CO'I"r:1'in$S, il is nea'Sar)' (0 im~ Iotronger Rquil'emc nu
Iban t he patb~ on t he base space of tbe eov~1
OUlNlTION I I. A lOPOloaicai spaeeXis Wd to be: IaltyP4th-eoNfeCW it for My
poInl s e x , then exists bale or open pa th.colllla:ted DCi&bbourltoods, If
ndahbourboods of , bale POS$e$l, in adwlXxt. Ihe property o f l-oonn ee:te dneu.
then !he , pace is said to be: 10000J(y J""",lItl.
Exantples o f loxa!ly path-eonntcd and loc:a11y l -eonnc<:u:d ,paces ClllI be given
euily (e .I. th e Euclidean SPIlCell R" or m anifOlds) . A locaJJy l -eonneClcd s~
InUSI nOI n~y be l-ccnneeted, "an tJIlUllp.!e bcinalhe clrcu mfercn' e S 10
Fla . 9 1, II5p_ is repre sented (the 'comb space' ) which is plllh-conneClc:d bu t 4 0cs
liCIt posscu me pr operti es o f toeal pa th-c onnCClcdntsJ (an4 therefore the local
l-oonncetcdnea). Figure 92 illl1SUatin, an inf"mile tc quet\Ol!: of c:if'Qlm fcrmc:es of
raltii 1/.. . .. .. 1. Z.... .,..hidt hl~ l commO DPOUlt Of CQlItaet, lives an example
of. pet h<OlUlCCled U141of;a1Jy Plllh--eotlll<Ued but 1\01.. kKaU,. l-conn ected SpKc.
H ow C'Yer. for flU1her ~, it is Wfrlc:itnllo uaunlC the fulf"l1menl o r.
WQt:tl" condition than th e klcal. J-ooDDcetcdneu Of. $pUC . This condition Is eee -
tained iJt th e foUowina c1tf"Ulition :
DEJ'lNtTION U. A lopo&oa:ical ~ X is $&ki to be ..",I../Ot:G1J)' I-OOfUSfl if ror
lilYpoIn l Jee X . th tfe aisu' ncl&hbourhood in which any t wo paths with common
C1uh v t homotopic a! ku on the..mole space (or,
loop Is C<MItraetible as kast. on !he who le ~J .
""a1
is equivalen t. in oritk h an y
u,
II is easy 10 see that ir ~ X is lou1Iy JHIlh-connec,,:d and ~loa.II1
l-con nected thm at each poUlt x e X , lhue exisls base: of ()Jlm patb-eonnec:ted
lIeipboumoods peveuin. me property fOT any two PfItb with c:ouunon m<b in .
~bollf1l00d rrom this blUe 10 be homotopic Oft the whole ~ X .
AA exam ple of a -m-1oc&I1y l <OftlIectcd. but not )ocalty 1-COD!lected space is
ttte cone OYer the 'P3" draW'll in F".
9'1.
Note abo di u . CDJIncaed an d simul Wl eowly pat hoOOflnm cd sp ace Is path
<0"""... .
The lenD 'uniYer'M1 _erin,' Is uplaiDcd by th e rac:l: tha t I l -conn ect ed apace
whlc:b(OYen S is a COYeriD. 5pace Ollef any other space tovmng B . Morl: p:eisdy.
lhe roUowina propo sitJon ho\d.l.
TH EOREM 6. ul (,$, B , f . fJ) be tft, "fl~rall rovni", o~r a conntcttd. 10000lly
ptlill-conn:ftd space B. FOI'IIny coveri ng (,E. 8. F,p) owr S, Iht re ex<stsa surj/iw
mapp Ing J : - E $\Jell 111"1 Ihe d/(l,rQm

",- -'--." (4)

s
l-
V oommNt flflw. Mono"",., 1M _ ppUq f is 1M projtic" of tlte ro'JtriJr, ct. E .
r.n wI'IOMfibrr r is.dixrr'e~.midt v iii bVtiwt~ willi rllt
FC'1q:> ..-, (E).
paOOl . We perl'onD it in sevualst.,CIII .
l. A mappina/is ccnlSUUded in ~ f oUowin& wly. Lctb ol2 B , toe p -l(b~ C E,
'oe ,, - I l/1~ C E. We ~a. l.he mappln, /u ' li ft oflhe rnappillJfJ : E _ B
Mllsfyia, the CQlXtiti.OD/<to> so co- For an arbiuery point Jl e E. c:oDlida I path
l' : 1 - t with the ori&in ' 0 and the m d . )l. Aeeordins to Lanma I. then emu
unlque lift ( "I : 1- E ortht ~thp-, : 1 - B . P ut / (.l-) ~ f ,.( I}. Sinc:ethe ~t
il l-eonntcled . lh t dermition o hhe mappinsJ is vUid.ln raee, any t wo pith,,,... in
E from)l to y art: homoto pic (with the ends fUled). thenfo!e. tbrn projection.py.
~ IUC ilso homotopic in B an d th e lifts o f the latter t ,. f .. (wit h . eonunoll o rilin)
ar e homotopi c in E . Aocorclio, to Lemma 2. f "l and t.
have. comm on end . The
comm utativity or diagram (A) is obvious .
The rnlpp1naf is COll tiDuOUll and. mo reover. a local ho meomorphism . Th is Is
clear for Qt11ain neiah bourb C)(lCb o f the poinlJ' ene e, viz shts W... W~ !yin,1n
t . E o ver a padt-fO:OMected coordinate ndgbbo ur hood V. in faa. fo r pIIths" l)'\nl
in nriahbourhood of "'.. , we ob tain f "l= (Pi Ip..rr.Uterefore the rDilPpinl f l "'.
= pi II .. is 1 10<11 bolDtOlDOrJlhilln. To ..mrytlW faa rouny pair or poin tu e J.
r e E . wheref(.l-) .. T. It surflOtJ to see that )l.T may be:ta ken tD be new basepotn u
' 0- e . whereas the mappiDaf il wtalter ed (the verirIc.aOOn is left to th e ruder).
2. We DOW thow tlt.aJ:/is swjoctive. UtT be aD arbitrary point from E . ConsilI u.
pith., : 1 - Ewith theon.irt.c t o and the md at".
For thcp.athpy : 1 - B . there
aisu vclque lift.,. :
1 - with the ori,aiD . '0 aDd die end at certain point
Jl .. ' ,.( 1). Thm tbe pall\i I,,.and 'T POS$C$.I' eommort ori.&in and co,"," the J&mC
 ClI. . Manifo ld. and Fibtc:&lldlc:<
".
P-th py in S . Tbcrcl"ore.J.,.(I) - '1 (1) . i.e. .!tr') = y ,.hktr, mUlllitha t/ lu",ja;_
tiYe.
3. Show that I ; E - is !he projeetion o f th e rovuilli. For lla arbitrary poinl
c e , WllSider tl'lc iotCJ'R(:(.iOf) 0 a U n Y of Ibe COdirw e ne;,;hbo umoodJ U
and Y conWnina th e point p ~) for Ihe coYeriDp (E, B , F,~) and (,$. B . F. p I.
rapeaiveJy. The nci&bbouthood 0 is roordillale fw bolh eo veriop con&ldercd;
wilho ut lms o f Imerality , II gm be ....wncd to be plllh-connected . Th us, the oom-
mUlallve d iagram ati iCI

Hen: . 1M restriction Oh M mappinVto an y sbcct W. rrocn ~ - I (D) k

.... ~
& homcomor-

I I .... : "'. - W ./;.. = Pi'P

when WI = I(IJ'. >Is a sheel hom p -'(O).
Consider a _sheet W, COJl1.ainina som e polnl c . Den otc 1.lIu el o fthosc shcetl lJ'. ,
/ ) consin l , by pl,.: IJ'. & Fi _bclna th e <:o nn ected
o f wh;.;h the irIYft'SC imBle r I ( W
romponC1IU of 1.lIe Inver1C lmll&e -' (W,). W e endow Ihe set Fi with Ihe dlscreee
topolo, y and define Ihe mapp lnll
"' '''. :j - ' eW, ) - W, x Fi
by the fo rmuJiI
"' 1I',(lo) '" U(lo). e(lon.

where ("(lo) Q: tbe coM eeud c:omponC1l1 pla,m.1be pan of !.beSUbsc:rip l o ft he shed
utd coDtalni.na the polDlf(lo). 11 is obvioIlsthaI l it': Is a loc:a1 boDlQ)morphlsm and
a bijection an d Ih erefore a homeomorphism.
Th ereby. for an arb iuvy point c E E , coordinate naahbourhood W, and the
COdmate ho mcornorptlisrn,.w an: cons lnKlcd (t he comm utativit y o f th e cor -
In
respondin, diq:ram is obvious). view o f Ihe nOle ana Ihe dotrUlilion o f a covft'-
In" Ihe fibre F~ do nOI depend . up to bijection. on Ihe ehoice of a point c and
wordinille neighbourhood W, C E .
4. "'UI./ : E - is. covering map . Since it If unIversal, (- ,(2) = 0). ill fibre F '
Is In bijective correspo nd ence with the JI'Oup "I ~) .
COROU..ARY. Any two universa l coverill" (,$l' B .Fl'p, ) and tel' B . F l , P 2) over a
conntetb:!,localJ.y palh -eonncetcd space B iITC equivalent. i.e . there n i$U
homeo morphism j : , - E J sue h thallbc diagram

is commut at ive.
 Inlr06l1C1ioa 10 TOfIOloIY

" "

"

PIlOOJ'. The kKal ltomrom Ofllhbm establisbed by Theorem 6 Is a bijection d ue to

Theorem ... .
We now pus 011 \0 Ole ~eno;e Iheonm for the universal COvering.
THEOIlEM 7. La X /Ie II aNVI:ttd. Iot:ul/J> po'h-<OIfrleCtt d, and um;'IOCfIII,
I 'CtHIltttd spIIa. 17wtl (Mn u i$U 1I11/1lvtrui Q)~' Cl ,,"" X .
Pli OOf'. We realI. fVSl. th ai If ill bale for a ~crins. a path ....b fard ends is
h oll'l(K()piz.ed , then the pIl.iI. lhat OO~ II is also bomoIopiud wtth the ends fuod .
~forc, to poiDtse o f a l<OMeC:lell wve:rin& '.-e, thtR bijeaively COI'TeSPQnd
!be hocno!o py dasses or the paIhs in the ba$c wtth the oriaJru It the base point ~.
IDd m cb It the projeaiom p (r) or the poiDtsr . Th.ii property mablt:s llS '10 rcvcnc
the ~ UMd iA the PKVfow Ibeoran IDd restore the 1-eo l1JlCdal wvtrin&
JpICe by means o f the boc.ol:opy daises o f the base I*bl.
Thus. ks ~bc a omaIa poiQllD X . CoaUkr $DmC1toInotopy daa h..Jof patbs "1'..
in X with the oriIlD at die poirIl-ZolDd md II tome palm ~ & X . The set r~) of III
IUC!l daac:s. for attrtlinx. is. fibre o vu Ole pl)inlx, an d Ole UIlion E <: U r (.r)
. oX

o f all fibn:. is the total spa.cc. The projttlionp : E - Xii cIclmnlned in. Dat ur al
1I\IlIDa": lite proi<ctionp usociaIcs th e class h..1wil h tlIe po in tx. II is obvio ullhat
p- ' ~). r ~).
We Jive lite fIrM priority to Ihe wnstruetlon of the to poioay on E . For each
POint h..J GE, we speci fy . base of open neighbourhoods lDuCh..DJ as followi . Let
U be III arl;lluvy opcn , path -e:onllKtcd. ncil.bbouthood o f the point x. As I
n.
DCilhboutbood o f lite poin t ("1'..1, we take O(h.. Le. the set of hom otopy classes
h(J Cl flhole pa tlu T)' rtoUl Xo lOl e U, wbleb ar c the prodlJoCtl.,,, _ T..-II( of lett-
.... PM!I from the d&sI b-..J by . path II from x to 1 b'\DIln U ; Iy) dcpCIIc1I 0Illy 0lI
iY..J mld the homotopy da$:I 1'1) o f tbe pat.b fl, . Th e lldabboluhood 0u<h'...J) is
.~ I.e. oel&hbourhood of any of irs ~ts: 0 v (IT) - Qu<tT.. if
IT" I e 0u<h'.J}. ln faa. "1'7 - y.. flr "1',' 8; I - .,,,(/J, . 8; ') and lince fl" ' 8; I
Is I loop at poi,Qt ~ hoatotopOc to I coM:&DI path . "1'.. - "1',, ' fli ' (fixed-Cd
Iiomotop)'). Since tJ- ' - 8.. is I path in U from,toX . we obt&io. "1'.. - ." . fl... If.
I>OW. tT.1010vU.,..i{. thCft y y~ fl. - 7,(/J.. 8. 1: if, boweva. f'r.] EO (Iy,l l
 Ch. . ManlfOllb alld Fibre Blll\dla
'"

rtl . 94

thea ,. _ ,. . fjl - "11 ' f/J . fj:): eence, we conc;lude th~ the ndghbourhooch
ou<h)"n
0(/ (1"1'1') and colnelde. The reuonills performed is illUluated by F11. 9].
No te Ihat d ue to th e scmi-l~ l-eonncaedneu o f the spaoc: X , there W'U a
patb ..:o Mled o pca neighbourhood v of the poin u fo r wllieh thc homotopy ellw
of the prociutt "1', .. "I'll ~T doe:. nOl depend on th e choke o f a pa th /l trorn x 10)!.
The nelp boUThood v...m be the coorditlate ue4hbourllood ot the ",vcrina unda
COIWruc:tioP. The DCi&hbowhoods 0 ., mo fono a base for the Deis;hbourhoods o f
tbepointl"r
Let lIS new died" the continuity ot the mappiqp. For thu , it Rltf\ces to verity
thatp- I (U) is opeD tor llDy pWI-con.1lcued open Qciahbollrllood U o ftbe pofmx.
Let h,I6 p - l (U). Ibm h TI Is mlaino;! in. p- ' (U) tozethc:r with ODC of iu
Dd&bbowboodt, viz., th e ncilb"bourbDOd. 0 u (l Y,D, i.e ., p - ' (U) is OpeD..
To show, furthermote.lhal p Is . local homeomorphism, we d>oosc the 'coordinaJ.e
Deiaf'lbourhood' y or the poin! X'GX ..-I the noei&hbowtlood O{I1".J) o f 0<:J1&in
potnt 11"..1 of the fibR: r "" . L( 1"1'.. 1 is llD arbiuary poont from this DCi&hbollfboocl
tben 1", ... "1.. . /l.1'an d aD possible pathlfl T (from x to y in V), due IOt~ sani ~
1<OnQec:tedne ot X, fan into the u.n.lque borocxopy c:Iass IIJ, I. Thadore , the eee-
rapon4ent:e IT, I - ,. . pIfylns th e mappina p : O.,(t1"..]) - V Is bijcalve .
Moreover, tbe ma~ p 10 : DvCh..J)) - Via a homCOl\'lorp hism , finCll! It e eee-
timlou. (as I rC$uiclfon o f i/;e co ntin uous m. ppilll P : E - IJ 10 an ope n K1) and
opca (sinoe P(n wllT.t1J) _ W fo r any 'coordina te neilhbo urh ood' w e V ot the
po int)! and 1", e nv\I"'r'...J) (see Fill. 94).
Th UI, P lIa loea.l homeomo rph ism between E Md X , and for Ihc ' coo rdi na te
neis;)lb ourbood' V of!hc point Jt E X , wc h.vep - 'W) - U W" , whcte. fo r
l"(ool
tt _ "~I, W OO = Ov<h ..J)andp p : W oo - Jlare hOrneoP101'Jl~ms;udI W. i.f
ope n ill E and path..:onncaed . MOTcoYff, ....hen tt l .. ttJ' W. , n W" _ 0 . In
J
flfCl, if we auume 1M c:orurary thcn Ihere arc noa..flomotopic palhs y~, ,..: aod
palb 1".,": II V slim th l t h . 11ieI in the l.nlenec:tion ot the ne!ahbourb OOCI$ OvUT~J) .
tI ..(rdJ}. From !he pre violts, "1'; - T~ ' fl., T. - "':' 8 : (rlllcd .oend homotopies).
SiDccfl; - fl~ (du e to lhe 1ClfII1oc:al l-mnnCUcdDcss o f X) , we have T. - ,.~ . /l.,
y. - "1'; . fl. , i.e., "1~ . fl. - 1"; fl.: ha vin , mu ltiplkd both fides o t the lasI rela
 Int r od llction lo Topology

lion b y fJ; 1 ~ nd ta king UlIO accoum rhar the loop 13 , . fJ; I is homo topic 10 a con -
stant, we.ob tain Ihal "y; - "Y~ . w h ich i$ com ....ry 10 t he o riginal assumpt io n .
Thu s.p - I(V) . plit. into t he u nion o f disjoi nt Sheets W .. which ar c ope n, pat h-
co nnected in E (and homeomorp hic to V), where Q ran ges over the fibr e r ",).
II if now OatW"al to defme the coo rdinate homeomo rphism
\PI' : p - I ( V) - V I( T(lr) b y us uminJ: the 'c oo rdina tcs' of lh e point h,.1E p - I(V)
to be the ' number' of the sheet W.. to which the poin t belon p an d the po int y e V,
i.e . the projection of the point "Y), under the homeomo rphi sm p" =
'" p IIt' : W" - V . Thus, put ',, (h ,]) :::; ()O. h ...1l if h yl E O,,(h ... J). It is obviow
from a6'o~ th at the Ikfuti tion of the ma ppin g \P" is Valid . 11 remain s to show that
\P" is II. home olnOl'phism o f an open sct p - 1(Y) in E and the topologiclll p roduct
V)( T(:c) , Where r(:c) Is ",guded ll.I equipped with the discrt:te topology.
The bijcctil'i ty of \P I' Is cv1dellt from tbe aboY<: consrructlons. Th e cont inuity or
\P I' foUows from that of the t wo ma ppin gs p : p - I ( V) - Y,p(h ,.U =y and
q" : p - I ( y) - r (lr), ql'(("YJ) .. h ...l involvl in the defmitlon of 1"1" The con-
tinuity of p wtI.S 8Sl:er1amed ear lier , and that of ql' follow s from q . bcina locall y
COU&Wlt (on tad! sheet W <r = 0l'(h. .J ). Th e CODtinu ity o f I" ~ I is a eoJUeq\ICnoc of
the topo! oaY of the fibre r (:c) bcing di scret e an d p ", : W. - V beins a homeom or-
phism . In fad. . the base of open ncilb bourhQ<Kb of the point (y )( a J C V I( T (lr)
is formed by tbe SCts SlY ) x a, where S(Jt) C V is pat h-eo nnected , open
nri~bourhood of the poln t r, an d the inverse Imll4le ", y l(S (Jt) x a) eq uals
p; (S (y , I.e., an opeD $uNet In w.._
Th us, f' y il a h omeomorp hism. Th e commutativity of the diagram required b y
the Ikfmition of . coordinate hom eomorphism i5 obvlc us.
Let us verity the patlt-co nn ectedJlC$ll of the spa ce E . It lU ff"iCClI to show tha t an
arb itrary po int h"J from E can be join ed to th e po int IC...), i.e . tht bomotopy elus
or the eolUliult path (at the po 1ntxo>, by a path in E . Let ..,,, : 1 _ E be the n p'QCn.
lluive orthc ela5s h "l. We de fine thl!; path (C : I - X for . ocrtains . 0 " s"
the formu la r"(t ) .. "Y,, ~I ) . By asl ocia,l ns the num ber s with the ho mot opy cilw
I, by
Ir"J of lbe path r". we obtain the mapping", : t - E sa tisfying the conditions
...(0) ... IC....,J . ",(I) = h ...l. The eolXinuity of the mapping ... can easily be establU hl
in l u fflciently &maD intervals in (0. I) whose Imases fan into the coor dinate
~bourb ood5 0 Y([" eJ). whe", .1: "" 'l',, ~). Th erf;fore, '" is path in with the
origin at h J and t he end at h...l whma: it foUows th at E II pat h-am nected .
Thu s, (,It'. x, r(:c). p) ill covering . To eom pkte the proo f of the theorem, we
esta blish the l-c:onnectednCS5 of the space E . Consi der the loop '" o f the space: E at a
po int ..o, wnere ..o is the homo topy class o f the constant mappina C" . We sho .... t hat
Ihe loo p "y = p.p : 1 - X (at the po lnt xo> il homctcpje to a coostant. Note th aI du e
to the struct ur e of l ite Ipace E, for an lIJ'bil rary path ( : 1 -:. X with t he origin atxo
and its unique eovcrina path'! : 1- E with the o rigin at " 0' the md ,,(1 ) of the pa th
, il lhe bomot.op y dass o f the path E ( ill the class o f pa ths with fu ed ends). Since '
Is a un ique path with the ori&in at t o covering the path j- . we oh tain t hat
",( I) .. r..,J .. Ie... J .. e'o. i.e. , t he pat hs .., and C... arc hom oto pic with Ih e ends
fu ed . which impli~. the contrDctibUlty or t he loo p "'/0 = p '. Because the proj ection
p induce . a monom orp hism of fundame nlal groups, t he loop ", is also homo top ic to
a co nstant .
 C it. 4. Maflifold.l and FIbre BII"dle. m
Theref ore. "' 1(' eO> .. 0, which completes lit e proof o f tlte t heor em. _
N ot e in oo ndosio n , that th e co n d itio n
!. ('I" t (X, .1"0 s: P. ('1" 1(' ecY)
whleh Is n etemry for lifti n g a map pingJis sufficient fo r a COJUlc:eted , loeall y path -
con n ected sp ac e X. The COlu tIllClion of th. IiCl is in this ease based onlil'ting the
paths of the form! ' 01, wher. OI is a path inX wilh t he origin atxoand the end at an
arb itrary poln l Jl. The validity o f Ihis construction can be verii>ed. by meanli of the
coveringltomOtopy property .

~. RamifIed C o veri ngs , To conclud e Ihl. sec'lIon, Wi: dwell on the not ion o f rami rltd
alvmn,., An eJIlUllple oh rami lled con rl nj (as sh"""" by thenarnplc in Se<:, 4, 01, I, o e th e
Ritm aon . ur face of the fllllClion .. - -Il ) may be liven by <he mappOn l of the t sph n e SJ in _
to itself determined by lbe formula/u) .. J 1, It Is obvious thar. the quadruple
(S1 , 10. 001. SJ -, (0. 001, 2
J./)
(where ZI is a two-poi nt S[llIet with Ihe <fu.crcle IDPD!ogy) ;s a coven oll
OI!F1NtTJOi'lll . A qu ad ruple rSt, M. 2 . p). where p ; I:i - M : i. ca lled arllmlfw co_In,
If(i) 1:i and M are two-dlmensionlll manifolds; Z a spa<;< with the disaete topo!ou and con-
>istsof " points; (i1) ror . om .u. rlnile set T C ~, ee qulldrupleW , T, M ,p(T), 2~ ,p J Is
1IlI ,, -thel:ted 00YffinI; (ill) for My poin l y.; M and its $Ufncic mly ,maIl a cilllboUlbood V ()')
which i. homeom orphic to Ibe disc, lhe co nnccred compon<:nU of the set p- '(Vt)r ar e
hOttlconsorpllll: to Ibe dis<:: .
W~ will W1l1OinlS ;1<f!J Tthe li",uhlr pain'" 0/ 1M FtU,,/f1ftl eo_I", .
~ I I . Show IM t a Riernum Iw face P determined by the al. obrai<: fllllCtioo

.... + alit).... - , + . .. '1" II. _ lit)", + " .It) .. 0,

where ",It),1 .. I , . . . , II, are polynomials (_ Sec. 4 , CII. l). is a raml fied cov~riD. I.P, S2 ,
2. , pl. Indi<:ale the sin,war pain.., o f Ibis ~. When II .. 2. co mpare the result wl\h
lhose obtaintd ln Se<:. 4. CII. I.
Con.i dor IIlI open neiJh bou: hood V(p(l-J)j of the inla.e o f .mawar poin~ tluot
for all other Unf\lW poUlt.! ~, il faUoWl from the con dition p W) & V~) th &1
p(r') .. p (>IJ ). Th~ in \'a" lm.,e of lbe boundat)' ~ V(,:t~) o f thi> "cilllbowllood decom.
POW' in' o several closed Cllf'/e., vit ., the circurn feren eq which bound the oonll ect cd com-
pon ents orme setp - ' ( V fpW )) Ibal are ho meomorphic 10 apen diJct . Let U V) be m e con
nected <:ornpDl>C:rll of p-'( V(P(l- ' ) cont .uunl ' he po!nI Jr'. The dqreo o f ille mapp\n . (_
Sec. 4, CII . III)
P bU lr'1 : au(l-I) - W <v,,",)
il aJlnd 'he m ulrlpJlclry aI/he Mancil poi" , ,rl; we will denote it by III Il il evldm l IM l th e
muUlpHclfY can be deimod alilO for bran at po lml whkh ar e not sinsutlll . If
p lut<' : vf.<') - V(P ~) II a hO!l!fOOlO!pl\lsllj lllen, obviOlls!y, d ellP I. w .. .t. I. In the
le"e'~ tIIOC, ee ,ellCt.llon of..' , (a v (>"'J)1lT>d "',(av(p (l" m are cl>ocn 1lI~ laarily and '0 Ii
IIIe .Im o f k r However, In a num ber of cases, thellp of III i.I determined 10 . naruraJ 'I' &y.
Till"' , f", & t llmlllnd co verin. (S 2, Sl,2 . t J ) , the mul tipl h:il y oft bc poinu o and 00 1.0 eqll al l o
2, and th at of a.ayother lIOintlJ I. POl" Je ramlflcdcoverinll (SI ,SI, Z c?. the muh lptid ly
of the poinl l O and 011 Is eq llal lo -2, an d thai o f ally atMr pain" i> _ I.
;;en:/# 12 . C alc:uJal e th e multiptl<;lly of the sina:ullll branch poin' . o/ , Ite ramified ~ rin' l
from ElIa cUc J L
 IDllOCl uction to TopolDn

W<: .... rwe tloefollow!DI iDlportaJll fOf'tllUi.lo

1l(.W) "''' . 1l(M) - E, (U.,I - I) (1)

rd all na !he IIll/.lt!plkitiQ of upl!ar braDCh poillli with th<: Eule.. d1Maet~ of a 1patt
a,nd iU baM .
W<: wm U lume the spaca M and M 10 buom~C1 an d IrtanaWabl<:, i. e to be doseli Stll' -
face. For any liD&Ular poJ.nl xl II! T, we chOUH a ndall bourllood VIp tY u It wac done
lbo'o<:. ColIli4cr 1I0W lbe. QlW!ruplc

(R , U U(l"),M ' U y tp t:o!. Z~. , ).

,
wbcrc ' raaaa _ 1be.1l1lDlc act T . It Is otMotll that lhil is Ill "~ CO'f'Criq (l'Ol
. araIf>td) 'lil'1lQK IpKe mel bUc may be -.ida-cd lriarcWabk. T1IIac lriIn.avWlao:Illlay be
cbosa sufflCimtly riDeand COlllflaIible 10 lila! the MI iIrnc iaA&cs or a 'tUtu, &II od,p aDd
I. tri&q1e fram ee bue ~ ""U of " vertlccs, edps Illlli triaqIQ. mpea.vdy. ThcufOK, lilt.
tqIleI.i(y holdl:

U
ll tM' '\.
, U(I") a "ll W"' U, V rptl ) ). 0'

Le. lbe. full invencimaaep - ltpt:o! colUiau of 1ft polml.l" ' . ,;.... 1ben Ille full in
verse .."...,- ' ( Y(PW) ~ o f 1ft cllia U p/). SiJla: the ~ ilU tol' j ls mapped
01110 u '(PerJ)j locally bolDeom orphkall, willi dqroc k / . s . I 1ft . Ih. let
p- ll) n auWo) CODIisu of prflCisdy 1* _I poUw for evel)' jJoim,. 4' ilVrptrl. TburlflfC,
for every IIQl>W pcMi ..-'. lUld po(a u:rf 1;p - l (p W . we hue

,, - 1: (l kJ.I-lj ... m. ("

, .1

We !tOW Slue the 4ixs u(r4) IyIna VfpuJ to lbe qlal:C Ah U

0V'Cl' the disc
, U(I"l.
Dalote the obtained If*ll: by Al. SilIoe, lie Euler dlaraaaistic of lllc di$c equals 1 and lUI
or lu bcModaty is O. _ ol;Jt.aia

1:
,. ,
(I .t,.' - I ) . (5)
 Ch. .. o Man' fo ldJ.and Fibr~ 8 \>no.l l"

Ol~ oa& by OM new disca pI.KC'd o wr t ill: lunainina JlQInl.p(l") Ii M . i.e. the proj!ions
'"
of the silrplar points 11 .. T C Itt. we oblala:

x(.'1 j - x (v ,- ~ Ut>""'" 111 - ~ ( lk j ' _ I). (6)

....t.tte/ ls the rl...oa of different Ilnases ptrl> of lbe anaular poirruJl. IttIIomber l.IIu
x ( \1'- L! UV and X(M'- l!V<PW )
an rdat~ by cquillity (1) . Note no w that

xW)- 1( (M'- l! V{p(JIll) + /, (1)

U
. 1rIce /If may be obtained rrom /If '-
, V{p(.l"ll by gluingl d l$Q to the ~tter . Th\ls. from
(2), (6) and (7), we roJld
x <.4") - " 1ffM -, U Yip ",)) + nl - E ( Ik , ' - I ) - nx (/lf) - E, (Ik, ' - I).

BriDJinl to miIld tb~ cr:pn:Uion of Ih~ Euler channerlstk In lmnJ or the I"rlVl o f a
closedNI '''", If it CUJ to derive from for Pl.ua (1) the 'UIIlofthe mu1tiplicitio o f the d npiu
pQUlts on a ...
," ms o r the IfllU of M mrllbe &en'" o r Iiit. For CUII'lple , ill c:aseM INId i't are
orimlablc Ud lI' INlIIIolS p ,IJ. respectively. _ Qve

E, (I k, ' - I) - 2fP + 11 (1 .: p) - I).

E:atd# 13". eo.parethe \au ., r_ ula with Ilw f... the DUmber o r brand:l poinU: IIfa cer-
I .... "braJc. t\IrIaioD. _bKb. ..... nlabfi'bed at the end o f Set:. .., 01. I.

10. SMOOTH FUNCTION ON MANIFOLD

AND CELLULAR STRUcnJRE OF MANIFOLD
(EXAMPLE)

I. An Example of a Function on a Torus. A JIIanifold is a topg loP:aJ

~ fJ'l'a naecl kIeally u a J;t1e1idean space. Ho wever- , coNidered lU it whole , it ma )'
be quit e complicat ed . The n ud )' o f the properties o f lhe manifold in the lar, e
promu ClOIUk1erable di ff'it ulties . How sho uld IlOp o4iffcomorphit:: , DOIl -
bomeolDorphlc and bomotopy non-eqwvakt'l t manifol4s be distitlJUisbecl1 An the
oomp1n P'"oj eaive 5paCC and . I ph ere of tbe I1IIIe dimcnsiOD homeo mo rphic? The
II)QC c:oane o f tb e li$tGl cq uintenca is hoatol~ cq uivalatcc. Therd ore. ( tnt o f
aD. the hOlllot opy 1)1lC; o f. manifold sho uld be sNdiod. AD a eepl lonall y uJcful in
IU1Imn'llI ill ia vcstiptjq lhe bo motopy type of. manifold and $OIvla& JMlI y other
maaifold lopology probtmu u the theory of critical poinU o f RnOOlh fUDctioM on
marUfoids. We iIlustrale lhis method by sim ple example.
 Inl,odl><;llo n 10 T OpOlo l\Y

CollJJder a t wo-dimensio D&! to nu M C R lto\lChing the pi ane X)' (Fill. 95). Con-
s.idtt a fun ction / o n Ihe IOrus wllcnc vetu e It th e po int o f t he toru s with coor-
dinates ~. Y . lI:) equall ll:, tbe beight o f the point owr th e plane .xy.
xvT:/.a 1-. Verify that the functi on / so defined ls a smooth fu nctio n on the to rus.
I>er\o(e t he point of ccn tacr of the torus and plane by P . an d th e po int s of th e
10rus Ih at lie over p on th e pcrpcnd kul8r to the pl ane by q ,' and $ in order of In -
ctctUl.ng heiaht.
Whlle inVI:$!i&ating fun etion s on the m anl fold . we wUl need tl'lc notions o f t he
u beJ,lIe ret ('I' "c) .. ll'e X: .,, ~) " cJ of a fun dion ' : X _ R and thel~~1
~I <." '" c) - ll' (l X : .,, ~) .. cJ of the fun ct ion .". Th cs~ $Cts will be u $Cd essen-
tially In the 1U1ll1ysis of fWlet lons on the manifold In Sec. 12,
II is evident thlll the level llne if .. c) of th e fuacticn/ ... lI: is the tmersecncn of
the to ru s with the plan e lI: .. c. The set of po ints of the lOru s lyin g no t high er t ban
t IM: plan e lI: '" c is the $C'I if " c); we den Ote It by Ar. The set Ar is em pt y wilen
c <: 0; when c ... O. Ar co nsists o r on e point an d is a zero-d imcnsional mlln.ifold;
when 0 -c c < j(q), MC ;, homeomorphic 10 a plane closed dlsc; when
j(q ) <: c < I v ). th is set is homcomo rphk to a cylinder; whenjCd < C < j (.r). the
set Mt is a torus wilh the cap cut (the cap being homeomorphic t o an opcn plane
disc) ; when c ;;l j (.r). ~ ... M . All th ese cases ar e IUUSIf&l cd in Fig. 96 .
Enm.u.
2, De$cribethe setsM! 'd1) an4Wv ),
3 . Show that when 0 < c e j f,r) and e ." j (q ), jv), th e set ~ is a two-
dlmell sional manifo ld with bou ndary if .. c) ,
Intuitivel y. the sets drawn in Fill, 96 are Dot ho meomorphic; DOl arc th ey
hom ot op y C'QllivllIent . Th e hom ot op y type o r tb e set ~ wUllllte r Ir c passC$ Ihrollg,h
the values o f th e fUllet lon j an h e polnts p, q , r , s which we singled out. Let \U n lldy
these ctt....1:$ in m()<"e detaiJ,
 0 . 4.1IoUlliro lds an.dFi lwc 8<uwIIcs U7

~J ;) .,,/.
~rv~
' .....
. Y
.
. , ..._..
.. ~
.
.'
~
~
.
.
. . ..
~

' . . ..

(g)~9~a fil . 100

~ ~ C\
~~~~ ~ ~
F'". 101
 Introduc' loJn to Topoloty

Obviously, the set ft,fC when 0 " c < f(q) i'l homotopy iulvaknt to the lero
4lmeruional dlsc, t.e., a point (fis;. 97) : when c = ! (q ), the set ~ is homotopy
iUi"a1en l to the di sc with an arc h an dle glued (Fig . 98). Further, when
f(q) " c < fit) , t his homOlopy Iype is pr eserved ( Fig. 99). When c '" f Cr), the sel
~ U ll cylinder with the bouDciaries glued. to on e point llIId therefore is homot opy
iui"a1ent 10 8 cylinder with lUI arc hlUldle glued or disc wllh twe arc han dles
(F18, 1(0). Wh en f (r) < c < 1(,1), th e let ~ is a toru s with t he ClIp remov ro ; it is

when c ;;JI< '''1.

evident that its homoto py type iJ; th e lUIle lIS in the pr evious case:(F ig. 101). Finall y.
th e set W is th e who le to ru s Obtained from the pre vfou s type by
gluing the removed cap which is homeomorphic to the plane disc.
Thus. with the use of the smooth functio n I. we have 'constructed' thi: torus
from disc3 of diffCfen t dimeniion! by consequently gluln g the discs M d transfel'l'ing
to homotopy llQuivalent figures .
It will be shown below that any $mooth manifo ld may be o btainc:d In this way.
2. Cell Com p lexes. Let usllI\a1yu the operation s of glu ing discs In the example
considered aDd describe wbat meant 'to"pue a disc' in areater detail .
Let X be a Hausdorff sp ace . and let D n be a closed dlse with ra dius I a nd ce ntre
at the origin of the coord inate system in the spa(:<: Rn , and S~ - I its bo unda ry . Let
6 ; S" - l - X be contlnuoUI mapping. The res ult o f gluina th e disc i3" to X
(relatillflto th e mappln.81) II the factor spaeeX U .c: iY' = ()( U d) / R of the dis
joint unio n o f X and D" with respect to the eq uivalence R WIder which u - g(u),
u s" - I.
A ell is t he ~ t" o r th e let in t is'' in XU , iY' rela1ive to the mapping:
X U D" - ()( U D")/ R. .
Thus , the disc is slued. to X along th e boundwy with the help o f tht glven con-
tinuous mappinj 6 .
ln the Ql.SoC when n 0 , disc D is poin t IIDd iu boundary th e em pt y lei; the
result of gluing jjO to X i.s the di!jolJlt union o f X and jjO co to.J.e . t he 8pace~
with a poin t lying separately . Anoth er example: gluing the disc D" to the disc DO
PfodUcell the s,phere S" .
The discs ma y be glued one a fter another. the original 'Pace being the ceU ,0.
MoreovCl. we shaD t eep the rule io glue th e boundary of the dise & to a Imi te set
of ee.lb o f dimmulon no t hiaher than (k - I). The sp&ee which can LIlus be
represented as the result or consequent gluing of discs (of different dimen.sions) i.s
ea1kd II etU compkx.
For example, LIle splle re S" is II ceO com plex con 1i.sting of two cell s e" and t ll,
where e~ u glued to t o a!ong t he boundary .
We now add uce a definition of II cell ecmplex which is independent of the
previous consi deratioN and does n ot involve Ime quenl cell gluing . It is cqu.iva1ent
to the one above.
DEFINITION I. A cell complex is a Hausdor ff space K which can be re presen ted as

LIle W1ion U(
,, _ 0
U
l e i"
t'/ ) o f palrwi5e disjo int sets t1 called eens lUld such that

for each ceU~. IImappin,g 11 : iY' - K o f a closed ball to the I pace K is lilted . This
 0 .4. M anif.,wnd FIbr e U" ndla.

is called clt_tui.stk mappht, . and tbe rutrictio n ri 10 int1Y' '" D" is

homeomorphism onto ~ _ I.D addition , t~ uiolM dl U~ be f ulnU ed :
(j) rM txnmdllry ~ ?,,~ of t:Odt ~Jl ~ & (;()IIIQf"td i" rit e lOIioll of Q jilllte
IIWmb/!,. of ails of Ius/r,. d inl# fISkms ;

_.
rai)IItI! lopolou 0l'I K is 6tIdI Ihllt IM Kt A C K I1clMtd if_lid o nly iffor ~ U
~. 1M I wU t,n w :st!imqe (liT t (It n ?) c ~ Is dosttd '" d .
A a Deomplell b aid to be fm /te If It rotUisu of a rlllile numbel: o f crib .
II ahould be DOCed (hlIt alPK'= ean be decomposed into cd1s in d ifferent -J'S-
The pUlcm or di vidu., a a:.D complex irlUt l;eUs is a.Iled Uwltu d CC'QmPOSllion .

4 . Show thai the Iwo-djmau iotW tonIS is U ClOnIpl~ .

$ . Sho "" thai; me so:u h omotopy eq uivalltlU. to the I..ebcs&ue seu if .. c) in me
eump le of IlaD I, ao d drawn in rIP. 97101 0CIi the riPI,.Irl:cell oompleu:s. Com
pale lhriJ" odIu lar deccmpositioDS. MiDd th e dtan". of t he hcmOtOpy type of theJe
oomplcxes.
Consider . cloKd ~~ L o f .. cdI c:omplu K . If L is .. cd! c:om plCJt"" box all
c:cUs u e abo edls of the OOIZlpkx K -M1h the _ ch.arac:Ieris tic:map!'in&l. then L is
calkd _ II'~ of tlte co mplDr K .
Exnri.sJr;$.
6. LeI K be _ een ClOmp''"'" L its 5\lbc:omplex and X .. topolopeal sp ace. Let map-
pings F : X - X andf : L x 1 - X be slld!. lh N f l L .. 0 - FI L. Show th ll there
exlsu .. III _W in. P : K x 1 - X suc h thai. " , .. J - I and Fi x " 0 c F (the
Borsllk homolo py ulm sioll theorem ).
Hin l; I!J.tflMl the holl'lOlopy 10 each lkllmeft$lonal <lIU. thm 10 ead> one4lmcnslolllJ . eft .
7. LaX be a ccUcomplex.and L itll c;onlnl;Uble ' Ilbc o mpk:ll:. Show that t he , paces
X and K IL Ite ho moto py equivalen t.
S . P ro ve that any e:ell complex is a Dorm al Hausdor ff , p :lo;e.
MIn d that to th e eumple CODSidc:nd In Itern I . the: homoto py t ype of the:RI M'
dl&n&ed wb lle PuAns th rouah the valua f (P ), f (q)./fr) :and/~). The pomUlp . q ,
r , $ diffn ftOm the o ther points o f th e:torus in the followin a : if m .. nclabboumood
of Ill y of thdC pomtll. e...... of tM point p , a local system of t;OOnlinatCli t,,, QIlthe

IOn1S is chosen. thm both partial dcrivltivCll

. ..
if and If will vanilh iIII th e:point p
aI q ,". s . fCllpec:l Iv.dy) . Such points ...e caDcd the cri tical points of the: functionf;
(0.-

!he valua o f the futl<;rica aI th~ poU.U "'e:CIIled the critic::al v:alIlCli of the func:-
tionf
~ 9" . Uain. the. coordinata o f th e plane x , y as Ute local CCXH'du>alCli in
nri&bboumooob of the points p , q . r , s. atlo_ lhat
...a.I _ 'yU _ 0 N ao y o f thac.
prialS. Expuld the fwlaloll at th~ point. into I $Criet of pgweTa of x M d ~ up to
Ihc terms or the IC'OOnd order inclusive_ Mind thai the n umbft- o f mmlUC$au-.dtcd
10 lh.. lerm, c f Ihe.lIeCOfId dqre.: is precisely lhe d ilnCftsoon o f the f:'dIwtltch should
 lnt rod ""tiO<l to T opology

beglued to lor to make a \rans fer to ~ when between the num ber s a and b , th ere is
a critical value oorrupo ndinj: to the cridcal po int in qu wlon .

11. NONDEOENERATE CRITICAL PO INT

AND ITS INDEX

1. Nonde~enerate C ritical Points . Lct M" bea manifol d of clas.\ C- , and

/: M" _ R a functio n of d ass C-.

A po int p f! M" is called a crltk ol potnl oj fir, j unction j if the eq uality iJj

... - oj = 0 ho lds in tile local co ord inatts Xl ' . . . , )(" . The n um ber jlp) is
'x,
Ox.
called a critiall Wllue oj flr,junction/. All th e rem ain ing pa ints o f th e mani fold M"
are called noncritlcol point s oj fh, f unction j . All numbers whic h are net critica l
valu es of the function / are sa id to be noncritical valws o/tlrl$/uflctfon.
b ,rrisI 1-. Co mpare th e nOlions of critiea.l and noncril ical values o f a function !
with th 05C o f rcs u.la r an d nonr egu.lar va lues o f a smooth ma pp ill$ (see Sec . 5).
A critica..l point is sai d 10 be isoltJlW if lhere is its l\e1s hbourhood such tha t hall
no ot her criliea1 pa inl$. A critical po int is $;lid to be flondegtnerafe if t he matti. of

th e sond partial deri vatives A = ( .'/

a)(/OA'J
) I
p
is nOllslngular. Oth l:tWi se, a
critical point is &aid 10 be degtnertJf, .
Consid er a quadratic form (Ax, x ) , where X 6 R " . This is called th e H~Jan o f
the function j at the pointp. Sin(;e th e rnatrilt A is S)'I'Illmtrlc, the quadrat ic fonn
tAx, xl can be reclu-eed to th e canonical .--
(A x, x ) " -y~-yi - -yf+y~+ 1 + +)'~

by a coriverUcnc dloic:e of lh e coord inates Y ,. . , 1'" , Ir " fl ; if lhe m lU rlll A is

non siJl&ular, eben h _ n.
The number ). is eallcd the fndrx ojrlr, ju/fcrion / tlt rhe point p , tlnd th , numbtr
(II - II) tlr, de,rw oj singukrrit)' oj til, Ju nction / tit fhe:point p .
x.uI.pU! . Let us detlne a function on R 2 by th e formu.la j()(, 1') = xl - k 1'2. It is
o bvious th at th e partial d m vat ivC$
./ Of
ax ~, 1') .. g2 - J1'l an d a1' (.r,y) " - 6.-1'

vanis h sllnu ltaneously only at th e painl (0, 0) which is thu s an b olat ed critical point .
AD the aeeond parti al dcrivlUj~s

- - 6<
equal >.erg 811he pa inl (D, 0) . Therefore, lhc maIm orl he second panial derivat iYe!
of th e function! It Ihe point (0, 0) is zero, and th" H ess ian of t he function/at the
pl)int (0 , 0) is I quadrallc fo rm identically equal to eerc. Therefore, th e cri tical point
(0, 0) is degenerat e, Ole degree of singulari ty al the poin t (0, 0) eq uals two and the
index o f f Is Urn .
~rcm.
2 , Sho w Ihe cor rec tnes s (i.e., independen ce from the cb cree o f a system of lQca l
roord inatcs) o f th e defm iuQns of a eritil:&! poin t , nondl:SCncnUc critical point , the
degree o f sin gularity and indCll: of. function III critical pol.nt .
3. lnves tiptc the crit ical points of the following funct ions o n R I and R ~,
(a) lex) = xl, (b) /Cx.}') - r
and (el / ex, )') - ry': investigate th e critical po ints
of a fun ction on the lOTUS (sec Item I , Sec. 10).
2. The M o r se L e mma . A re markable fact in the theo ry of erltkal po ints i5 the
po Slllbillty to represent a (llIIo:tion in neighbourhood of a noodegeneratc critical
point as a qu.adrlllie fonn and to desl:ribe th e behaviou r Of l he fun<;lion by its indu .
THEOIU! M I (1rIE! MORSE I.EMMA) . u t I : M" - R ' , tuld p W
i7 1I0ndegene'Gle
cfritk:tJ1 point 01 t hl! fun ctio n j . T1ren in a ana;n nl!ighbourhood U oj tlte poIl1t p,
thl!Tf'fl]Cist$O (QCOI$y$tl!'" o/clK)I'dINlfU YI' . ,Y~$flchthot.Yt(P) " 0, ' " I,
n, and l he / oll owinll wl!nlily is WI/id In U ;
1v.) -/(P) -y~ - . - Y~ + Y~ + t + . . . + J'~. ( I)
IIIhere YI' . . . , J'" are the cQOl"d;na rt!'> of th e pcblt u, ond )' is thl! iIldu Q/ thl! func-
tion 1 or tJH point p ,
PROOl'. If there exi'lts a system Of coord inates su eh that the function/is with respec t

to it of form ( I). then the matrix of panial derivatives ( ''I )

ay/JYj
I
p
Is diago n.u . The

n umbcn on the dilosonaJ are ""1, and the nwnber o f nepti ve eia enval uQ ls , o n t he
on e hand, equal to th e n umber }., in represmlation (I ) , and o n t he olher hand, is the
inllo::x off at the poinl p by definit ion.
We now prov e that such a representation (1) for Ihe funct io n / exists , Let x l , . . . ,
x~ be a iocal eccrdtneie 'Y.stem such thai the polniP hu the coordinates (0 . . ,
0). Lemma I of 5. I may be "PP lied to th e functio n / fJI ) - /(P) in a certain
neigh bourhood U of Ihe point P. whence we o bl lt1n the following equali ty (assum-
inS l hat/(p) .. 0)

fVeI. . x~ ) = L XA"IVet . x~) .

,- ,
M Ofe()ver.

,0) ='_
I {O, . . , , 0) ... 0,
"',
slrn:e p is I critical point o f f.
 Inlrod~<;Ii<>n 10 TOl'Olngy

Let IU apply Lemma I of Sec. I 10 me fu net ioA$ t , again. We o bla.u'l

t l"'l"" . X~ ) " 1: X/'UCxt , . . , X~ )

j - I

,X~ ) - E .x~ l

.
! I.x l , . . xfCjrUCx I"" (2)
I. j _ ,

Denotio. h/j .. 'i f/lU + - -

hill . we obtain II" '" 11ft an d

!(;cj . . . xN ) ... E x.,ful.xj , , x~ ).

._.
'.J- I

I al/
Since hU{O ,0) .. - - - to .. . , 0) , the manU: (lil/(O, .. . , 0) i$ non-
2 ax/ax,
siJlgular . ThWl, withOUI lew of ~ty , me mauix (hU) in (1) can be regarded as

U the functions 11/1 weu COO5tant then , to prove th e theorem, it would be su m-

tient to reduce the quatlndc form/Cx l, .. . ,xN ) to the canoni cal. But, generaJ1)' ,
lhe rusonirq: should be slllhll)' modiftcd.

For the furt her theory , it wU1 be convenlent 10 assu me Mdditio ml1l)' mat a- (0,

. . . , 0) o . 1b1s auumption don not lead to lou o f ~ncralit)' ~ilher , sjone we

can aJw.y.i ~Meve this b)' cha.naJq: the local coordinates (changing the chan ). In
faet, die qlUldra.tic form E " 1/ (0, . . . , O);cfC, can be reduced, b)' a Linear eon -
/. J . I

singu1aJchanae of the coordin.tes, 10 such Ihat the element " It o f iu matrix is not
eeee. HaviIlg performed. this coordinate change in fonnula (2), we win o bta.in for/
(in the new coordinates xj, . . . , x~ ) lI..similar representatio n again

/ (;r; , ... ,x~) '" E x;rj hJiCxi, . .. . .l~),

/.' -,
but no w, however, "Ii (0, .. . ,0) '" O.
Th us, uswnina lhaI h ll (0, ,0) 0, _ can write (In a cert ain
Dei&hbourhood of the poinl (0, . . , 0:

' %4) " E "~fCJ " .... l tx~ + 2 E ",tx,cl +

I,J . I ' " ,
 Ch. 4. Manlrol'h ond fi b,e Bundle.
'"

.. 51gnh ll(O, .. . O)y~ + E

1./ ,. I
h _ hJlhl ') x .
( " Ih I 1')'
., smoothly: "

, Jr~ ) l

Applylnll the inverse mapping tbeorem (w: $ce . I), we shaD see Ihlll lhe tran sfo r
mat lon ~ I ' .ll"z' , Jr~ ) - (Y l' Jrl' .. . , Jr.) is II diffcomolllhism in II.
nrighbo urb ood of the polm (0, .. . , 0).
Ncie , funher, that the lIlatrix

h _ h l1h/ l) 1 < ;.1 " n

( II Ih ll l '
is nooloiDglllar llt lhe point (0, .. , 0) IllId symmeuie (verifyl). Therefore , we can
appl y Ibe above reuoninJ, to t M function

~ (hV- ~~~I)JrI'J
j.J,. ,

and 50 00. III in the elnsJCIl Lagnmge 1I1l0 rilhm for reducin.a. qulldrlllic form to
the cano nical . FioaDy , we come to Iln expression of form <I) for the functlon J .
EXerrUet.
" '", Pr ove Ihll.t any nondega!erat e en ticill point If isolat ed.
5 . Fmd representations ( I ) denned by the MafIC lanma for lh e hci3h1 functi on on
the tOfUS (see Sec. 10) II.t critical poinu.
6. Prove that th e poIn u of mllltimum and minimu m of a smoo th fun et.ion on a
manifold with out boundary are critkal . ClI.lcuIate lhe Indices Il\ the points of
lIIIIXimum IllId minim ulll if the po ints arc known to be nolldegen erale.
J. The Gradient Field . Let A..,{u. v) be the Rlemannillll metric on M". Fo r
lIllY poinl Jr e M~ , we choose a vecto r J'" e T~ JO tha t the foUowinll co ndilion
may be fulftllcd : for an arbitrary vector I"e TjtI" , the folloWing eqUAlity is valid
A.,<Y."f.,> '" (<If).. V.,l. (J)
wbere (q{).. (l..) iI tlte valllC of th e di fferential of the fu n.tio n! at th e point .. on the
~OT f,..
The (leldy" obtained Is eaUed the , lfldknt [l eld orlhe funct ion! an d drooted by
grad!f.x).
 Introduction 10TopolOgy

Ex~rdus.
1. Show that in th e loc al coor dinates, the gradient fiel.d i!I of the for m
"
and f (r;) _ (.r\.. .. .x~, ( ~ a/l (r;) a./ ) ~ .. ..
ax/
-, "Xl

(I, . ,
when .r'(l;o) are the coeffteienu of a matrix which is Inverse to the matri x (lrij(l;o of
the fonn A (u. ..).
8. Pro ve that for a fUndion of class CO' , th e gradimt field is a smoo th vec!.or Ileld,
9. Prove tha t grlSd / (;A = 0 if an d ooly If z'l is a critical point of the functio n! .

12. DESCRIBING HOMOTOP Y TYPE OF MANIFOLD

BY MEANS OF CRmCAL VALVES

In th is section , the boJllOlopy t ype of a mani fold will be dcso;ribcd by meaDS of

critical values of a smoot h function on the manitold . Such a <lcxript lon w Ll; fin l
JPven by Morse. We will show thai a eompact mani fold is ho motopy eqWvalelllto a
ceUoompl~ . Some details oftbe proo t (and in IInum""r of eases , rather subl:le) will
be omitt ed.
I. The Stru cture o f th e Lebesgue Sets of Smooth Functions. Let
M be a co mpact: ,, -d imeJ:lsion.al c--m.anifo ld ,f ll fun ct ion o f cia C- 00 M, wb Olle
aU aitical poin ts are oomfqenerate. For aDy oumber a , the set if < a) is an open
subset in M , and merere re " subman lfold in M . Assume no w Ihat a is a no,*ritical
YJlue off IIIId/-I (Q) "" 0 . L ei U$ show that the set Jtr :: if " Q) .is manifold
with th e bolllldllJYif _ a) . Let uer I Cp). By the th eorem on reetifyina . mapping
(seo: 5e>(:. I). tbe l'w1ction/ can be reptellentcd in a cert ain neighbolUbood of the
point u in local coo rdinates as the p rojection 'I' of the space R ~ onlO the $lraight line
R I (Fill. 102). Th e InverK imagc o f ee poinl If under this project ion is the
subspace R~ - I , Le. the boul\daf)' of the half-space R".. . At poinlS o f the half
. p ace , the functJon f lUSIImes values whidl n e not grellter Ihan Q . Th is meU.. that
there cxials nelihbo urh ood of Ihe poin t u in Jtr which i$ homeomorph ic to the
half-apate.
Th erefore, M" .. if " a) Is an ,,-dimensional manIfold whose bo undaf)' b the
(If - l}dimeIl$ioJUII mllnitotd if .. a) .
2. The Conditions for the Homotopy Equ ivalence of Lebesgu e
Sets. Let e and b be noncritical values of a fu nction!. and Ihe line.segment la, bj
contain no crilical valUCl. We will shill the sets if .. c) throu&b the set if _ a )
alona the linco QrthOilonai to the level mani folds if .. c) , If " C " b (Fig. 103) .
Th us, we specify a defo rmatio n 1l'~(I). a " ( " e . of Ihe manifold M D ont o the
 o,. . Manlrolca and Fibte Bundles
""
~' f."1 "

~
(~:.. I

- - -f l u "" 1--
---, '! ' I "\~-
,...,

-'"
-
".'
(~ ,.J

II..)
c
"
Fli IOZ Fi!. 103 Fill ,""
manifo ld M" . Th eref ore , M" is a strong deformation retract -of M". and hence M"
and M b are hOnlOlOPYequivalent .
A rlsorous proof of the existence of the mapping,~ should include th e construe-
tlon of lines orthogonal 10 the level manifold5. They can be defmcd 011 lnte..-al
CUfVes o f the vector fldd X(ll ), where th e vecto r X(u ) e T,/J is detennlned from
the condition < X {u). " > .. 0 for all h e T~ if _ c _ /(w ), I.e. , from the eondi-
tion for th e orthoSOru!ity of the vector X {u ) to th e space tangent to the level
manifold if '" c). The symbo l <: , > dmotc:s the Riemannian metric ....hich can be
al....ays introduced on the manifo ld (see Sec. 6). For a level $ubmani fokl 10 be red uced
to. k vel ... bman ifold at any moment ' . ....e define the vector field X (u) by the for-
," ula
xc..).. pCu) grad f{l.l).
where p.oJ is. smoo th function on M .... hcue= values ere Clqualto 1/< vad/Cu),
arad/Cu on M b,M" and zero outside a cert ain neighbo ur hood of Afb ,~ not
containing uitical points .
The definition 0 ( . deformation of ~ onto M" may also be valid In the case of 11
beioa a crit;ca] value off-
l. The Change o f the H omotopy Type while Passing through
a Critic al Valu e. 111\1$, the homotopy type o f the od ItF is unal tered if the
numberc,whUelnc reasln g (or decreasing). does not assume a critical value CO' Let us
see no.... ....h at is ta king plou;c ....hen e dQe$ assUIlH: tbis value .
The proof of the following useful 5latcment is left to th e reader .
Ex"r"~ 1. Prove that. smooth functio n in a compact manifold who5e all
critical points arc nOndea:enCTllle possesses a finite number o f cn tital points and
m lical values.
Consider the c::ritical value "0' Assume that Ihere corresponds 10 il a uniqu e
rnllea1 poin t p ,ffp) - co. We choose a neighbourhood U of th e point p and the
local coordinates 5pecif"1ed b11h e Morse lemma (see Sec. II ), ....here Ihe function/ is
represented in these coor dinates YI' . y~ In tile form
flu ) - Co - J1 - - yt +y~ .. I + . . . +~ .
We choo se e SUl:Il thl.lthe x t !"o - c . " 0 + s l does not contai n other critical potms
 Inlrod\lCf lon 10 T opolOIy

and Ute poinl with the local COOfciiDatCS ()O, }'.).
,.I: , yf" 2c . bc10nss

to U .
We COftWUCt iI SInOOUI fulldioa Fin M it) t hat it ma y diU" from f oo1y. V.
the lets if " Co ... c) lind fF " Co - e) beina; bo m otOP)' eq uivalml . nit bcinI
daDe. we COntJ)lln lhe KU if <; Co - e) lIIld fF " Co - c) . This happau to be
mtJrC c:onYell5en1 than ~pou'\q lbc KU (f " Co - e) vut if " Co + e) dlrtcll1.
To comlNCt the fllDCt.ioa F UDOOth fWlCtion ,. 00 R I b rcquincI . SIIdl l.bIl
poue.ucs tbe fol1owiaa pI"Opn\ics:
,.(0) > 1.,It (ll') .. Owbmx > 2&:.
- 1 < ,. ' (11') " 0 whc ll - 00 < )( < 00.
The fOrDl of th e anph of the fllntlio n ,. Rlwfyina: th ese p ro pc nics is shOWll In
Pia. 104 .
nrd.re 2 . Oi:>,e all exotlIp le Of a funCilon ,. posseslln l tbe indIcat ed propc nlll> ,
l,e, 1,U $pCCify me mtooth fun<:tlon F b y the form ulae

f(" ) whm ,, ~ U .

F l")" { ( ' . )
f<")- ,. '~ 1 ,f + 2 , ..~ .. , if wben "eU.
It c:uy to -= tha t the aitlcal poUtts of lhc funaiott F o:olncide whb the t:riticaI
point. of the funcionf(ahhouIhf(P ) ,. F (P )).
To a c:ritic.a.l point p o f tbc f\mc:tioa F. there corr aponds t be a ltic:al 'IOhJI;
Ffp) .. Co - ,.(0) < Co - c. SiDccthc waluc ofth. ruoctiolI F coinc:ida wiltl Iboic
of me I'uDc:ticmf ai Olbcrcrilical poitlu . tbdine-sqmocnt (co - e . c, ... c) CODWns
DO aitkal '\'&Iua of F . COnscqllClll!y. the set fF ... Co - e) is . WO Dl cScfonoatioll
retrKt o f the set If' '' Co + c) . But fF " Co + .) - (f " Co + . ), Therdoce.
fF '" Co - c) is a.\lOIIS ddormation retract of the lit if " c. + e). Th ll$. th.-
lett are homotopy eq ui" ajCQt .
We will funher co m pare the hom otop y Iypes of the seu if " Co - c) ILIll1
fF " 1'1) - I ) (inslead o f compario, lh e homotopy types of the $Cit if ... 1'1) - I )
and if " co+c. Denote the closure o f t he ser (F " Co - . ) , if " I'll - c) by H .
Co nsider Ihe cell';" consinins of mcse poi nts II e U whose coordinatcs }', .. . 1~
,
A I!try th u :<Jooitions E yf <
00,
I,
, ..
E .11 -
~ .. I
O. The ccUt?'lia insldeH;it ii

a1ucd 10 !he RI if " Co - c) .Jona the SIC! o flhOM poiou II for whKh I: ,: - c.
0 _ ,

A ndahbourbood of a c:ritXal point o findQ Ion . t~sion" nwnfold (e...

Fi,.
K ' - c ,. if ...
by. thk:lr. !iDe.
c.-
the poi nt q from the oamplc o f Sec . l a) is c1raWft in 10 j ; !he set
~) b sIladcd .1hc $I!l H is shtldcd t1l'i. the cdl ~ b dctIotcd
 Ch , 4. Mano tokh and Fibre Bund les ~7

~
us , pecify Ih e defo rmalion 1', of the sel (F " Co - , ) '"' 100 - U H 0 1'1 10
the sec M
O- ~ U i" hy letti nl r, be the identity mappin, on lO M O- '. U1d be
dermed o n H b y th e formula

, Y~, f). +
r,CY .. _ .. , Y,,)-
Y 1 I ty" for
..E , if <: c
l "

t
YI" " , y)., $,1'). +I ' , s ,Y"for c <1: if < E r. +
, ~ 1 , _ ~ .. 1
e,

E
,. ,.if - t
wbcfes, . t + ( I - t) .0 <:t <: 1.

Thil deform ation 1.1 ahow n by . t rows in Fig. 106 .

Eun:J.u J . Veri fy me COlT'eClness of th e defin ition o f Ihe deformatMm 1', .
n Ull', the sci if " Co - I I U tl' Is a !tron, deformation retrad o f t he SCI
iF " Co - . ). and thcn fotC! o f the set (f " Co + c) '"' Jt("o .... Th us , KG + is
of lbc _ bolDO(')pYtypc uthelCtMo - . u i". t.e., o r the SCi M'0 - ", with th e
cd! slued 1D a $pIlCial manner O aDd of dim tasion cq,uallO the inda o f the cri t kaI
point COOTCIpCl1ul..ina 10 the value e ll'
We c:onsldmed the cue wbm 10 a critical valuc o f a fl.ll1C1jon there eo rrnpondcd
u.o.iquccritkaI point . Co AlilScf tlO.... the,encr.al talC.
 I n trod u ~tj oll t o ToPOlOlY

Extrc:ue 4 0 Consiruct a smootb function in lwg-d1Jmnslonal manifold SI.ld . !bat

all itt erilk:al points ar e nondegenerat e and to one critical value there OO rrelpoM
several crllical points.
LeI to a crilical value co' th ere correspo nd k > 1 mlleal po lnu . All the coo-
suuctions dc:scrillcd . boyt "an be performed sinlullaneou, ly in II neighbourhood 01
each crltlc:al point. The set Mo + . bllS the homotopy type of the sri
K O- U t~ ' U . . . U t~k, t.e., the set K O- with th e cells t "l glued 10 it in I
special maJInel , the diD:lensloD),./ being equll! to Ihe Index o f the jtb criti cal point
com:spondin&to co'
Let c" be ttH:1east of th e a itical values ....hicb ere v eater t ban C (to and lei th ere bo:
no other aitIcaJ values in th e t -ncighoourhoods of cli and c' . LeI to the value c',
t her e corrcvond k ' aitical points with indi ces ),.i . _. . , ),.~l ' The set
K O- ' U ~ I U , . , U ,t I, hornotopy equiva!mt to the $C:tM': for Co Ilii II ~ e'.
The set ~ b. in llUD, bomoto py equiv alen t to the set M" U i t U , . . u It'",
Let us establbb th e homotopy equiVlllence onile ~
!It<' 8Dd~ - U e~ t U . . . U ,I.) u I!~ i u . . . U/,i' ,
To this end, we de form th e set ~ U t~i u ... U I!~;' onto the set
(M"o -'U /, t u .. . Ul!~') u,li u ... U l!~i ' ,
usinJ the coartrud.ed tkfonnation of M" onto M O- U 1'1 U . .. U t~i.
Enn:i.9t 5\ in vestigat e how me cells t~i , .,. , t~i ' are srued to th e 5CI
M G- U t i U . .. U /,i.
We W1derllne ttlat alum, a eeU is performed, al ellCh sta,ge. not In an arbltnuy,
but in strletJy dermite manner (up 10 th e homotopy elass o f th e mapping of tile
spbere, i.e ., t he boundary o f the cell to the corresponlUng spUe). Th erefore , gluin&
cell is determined by an detntm of the homotopy J!OUp of th e corresponding
space; the dimen sion of this llfOIIP equall t he dJrnm slon o f the cell le.. on e.
4. The Homotopy Type of a Manifold. xee. we outline tnt construe-
tion of a <:ell oornpkJi;homotopy equivaJen l to a manlfokl M j ust like It wasdone in
sec . 10 for th e 10r \>l.
Let c 1 be Ihe least c:rltk ai value of a functionj. It is o bvio us tb at for IJ < c l ' the
set if Ilii 11") Is emply. Slnce c 1 is the ICIlSt critk:al value, all efi tlcal po ints correspond-
Ina to c 1 are t be poinu or minimum; the ir Indices equ al zero. The set if Ilii e ll COIl '
sistI or a fin ile number of points; it can be regarded IlS the one obtain ed by &luln!
several "",Us of d imeru.ion zero to tbe empty let .
Let C1be anotbtt critiea.l val ue ....hich !s n ext in m aanltude . Wile n e l < C < c J '
the set if " c) is: obtained by 'i nflat ing' th e points from if " Cl); It consists of .
fmite number of IetlI homeomorphie to the II-dimensional dJsc, and homoto py
equivalent to Ihe M if Ilii c l), Th e set if " Cv II homotopy equ ivalent to the set
if Ilii c t) with cells of d ifferenl (genel'llUy spea kin g, o r lilly fro m 0 to II) dim en sions
equ a1to the indi ces o f critical points correspondina 10 c2' glued to It . O bviously,
the laller set I cell co mpleJ(.
Ha vinS taken a crilleal val ue c}' which Is next In magni tude , ....e ob tain tbat
if Ilii eJl is homot opy equivalent 10 th e result o f con sequently glulnl lO II .. "I ) the
cell. corn:s pondJng 10 th e a- itiea.l point s with the eridcal value "1 ' and then the "ells
 Cll. 4. Manifold. and Fibre Bun.dl<$

c;(l rTe$pondin C to th e critical points wit h lhe critical val ue "]' Such a $p.acc ~ be
made a ceU co mplex by adj uJtinJ Ihe boundary ma ppil)p of Ihe c:.clb bani Jl ued.
~ 6. Prove t hat eac h ma ppinl of the 3phtfe S'" t o a ceU com pIe.>. K is
homolo plc to a ma ppi ll& orthe sphere to a 3IIbspaoe K'" o f lhe 3p&CCK,con riSiinJ o f
ceus of dimen sion leu th an or cq ual lo m .
In the ge neral case, !he set MG - if ~ a) wilen Q'" !nUfv- ) is hom OlOllY

equivalent lO tbe space wh ich il a cell complex obuUned (fom tbe u npl y sct by con-
3CquentJy glumJ cens tofnSpondin l to !he critical palm. with the critical valUCI" /.
in ord er o f inc rcas ing c(, _ 00 < c1 < a .
Note th at If cr is the grew:csl critical value, 'th en the critical poin ts at which the
value of the fun c:tio nfcquaia c r are the po ints o f l1laximum and heece their ind ices
eQual t he diJrn:nsWn of th e manifold M .
We now formu1a.te the (mal $fa /momi.
THI!OR M L EtKh .smOD' h flm e/loll f ill a CQntptlct manjfllid M having lllll)'
/IO/ldtgefttrll /e critkal points diflllu a ho motopy f([lliWlfe/lct oj lhe mQ/l jfotd M
with a <:trtain f llli l f <:tIl complu whose a ils _ In OIIf-'O-o~ etJn't:SPOnde1fct. wi rh
critical points of the fun ction f. fhe dimeruion f!f the <:tIl ~Ing t.q1lQ1 10 the i ndo: of
1M. CO'rUpDndlng trlflcaJ point .
Wc now dw eU on Ibc a lstcnc:.c of a sm oo th fun cl10n in a com pact manifold h ev-
inI onl y no ndeaemrate critical points. Sud:I fun ction may be. c:onstnl ctcd. in thc
foUowlna way. Consider an embedding o f the man ifold M into Ihe E uclidean sp~
R' of a su tfi clcntly \arac: dim ension t. We de fine th e func tio n f by !he fonnula
lip ) - (II - P . It - R) , where (,) is the Sl:lI!ar product. 1/ ruted vector in R ' an d
P f/ M C R 1. Using the Sard theorem (see Sec. ~), we can ShOw that thCf<' Clli:su a
vector 1I E R 1 such !h at Ihc function f h iU onl y. nondcgcn cra te crilical points.
Th ill rault erntblCS us t.o ma ke !he fol lowing Important COIIehuion:
nmORBM 2. AII)' compacr,sm ooth 1J/lIlJjfold hlU the homOlopy type ASIl/ln ftf cell
CfJ1J/plex.

ruRTHBR READING

To the read er who staru stud yiDa unooth man ifold theory. rlfUof lIP, Topology
f fQm the Dilfertn rial VNwpolflt I'~l by Miln or. Dl/fertntlrH Topo lolY. Fint Steps
[a l l by Wallace. M odem (ftomelry l U I by Dubrovill CI aI .. A Cou_ 01 Difle rcnrioi
(;come try and Topolov (") by MilIhcllCllko and Fommto. D(/jertnUa/ Topo lolIJl
14 11 by H irsch , ElellWltary Di/!erentfllf Topology {OO) by M lllIct"CI and Jrttroduc-
lio n to M o_ 71It!Qf)' {67] by Pos tnlk ov , as th ose mos t suitably upoundina the
theolY, can be reco mm en ded. T o study manifold th eory and its applicallons fur-
ther, Ihe 'reader can also be recommmde<l the <:lu.sieal monograph Smoot"
Manjfolds and Their Ap plications to Homotopy 11It!Qf)' [66) by Pontryqin ,
Yll rlllr h dif/mlttlables. Formu C'OlIfIll'I let, formes harmOiliques (69) by De Rham.
Mo_ 17wory 1"4) by Milnor . th e fum hunental Ffm Couru of T()po /oty.
Gftpnctri", Chaplers POI by Rohlin an d Fuch s and Stable M app ings alt d
 Int rod U<:lion to To po k>n
""
S;" B,,/aririu (37\ by O<:llubil~k y a nd Guillcm in . The basic co ncepts of smooth
lOpology at e introduced effICientlY in Oulline of Topo/ot:l 0/ Mrmjfotch (2 1) by
OIcma""ky and. Malveyev. Wh ile studying 01. IV. /'TobklN itt ~metr)l (6 1] by
Novitoy et aI., and Probkms in Di/luenlial Ot~try and TopOtol)' (591 by
MishcJIcnk o <:1 al, may pr ov e useful.
Ar. ~8.rds Sees. I an d 2, the w <tbooks by Shiley Mathrmallcol Allllfysis. Fulle-
liOlIS of !kvend Rftll Yariob!es [72] (Paris I and Ill , Spiva k: Calt:uflU on MtlflifoldJ
(74] (as rar lIS Sec. I is co ncerned) and Srl\<;kc r and Lander Diffeflmlial & nns and
CatlUtrop hes [l9] (See. I) may prove u seful.
It will be usefulto ~ lhe proofs of th e theorems o n embedding a manifold into
a E uclidean space an d on the set of nonregul ar values o f a smooth mappina in the
books by Pontryaain [661(01 . I , Sees . 2 an d 3) and P ost nitov [67J.{0l . V. Set. 6).
Applicat ions of tbe notion of lanaent bundle t o mechanics may be seen tn TM
MQlhe/1lQtictJl Foundations of Quantum Mhania {50J (01 . I) by MBcll:r:y and.
Matil~mlltical M~thfJds in CltlS$it:a1Mechania (III (Ol. lV) by Arnold .
As far as vector rtellis on .. manifold tie cc ucem ed, th e reader is refc:rred to th e
book by Poatnikov (671 (01. IV. SK . 6) and. E/~fMntary Topics in Djffn"f!nlil1/
~mtrry (80J by ThOlJ)C. It Is U5Cful 10 set a<:quailn ed ...ith applications of this
Ihtor)' to dirrerential equat ion s by Ordinary Dlffe~1l/iol Equations (i OJ (Ot. 5) by
Arnold..
Th e Iheo ry of eoveriJl8S is expounded qu ite co m pre hensibly for die be,mner in
A /gtbra lc TopolalO'; An Introduction [52J by Ma!eY. Quite comprehensive In
trtldu<:tiOtls 10 fibre bundle theot'y and the theory of coveri nS' m lly be fOWld. iD
Homotopy Theory [43J (01. III) by Hu S .-T . , Homotopy Theory [331 (0 . I,
Sees. 5 an d. 7) by Fuchs er &1 an d Fi{!;t Course of Topology [70( (Ot. 70) by
Rohlin aDd Fuchs. Ramified ooverilllS are d escribed In detail In introduction to
Rlemall n Spos (751 by Sprinler and R femanMClle Fl4eM1t 131] by Fo rster. Note
that a areat number of intert5t lnS and USt:f'uI prob lem s o n th e th e.ny o f cov etinss
and ramified ooverin15 are COIItained in M odnn Top ics a/ Topology of Manifolds
(Preparat ory cours e: elements o f wpotoiY) [201 by Chernavsk y and Matveyev.
To st udy th e thllOl'Yo f erit.leaJpalniS of fI1ncl.lon s in m ani folds (sees . H)-.I2J. the
reader is recommended the a bo ve-meDtiQned books by Milnor [55J. Wall ace 181].
POMnik ov (67] (01. VI. Sees. 1-4) . Golublu l<y and G u.!Ucrnin [371. Hinch 1411. and
also the monognph Morse Tlteot')' [.541 (0 . I) by Milnor. The <kvdopmmt of the
t hcory of crlt.Klal po ints of smooth functions Is th e thcQry of sing ularit ies of SO\ooth
mapplnp. The books by BrOCkCT and LandCl [I I1J, Oolubiuky and G u.illemln (37].
CQtast,op~ 17ttorY by AmoJd (81. Ql/aslrop ht 11It ()f')' l2f/dlIs ApplicQli(HIS 1681 by
Poston and Stewart ma y serve as an introdu<:tion to Ihls rapidly developlna branch
o f modem mll.themat ic:l. The pres entday state of MlIu1an1y theory may be ac-
q uainted with by t he monog raph Si"Iw/a' itir.s of Di!ft~"tiQI Mappings [111 by Ar-
nold et aI.
 HomolO9Y Thaory
tn Ih is chapt er. t he homo log y gro up s will be dcfino:d fo r any
topcHosical space. Th e Idu of constnu:tina hom ology uoups is. as
was already menl.io nat . d ue to H . P olncarl!. Th e u lCful idea cf the
red uction of tctpQloPcaI problems to aJ, eb rak: was ratlized, fo r the
first time in tbe h istory o f IOpo!oIY. by the consuuction DC
homology &fO\lp:!I and tbe fundamen tal p up . Homology th emy
$lill r emaim topok)pcaUy baI><::. Almost aU lopolosiw invariant,:.
I ro m bomotopy c:roups lO spcc:iaJ uwarianu o r (ibn bundl~ . arc
a:prascd , rmany. in termt o finvarlants o f homolOl)' groups . This
c:ir ewnst&P= Y due to a better cakulability of h o mo losY gr oups,
lhoulb 10 define homo loar crOI:lPf Is somewha t mere complia led
than for example, Imtnot opy groups.
 I. P RE LlMJN ARY NOTES

Let 115i1hL'l lrate the idea o f reaso ninKIha t has lead 10 the notion of homology. In
"udylng two-dimen, ional manifolds , ~ o ft en distinguish lntuitivdy between no n-
hom eom orph ic mani folds. Ho wever , in 51ud yins manifolds of higher dime nsions.
seometrK: intu ition proves less d fective. To d ill inguish belw een no n-homeo -
morphk manifolds o f hiah dlmelUions , we may at tempt to appl y the followina idea .
Let Mr, lid!], be two " -dimensional manifoltb. We will co nsider co mpact sub-
ma nifold s in Mr.M:. If an y '1-dimenskmal sub mlUlifold (q < ,,) in Mr is the
boundary of. ('I + 1)-dimensionai submanifoJd in Mj, an d there iSli q .dimmsi on -
a1subltWlifold in M; whleh 15 l\Ollhe bo lUl dary of a su bmanifold in M;. then the
mani folds in M~ and M~ are ~rily non -home om orphic. Thus. a ny l-d imen-
sional submanifold (compact) o f th e sp here 52 is.a. boundary . whereu ().D tbc...tolllS
T 1 _ 5 I X S I. it is easy to ind icat e circumferences which are nOI bo und arta of an y
two-dimension.al su bmanifoki in T 2 (F'IK. 107).
If. however. there are submanlfolds both in Mr and M; which are Il'OI bo und -
aries, then we may try to compare th e 'q uan tity' o f such manifolds in Mr an dM!J..
COnsider the set (Ygi o f all q -d if!ICn:tional cycles, l.e ., 'I -dime nsional subman ifo lds
(wilho u t bou ndary) o l lhe manlCoidM " . let W'I \ be a su bma nifolo o f M " wIth a
bo undary cOnS islil18o f connected mani folds vr V:' ' V! 6 (Yq l. We will sa y in
thi:l case that the cyo;]e Vi + ... + V<lis ho mologous 10 UfO. Th ~s . an eq UIVllJmcc
relation is introduced on the set Iv:i: IWO cycles 1I1C equivalent (ho mo loso us) II
th ey are differeDt by a cycle which is homologO\.l5 10 lero; the eq uivalence cresses of
q-dimensio nal cycles are called q-dirnelUionill hCm u /o v . TOUPS of th~ milnifold
M" .
If ther e is an inleaer 'I suen tha t there are more q-di me.nsional hom ology gro ups
Mr
cr m e manifold than q.4imen sionoJ homol OS)'gro ups o f Ihe ma nifold M!J, men
lh.is mean s lhat Mr and M; arc DOn-homeomorphic .
The no tion or the sum o f two disjoint cycles h as bee n int rod uced toe Ihe set
W:l. This does not mean , howew=r, th at th e sroup slruc lure h;J.'l been intr od u ced o n
II. There fore we cann ot assume. Cor Ihe p resent, Ihal homology a roups Corm a
lUOUP_ The visual de finilion o f homolosy gro ups giVCI above is, hoWCV'Cr , inCQnven.
rent for calculations . It is more efficient 10 cons ider t he cycles (mani Colds) made up

Fill. \07
 Inlrod l,lCllon loTol101ou

.'1"::-- _. >

..1<"- - - - -"'
'
1",.. ltll
of rI aln elcmentat)' mani folds with bou ndari es. H ow thIs can be doone is $hOWD In
the followll'lJ c;rlllrlplc:.
Let n l be the sllt b ee o f I tetrilhedron (F\J . 108); it Is obvious th at nl Is
homeomorphic to the sphere S1. We win consider the CkIimenslonal manifolds
which eonslst of the vertitu of the te u-Medran, l -dlmenslonal manifolds cons lltinl
of Its edles and 2-dUnensionDI manifolds th at consist o f lis races a nd adm il a
bound ary for l-ditlKll llio naia nd 2-dimcnslonal manlfolds; it is nlturll1 to treat set
theor etic I dditlon of twc manifolds u the sum . To use thb Icr th e Il1gebraitation of
tlte objects In qucstiorl , we ((Insider the lP'OUP of formal linear combinatiotu 0'
the ven iccs wilh in1earalcoe fficien ts (the II'OU p of o.d.UncmIon.al chains). cd&" (tbe
IJ'OIIP of l -dimensional dtains) Ulei faces (th e 1f000P o f Wlmensional chalDs).
M cno'l'ft". for n"U)' edae, we r", an onier o f 'leftK:es (0 ' J) and identifY(- 1X- ',
. J) with (lsJ '); we r~ th e dittiOn ofdJcumna~atinllheverticc:s(ol l, /Ii ) for
each fKlf aDd mUltif)' ( _ I)(II', ,.J. /lit ) with (pJ , gk ). ,
Let us oow dertne the bowlcbzJ o f lbe edae (o/.~) u tbe sum. r + 1-1)11 1, and
the bowJdal')' o f the face (eI' , a J , .It) u tbO UlD of the cd, es that bouDd lhis fac;e
(wilh that circumna'fiption direaion .....hich was r",a1 for the fKlf). Le. (. ' .v l
... (I1J. a l ) + (..t , ) ; we put Ole boundary o h vutG cqlll! 10 eero. Th e boundasy
opcr alOfS lhus derlllCd an: ar.eoded to the aroups o f chains by linearil)'. A chain
.....hose botIDdaty equ als UTO wiD be callcd a cyck: thUS. a e)'de Is an lJa:ebraic
analosue of I closed manifold (wit hout bou ndary).
sraee we are interested in hom oiosy Jr0ups . i.r ., in cllsses o f equivalent cycles
....hlch differ fro m o ne Ilrlo \.hcr by a boundary, we will consider the ea seu of
q. d imellsional cycles Wilh respect to th e subgro up of t he bou ndaries o f
{q + l)-dimensional chain s (q O. I , 2). ThC$C easels form a group called th ~
q-dimell$lonll hom ology gro up of th e iu rf;u:c n t . The hom ology grou ps of n 1 arc
casy to calcullle: they ....e isomoTbic 10 Z. 0 U1d Z for d~nsi.olt$ O. 1 an d 2.
rn pectlvd y. Sueh a COlUlnlet;on ma y be pcrfortned for arealer dimClUiOflS by usin,
dceompositions into tetnlltd ra U1d lhei<" ~ (slmple:o;cs). If we kllOw ho .....
p vm space is divided into iimplues , tbcn 10'( CIll compute iu homolOl)' groups . In
praetl. howcve-. thc ckf"lIIil lon is r....ely used. 10 c:a!culatr ham o}()c a;roups . ThqI
employ 'l'arloUS lecbniqllCll to this m d (e::uet 1Cq\ICDDI:I. spe=al scquenca, etc .).

Tk dir fl<t WIll ~ 0 . or $IlNl>I G. '" tI . '.,l,' e 0 . isomorphk 10 O . wba"r w

bomorphism lsaiva'l by lAc nok, . r. - t. is alIcd tbc VOUP ol fonn.ol Jmcar combiola bODS
or cIcnleIM r. rl'Olll l ecnala $oIl lrJ.... wilIl cocrrdcnu in K Abcl.Iu poup G.
 Ch . S. Homolu..JI Theor,
'"
2. HO MOLOG Y G ROUPS OF CHAIN COMPLEXES

We be.in with .tmrad aIsdlraic objo:c:lS.

A Sl:q lKtK'C: (m Hnile)

...
'1 . 1 '.
- C1 -C1_
'. _1,,, -'1Co "- O
1 - (I )

of Ab.,llua p1)Ups C... alld their homomorphisms a... sall.s(ying the co ndlilon
iI... _ ,i1" '" 0 f .....ny k .. I is called . ("lI Qi,. complu. We ....UI deno te it by C . ; Ihe
voups C" are cal1ed duJil1 6rouPS and the hom omol"phb:nu i1"
. re <1Ilcd dff/en".
tlDu or bov"d<I'7 l1orrwm~J"snu.
The HI Ker "", .. '" e C,, : <llc .. OJ ror rru ,u"sroup in C" called 6ro uP of
k-dfmcMonQ/ cycfts; its clement. a re called k -dim etuiontJI cyc~s. The llel
1m a lt .. I .. fc E Cit : c .. a l .' 1" I alsc fo rms a subgrou p in Ct called a g~oup of
k -dim enslon al bou ruJoriu; i' s clements are call'fd k -dimc nslo nQ/ boundQ~If!S.
A seq uence o f h omom orphisms \Pt: CI - Ci such th at the diagram

--l~~~ r~"'-1~~~~o (2)

_ c,:h-c;-:;-- -c;- c;,- 0

Is eommulative. l.e .. 'I'k _ ,at " a; "'1 ( OJ an y J:..is ca Ued homomorpJIism "' . of Q
clI4ln complex c. to. ehaUI ~pln C; .
Let us Inuoduee ODe of the mos t Important not IOns of a1Jebratc;topoloU , viz .
o f homoioD lI"~ p. Considorr a eha in comp!u C . Due: to tbe: re!at tonsh;p
a"a" .. , .. O. the inclusion rel.u ion 1m ak .. , c Ker all' is ful filled . The fllCtor
. croup o f the ,roup of cyc les with respect to ,he 110Up o f boundaries
Ker il k / 1m clt , is called a k -1I0m0/oV 6ro uP of tit. complex C . and den oted by
H. (C . ). Cy(:ln CI' 1:2 from o ne ccse e a rc said. 10 be homolo gOus a nd del'lOted by
c, - (" ~ .
Let VI. : C . - C ; be a homo mor phism 'o f chain co mplexes. 1t immedIately
follows f rom the co mmutativity of diagram (2) th ai
I"l( Korr at ) c Ker a,; a n d ",.(I m:a. t I) C rm a~ t r-
Therefore "' . ind uces a h omomo~ph i$m of ho m%u groups '
"'.l : H a(e.) - H t (C: ).
We conlinue the inC$l lpti~n o f dI &in oompleJles and thei r homoloaY ,roups.
UI C. an d cl: be chain mmploes such Iha l !he goupt C: arc sub groups o f th"
a:
&I~r C.' an d the d ifferen tials of tlK complex Ce ue Oblalned b, r""..Klm g'.
10 Ct:. In this case , Ihe cornpkx Ce is called a SJJbcomp/ex of I Iu! compltx C . A
bomomorphi$m i . ; Ce - C. o f dla lJ1 xnpia.os is defi ned . where 'I .
an <:mbed din. monomorphism;,. is C':Illed a c:JIg/n complu ~mddlng monom~
C. n c: -
pIIisnt.
 Introdu<;flon 10 Topolo8Y
'"
Consider a sequence of factor groups ~k '" CI< IC~. Th e hom omorp hisms at in.
euce the homomorphism, $1< ; Ct - Ct ~ I '
Exerclst Ie . Show tha t .he groups Ct and homomorphiuns6t form a cha in ccmp.e x
C V1d the ep imo rp hiu11S to fact o! s roups j l: Ct - C/< form a hom omorphism o f
cMin com plexes). ; C. - C. (an epimorph ism 10 a quotient co mplex).
Th e sequence
f ... I f
.. . - A t l - At Ak _ l - ..

o f gcoups At and of their homomorphisms "'I:

is wd to be uact if for every Ie. the
image of the homomorphism "'it ..
I coincides with the kernel of the homo mar-
ph ism tl-t , i.e .,lm ,yt +l - Ker,"'t-
Exltl'f:~ 2 . Show that the !\eq ueTlU
o It It
0 - C. - Ck - Ct - 0
u exact foc every k.
The sequence o f chain compkll:cs and their homomorphilms
0 1. J.
O-C.-C. -C.-O, (J)
where i. i$ an embed-dillS.}. a facturization, is said to be. exeet.
According to the general defitut ion . th e homology gro ups o f a quotient complex
C a , i.e ., the gTOUp5 H ",(C. ) , can be co nstr ucted. The new II.rOlJps prove to be
related to the groups H ",(C. ) lUll:! H",(C~) by a certain CJtact sequence.
Let UJ construct this sequence. Th e h omomo rphisms 'a lind i . induce the
homomorphisms
i. k : H ..(CZ> - H k (C . ), i .",: Hk(Ca ) - Ht(C.).
We obtain the short sequences

Th ere happen to aist homomorphisms

6",: lft(C .) - H", _ I (C~)
comb ininll these sbcrt seqc eae es into th e Ionll exact sequence'
 Ch. J . Hom"'l.,.y ib>,y
'"
To describe Ihe co,,~ ruction
o ( t he hom omorph isms ,,~, we consider 5Cqllel1
(J). Let .. . H,J C. ), k > 0, i.e. , g.;s the coset 01, ~e naJl1 elemenl '" E Kcr l . rcs PQC-
liYe to lhc Rlbl!.rCup 1m I ,. In t U"1l,'" E Ca u d can I'C consio:kfcd as the: ~ 0 ( :;11
~n.m elvncnt de e.
respective to t he wbarou p e:.
II foUows from I.", ."
0 Ihat
_
iJ.d e e~ 1 and fhat iJ.d E Xer "/t. _ 1 c ell. _ , from _ la. _ o .
nrc:isrr J . Show Ih.at Ihe ~el Iat d f o( an c1eme nl d in Hfr _ I (e~) docs not
dePoCnd on Ih", d . oic", of the elemen ts '" and d ( rom tM corr rs poDding <>OSCU_
We auoc:iatcd ucll dm1cn1 .. (rom H . (C . ) willi lhe denlcnl "',td f' ft om
H. _ I (C!) th ereb y specify;1t& a ~& wltidl _ ....ul denote by
<l/t. : H1(C. ) - H/t. _ ll~)
and caD a e""ttti~ "omomQqJllisnr _
~~4 . Show tIlal 6. is, iii faa , ' homomorphism .
Th e consuu<tio<l o f a conneding ho mo morphism may bo'l ..Yl ~ by pulling
i o : Ho(C. ) - o .
U!MM" I . Seqlle~ (4) is e(lICl.
The proof is r.>dlletd 10 , dircet .;hm o f .el.uiolls
1m ". , I " Ker f. fr ' 1m; " Ker } , Im j . fr " Ker <lfr
Ind lell to Ihe reader .

J . HOMOLOGY G ROUPS OF SIMPLICIAL COMPLEXES

Here , the al, ebrak: t ech niqve devdopcd in 5:. 2;' appl ied 10 the conslr ucti on
o f ho mology ,ro ups o ( Jlcometric; ob jec1s.
I. Simplicial Complexes and Poly hedra . We fin l live ncc:essary d el ini.
lions .
DEFIN ITION I. A 61""dtud k-di_tWontlJ simpkz (lit , k ... 0 , is the conYCJI dcmJ rc
of k + I po ints in R t ... I with ~ COOrdin 'les (1 ,0,0, ". , O. 0), (0 . 1, 0 , _..
... ,0,0) , . .. (0 , O ... 0 , I). i.e ., the collcd ion o lpoinls wilh coordinales (to . .. , tol)

w eb Ihat '1 ... 0 (00- ch i and I:

,- .
t, .. I.
DEFINITION 2. A SImplex qf d "" v uitMt k 00- a k -dIlrw'U;o-J _pk:x ~/t. _ (,,0.
tt I, " " fl ) is the eon1'Clldoswe 01 k ... I porOIt (1 0. ... . fl of lhe E uclid ean $paoc
R -. k " Jr . Iy!na in Jlenua.l PI\S1IK>n (not 1)"in,: in 1M same m- plane of dime nsion

.
less lhan k ), t.e. Ihe c:oIlcctinn of poin l.S 0 1 tho: formJt !: I,tt' , .. hen

,-
'i " 0 (or

-.
each /, !: ,/ . ..
,
 lmroduetiQn 10 Topolon

T he pctms 0' are ca Ued th e vertices oj Ihesi~ex (.:lOt ... . o~ ) , an d the num bers
I, the boryce"'ric coord inates o f the point X E (a , .. . a ).
The not ion of face of il simplex is defin ed In a na lUra! way.
DEFtNITION J . Th e co nvex ctos ure o f a subr.et co nsiUing of s + 1 ve rtices of the
simp lex T~ , where 0 .. s .. tc; iseailed ajoct oj dimension s o r ans-dimenslonolloce
01 tile k-ditMflS io rral simplu r t We will call faces o f dimension s < k of the
simplex r~ proper.
It is obviou s that an s-dlmeruional face o f a simplu is an s-dlmenslcnal simp lex.
In particular , the reees of a standar d simplex {and the stand ard simplex itr.eIO are
simplexes , It is easy to verify th a t a k_dimensional sImple;( is a ffinely homeomorphic
to a stand ard simpl ex of the same dimensio n; the inte rior (in lhe carrie r k- plane) of
a simp lex r~ can be co nsidered as a special CaM: of a k.dime nsional cell
Thus , cell co mpleICs can be connr ucted fro m ' implexes of di ffe renl dime nsion s.
Tr.e Iacr that a sim plex bas faces ena bJc.s us 10 co nnec t simplexes in a more o rde red
ma nner than cells in t he gen en e cell co mplu .
DEfi NITION 4. Aset IT! l of simp lexes in R" tbat satisfies th e following ccncruons:
6 ) t oget her with each k_d lmensional stmpl rt. any of its faces is includ ed In K ;
(Ii) two simplexes ca n in tersect on ly in the ir co mmon race. is called asimpfleia/ com-
p lex X.
A simpli<;ial co mplex is said to be finite if il coestsrs o f a fin ite number of
simplexe, .
Co nsider the set-lheoretic Wlion IXI C. R " of all simple xes from K. rnrroduce o n
the se~ IKI a top ology lhat is the strongest o f all th ose In which Ibeembedding map-
ping of each simplex int o IXI is ccmjnuous. In ot he r words, tile SCI A C IX I is
rt'
closed if and only if A n T,k is closed in Tlk for an y E K. If tile simplicial complex
X IS finite Illen tills lopology coincides with tlla l induced by e e m'elric on R n
DEfiNITION S. A space IX I an d. more gen erally. any topological space X
homeom orphi c to IXI is called apoly~drr!1l.
DEFINITION 6. G iven a pol yhed ron X. a simp licia l comp lex K suc h th at the space
IXI IS homeomcrphlc to X is called a triangulat IOn of the po lyh edron X .
Examples of polyhed ra are the closed sur faet'l fro m 5_ 4, Ch . II. T he ir
tn an gulation is given by p&rtll ionln g a surface into to pologICal tri angles . then edges
and veruces.
Consi der 11 Iinltc sim plicial complex K. Fix in the sp ace IX I C R n a met ric fro m
R n _It is obvio us that there exisl differem triangulaTions o f th e space IX I . Let K ' be
a uI an gulation o f IXI. The greatest of the leng lhs o f t -dtmenaonat simp lexes in-
cluded in K ' is ca lled theflne~ of the triangul.:ltion K .
Exucists.
l ~ . P rove that 11 po lyhedr on is (a ) a norma l H ausd or ff space; (b ) iI cell complex.
2 Pr ove that if X is a finite sim plicial co mplell. Ihen t he space IX I ;s (3) 3 compact
spacc; (b) a Iimt e cell comple x.
3 . P rov e that a l impllcial comp lex K is finitc if and on ly if the polyhed l on I XI il
r ompa C1 .
 Belo ... . If it II no! I t;Ucd ot hcrwiH. we ...ill <:ons.iOc: ' finite simpltc:U.1complens

......
and eompact polyhed ra. It II easy to _thai. eompact polyhcd,oa 'I a meuiuble

Lei X be a polyhedron. K a &l mpliciaJ eom plex and ., : IKI - X a homeomor.

phism. Th e h omeom orphism ., , enera tes a dn:omposition (triangulation) 0 1 the
le'
spa X into th e sr l$ r;/t = .,(r,k ) K. whith are called cu rvlfin:r si mp/eta: th e
imat es o f the ~"C'" ieci o f the simplex .,k
arc eanee the w:,,/cts oj Ih e curvt/inM r
si mp /ex r;t.
Extrt;isf!$.
4 - . Show that the <:losed diS(: b ~ and sllhere S" - I arc polyhedra and spc<;'fy thei r
dec<;nnJlOsition into curvilinear s implucs.
5-, Sho w th at (a) the set I:r"J. Ihe eolln:' ion o f the Jlmplex ,JI a nd all ItI faces.
If, Jl11 .. ' an d (b) thee sci /<),. ). the rollcctio n o f pro per faCC$ o f the simp lcx ..
when llih""]1 co incid n wilh the bo und.ar')' itT" o f the sel . " in lhe carrier " .plane.
are simpli<:ial compk.1u.
2. Homology Gro ups o f Simp licial Co mplexes and P olyhedra .
Now. we UIIXIlIte a lim plicial t:Ompla K 'Mlh so me chain wmpla and m umc",-te
the vertic es of each sim pla ..f K b, ,he nwnbcTl O. 1.. . k in some o rder 0'0.
,,i, .... 0 ', . There are (k + I)! SIKh nUfnCl1uiol'l.S. T wo nu merations a rc Slid to be
equ lWlltn/ if one o f them can be o btained from the other by transpoSinl the
num beu an e,'et\ numb o f ume s. Th e $et o f all numCf"tlltlons i~ thus dc<:omJlOscd
into lWO eq ui1lalence d usci d eno ted by "t
and " /- . rcSpc<;ti1lely.
DEFINITION 7. A s.implex . 1< with one of the <:lasses"'" A- being indica tcG. l.e.,
one of the pairs (.1<.".). (. t , ,,- ). il ca lled an oriented simplex. and the ecr-
n SJlOndin, <:lUI 115 tNltllltl l irm .
It is more cl>l11lenicntlo wrilt a n o rienled s implu (" I<. A/ ) in a diffe,en t w:toy.
viz by spetiCyin. some numer atOon g Oo. cr" . .. . . 0 1 from the oric lu ation class and
de:> OtinJ it as follows:

lhen

OEF"INlT tOI'l 8. The C.Cl or &JOU o fthto aroup o f Cormalllnc:lr co mbinatio ns (finite)
oClhe rorm L,
' I ' (..,I<. AI)' where " G G, A, '" A,'" or " , ",-, respecuv e 10 ~he

subv oup of clemen ti o f the fo rm

t:-h,I<.,,/" ) +, (.f. Ai- ) rn
andt hcir lioea r mmb, n.tlOns ,s calkd the ,roup oj k-diMttUJOlltll chtl,"s CI< (K: G)
oll he JimpOcia l compk:x K wilh <,oc ffll;ients In !he AkUan " oup G.
In Othu words . we identiC, the d ementi,. (",'. A,-). -,. . (.~. A: ) 1II lhe ,roup
of fomtal linear combinations of oriented s.irnplexn.
 1'bc differenllal
"t : Ct(K; 0) - Ct _ t (K ; O J

is derIDed by lhe eq uality

"I. n_ L
"..<1 '101" .111"11 .
, ..
t- 1)16' "' ~, ,,1, - t, tIll t .... .

for eath orienl~ silnpb. W e Cllte:nd it to m e w1'lo1e: I'"oup C. (I:; 0) by addllivity.

" i' j Ul

for k _ O. we put',, : Co(K ; G ) - O.

PkQPOSrT'I()N l. rOl".".t ;II I , t~ nJUll/ity " .. _ I"" '" 0 hoha.
PJOOl . In fact . in the sum at _ Icl.l Cl (tr~ . .... IIlt ll.tltocn a~ Jimulta neously 1M
follO'llrinl adcknds
( _ 1)P ( - I). - I,. (II'. . a'..- '. a'.. >, ., II'. - 1o-J
....
t, . ' t . ... . ..

(-I)P ( - I)., [a", ...,II''' -',a'... t . .. .. .. ~ _ , . ..1 1.... . a l.1

which elimina le aoch ot her .
Thu, . the &roups C. (K; G )and di rr~entialli at farm a chai n complex de noted by
C . (K , G). E.. the &!'Ou p of inl~8erS Z mt.y be tak en as G.
DEFINITION 9. The hQn\olollY grou ps o r a chain complall C . (K : 0 ) are ralled the
hom% l)' , roups ol t"~ ~implki<ll complex K wlth coe frlci enu in the Abel ian troup
o and denoted by " 0(1(: 0).
DeFINITION 10. The homolQflYgroups o r a triangulation K ofa po lyhedron X witll
coefficic nts in an Abelian group 0 are ca lled t hc hom% l)' , roup$Hk(X: 0 ) ol l"~
poIyMdl'Olf X .
Thc COfTe<:tnc:u or th is de fin ition (i .c ., ind cpendcnce- from t hc choice of
tria.o.ulat kln) is pro ved by a co mplic.ated t cdtniquc; we will ditlC\lSS these lopi" in
See. S.
l. Calculation of Homology Groups of Concrete Polyhedra.
Ut lIS calcu.Ialc the homoloo groups H It (, ; 0) of. poIybcc1roo ,". II is obvious
t!>.at for ' I.C a 5pacc ~titl. of eee point. we haV1:
Ct (!,"I:O) ", Kcrcl. ", lmit. _ O when A: > O: C,,(l. Oj; G) -KCTao -O.
H tftI%, _ oblam the bomoIcJ&y yOUP5
H o(. "; G ) _ 0 whCTI k > 0:. H o(, O:G} _ O . (l)

Before. ealt:ulatKoJ H o(' : G) when /I > 0, _ 5Olc. mo~ I.encr;t.l problem.

" e R- I"
COI15OdCT Wriplic:ial compa X tyrn & ill the l\ypc.l'l)laliC n '" c R '" I IUld1I point
n - . Wc will (lI11 the. CODKlio" o f $implaa c~ of Umf.lcxcs
'It e X. lbe. simrCll g and si~lua of lhe form (01 . ' ,'). Le.. ti mplcn s (01. iI t, . .. .
g '! ) such th at ' l _ (a l. . .. . , iI i ) m. c:crlai n simplCll in K , m et'oM oK O'tIW I~ COM
plu K wllh ,~ ,"f1u iI .
~I.U 6 - . Show IlIl t " X is a Ilimp bc ,a1 complu..
'"
PROPOSITION 2.. LdoK be a cone wilh I. ...erto: II ov er a loirnpl.ia.l o:ompkx K. T1'Icn
H t IpK , G ) - 0 ....he ll k > 0 ; H o(oK ; G ) .. G (4)
PROOF. Ce nllida an arbitl"llr)" G-dinwnsional cha in ' "4 + ~ ' l "tI ' from

Co(PK; 0) .. Ker ao' we have

E W,' a' -
. K,O).

Du e to lhe equalit y

E Cll 'Qi - It" ) - al a : .."" tI" ),

an arl:Iilrary l;)'C:1c I ' . + I:, ~. el' from Ker a o is ho molo&OIU to the cydc:, "(1

.. f! + J;: "") ' 0 _hick U DO( homoloaous to zero III Ihe IfOUP C o(4K : 0 1 when

" "" O. We obuoin tbc bomorplllsm H ofpK ; G l = G.

Consider no.... an armerat)' k-d;me~ eyde in Ct (lIX; OJ
tt -
. , E ' i' [rt l.;. E hJ l" . ..: - l J (I "er~t .

when: / e III. . i E 't_1, 8/. h, E G an d [1',11.1. (g , or! - ,] dell ' c oriented simplexes.
We ha~-c
E 1/' 141 - E (rj ' lr!) - itt ... (r, ' Ia. rlm = E 1/ "lo"J - I ).
" ,
Thcnfore th e cyck ~ is botnolOSlMls lo the l;ytlc
:t .. E, Jr; -Io,l - l) - E, IIj'" 1l',,)o{Q.,/- ').
The eoc fflCieol of t ile sirnplQ trf - J I in lhe sum i t ( [
, hi lo. ,J - ' I) ish; (Ihe re
L hj ' 10" , ,,}
beln a o nly one w ch SImpl ex! ). Therefore
, - I ] il a cyd e If 8l1d o nly if

II; " Oforeachj.

""\15. we h.a'e ellab lished that in C . (aK: G ), when k > O. any C)"tle from
Ker ajo Is. homoiOSow 10 zero In C..(/IK: GJ . Th erefore. Iljo(fJK . 0) '" 0 when
1r > 0 _
Note (h Ill the eOm(l1elt I" ~ l >nnpond in.to l he $im p lex T ~ . . ",,0. o ~ ) is a u

I;()QC 1I IT~ - 'l ...ilh the: YfflO: ,, 0 OVer me f;ompkx p" - Ilwhlc:h f;orrap0n4sl o
tlM:l im plex T" - I _ "" . . ... , o ~ ). Therefore. from equalities () a nd (">.owe obtain
!he hornok>u aroup.l of a ll " . dimensional simplex:
 I D. <O<lIJcllOl'l IOT ClpoloJy

0 when e 0,
H (~ " :G) _ (SI
If ( Gwhent _O
for eacb " OJ O.
We .. ow cakulate the homololD'aroups H"J.I ",, "11: G) o f a po lyhed ron 118~ " 1 1
whose: uianaulat lon 10',"1ronli~ts o f all pr opu f aca o r tbe sim pb ~ " . Consldct" tbe
C&$C whm " > l. ~D t <; " , we have

Ct(Io" " ]; G) - Ct((T" j: G),

aod th e differenllab o f the cham UIlpk:us C . ua~" J: G) and C. (f~ " l, G) co(n..
dde. Ther ef,,", when k <; .. - I.
HIf( [h" ,; G) - "1ft!, "J: G) . (~

II is obvlow lha t ....hm k > .. - I

H t ( [on" ,: G ) .. O. (7)
SUtccH,, _ ,((f" I;G) '" O, aDy cycle l " - I . C,,_ 1((T"l: G )is the boundllry
a"W ' I," or the chain , ,(,"1 e C,,(ty"!: G), and theref~e in the complu
C . (f,"': G) , we have 1(,., a" _ I .. 1m il" .. G. The dirfeffll li.a\sin tbe co mplc:l<"
C. ({tltl; 0) and C . ({on", : G ) oolndde on the dlain Jroups c" _ 1 (l~" I; G)
.. C" _ 1({oh" J; G ). Ther efo re, In C.{[il," J: 0) , the /lIOUP Kcr il" _ r is uemer-
phie to the p'ou p G, whereas 1m "" "" a,,(c,, ((a, " J; G) .. 0: therefore
H" _ l (ilr ") ; G ) - G. (8)
Thul. when ,. > I , tho: homolol'l Y aroup . of the boundary o f all n-d imeri" Ofl al
, implcx have been calculated:
k *0, ,. - I,
(9)
t _O ,,._ 1.

....hen Ie > 0,
(I ~
....h enIe .. 0 .
We !lOW dwcil on a 8DlDCtric intCTPl"eUtion o f the hOCll01oo' ITOIIPI of a
simpticial c:omp!vl:. A cycle from CIf(K; Z) II a SC1 o f k-dUnc mloRal simplUQ from
Keach ofwtlich is tak en a ecrtaiD number oftlones; thll SC1 is dosed in thueIlK that
eadl (I' - l)-dimmsioaal "",p kJt is indudfll in tIM: bou ncb.ry of ee k-dtmcnskln.
al cycle tbe same nulllb of l.i.lna with two oppo$ite orimwiolU. Two k-4j.
mcnsiolW C"J'dcs arc cqWvaknt (bomoJoosou.s) if their diffacncc is !he: boundary
of a (A: + 1)-4inten:Ii<mal dlain. Le.. bounds a CC"aln lei o f f)( + l )-dimensioll.Ll
nmplcxcs; tbe .,aup HIf( IK I; Z) is the .,oup 01 equ inJcnce classes af such
k.fiimelUioftal ey<:1cs. Roughty $pCiI tinl , H~ ( l KI ; Z ) c:onslsts of those dnwd eeuee-
tiom 0'k-climcmio oal "",plU Q 'wtueh cannot be: 'a1l1ed up' "';th collections 0 '
l.t + l ).dImcllS~ Su.plaes. Thu s, mtuitively. the aro up HIf( IK I ; Z) COf'.
=pollds 10 the poup J encrated by (.t + 1~lmell$ional ' opc1linp ' in the space
IKI.
 Cb 5 HomololY Theory

DEfiNITION II . A S'lbeompkx Q/" su" p l ic:ulf complex is J subset L (",hiell is a

'"
simplldal com pte.) o f ~nnplex es fro m K.
Let L be a subcom plvt of a simplicial complvtK. 11 '" obvious Ib.at C . (L ; G ) is
a w bcomp\e"l: of the cha in eornplvt C. (K : G ). Thcr~fo,e a q ll(ltier!t com plQ if
defined
C .CK.L;G ) '" C . (K ; Gy(C. (L :G ).
lknol in& the homolol)' ll'ouPt: of this dlai.. complex by Ht CK. L ; 0 ), from the
C;U C!. sequence of chain c:ornpkxelI
'. J.
0 _ C . (L ; OJ - C .(K; OJ - C . ex ,L: 01 - 0,
W~ oblain a long ellact sequence or homology grou p,
I~ I ;.~
" . - H t ... I(K, L : OJ - Ht(L : 0 ) - H t(K ; O J
J. ~ ' .
- H ,,(J(, L : O ) - H~ _ I(L: 0) - ..,.
II is a Iled U! ttaet ~U~fJI:f 01 (~ lJ()fr(K, L ) , rhe VQ4lPll Ht (K , L ; 0 ) are call ed
re/(Jtiw ltomoIov tr0u/lIS or hom%V lrotlpf oll~ pat, (X, L).
II wiU be uscrulto ' decod e' the: dd'mltion o f ,dal i,,~ homoloc groups .
~ the chain it from C/ttJ( , L : 0) u a c:oset o f lhe lEOuPq(K: 0 ) eeteuve 10
the IUb&rou p '/tCt u, ; 0 ) - Ct CL , 0 ) , ill I h ~ COSft 71t ' there t:lIisu a unique
r~l al iVl:, lhe chai n 'Yt f, om Ct CK; O J,w lUch indudes only those aOelJ(cd
iimplc.us with ROD.lCI'O cocffldenll o f th e c:omplQ K that are not orient ed
simpltxes of lhe subcomplu. L . It follows from the definition of a bound...,.
homorno rpltism ;n a q lK)lienl eompla thallhe boundary hOfnOfnOl1lhism It : Ct (K,
L ; 0) - Cit _ I ex, L ; 0 ) trU!sfornu the chain ilt mlO a chain it _ I which if the
Cl)Jel o f the &roup Cit _ , (K ; 0 ) relati\IC to tlu: fubsroup 't _ I Ct _ 1' : 0) '"
It
"" Ct _ 1'; 0 ) with the representat ive at E Ct _ 1(1(; 0). In the ch ain at 'Yt. we
discartl all addends g", lr:' - I] for which r... - I is a simplu from L . Ob" iously, lhe
oblalned clla in 'Yt _ I bcloll&J 10 the: same ct)$(l i t _ I as Ihe chain at'ft .
It is clea r tha t a <;hain com plCJI C . (K, L: 0) is isomorph ic 10 the chain complex
C. whose chains. ~ fonn a l linear eombi!,alions o f orienled l implexes (in l h~ len$e
of Deflnilion 8) from K '\. L , Irld lhe: boundary l1 omomorphism associates the k d l'
mem ionaJ chain 'Yt wilh a chain o f dlmen:siorl k - I Oblained by ca.lculalina on 1't
the u lue o f lhe boundary homomcllphism at (in the chain comf la C . (J( ; 0 ) a nd
ddelinl all vt{ranMW addends , i.e. , those addends I ... I':' - I for which r:' - 1
belan&, to L , Siflce an iKlmorphlsm o f chain c:omple. Q indu ces an .il;o morphil:m o f
flgmoloIY I roups ,
Ht CC. ) .:: HttJ( , L : 0), k ... 0, I, 2, ....
Tb Il5, _ ha"~ arr i"ed at a more &eomeuy~rierl.led de:l'lrUlIo n of th ~ homololJ
arou ps of a pair . Note that the chaiQ5, qdcs and boUndaries of the complex C. are
u.1d to be relative (for I he ~]I' (K. L) .
 Now . we: make OUI the gcometri!: mean ing of the ~onroccting homomorphi.sm
bt : Hkvr:. L : 0) - H k _ I (L : G ).
Let lik 13 Hk{K , L ; G) be a homolo8Y~lass of Ihe relative cycle ~t E t k , Co nside r
t k 3.'1 a cha in in C . vr:; 0) an " calculate its bound..uyilk~k in il . By the definiti on ora
relative cycle. aft er wlketing like terms, the cha in ilk~ will include wilh nonzero
coc:frocie.nu onl y oriented simplexes flom L. There(I{ e ilkzt can be co nside!'N as a
cha in In C. {l. ; 0) . It Is w:ri r~ qui te simply th ai ilk!t is a cycle whose homology
class h k _ I e H k _ 1(L : 0 ) d0e5 not depend on the cholee of Ihe represent ative zk
of the clw lit . Accor ding to the general st ruct ure or th e connecting hcmcmcr-
phi.$m (Sec . 2). bl li k .. hk _ I ' If we imagine a retauve cycle as a manifold wrth
bou ndary lying in L a nd made up of kdimensiona l orienled simpluf3 , Ihen ilt 4 is
jus t chill bounda ry with th e correspond ing orient alions o f IJr - I )-d i~nsiona [
simplexes.
E XAMN..e (5C:'C Fig. Ie). LeI a simplicial complex k coeslst of simp lexes

0,,,1,,,2, ,,),
(U0, DI ). (1) 1, ,, 1). (D1, Dl ), (DJ , DO), (l>i, D l)
(';0. D" o j ), (Ol , ,,2, oJ ),
IUId let iii Ju bl;omplex L consisl of Ihe .arne $implu cs excepl
(p l. ,, 1), (p,o, 0 1, D') , (pl." 1. Q 1).

Th us, lKI is a rectangle (with th e 'interlor'), and IL L Its bound ary. II ill obvio us
that the chain 'Y:E C 1 1,)( , Z). 'Yl = (o0,,,I,o 'l + [a l ,a 2.a l ) is a relauve cycle of llle
pair vr:.
L ).1n faet, its bo undalyil1'Yl = [aJ, 0 ) + 10 , 0 I] + [0 1,0 21 + [Q l, a'J
includes with ncneeec coeFficients Only orie nted simplexes from the subcomptex L .
The chain 'Y 1[a I, 0 1) from C. tK: Z) b 5imullaneously a relative cycle (veriry!) and a
relative bou ndar)', because il can be ob tained fto m
il1[a0, ,, ', o J I - [" I. "ll + [" 1, ,,0 ] + lo n, o l l
by di$<:alding the ad dends (0) ,0 1 an d lu0. " I) which are o n elll.d 5implex Fro m

f~ . lOll
 ,os
the SIIbcompk x L. II is usy 10 see that the rcla ti"': 1:yck"'1det crmiMs the ~ncral of
o f tM lfouP H 1(K. L ; Z ) '"" Z. Th e ecmnecti nll hom ornorp/'lisn:l 61 ; H :(X. L : Z ) -
- H I (L ; Z) usociales th is w:ncra tor Wlth ~ element (a bo J cne rat; n,) of th e ,roup
H 1(L : Z ) ...hid! c:onsililS of one eyelc ell"'l -
Eu~.
' W rite tIN: euet loeQu.tnce of th e pai r (K . L ) for the example consid ered
9" . Ln L 1 and L 1 besubcomplelles o r . simplicial complu K. ~ th lt . n L }
an d L . U L : ar e also i1IbcompkltllS ol the complex K , and sho'twlhal the sequenot
r,
0 - C. (L. n L 2; 0 ) - C . (1.1; 0 ) 0 C . (L 1; 0 ) - C. (L I U L 1; 0) - 0,

, .
where/t ( E "' (~;" I )'= \1: 61" (1,"1, - E . dll l).
,
is eXIlC!. Hen ce , derive tile eIllt ! seq ue nce
. . - Hit . ,tL , U L: ;O) - H..(L I n L 1 : O>- H. (l., ; 0)
$ HIr;{Ll; 0) - Ht (L . U L : ; 0 ) - H .. _ 1(1., n L : ; 0) - (I I)

ca lled th e MtJYD' V",t'lons U/Kf .wqwtllce.

Euet sequence (1I}c.bles us 10 Q\cuJate lbt hom ololY IJOUPS o f compile' led
simpliaal eoll1plex es.
10" . Usm, (S). (9). (10) Ind ( I I ), cakuWe !he homolol)' If(ll,lPS of the eom plQ
consiIli llll o f $implaes o f dimCft$ions 0 and I , md d ra wn 1.11 F... 110 .

11- . Show Ih at for an or\c1IlIble 'UI" f~ Mp or &ctlUli p . we:ha ve:Ihe: isomorphISm

H1CMp : Z ) ... Z.

Him: Show 1hal. any ~"""1Il qc:Ie II IDI,1Iljple or a <)Ck ..t.dI .. cqual lO lhc I""' of lIIl
CIlrVi5lteIr 2-mp1cl:5 or I lfiansulaDon of ~ -.ttio;b &Ill tUm wiIIt a COCQpa!ible orimwlon.

lZo. Sho w that fo r an orie nted l ur face M p of &enu, P . we:have:

Jl1{ltfp ; Z) ;, Z e ... @ Z.
"

f"q . 110
 l ....rQddCIio ll ' 0 T~n

k = O.
It _ I .

k> I
~d

Z,. It- O. 1. 2.
( O. It > 2.
Hit,, : uw. ~ putitioD 01 y o.

,... Sh_ <Iu' f oo"......a{,; w, r~ N. of.. .

~. ; O.

H" tN,,:Zj -

0,
.-,
Z @ ... ~ Z @ Z; . It_I ,

It > !.
U . Show that

"
F
>-0. '.
H"rtI,,; Z ; ) _ ~ @ ... <$) Z . It .. I ,

0', k >2 .
4. Barycentric Subdi visions . Simp licial Mappin gs. Lrt ~M
.. rD a t ) be a kd.immsional simplex. A point with ~ coordin.lles
liCk + 1) 1I(.t + I) Isc:rJI ed!he bfu7cm trr(jlt~~1''' . Denot e lhis poi m
b)' bo, I. .. t ; mM e JellQ"a!ty , cle1lofe b)' b ~ . ,~ . poiIll whose batyI;entrie C'O<)j'.
dlnale.5 'iare dt;rlllCd as follows
,, . { 0P: l ' i .. lo... .i;
otherwise.
For .J 1 possib le K1S,, 'o, ... . It l~ of p + I ven ices (0 " p " It). lbe: POin~ b '.. * .. f"
COlTClpo ndlna 10 them ~ tile bar)uDtre ol lbep-4immsional llOl:$ (lr l&.. .. . a'.ol 01
 ell s. HomolocyTheor y
'"

"

Ihe simplex 1" (remember tnar o-dimens.io~ faces lie lhe vertice:! 0'. and the
A:-dlmenslonal facc the stmplex r t ilsel f). Con sid er au pos sible s;mplex.es oftlle form
(b 'O"" .'.. - 1. 1.., b ioI, . . 1.. ~ '.... b IO' ;' .bi~). 0 " P " k.
The COUe<:l i(Hl of all such sim plexes and their faces form s a simplicial complex ca lled
a baryctnlrle subdivis ion of 'he simplex 1t (Fia. I II) .
Let K be a simp licial eomplu. Barycent ric subd lvisio ns of all its simple xes form
II simplicial compleX K ' call ed a boryt:entrlcsubdivisio n oflh4 romp/a K. We will
also consider simplicial complexesX (1) _ (1(,')' . " ', X v) _ (J<. v - I)
The ope rat ion of Jubdlvidina lh e ccmplex K ba ryccllt rieal/y deimes a chain
homomorphism
9 . ;C. (K ; G ) - C~(K ;G) .

The ho momorph ism 8 0 is defi ned on lhcvcrt ices Ii by Ihe formul a

6 0" '0 /) _ gool, ( 12)

and on simplexes of greater dimensi on. II can be defined inductively by the for mal
~Ial lon

8... (g ralO. . .. . oi'll _ Ib'O" , '.., e, _l itp"lg'Ia 'O, ... . Il'.. m ( 13)
which means th at if th e equ alily
9... _ l "...(g [0 10, .. . . Ill..]) .. r r. rcio, .. , c/r - 'I

is held, 'hen we have
9p(gro '~, .. , 0 '.. 1) - E g. [blo- " ..,qo,m,cIt - rj,

and 9 ... can be extenlled 10 the whole group Cp(J(; 0) by lineari ty. II is easy to see
that 9 . Is a chain homomorp hism .
 Imroduelion to Tol'>OloiY

Toge ther wilh 6 . c . (1( ; 0) - C. (K' ; OJ. lhe follo win, homomorphisms ale
naluraUy defined -
el;:) : C .<K:O ) - C.(KV);O).
Let. K and L be simplicial ec mple xes. A mappi ng! : IKI - I L L is SlIid 10 be
s/mp flClll lf the Image of each simplex . t from K is a certatn simplex fro m L . an d
the map pinll! l,. is linea r in baryccnlric coo rdinales:
/(/,p 'G + n. + ,t " I.) = 'O/ CO /G) + ... + ft / (P/ l).

The notions o f barycentric subdi vision and simplicial mappinll have meaning
also in co nsidering polyhedra made up orcurvilinear simplexes because bary<:enl ric
coo rd inates may be tran sferred 10 cu rvilinear simplexe1 by means of a triangulalion
homeomorph.lsm.
Lel f : ' 1(1 - IL L be a simplicial mapping. We define the hom omorphisms
Jp,Cp (K ; 0) - Cp(L: O J as follows; for each simplex (0 .... . ... " I.. ) e K . we pul
, . tlO'O' .. ../,,1, ) ifV" lo, .. . ./,,', ) is a simplex
/
lp (g [o'o, ... . " ,J) - { _ _ o f dime nsion p
o if V,,'o, . .. / " "l Ls asimple.:
of dimen$ioa leu lhan p
and exlendlp 10 Cp(K; OJ by linearily.
ExrrciKs.
16 . Show Ihal the collection of homo rtlOfPbisms (!PI is 1I ch ain complex homomor .
phism
J. :C. CK: O I - C.(L;O)
and therefore induce1 hOll\Omorph i1ms
f op : H,(K; 0 ) - Hpu.; cr,
"0.Show tha I simplicial mappings are morphisnu o f the cale gory whose objo:cts
are simplicial co mplexC$. and me correspondence
K- Hp(K; G ).
P K- L _ ! .,p : 111'(1(; O J - H p(L ; G l

is a covarian t functor fro m the above ca!l.'llOry 10 the calegory o f Abelian grou p$.
ISO. Show that the C(lrrespon~ lWOCiating an Abelian gr OUD G wilh Ihe holO(,llosY
group H.(K: G) o fa simplicial comp lex K with coefr~ienlS in G is a covarian t fune-
lOr f,o m lhe catesory of AbeliaDgroLlps 10 lbe same catcaor)!.

4. SINGULAR HOMO LOG Y THEORY

I. Singular Homology G roups. In this secuco , anothe r fUlKtor from 1M

calcgo ry o f homotopy Iypes of space 10 the c:a1C&<lr}' o r Abdian &.rouJK. i.e., Ihe
 e n S. H om ololY Tbeo ry

homology fu ncto r, "'ill be cons tru cted . T o invo lve algebaic cons mictlons of 5 . 2
'"
for the purpo se of m:dyinll the to pological space, it is l'Icssary to work out
methods of con structing cbaln ComplCl<es fro m a given space X. ln algebr aic
topo logy, the'e: are: a num ber of such tcchni qun ", hi<;h assume: the fulfil ment of
some or other ~lfOPC:rties for thc space X : "'e give hell: one o f thc most general.
A con tinuous rnapplna !"t : ot - X of the stan da rd simp lex 0-" to a topological
space X is called a sin,ular k -di mensfofIQl silhplex of the topo-Joskal space X.
let G be a ring with idenl ity . , e.g . thc rinaZ o f integer s, A formal linear eom -
blnation r, , ,1; o f singular "_dimensi o nal :iim plucs of the spaceK with the cce r-

rlCicnts I i l'rom G, only a fini te number o f Whic h dilfer fro m aero, Is called a
k-dimensional singular chain o f the: space X . The: SCI o f all k-d.imc:nsional singul ar
dillins of X with coc fficienu in G is denoted by q(X: 0 ). lt i$ an Abe lian group
under the opo:ra tio n o f addItion of chain s as linear co mb inations . !fG = Z t hen the
group c~ (X; Zj is free Abelian and Its 'general ors arc all possib le singular
k_dimensional simplexes .
We defi ne the di fferential
a~ : C:(X; G) - C1 - 1(X; G ).
To tb ls end, consider the standard (k - 1)- and k-dimensional simpkl'les 0-" -
and ok . Let us 8.5SOciale a po int
(10, ... . 1, _ 1' (/ " " '-,, _ t)e o k - I
with the point
(' O' '' ' ' I _I, O, fp'' -' 't _ t) e o*.
Th is co rrespond ence dermcs a mappi ng AT-
1 : o l - I _ 0 * from ok - I on to t he
i-th lie - I)-d imensio nal face of the simple.>; o k . If f * 15 a k-dimensional sing ula r
simplex then the supcrposition/Ie Af - I b evidently a (k - I)-dime nsio nal singu lar
simplex. For any sim plexF', k "' 1, we put

a~.r ",
,- .
E (-lY'V-"Af - 1) ,
and define the homomorphism a; On the whole group q (X. G) by lineari ty ;

t r k 0 t hen it is na t ural toput a ~jl '" 0 and, in accor dance with t he previo us,
to cxtenq a~ by the zero value 10 ~(X; G) .

ThI s he been done <)II'Y WIth the .. mplir",alKm of llOUllolI in mind. AJllhe construc-
tion. of thiSc!laptcrcan be perrormed fIX an arbitrary Abelian roetrlcient . roup G, jUll li k"
m the prcviow =,100> .
". In<rod _ _ to Topoion

n~<u 1- . Verify IM t i11a'., I = O.

HIlI' : II RlmaS ~ wri"'lhil cqdll)' oa iUI ... Oil....,. olmpla: f ' ' .
~ WI: see. the ~umec of &rOUPS C: (X: 0) and homomorphiims a: forms a
cUln co mplQ which we denote by ~tK; G) . II is f;<l\1cd asilt'lIkir cham complu
o f the ~paac X .
Let ,, : X - Y be a cont tnuc us mappi ns. Fo r any k _d imcnsl o nal s.in/lular d mplex
l it : (lit - X o r the space X, the sa perposiuc n 'Pi t is ;J, k-dimenslonal . inaulaT
,l mplu o f the SlIa~ Y. It Is o bv", u" lhat " indl.ls the homomorphism ....1t : q (X;
0 )- q ( Y; G ).
~iu 2- . Prove lhat tJlc .y).tem of bomomorptus.m"1t forms a chain COfIlpkx
homomorphism
v , : ~(X; 0 ) - ~( Y: OJ .
r.e. . (00- k .. I, lhe equalities hold: a:.... .. "/1 _I';. ",m e af . 1; al e the
di ffere ntials o f the romplod c:.(X; 01 . ~( Y; 0).
DEFINITION I . The hom oroay 8rO\l PS of the compleJI c:.(X: 0 ) are called th e
singular ho mol oV' , ro Up$ o f t he space X wit h coerlicicnl.1 in G: a k-ho molo llY
aroup i. dcnoled by H;cX ; 0 ), M d Ille coneeuc e of grou~ [H; (X : 0 )1., ;0 0 by
H -:(.X: 0).
EXAMPLE. CalcuI<Llc the bornololY I:fou p$ o f tllc poInt _ Ie b obvious thM C:<. ;
G ) '" G beQux tht:re is only ODe sinpJar limpluj* : " l _ for an y k. Tbt: value
of 1M differutial on iI Wllt:II t "" I ill c:aku\l;led by the: fonn ula

.
ol; ~ - I;( -l'r fk4f -l E ( -li ~ - I -
[0l - I wht:o k is odd,
.
I D I J wbm k II t:Vt:Il.
Rt:mt:m be1" that a; .. 0 wl\t:n k _ O. He nce , we o btain lh al i f k IS odd . IlIcn
Jma : .. , .. q C . G) .. Keta; .. G:
If , howc.-cr , k is eve n an d no l equal to UTO, IlIeD
Im~ ... I '" Kn oll - O.
Fi n.aIly, 1m af .. o. !CD a&_ 0 : lJIerc fOfe.
H j <. ; G ) _ O : Hf <. ; G) =- o. 1>0. ( I)

S1ucc tht: conunuolU IlLIPpinl II': X - Y Ind uces th e homomorp hism ., . ; ~(X:
0) - ~(Y: G ) o f sillJu lar ehaln complucs o f t llc spa ces X and Y. il ind uoc:s thc
ll om rmtOTphfs"l1 of siflg u/ru hOf'loloV' ,roup$

E>vri>a.
3 . Show Iltal lf., : X - Y, ~ : y - z eee condnuoul IM ppinas,ll!t:D (WI -
- "Pot" ' Show Illat to the idc Ql ity mappln, of X , tht:t"t: oonnponds tht:
 Ch. $. Horno!osyTheo,y

tlOIPOIO&y gro up jdemUy mapping . i.e., (lX ).k '" I H: ...... ). Hence, d enve thar t he
C
homology groups of homeomorphic spun eotncide (the homology gfOUp
topoloKical invartance theorem).
4 6 Sho w that a constant mapping X - Y, Le., a mapping sending Xto a point
)'0 E Y mduees rhe lrivial (zero) ho momorphism In homology group s of higher
dimens ions. k > O.
2.Properties of Singula r Homology Groups. In nem I, on eoova,;ant-
funclor. or more pr ecisely. lhe collectIon of functors H~ .. (H; <* ; G )l.t .. 0 from
the ClI.1q:O I')' of topologiea! spaces to th e category of Abelian group, was co n-
uructed. Let us Sludy t he most important pro perties o f thi~ func tor.
THEOREM l. L ei mappin gs 'P; '" : X - Y be homol op k . Then the fJlduCf'd
homo/vV' group homomVTp hismJ coinc ide.
First. we pro ve the following statement.
L.EMMA I . U / 8 1x a conwx sel Q/ a Euclidean spa; Ihen
H~(8 ; Q ) "" H~ (. ; 0) . (2)
PROOf". Let fi : Uk _ B be a singular simp lex. We define the sin gular simplex
Dt fk : .. ~ .. I - B b y the eq uality
D tfk (lO' ... , 11; .. . )

_
)1I;(__
' 0... + ( 1 - t o '_'- ,....~)
I - to 1 - '0
when ' 0 I.
0)
[ ... whenlo '" 1,
where w is a poilll from 8 , end
o k" I .
'Iare the 'oarycent rlc coordinates of a point from
ExttndinS ~ by lineMit y to 1M whole group q (B; G), we obt ain the
homomorp hism
DJ;: '1<8; 0) - et: .. 1(8; 0 ).
1\ follows from eqaaluy (3) lhat the lIomomorphisnu Dk and differenuals ill are
related as follows:
... I q (x; GI - D i _ lil;
ill .. ID i when 1( ;> o. (')
il{D~ -f'J - h O
where the singu lar simplu h O maps 0 0 tr ue the poin l w from B.
l.et ae e Ker a;,
k > O. Th en due to (4) , we hav e a:
+ lDi zi "" Zt' whence Zi
e lm il: .. .'
T hus. HZ(J1 ; G) '" Owllenk ;> O. Simila rly. th e o-dirneMionalcyc1ef'J
O,
is ho molo gous 10 Ihe cycle h therefor e. H~(B ; 0 ) _ O.
The meth od used in t he proo f or Lemma I ;s qu ite useful We no.... l ive lhe
followill$ defin ition.
Let C. , C~ be chain comple~es, lo' of. : C. - C; ho momorphiJ;mJ. A sY3tem
of homo rnorph iJ;ms ID",1
 Introduction 10T<:>poiOllY

suc h th at Ihe relation

ai . lok +0k_ ,at = "t- <Pt ' 0 _1 "::;'0 (')
holds Is call ed a r:hoin homOlOPY connectin g <p. an d ,;, .
The homomorphisms of Ihis relati on ere shown in the fol1o,,"'inS diag ram

The homomorph;~ml <p. and " . arc said 10 be chain.homotopic. If [D t 1is a chai n
homotopy r:onnccti ng 11'. and oJ,. ' then rot '<,t E Ker ilk ' we have
(>!-k - lI't)'<t '" ili .. IDt '<tE Im ili .. I '
Hence. the ho mology group homomo rphisms ind uced by the chain homomor-
ph isms l" . and';'. coincid e.
Exercise S". Let th e win homomorphisms l" 01:. ; C . - C ~ 'a nd systems of
hom om orph isllU lDU. ID: ), D:: Ct - Ci.. l ' J .. I, 2 be such lhal il;' .. IDt
+ D1_ l il r .. -Jolt - l"t. Show tha t the homolo,y group nomomorp n.sffil Ilfdu~
by lhe ho momorphisms lI'. lIrtd 01-. coi nc ide.
We sho w tha t homotopic mappings of to poJoSio;al spaces ind uce chain-
homo to pic hom omorphismJ o f sins ular cha in comp!el<cs . Let Ul appl y th e follow
ing eonnruc non. LttX be a topological space. X x I a cylinder ov er it; it is na t ural
10 can mappings ~ X , (JX : X _ X x 1 defined by th e form ulae

a X~) ,. (X, 0). n Xtx ) = o. I)

the lower and upper bases of th e cylinder. It is evident th at a X and fJX ate
homotopic.
LEMMA 2. FortJllysptlCt X, rhtfHxlSfso chQin homotopy lDfl connec ti ng .. : and
tJ'; ,i.f!.,
fJ{ - o f - ot: lil: + a ~ . ID{ . (6)
P ROOF. We COmll"\lcl a chain hom otopy IDf: C:(X; 0 ) _ q .. I(X x I: 0 )1 by
Ind uct;lIn o n k.
For k '"' 0, we put Df to - .to )( 1/, where the sin,ular simplell.f! x It is de -
(med by the fo nnula
1)( ]/(0' ( I) = (f0(l), ( I)'
and extend DfI I) 10 C't<X; 0) by .linearity.
Assume, for k > 0, t hat lite homomorphisnu D; ha ve already been defi ned
when '" -c k for an y X, and that they are functorial .
Cons.ider the chai n
<'tEG("!)( 1: 0), ct - fJ((l "tl - (l"t (l ...) - Dt _ lato... >.
 m
where I... i, ~onsidere<l u a singu lar $lm plu. By Iho: inductil,)n hypol hes ls,
~l c~ '" (jjt- 1 - 0.1_ l - atDt _ I )il l (l.. l - Dt _ : iJ: _ l il; (I .,.> '" 0 ;
er erercre, c"e Ker a; c C;<"Jr x I; O J. But "" x 1 is a con vell subset of lite Eucli-
dea n space; by Lem ma I , Hl {,.k x I : O J - O. Therefore , ,, 1m ~ Le " lhere e at \.
exau a c~n II~ .. l e e ; .. , (0''' X I ; G I sueI'! that at .. IU" .. I .. " Jr'
PUI D" ( 1,.. ) - U.t. + I "
Now, Jet f~ : <II: _ X be a sing ular simpleX" of the space X . We define the c~n
Of r by Ille equality
Df /I< .. if' x If>" .. ,Dt l.,t " Vir X ]/ )" .. I...." .. I '
where V x IfXK , f l ... (fk ~) , I) ,x e (1k, I e I. Sll1eef" and at are commuting and
of _ I func to rial, ....e obtai n
at. ,of r .. (fir x 1,1.1Pt - 'I>'( - u(_ I,m(l .,t )
"" 13:~ - a{1* - Df_ la:,r,
Extendins Df by linea rity to C;lX: 0 1, ,",'co ob tain the required homomorph ism
Df
We stress t he po int thai 1M construction o f rDf l
is func lor ial, i.e. , ror ;IInr w n-
linua u, mappin g ", : X - Y , th~ fa Uowing d iagr am is commutativc

C:IX;ClJ V; C:" IX.I;ClJ

!1'l'>t 1.J.. ,
1-'
c:Il':GJ e: C: .. (l'~I;OI

THE PIIOOF OF THEOIIEJ,l I. Let F : X x 1 - Yb<: . ho motopy co nnco;ling "" and ", .
We define: the chain homot opy
lDt : C: (X: OJ - C: .. I (Y ; GJ)
connect ing 'P . and "' . is the family o f superpos itions [Dt - Ft . , Df ) of
lIom om orp lli5ms of tile sequence
nf
q (X; G ) -C: .. I (X x / ; G )
't- . , C: .. I ( Y: G) .
Th~ statemen t of the th eorem fo llows from tile (act that cllain-homot opM;:
homomorph isms of chai n compleJt~s induce the sarne ho mom orp hisms Of
h om oJosy g roUJl$.
COROLtARY. A. homo topy ftl uivaltnu indllC'U a homology ,roup isom orphism .
T hus, hom oto py equ ivalent speces (in pa nicular , ho meom orphic) p<l$scss the
same (iilOmorphic) homolOi!Y gro ups.
'" In troduction to T DJlOlo, y

ExuciRs.
6 - . Show th at if X is a cOlll rac tibk ~pace , men Hg(X; G) "" G. H I(X: 0 ) 0 fo r
k > O.
7 . Show tha t for the homo logy groups of a d iajoinl union X V Y, tht Iso me r-
phlsm Is held
H: <X U Y: 0) '" H:<X: G, $ H;(Y; O}.
Show that H&(SO: G ) '" G @ G. H!(SO; 0) .. 0 when k > O.
' - . S how lhat if X and Y lITe pal h-e:on nectcd bee Sec . 10, ClI . 11), Ihen H~lX;
0 ) '" G '" HMY; OJ . and anyeontinuo\U mapping,: X - Yinduces the isomor -
phi sm
10 .0 : H~ (X; 0 ) '" H~ (Y; 0).
Lei X o be a subspace o f X, r : Xl) - X an embl.di ng mappi na. P utt ;na
C:(X. X G 0) '" C: CX; G)/ CZ(X,,; 0) ,
we have, due to ScI;. 2, an exact sequence: o f chain cc mptexes
I. J.
o - ~(Xo; OJ - C:(X; OJ - C:(X, X O OJ - O.
Th e homol01Y JrOUP$ o f thc eomp le:r C~(X . X o; 0 ) are called !.he si"811Ia,.
hom ology , roup' of fhe Pfli,. lX, X o) and denoted by
H~(X, X o; 0) .. lH; (X, X G; Oll.... e-
It follows immediatl:!y from Lemma o f Sec. 2 that the homoJoiY sequence
4 f , . , I ,
.. . - " /r + I CX, X O; O} - H/r(Xo; 0) - "k (X; 0)
J .t ~t >

- " ; <X, X o; O ) - ,n - H~ lX, Xo ) - 0 (7)

is exact. EQd. hom olollY sequences an:: the main tool In hom olollY theol)' .
Le t ua Innoduce the follo wina IJiOTevivid dac:ription o f Ihe homology gr<lUps
of it pair wlUdl follows from th e itbo:Ve d efinitions. Let in the cha in "f " xJl' , E
aU simiJaT temu be eollo:c:led, t.e., let all sina ular simpluesJl be pairwise diffe rent ,

an d .all f/le coefficien ts" o lher than zero ; we caD the allbset erme spaeeX, equal to
the union ofima~ of all mappinaafit Involved in .., "'ith nonuro coefficients. the
support 'of the cluJin..,. Aocordills 10 th e de finition o f it q uotient compkx (see
Seo;, 2), !he d ement IIr o f !he kemd Ker l/r of the bo undary homoll1Qrphivn
It ' c;(X, XCI; 0 1- q _ I (X, XCI; G} is a coset consisting of all ehains qtx, X o;
0) su<:h t hat (i) tWQ d iffer ent represematlves of t he demen t fir differ on ly by lUI ad-
dend from itc;<X o; 0) C q(X; G l i .e., by it dlain wilh support in the subs~
r
X o (f" beina a coset); (d) the s.upport of the boundar)' il".t" o f My representative zir
of th e dement I" is Conlain ed ill XCI (f" Is a cycle 'modulo X';I. Similar ly, the ere-
ment 6. oflhe irmlse of the homo morphism ill + I is it coset co nsininll o f aD chain.
blr.ln q(X; G )weh that (i) t wo repreSentati ves dlffC!l' by a chain with suppo rt in X o'
(II) each repres.ental:lve blr of the coset 6 1r can be writt en in the fo rm it; + ,"fir . I
 Ch . , . HomololY Theo ry

flc. nz

+ "':' when: "rot + l U acatain dlain from q{x: 0), and -r:u any cham with sup-
port in X o' n.\LI:, elemc:ntsof hcun olojJ.Y sro~ are relative (~odulo the subs.pac:e
X o' ) cycles t", consid~ up to the relative ('modulo X o') bou ndaries 6",. An exam-
ple of a two-dimcnsioul relative cycle ~ given in rlS, 112.
The connecting homomorphism 6t associates the clemen t "t from the homolo8Y
group of the pair H t l){ , Xo : 0) with the denvnc h: _ I from the homology gro up
Hot _ I{XO: 0) o f tbe SUNpace X oaccord in, \0 the follow!n, rule derived from the
de finition of a connecting homom orph ism fo r chain eom-plexcs (see the end o f
Sec . 2). Let a relative cycle t. e qCX, X o: 0) be the rqmscnllUlve of the clement
lite , and the cycle zt e qlX. 0) the representative of the element tt trealed as a
coset. Consi der the chain ~tlt from q _ I (X; 0), II is clear IlulI (i) the support of
the chain at 4 is cont~ed in X oand therefore the chain at to: can be regarded u a
chain from Ct _ I txo' 0): (ii) since at _ l at l t '" 0 , me chitin atzt is a cycle In
C. (Xo' G) . Generally speaking, the cyde aktt is not II boundary in C . (X'o' 0),
bc:eausc t t may not bc10na 10 ,tCt{Xo ; G) "" Ct(Xo : G) .i,e . the support of the
chain to: may not lie in X o' TIle ho mology cUw hf _ I of the cycle atto: in
H t _ I(XO;0 ) is, precisely, the image aiit of the homology etes lit. It u obvi ous
thM an arbiuary choice of the representatives tt and tt ml:rcly leads to ee di f-
ference at"t - ~t vt being a boundary In ~(Xo' 0), and not only in C. (X: OJ, for
two different chain s lit and v~ determi nJns the same class lit . Thi:Tefore the defini-
tion of the homology class h t _ I is valid.
E:arcisn,
9". Let .. be a point from X. Show thai H;",,: 0) co H;lX .. ; 0) for k > 1.
10 , Let tbe cmbeddlnSi: X o - X be IIhomolopy equlvllcnce. Sho w thl t H; CX,
Xo ;O I c> O for ea ch k .
 '" Inlroouctioo {\I Topplosy

NoIc thai , enerall y ,pa.kln, ,......sen.ion tha t tl><: Ma ya--VlelorU SUlucn: Is c....a (_
Sec. J) if lnoorr m for dnauJar homolOllY aroups. (Wh y? T ry 10 give I COWlleJWllYlplc.)
Howcva', it K , aDd K 1 are IUb<:otnpla es <)f a , implicial l;OIn P!e>: K ,hc n rOT . ingul...
hon><llop trOUp' o f the Ipllces IK 11 and lK l l , \"" Ma.ytr.Vidor lJ $C:CjlA'llC" is uaCl.
We now dwell on m e baryanl ric subd ivision of slnaular simp lexes. COIl'ii4cr Ihe
baryOClltriC subd ivision Qf . standard simp lex " ... . Denote by < c/o, e l ' ..... C/f > the
composltiol'l of . linear (in baryunuje coordillillles) rnappm,; of. S1an dall1simplex
" II onto 1he rimplex (c/o, e l " , c l. ) fro m the baryceulric subdivil;lon of <T*. which
sends thej-th wnex of the stand.&rdsimpWc to the j-Ill vertex ell fr om the set /c/o,
c\ ...c'-I, an d tbe cmbcddios malJPina of the simplex (clo, ell , .. . . c to) into the
simplell .. l .
NOle thaI the idml ll.y map~ I.,. of the simplex ok can be rcgiUded as an
dement of Ih" group q (O' O J ""hOK boundar)' i$ of the form iltl"",

..

- ,E (-IY"'1 - I (SCC lt em l) .
Now. lei X be an arb itrary topolop;aJ space .
We dcna c 1M nomomorphisms
0t: C:(.\"; OJ - q (X: 0), k - 0, I, . .. ,
iDd\lttive!y by havina; IlUI

00 " IGl~; Gr ( Ba)

AMume th aI th e homontorpbUms 0t :- I baYC alr eady been derma! for an Mbiu~

lopo1op:al $pace X and. ~ thaI for the $inguw simplell: 1.. Qf the $J)lLC%"
11M c:hin 0,t _ I (illok ) CUI be R!prr:sented in the fQrm
Dt _ I(a;....,) '" E, I j" <cJ.cJ.....c}- I>, (8b)

where c1
is a YU\cI Qf the !>&l)rCen!nc:isubd!v ision of the (k - Iklimmliooal faces
oftbe ampla .. t . II is obvious t>w Ihi ~uiremcnt is f'IIlfIDcd ....hen k - I .. O.
N""".put
0t(I..) a L'r <60. I . . . t .c! .c}..u.c!- 1>.
, (11<:)

....b en: 60. I. .... t is the batyecmrt of the simplex ..t. and 61and ct are the wnc: as III
(lib). J
Let us define the homomorphism 0t on the singular si!nplellr; .. .t _ X for an
arlritrary spa.cc x.
Letr.: ; c:(..t; G) - c:.(X; G) be I c:ba1ll com plex homomorphism induced by
the mappinsr : ..t _ X . Put

o..U"") - f l Ot (l ok) (8dJ

Eldendini D.t to C;CX: G) by !iDearity

~O: , ' d/) - r, II~(f/) . (lie)

 we com plete the dc finilio n of0,t . II is dear that the chain 0.t(a: ... 1 I... ' ,) ad miu a
represen rllllon similar 10 (Sb). The lnd uctlve con struction <If Ok is thus complete.
Thus. Ihe chain 0kU k) is l iven rise as the sum o fl he restriclions o f Ihe mappinl
f J: 10 tile k_dimtrulional simplexes of the bary,.mlric subdivision o f Ihe slmpleK a.t.
The homolJKlrplili ms {lk are fuftCtoti ai and commul e with the diUerentials
aJ:n., .. o.ak (vetify l). Th e wUe<;tion o f the ho momorphisms Ok forms Ihe
homomorphism Il. : ~cx: 0) - ~(X: G) Qf the compla. ~(X: 0 ) into itself.
Extn:isft.
11. Sho w lhat the homomorph lsmsll . and loop . 0) are chAin-homotopic.
12. Let A and B be: closed,disjoint subspaces o t a norma l Hausdor ff space X .
Show thaI fOT any cycle:o:,t (i Cl(X :0 1. there ""istl a cyck (O,t )':O:1: bcmologou s to il
such that for any singular simplex! of !he cycle (0)':0:1:' ils ima ge does not In-
tersect bolh A and B simultan eously.
3. Homology and Homotop y Groups. (t is natural to a llempt 10
estabUsh a matioo betw een the sinlular homology ITOUPS and homotopy ITO UPS o f
a sJlce. This problem turns oul to be: quite complica ted; only partial result s have
been Obtained. Thus. a l-<limeroslonal bomoloay gt'oup of a path-connected space is
completely determined by its fundamtntal poup.
THEOREM 2" . L et X be Q pol/l-COrlllf!Cfed $po ce wilh a ~ point .I'D' T1ten
n ; cx. Z ) "" .... 1(X.xo)/ (..-I(X'XO)...... (X,xo)l . (9)
wil e" ["-I (X' xo). "-j(X, .I'o )! is tile IXHrl",uIQfl f oj I/l e group 11", (X .1'0) '
We outline w proof of fonnula (9) while dweU!n. on 8COlll etriC kleas on ly, Pirst
of aU. note thai any loop of the $pao;:e X lori&inaliog at th e point x c} Is a singular
cycle (the sinaular slmpleJl 10 , IJ - (0 . 1)/0 - I = S I .:. X is a cy<;le). Hel1'CC , the
ho momorphism of the s rou p ..- [ (X. x O) in to .llt (X; Z) which we will d eno te by e is
given rise.
Second, ' caD be sho wn to be: an epimorphism . ln fal;(, each cycle in Hf(X; Z)
determ.ines (not uniq uely) SC'Vualloops m the s-pac:e X. pouibly. startin. at different
pomls. These various loo ps can be Irans fo rmed inlo one loop by joining Iheir
origi ns to the: potnlXO by means of a path Ih at can be cin;umnavigaled in the for -
ward and reverse dirmionl (Fl . II ) . Th e complex loop ob laioed at Iht llOinl.l'ois
tran sfonned by the ho momorphism 'Into Ihe original singular cycle. (More precise-
ly. the class of th is loo p Is tr l\llsformed into the class of the ori8inal cycle.)
Third, !ht com mutant o r the lI"0up 'lfl ex, "'0) lies in the kernel oU. In fact, the
\ooJl a,p ' a - 1 ' 8 - 1 under the ecnen o f l h t homomorph ism e ill lnuuformed,
roughly speakina. into Ihe cycle a + P + a- I + /r I: the singular cycle &roup is
commutat ive , an d the ey<;les <II + - I and {J + /3 - 1 are Ilomologous to UfO .
Tberercre, the loop a'fJ 'Q - r . p - I is transformed into a cyde whieh is ho mologous
to <tero .

R.c:mem bcr tll.l ltle C\:ll m' Ulfan l [T, .. J of a aroup l. ...ubt:rOllP &eller. ted by CO"'-
mutalOn of the fonn ' l . 1 1 . ' i' l . I i'. wh....e A: P ' l " r . The COlI\II\ulalIl of . group i. its
normal . "ba<aup .
 -.

Fla. III

II can be shown that the eo mmut BnC mak es up the whole kern el o f the
homomorphism 8 (actually, th e 'in veuc' homomorphism of the group Hf inlo
" 1/ ("1 ' 'I'l l Is COO5\rucled whUe pr oving the su rjectl Yity).
JcerriJt 13- . geeore the p roof or Th eorem 1 by the,plan Jliven.
We Jive t he fo llowing statement without proof.
TH EOREM ) (H UREWlCZ). lA, X be II i'QIIt -et){tn:/1!d lopololictli spQ SIIC"lI 'heir
...~(X) 0 wItaI Ie < q tUld If (Xl "" 0 (q > 1). 1MII H;<X; Z) = 0 ...11"..
0 < t. < q ~d H:tx: z) _ ...,OO. IJwfolJowin, di#,trPrI Miff' comm ll fll ti,.

IOF ""JI~rX- x.
..,(1(1

"
~D(:Z) ~
.
--.!!.....- -..00
.. ~0f;'Z)

5. HOMOLOGY THEORY AXIOMS

In the two prnlou s sectiON .. we ronsidered Iwo homot OlY theo ries. viJ:.
simpllcil1 and ilngular. Besides. there exist some more ho mology theo ries in
algebraic topo logy. Hist orkaUy. sl.lTl plidal homology th eory was introduced earli er .
Different approaches as resar<h.t hc censtructlcn of homoloty theory for lerlcul
lopolo&lal l j)Ka ( Alcxand rov.cech homolou eheory, sinplar homoloty lheory.
C'l c.) were 4e:Ydoped later . Th e pr ob lem eonm1lla Ihe COIldidolU for Ihe
eqlli.,ll1etIa o f two different lheor\Q a ppeared to be quile oorn plieated.
Qu ile Il5eful ;,alh" ro llnlm it Ihe axicmlalil:" approaeh 10 hotllOlogy theory,
wbic:h implies l:h.al lbe buic: pr operties of t he eonespoadcnoc between lopololleal
and a\a'eb'ak not>om IS~ a"m uionWically. and a1I lM remainin. eonuplS &Ie
dedu<:zd f,om the uiams chOSCn, Sud! II 5)"Jtmt of u ioms was okYe\opecl by
S!;fttlrod and EiimbuJ. lind here ..-e fOfUl,Wate their axiomo.
HOIrIoioo IMoq H . with. connec:tiq bomlJfllOf'Phism ' . is th~ c:oIlectioe o f
eo....rilI.nl fu nclOl'1l lH'.). k _ 0, 1. 2 , ... . from the aleaor)' of pain of lopoioPc'al
 ClI. S. Homolos;yTh eory

spao;es ~ , A) . A c x , into the I;lltqlOry o f Abelian ....01,1!, an d t he COUeClIo n 0 1

f uoct o riaJ homomorphisnu (b~J , k. .. 1, 2, .. ..
6. lX, A) ; H. <X , A ) - H . _ I VI . 0 ).
Moreover, Ih" fo llo wing axioms should be fullil lul:
( I ) HOMOTOP Y AXIOM . Le, muppln , s/. s : X - Y b e ho motop ic . on d F . X x
x 1- Yo homotopy co nntcting th em. Let A C Xond 8 C Y ,ond F(A x I ) C B.
Th..
H. (/) '" H. (g ):H.(X, A ) - H.(Y,B)
/or orb itrory X . Y , A , B./ . , .
(2) l! XACTNESSAX IOM Fo rony paiT (X,A )ofld (m~ddlngs l : lA, 0) - <X, 0 ).
j: (X, 0 ) - (X . A I , t hcre is un exoct sequence

6... ,lX. ...) ".11) " .(1)

::":="-' H. tA, 0 ) - H.(X. 0 ) _ H.(X.A)

-H._
6.t tx",Al
t lA,0 ) - ... - H o(X, A) - O. (I )
( 3) EXCISION AXIOM . Let (X, A) ~ On arbitrary PQir . U ope n in X rind U
C In l A. Then the emlHddin, o/ /XI ll"$j : (X" U . A " U) - (X,A ) IlIdu~s the
isomorphism

(')

(4) D IMENSION o'](I O M. For 0 spo .. eoruis,in, 0/ one point , H. (_ . 0) = 0

wll en k> O.
Exerc ise I " . Velify the fulrJlmenl o f t he axi om , of homol ogy theo ry for sin llUla r
hornoi osy thCQry.
Th" axioms of h omology lheory ere comple te .i n th" fo llowing: se nse .

T1-IE U NIQ UENESS THEOREM. LAllI. O1Id 1f.. H tMlO homolo8J' IlIeo/ia. {f th cre
a u 's "n UontQrphum "'0 ; Ho{ e , 0 ) ... R o('" 0). then these theorksore nDtIl/'dlly
isomo'11h ic 0 11 th c <:dregor)' of pqin 0/ compDt:1 poIyh~ro. i.e.,
(i )/or 0 /1)' pair of co mpgct poIyhN,o (X, A) such tMt 0 U;Qnglll(l1wn 0/ A i$ll
SIIbRt 0/ ~ trilln,ulill(on Q/ X , olfd/ or t!flCh ~ ;;0 0, 0 Illlirue/llmily oj isomorphi$m$
N..(X. A) . H/C(X, A ) '" "H.t(X, A). k > 0 I.f d<Jincd wllh "'0(.' 0 ) = "' 0 _
(ii) / or (111)' mDppingf : (X, A ) - ( Y. B) o/poif'$ o/compoet polyh~'G r".d eh
k .. 0 , 'h~ n lQlfollS HtU) .. H I:(f) ;mp{y in, i he commillativity of th~ d iDgrams

I\ffJ

ore valid;
 Introduet>on 10 Topolocy

( iii) llor diqroftU

" .,I-".AI ~,\ fA,~

~ , R - 1/ .~(IO, 'J
~ , P.AJ ~ ~tA,.,
~ wtdn 1M lsontorpiI imr of aI RflWI/CC of 1_ (I) rm-comm /lfl1l;w.
SiKe il is beyond lIIe df:oooontary ceurse , we do 00 1 pve tt.c proof of tbe ufti
qurness tMorftll brtr.
In particu lar, siDauLa' ~I .J , Im plk:ial ' hrories c:oinci~ on the eat qory of paiu o f
com,.a: po lyhedra . l'hllS, for . COIIlpad poIyhrdfOfl IK I, the i$omorpbism is valid ;
H. ( l Kl ; G ) =Jl~t I K I ; O ). u
We win ute Ihls f~ (the proof Is no l sl ven heh ' '" Sea. 6 lIld' while trans felTinl
fro m one hornalon theory to tnother .
NOie that the indcpmdcnce of li mpUcial hom o locY of Cllm))2CI poiyhed ron
f rotll the dIoIa: of IrilUll\ll.tlon can be Qlablishrd both within the KlOPf of
simplicial tbcory iUclf an d with 1M Woe of sinlUW homo""y wO!')'. Tbc l.lIcr
_hod c:onm ll in w nSU\KtinJ an iIolllOrphism bet ween the bomoloaY aroups of
an atbltt a.y Irimg\llatlOll of . potyhedUJIIand lhe. NllI utar honooloaY II' ~ o f th is
pol yhcdro-.. Th e paniclllan of til ls reasoniq ar c co mplicated mou.&!t, and _ do
IKlt Jive tbcm bcrc.

~ 2". By _ of Ihc lUIiqumas thcorml , establish tbe validi ty o f the: eu<;I

Ma)'ft-VlCloN scqvm for sinJular bolDOkJu th ftIfY
... - H:(lX,' n IK 11;O) - H ; (lKI I ; 0)@ H H I K 1 1:G)
- H: <IK1I U IK1 1; 0) - H : _ I U X )I n IXtl ; Gl
.. . - H~ (l XI I U IX 11; G ) - O. (4)
Where X l' XI are w bocl!nplexc:l of . nnlte sinl plicial complex K.
NOIe in l.'OnClulion that there exist homoloar Ihro riCl .l'liisfyin gaxkmu {1)-(3)
bUl lIOl.. tilfyi~ the dlme ml o n ealom. Suc h hom o logy thcones arc caUed 1!J/1fUQf'-
dltNtry, and il is their Invati;a:, u9n tbat ma kes UP. lugel y. the buic toples of
modern aJacbraic topolot; y.
AJon& with hoMOlop lTou ps. 1M ~rd coh o mok>lY arou p$ a.re used in
al&cbrak topolot;y. The main di ffcreucc of tobomolotY theory ft om bo molo ,y
tbeo ry COfIlIim in the: rKi that comolol)l Ihrory is ' he col ltion H" of COlt-
tt Pariant fVllttOn H' &lid rhcrrfcm most arTOWS in cohonooIol)' theory dtatllt
their c1ireaiorls as co mpared trith holN)!ou tht'Of)' .
Tbt fu ndammtal obJtct ln collolnoloc' Ibtory b. cocbain com pb. C ", r.e
the seq_
 ",
of Abel ian VOUfJS c-
(roc:lgln &n)Up6) and their homomorphisms d ie(differen tials
or cobou nduJ bommn orphWns) well thal die ~ Id Jr .. O. The toehaiD comp1Q
cohornoloc I1QRPiS an: the fae:tOf croups
H Ir(C ) '" ICndt/ lmd lc - ',

Coo:baill COI'I'lplua are o fim obuiacd from dlaiD complo: a by the foUo'll'ilil
InCthod. Let C. be . chain etlInplo: , G an Abdj,an II'OUp . Let c- ..
HOOl (Ca. 0)
be the Jet of all bomomOlllIlisms of Ote IJO\IP C.. inlO me IICllP G. For ". l!
If HOlD (C OJ. we derlM lIlc c~m d t <fkE Hom (et .. " OJ by the C'quaJity

/d,. th. .. I - 'Yt (at .. !"rlc . I)

on an . rbitrat)' element "t I e C .. I ' Thus, by the bound ary homomorp hu rm it..
of the chain compleJi: C we define the coboundary homomorphi.mlll d * of Ihc
cQCIWn COIJ\plex C . It is obvious thai
(d t + 'dle " thk .. 1 .. (d*"t )(il... 11k .. 1)
.. ~ t(at .. lat .. l'Yt + 1) " " .t(Ol " o.
50 I hal C is II adtaUl compb. indeed.
App!)'inI this IZIcthod to C. '"' C. (K; Z}, i.e., lilt cba ln compla: of the
simplicial wmplex K 'With iDteanJ ooerrlCie:alS.we obt ain. codWa oompicJ: C (K;
0), whtu C t(K; O J .. Hom (Ct (K; Z ), OJ. The cobomolop IfOIIPSH Ir(C' (1(:
OJ) an: taDcdtbe siIIIpIicial c:obomoklu" UOI/lK of the Nmplicial com pb: J( (or lhc
polytw:dl'OR IXI ) with axfficialts in G. SiIniljJly, by eonsldmn, tltc sinplar ciWrl
COlIIpla C'.,(X; Z ) as C. , we otK.m the ~ eotlornolol)' IJ'OIIPS of the
topoloJical space X 1I'itbeocrrltienU in O. H01O'cYCf. hue certaiDdilrllCllh ics shou!d
be overcome. viL. thea related (0 Ihe f.lll:! that the tel of smpOlT dim. &muP
ImcratOfS Is iDrmite.
A l)'1Iml of axioms u hts and tlIe utii qu_ tlIeorcm is " a1id. also for
cohomoIoO theDrY. These ale sitniLu to th e uioms and theorem for hondoJy
theory . An imponant advantqe of eotIcxnoJoIYtheories over homolosy thear!" is
that (he eoho molOi)' group. or l com etric:o bj11 prod uce a rina with & mullipli(:ll.
tio n ",hich I gener ally $pelIkin DontriYial. In I nWl\ber of Ploblcms. both
homot olY and eohomo lolY groups lml used.

6. HOMOl OOY GROUPS OF SPHERES.

DECREE OF MAPPING

I. The Homology Groups of Spheres. We now cak\llate the s.i.o&u1u

bomoIoJ)' VOUPio f the spheres S . The kncroo"Jcdgc of IheK JfOUPS enables us to In
uocIlNlC the nolioas of the clcvec of. lUppiDa, dwaetcriMic &lid th e inda of.
sinaular poIat of veaOl fldd .
lA1 X be . ceI1 rozapln . Y. rmilCsubc:omplca . We sbo w Ih..
H ; (X, Y;O ) . H ; (XI Y; OJ (I )
 lauu,hOllloon 10 Topolocy

...htD" > O. and ..hUt X I Y .. a faa M JPl'C't of X rd;u;yt to Y .

Not e, firsl. t hat the cdl co mploi X I Y is hom ol opy eq llivalen t to the complex
X U ,CY. whtre C Y il th e I nc ' over Y with the vC1tCJl and I : Y - X il the
embeddlnl. In raet, Ihe com plex X IY wlncklel; wilh the c:omplcx (X U ,C Y )/ C Y.
Since C Y Is a con tractible Jubc:om plex of t he complex X U iCY, the com plCll.cs
(X U jC Y)lCY an d X U iC Y an homotopy cqlli'nlmt (S ~. 7, see. 10 .
01. IV). ThaefOl'c
H ; (X I Y ; 0) ... H ;()( U ,C Y; 0 ).
and. ...hen " > 0,

(ICe EJI. 9, sec. ).

The ((lI1C CY Is homotopy equivalenl tl) the point E C Y, hence
H :c.x u ,C Y ; 0) .. H ;VC U iCY; 0 ).
Cooukkr !he CI1IbcciciinI mappinl o f PM
I : (X . y) - (X U ,C Y . C Y);

it ind llces th e hcmQn\Orphism

I . : H~(X, Y; 0) - H~(X U ,CY, C Y; 0 ).
Ul IO show th ai J. is ... Isocnotphf:sm.. We break tbe cone C Y intO two pam
C l yanc1 Cl y , as shown ill r" . 114. Ie b o bvio llS ttl &:!
H~(X U j C l y , Cl y; 0 ) ... H~(X, Y; 0).

Rememberttull ra 10ll01opca! lper:c Y. lhe "" ne CY .. d..fined .. Ih.. rDa " , l pee..
( Y" I)/IY )( 0) .
 Ea ch cycle ~t IS C; (X U iC Y , C Y ; 0 ) can be rep1accd toy a cycle (Ot)'~k
homologous 10 it and such t hat the image of each sinplar simplex fro m (Ut)'tt in -
te rsectingX will 1'1 01 inte rsect C I Y, and, conversely, each singular simp lex intersect-
ing C ' Y wiu nO( intersect X (see Ex. 12 , 5. 4). Discarding in the chain n V )Zk all
simplexC5 intersecting C I Y, we will ob ta in a cycle:i 6 Ct(X U IC Y, CY: 0) which
is ho mo logous to the original . On th e ot her h:llld , zk can be cons idered u a cycle in
the greup o f chains C1tx U ,.ely, C 2 Y: 0 ):' theref ore, It i$ an epimorphism .
II ca n be sho wn simila rly that / k is a monomorphism .
Co nside r an appl ication of formula (I) to the cakulaticm of hom ology gr oups o r
the sph ere Sn. We sha ll need the hom ology groups o r the disc D n. Sin ce ]jn Is con-
tra ctible to a point, the hom ol ogy gtou ps of the disc are Isomorph ic to t he
hom ology gro ups o f the point, viz.,
G whenk _O
H;(J:J ": G) '"
[o whe nk >O
(sec Ex, 6, Sec. 4). We begin ca teulating with small dimensloM n. Since S O ~ the
disjoint union or two points ,
H~ (So: 0 ) := 0 (!) 0, H:<SO: 0 ) - 0 when k > O.
Furtherm ore , du e to the pa th-connected ness o f sn . when n > 0, we have
H~(S h: O ) =G,n >O. _
Note now tha.t the sphere Sh is homeomorp hic 10 the faclo r spa ce D h /S n -
Therdote. due to (1). we have
H;(1jn ,sn-I: O) "" H; (Sh :O ) when k > O.
Let us make u se of t his TeSult.
Cons ider an CJl act homology sequence o f ]j I, S, while repJacillg , when k > 0,
the homo logy groups of th e pai r by the ho mology gro ups of the circumference s -.

... _ H;<S ; 0) - H;(O ';0) - HHS t : 0) - H ; _ 1(5;0)

- ... - lI fl$J; 0 ) - H f(iJ t ;IJ)- H l'<s l: 0) - H6 ($0: 0 )
- H~ rJjl ;O) _H~(1jI , S O:O) _ O. (2)
HavinS noticed thatH;W t ; 0) .. Owbenk >
1 and H~ _ ,(Sa ; OJ = o when
k > 1, we o btain from (2) a short exact sequence
O - H; <S I; O) - O, r.
hence H :(SI ; G ) ... 0 when k > I. Besides, the ho mom orph ism H~ (S; 0)
- H~(1j I ; 0 ) is epimorphic (verify th at by definitio n!). Tb erercre , our exa ct se-
Quence (2) Ie.dt to II short exact seq ucnce
I P'l ... "'"1
O- H 1(S :O )-O (1)G _ O _ O,
and hence wc ob tain the isom orp hism H itS I : OJ '" O.
 lauodaroooo ' 0 Topoioo

No....we .pply mdp cU<m. Auume 11\;1.' when I <q " " - 1 th e isom oi phisms
lI,ave bot" cstAbiished tOf the ~ph Cf" sq ,

H ' ($' : G) .
t
[G 0
wtlm Ie - o.q ,
when lr "O, q .
CortDdcr me ~ hoorl olol)' sequence o f the pair a>";
S'" - I) wh ile ~., as
earlier ~ b Olllol OC)'lfOIlPS o f th e pMr by tM homolol)' lfOUPS of the IPhcu S'" :
... - H;0 "': O)- H;(5"';O ) - H; _ 1(5'" - ': G )
-HI _ I ll) "' ; O) - ... (3)

Whmk > I, _ b.'W:H;tb "; 0 1 - o. Hi _ ,(h ";O) - O. thcrcfo~theponion

under COIUickntIon o f eua. (3) La o f the r_
KqUCDC:e
0 - H; (5"': 0 ) - H i _ 1($ '" - I; G ) - 0.
hen ce the iUlnlOrpbism rOUoW$: H;(S"': 0) ... H; _ I(S'" - I; 0 ). Ie > I. Th us,
w hC1l " .. 2, We oblltln
H ; ($"' : G ) - 0, ... . n:, - I(S"'; O ) - 0,
H~ (S" ; O ) ... H~ _ ,(5'" - 1;0 ) ... G ....
To calaiIatc H; ts" ; 0 ). 'llt'e put Ie _ I in (:
m -
'.,
H: (b " ; O )- H f ($"' ; O ) - H:(S" - 1; 0 ) - H:W"': 0 ) - ...
r. o _
Since S'" - J ,lJ" ~e path -ec nnected , we h.VCIf:(S'" - I; 0) ... H:(D ": 0) .. 0
(see EJ.. 8 . Sec. 4) . Hmoc, Ka 1. 0 _ 0, and bau.se of th e U Kl o.esso r ()). we 0b-
tain u hon exact llIlQ_eeO - H t (S" : 0) - O. i.e., H t (S" ; G) .. O.
'JlJc inctIxUcHi h)'llCChc* is th us mcno:lcd 10 q .. " _'J'ha"dore , _ ~ uIlimaldy.
1f:(S":G) "' O ~ " / ($ " ; 0 ) -0, j_ O .. .... 1; (4)
H: 4S" ; O ) _O. ,, ;;'1 : H : (5 : O ) _ O $ O :
HJ ($ O: 0 ) - O. i .... I.
'Tb1U. the homolol)' II'OUp5 or S" have bem compu lcd .

While ~ the h omolou &roUP' of S ~. we dld not I;lSC the Wliqu.mc:ss

.tIcor atl of homo1ocY lheory (II' Sec. S). We cou ld ~vc used it as roll ows : since:
th e spb Cff S " It homeotl\OrJlhi( 10 th e bouDd.". off" ... , of the simplu , . ... " we:
:In c the Isoll101"Phislll
H1(11m"" + ' 11: 0 ) .. H : (S" : O ). (S)
whmce. d ue 10 the r_ Ju (see (9). Sec . 3) colKCmirl, H. @r~ .. I ): 0). we ob l ai..
the _ rcsuh as Po (4).

Not e Ihml In See. 4, Oi. U I. Ihe Brouwer find _po int theol"C171 and ' he tbeoe en
on the im pos.slbllilYo f fOnNn, a ret rkUo;>n o r Ihc .. dilC (KIlO the 1)ounduy sphere
....cur bIIscd on t he fun ctori al propert y o r homotopy , roups and on Ihe re-Iu ll ....h lch
has DOl been prov ed : ... ($ " ) Z . Now . on the baliI of the cst ..bIidtcd '-not.
'"
pbis.m H:<s"; Z) '" Z and homoklJY fu nctor, th e 1_ above-men tioned Importaln
theor_ Ill-a)' be comilkra1 &$ JlfoYcd riaorow.ly . In f ll(l . theu proof OCIly in YOl.. ed
the aDona or a fv.netor to lhlt calqoryo f A beli an 1l'0Il p' and abo th e kroowkdll' of
the ..-oup of the spa S .

urciW I". PedUlX from "Tlleorcm 1. Sec;.~. (!\a t ..,.($") ., O. k < II; . " IS") '" Z.
Let u.t diKus5 the topolOJical lnYarianoe o f the: nlon of the dimmsio. of ..
EudiOeaa sptlCC . It is tllown from alsebnI 11m IWO Eudidun SJl*;eS of 0',,: Arne
dimctIJioo are isomofp/l.K . and hence homcomollJble. It II known also tha i the
~oes R M and 11." are not isomorphic: when m ". If . A q ll n tio!l arisn wh~ the y
are ho meomorphic. The fo Uowlol lh co l'l:TTl Pl'o vidcs a nctal i...e answer to t his q ues o
tlon and l IlIes tmro:by tbat the dimeR$ion of. Euclidean space il a topoLolPcal in
variant.
T HEOREM I. qM '" II Ihe ll , he spIIC'Q Rift ,utd R ft (I'" " 01 hom toml>TPhlc .
P~. CoNiderone-pointcompacti(lCaliOllSA- '" 11." U E'" and /I" '" R" U t"
of the JPKft 11. - and If ( lee Sec. 14, 01. 11). The bases o t nei&hbo uriloods o f th e
poin ts EM, f " are the ~tlof do5ed balb with cen tres at t he oriI:ln of eoof
dlll . lelI on \be ~ R UKl R". rc:spectiYdy. II is euy (0 see thai a o~ COI'<)-

.....
PKlifIQtIotl oCa Elld kkan 1pKII: ;' hoIncolXlDl')lhi(: to a sphue o f the" _ dlmcn -

~ thai there cWu a ~. : R'" _ R", It can be atcnde::l lo

!bit 1ft3ppir!, f : ~'" - I by bavia& p U.1 I n "') - f ", 11 III elU)' tO see that: the lMPP-
_. I e abo a ~tIiIm , We. obWn bcnC'It dIal lh e spbaa S'" and S UIt
abo homeomorpbie.. lbItn due to the topok:lsical iDnrianor o C'the b~

.
pou~ H; (S"', Z} "" H(S" ; ZI ((I{ cadi t-.
We know.~, & this is. not 80wbcn '" .. II, lltCFltfor e, the asswnpdon
concc:rniq the p:isu:n cc OI IM bomcomorpbism. : R '" _ R when '" '" II i$ inoor
""
2,The Degree of a Mapping, Wit now pass ever 10 the Ru.dy ol hom omor
phll.nu of bom oloIY l'ou c:K iDduco:d by mapplnaJ o f lI.dimcmio nal spherC5. II
foUoWJ fn:m!hlt path -<Ollneetcdn e:u o f lhe sphltflt thJl if _ ; S~ - S~ ill a mapp ing
fro ll:l one rep~ of lbe Spfta'it to anot het, then Ihe homomorphilm
.,.. , : 1Fc/;S~: 0) - H~; ails an Isoroorpbism. TIl It homomorphism
_ .. : H~ (,S~ ; 0 ) - H: {S~ ; G)
is noI . ~)' spcak1q. an isomoq)hiAn , Irthc:trOUP of intqcr'l Z is Weft as thlt
U _p of todf~ G an d thit iIo<norpbi$ml H; ($; ; Z) _ Z.I "" 1.2 an flAed
thallbit ~ " m be COQSidcnd as tbc. CfII1olporpbiml .,.. .. ; Z - Z
of \be arou.p Z. Stx:b a bomomorpb illrl iI doctam1Dcd uniq uely by the v.alue of .,.."
OIl thIt ~in.eInnatt 1 .2. bocaUllt ... .. (ott} - ",.,. (1 ),

DEF1NmON I , The nlSlll~ .,.. .. (1 ) is Q1lcd tht:

cknoUd by dq '1'.
" tw 0/ /I trI/I~ lO' and
 I n..od_i.... IO T o polosy

NOIe lh.u del. can , , e-nerally qlC8 kin,. assume any inteV ai values . The fil n o f
des . depends on th e choice o r th ..,neratina ckmoenlt in Ih.. groups H: ~r ; Z }.
H:lS r; Z}. i.e. on the method or seu ioa isolnorpblPns o f the$e gr OU p5 ....tlh the
JI"OIlp Z. Ir T is a ~lq dc:lIOa'lt or the uoup //:(s ; Z ) lhe n (-T) Is also its
smcrat-ittl ckmal1; tblU. thlC~ H:'(S ;Z) _ Z ean bIClCStablisbood in t wo
_)'lI. tr .. Is a mappinaof S intO iudr th en dq., dab no t d cpmd on the choiccof
a ,mcfttq d emmt.

Note 1"-< it rDl\ottts rrom T1KcIem J . see. " . Ib . lhe definlrlon1 o r IM dqr... o t a "'Ill-
pin .... : ~ - s a (i.e., dq ,,)wblch arepftll inlmmo t hornolOSlY arOUPl (foeS:. -t, a. .llf)
aDt1 homolOty IJVUPI are identil;al.

II b obvious that if '1>, i- : S - S arc hom OIOpic ma ppln,esth m dq ... _ deg 010.
Th e ccnverse if also ltUlC (the Hop f theorem ) but the p roof is I'IOt given here .
EMrtiUs.
2". Pr ove thlt for 'P . 010 : S n - S. the Cormu la dCI (rl ) _ dea 'P' dCI is v. lid . -r
J ". Sho w l hat t he degree o r l he constant map pin, or thc sphere S Imc ltsel r eq uals
= .
". Let arnappinJ . : R " 1 _ R n + IblCsudi that+ ",) . Owhm r "
and IIUIppfnas to,,: S _ 5" be ddio ed by the cqu.ali ties
'x, " R,

.... (I) - I: ::~ . x ~S. ' .. p" R.

_.
Prove that des i, - dea ... .
Hhtl : Coruuuct altomotopyClJN>lCtlq the ~ f, aDd".
The ColIowint. t wo exemsa arc ea&)' to do on the bul.s o r l he lsomorphi$m or
$inaulat ud mnpliciaJ bomolol)' an;lup5.

5". LetA : R" + 1 _ R" + I be a nonsiDgLlilt Uncar opICftt or . We define thIC map.
pio, A : S n _ S b y the Co nnula .

A ~) _ " ;:~I ' e e s- .

Prove tha t ra r the operator A _ - I: R n + I - R" + I. the eq uality dell A _
- ( - I )" 1 ho lds .
6". Prove l hat for an ubitTal'Y, nOIJ5in,gu)ar U.near opc r1llar A : R n ... I _ R " ... I.
th.. equUlly ~A = sl.&n IA I Is valid .

HIlI" ~ dUll '" the dass o t ~ Iincar 1IpfttlOfS , A II bcxruxopic: 10 an operat;Ot

A ' wboK matri:II: Is dlqoaaI aDd wtIoW diqom.I '"'"-nu CQual "" I. and contt.nla
oiDrplicial partiliorr or the spbac owbIdt II iaar:iaru; willi rcapccr. to IIw uanslonaallOa A

Con~idca' a ma.ppirla. : U _ R IO" '. wlH:re U is a usion ill R IO I. WlIiIc: In_

YICSliptinJ t he soIotions of t he oquation
. ~) _ o.
il IScUSlomary to cal l Ih~ m.pp;ng 4> th~ vedaI' f~ld On U (a pO;nt;ll; is usoeia ted
with the vecto r 4> (K)), and the sotcuons o f equ at ion (6) singuIQr points af the venQ r
f~td 4> .
In praciiee , the mapp inll 4> is not al ways continuo us. If ;t has isolated po ints o f
disco ntinuity (or points o f ;n dCl~nninacy of Yallle), then these poi nu ar c also ca.11cd
singular ~nts . Most subsequenl statements.are also valid for such vecto r r~lds .
LCI x In: lUI isolated sintilular point of a vector field It, i.e. 4> (K0) = 0, and let
Iher~ be DO ot her sol utions of equation (6) in a neighbourhood of the poi ntxO. Th en
for a su fficiently small R , when 0 < I' < R , the degree of the mappina 4>, ; s" _ S~
given by the eCl,u alily

(7)

Is derUlcd, and doc s n ot depend. on Ihe cho ice o f I' (compare wilh E>tercise 3) .

DE FINITIl?N 2. The d~lree deg. {or of the maptngs f, (for wfflc\ently s mall r) is
called the mdo: of the 'Soialedsmgular poin t x of the vecto r fIoeld .; we wi ll den ot e
it by ind (K 0, It).

Lei a field 4> have no sin gular points on t he bound:uy S: (;r) of the ball
D: .. I (;r0) with radius r and centr e at the poin l xO (it is not a.s~umcd now t ha i x ~ls
a singulu point an d I' sma ll). lt ts evident that in this case also, formula (1) de fines
the mapping 011, : 5 " - S" .

DEFlNm ON 3. Th o degree deg f, of a ma pping of, is eo.llcd the chtlrlu istir: of the
vector f~/d 4> on th e bo uodary of the ba.11 D: +- I (K0). Wr: will denole th e
characteristic by x(., 5:",.
Along with tIM: tcnn 'characlr:risticof a vector field ' , the term ' rotauon or e vee-
tor field' i~ o ften used . which Is similv 10 th e 2-dimen sional cue, where r.,..
y>: 5 1 _ st. lite degree deaf' is lbe ilIgebraic nu mber of rotations o f the veao r f' tr l
wh en X ranges over t he circu mfcrenoc 5 1 (in 'the positive direction).

TH EOIlEM 1. U t tlf~/a 4> ha~ no slngU/Qr points I" a c/OMf1 boll D/ + I(;r O), then
:d . , 5:(;t .. O.
PltooP. The mapping of, is hom oto pic to the cons lant mOlpping 11>" of 5~ into th e
polDI ~ e S~, the degree or 11>0 beina: zero . T he corresponding IIomotopy is
I lI>x-.
liven. e.a:.. by the fonnula
lI> (t rx + xo )
4> (1 x)-
, - IfI(tr,tr + ;11; )1
o c ec I, x eS"

COROLLARY. If ]((II> . S; ~ (}l) '$' 0 Ih"n th" f"' /d 4> hIlStit I""st on" si1fl,u/sJr/XIlnl in
tM lNllI D,~ .. l(;t0 ).
'" Inttoclucllon 10 Topoloty

No te that the charlKtaUtk x (to, S;'(c D is dermed even if the field. is given
only OJ! U.C boundary S:(%O) of th e b all D: l (r 0)",
The foUowin J theorem II a direct corollary to Theorem 2.
THEOREM J. ILl Q ~Id. ~ siwn on the sphne 5:(r) (1M Ailwe li D sj~ulU

points. If x{+, 5:" .. 0 fh~" alnnot iN ext ended to Ihe txlll"D,." + "," 0)
without M,~ku poinls.
The COf\VtT5e to Theorem:) is also valid; it follows from the abovt-melltloned
Hopf Ih ooren> .
The d l.raacrlstic of \I VC(:IOf flCld can be defined on Ihe boundary of an y
resto n l) c R ~ + I whicll is I compact polyhedron provid!lhat . (x ) 0 on all:.
Th e roUowlq theorem which we give wilhl,)ll! proof relata the global
characteristic x (. , an) ora vector"field4owith the Jocal characteristics, viz., indices
ind <.r. to) of the qular poinu of the fldd .
THEOREM . !AI t1 f~ld4o have 110 sin,,,ffl' points QII an.OM /uJw: afinltc nwmbu
m of .ri"",/Qr points }f I, . .. . ;r;'" In 0; /1lnt

x(+,ao) -
,.E, ind(r f.tl. (' )

E:rrislt 7- . Let XO ~. sin, u1ar point o f II smooth vector rJeld40 on U l: R" + I,

an d let the Jaoobi an maw ( :: ) o f t he mapping ~ a t lhe poi nt ...o be non-
lingular (such poiDts arc said to ~ Ilondta_ate U ), Prove 1h.a1 .r \$ an ~ted
~1ar poi ot Of lhe field .. I nd t hat

ind ~O. ~) _ lia:n de t ( : ) I ~,

HIlII : Coostruel . llomoIop)' <:e>nneo:tin& the .....ppInp

Note that hac ind ~o ) wUtQdcs with the ' sign ' of the point.r, E .0 I o r tbc in-
venc ltna ac of a rCl\lIar value (fCC Sec. 6, 01. IV), Th erefo, fOf a SIOOQth field.,
prov ided thaI the ~ poi nts.r l , ... , x'" an: nondegenerue , formuia (8) coin-
cides with the de finition of the oriented degl'Cle o f I mapping . ; .-l(N) - N.
where N is I ellJllllCded co mponent of the open set R If ... I " an an d COIIW nli the
poin l O. M~ver . the manifolds . - I (JII) and N arc Ofieliled aimilarty by choosing
an ori entation iDR lf + I . The indkatecl construction ean serve asanothcr TlKthod of
determining the characterislic x(., an) in ~ cue a r1Cld. is ~b OD fl when Of

Tbr fld6 ._ ~ ~ _ R ~ " it DQl. , evldelltly,. W>CIor field on tl>< IILLIl.lfoKl S:(x~ III
Ihc ocD.IIC o f Sec. 8, 01. IV,
.. These are rqu.lar poinu ofthc ~1l'in.I . <-
50;;, 1. 01, I V) .
 ClI. S. H"""otogyTheory
'"
necessary) the po int 0 is replaced by a sufficient ly near reaular value of th e m apping

Ext~ , . Let a mapping 4' : C - C be de fined by lhe formula 0) (z ) .. z", where

n > 0 isan integer. Co nsiderin g ~ as It mappinll4' ; R 2- R 2, ca lcu late lhe index of
th e zero Sinllula r poi nt of the field 4' . Do the s.arm: for the map pinll '+'(t) .. (i'f .
Consider It vector Iield X (,t') on a manifold ""'''. Let X O e M" be an belated
sinll\llar po in! of the field X(:( ) . Le. , X (x l .. O. and lei there a ist a
nejghbcurbood U (x) C M" of th e point x~ in which X "'l :;c 0 whe n X x O. In
local coordina tes. the field X ", ) Is of the form

(x\. .... X. ;XI(x I .... . x~l -'- + ... + X .(:( t . .. .. K.. ) - '- ) .
'\ IlKI tU"
TIle ind ex ind (x0, X l of a singular po intx" ofa vector fieId X(x ) o n a man ifold ca n
be dermro as the lnd a of a sing;l1ar pol.nt "'f,....x~) (here . Kj" ar e the eoo rdina tes
of th e po int KO) o f the vector field
~ - !Xl (xl' " . K,,), ... X.. (x\ .. . x. )!
;n the splice R ".
E.xerr/se.s.
9" . Pr ove tha t the inde ll" ind (x l>. X l d~ nOI depen d on the choice: Ilf local coor-
dinates.
10" . Lr:t/bc a smooth furtctilln on a manifold. x"
I ncndegener ate o-ilicaLpoint o r
index),. of the function f (see See. I I . Ch . LV). Prove th at ind ", 0, , rad / (x ) ) ..
'" {- I r.

7. HOMOLOGY GROUPS OF CELL COMPLEXES

We now pass Over til the st udy of hom ology grou ps of spaces hIving the
hilmoillPY Iype of I cell co mplex. This cllUS of .pllCC5 is inter u tin g' fim , ba:au~ it
Is quite large (seesee. \2, 01. tV) . and second , bce.ause lhe cell co mp.lex hllm olog y
s ro ups can be: calculated by q uit e a simple an d d egam method .
Let X be a finite cell c:omplcx. We con strue! a chain com plcll C. (X; G ) in the
foll ilwini way. Let uS lak. the Abelian IIrou p of fannal linea r CI,Imbinatlo ns
L 'ff.
' I' where I J E G lire ar blt rary elements. and ",k k.d imefiSi(l nal cells of the
,
co mplex X. ~ the gro up ~(X; G); the summat illn is over all k_dimensio Alll cells.
"Therefore . the group Cl (X ; Gl i sls c mcrp hlc t o the dtrect wm o r es man y replicas
o r the group G as there are cells Ilf dimen.l lln Ie in thettUuIar decompo sitio n of X.
We will assume , mo reo ver, thai each replk a o f a
co rresponds to one o f the
k_dimensiona l cells.
Let us de fine the differ enti al ii k : Ck (X: en- Ck _ I (X: 0 ). Lei ,.k be a
k.dimenslonal ceu of X ; i15 bQund&ry i.l co ntained in the unilln o r cells of dime D-
siens nOI high er than (k _ I) (k - l)-dimt nsiollOll sktlt ton QI X denlll cd by
Xk - I). It foll ows fro m the definlUr.>n of a ccll complex, tha t the: cell,.k is given by
zso InrroduClIon l<ITopol08Y

the gluin, ma pping f : Sir - I - x - '. Co nsider the oomposhlo n S k - ,

_ X l< - I _ x* - II XI( - 1, where thelast erro w d enotes a mapp ing to th e we<lge o f
iphe.-cs. The space Xl( - ' I X t - l is a cell complex ; il consists o f one cell o f cimen-
sion zero. vu ., the point _ Into whiCh lhe sp ace Xl( - 1 was transformed under th e
factorization. and of as lJ\llIIY celt" o f d imens ion k - I glued along the bo undaries

the wedge of (k - -r:

to lhe poi nt as lhe re WeT<' in t he skd d on X Ir - I . i.e. , in K . Su d! a space ;.1 called
I~imens ional $pherts . We pick IIceu I in X l - I. In the
wedgl: o f sphera X - It X I( - z. there corr~ponds to it a anain sphere Sf - I.
Con 5.idel' t he com po sitio n o f mappings

se - I!.X" - I _ X t - 'IX l - 1 _ Sf -',

where the lasl arrow means a mapping with rC5r.:t to the subspace of the space
X k - ' IX /r - 1 co nsisting of all spheres except Sj - '. Th e d~8ree of Ihis cc mposi-
tio n mapping i:l caUed the iflddenc~ t:Ofiffic knl of Ihe uffs ~. and , . - I and
denoted by [r , ..: - II: the incidence coefficien t show, how many times ti e bo und-
ary of the cell .." 1$ 't wisted ' onto the ccll"l - , in gluing the cdl .." 10 the skeleron
X - I. Deltote the set o f cells o f dimen sIon k _ I in the c~U compkJ< X b y ll"" - 1
for an y cell ... , we defi ne the d ifferenllal 5 k by l h~ formu la
.1".(..11') ., r
je O" - I
I""'''l - IJ' ''l - 1

and at~ nd 5" to Ct(X; 0) by Unearily ", It can be $hown tha t " _ r " = O.
Thus, a chain corcetex C. (X: G ) has been constr ucted. Its hom ology groups
turn out to co incide with the sinsu lar homology groups of the complex X. The
proof of this (act involves only the exact seq uence technique. Since it is too lon l' we
do not give il here .
The advantage of the method o f computing hom ology gro ups with the help of
the complex C. (X"; G ) is Obvious; the sroups C,,(X; Z) have a finite number of
seneraton in con trasl with th.e groups q(X; Z ). Th erefore , the subaroups of
k.dimensio nal <:yete, and bo undaries also have:a finite number of gell~ralors as well
as their factor llfOuP HI(X; Z) . It follows from A~liVl group theory Ihat
HI<X: Z) ~i' $ ... @ Z )@ Z ... (i) ... @ Z~ ,

'.
<=.

where Zotis a fwite cydic group o f order '" pt. with Pf being divisible by p1+ I ' The
numb er P" Is called a k-d imensional &111 number, and th e numbers Pile
kd imenslo naltors;on c~fk;e/lts 01 th e S/XlCf! X.
In spite o f a so mewhat co mplex char acter o f its substantsnlo n , the described
method is quile co nvenient from the practical polm of view. It enab leJ us to com'
pule h.om olos y sroups o f a good deal o f co ncrete spaces sImply.
Exercise 1 . Rep.-~scn ling the $phcrc S" as a cell ccmptex S" _ ~ " U e O. n ~ 1,
co mpute the homoloSY groups o f S ". Show th at P,,; _ 0, k '" 0, n ; Po _ tJ" .. I an d
thai each p/' '" o.

JUltllkc In Sec. 4, wC lUSumc hcl"c thaI G is. rinl w;lh Idcnlily.

 Th e homolollYgroups o f l he ecmplcx projective spac e C P" will be calc ulated In
'"
tile fo llowil'lll; way. At first, we define a smooth Iunc uon j" on lile mani fold CP ~
whose: all critical poi nts arc nondegenerate, and then estab lish willi its help the
struc ture a f me eeu complex which is homotopy eq ui valen t 10 CP" while calc ula ting
lIS homo logy g roups.
We will cons ider CP" as the o rb it space of the group 51 act ing o n S211 ~ I, We

E" cJ I II I l wh ere
de fine th e fu nction '1': e" +- I - R 1 by putt ioB ""(;:0- ". ~,,) -

c} arc rut numbe u w ilh [') < Cj .. 1,"'Let (to . ... . z,,) e s ... r C e"'" I. l.e.,
, -.
E" It) [1 '"' I . It is ell$)' to sec Ihal for any eom ptex number X suCh that 1),. 1 = I ,
i 0
tile juaUty "'(;:0 - . :1:,,) :; ",().z o .. .. , N:,,) holds . T hus . 'I' defin es a funetlon o n
CP" . Denou: il byf : CP" _ R I.
We no .... const ru ct on CP" the following loca l coordi nate s)'$tcm . Let ~ be th e
set of equivalence classes of poin ts (:/1, ... , z"l e s + I such th at 1./ '* O. Put
h:-I ~= xfr + iYjt The functions
7 ~

XpI' (~ . .... z,,). Yjl:(Z/l, " . :;, ) . " = o. ....J - l ,j + 1. ... , n ,

define a diffeomorphism or the set ~ onto th e un it ball in R z" .
Exerc(u 2 _VerifY that the sets V/ and mappings given by the fun ctions
XJ~ 'Yjll:'k .. 0. .... 1 - I . J + I, ... .n, j .. 0, I, . .. . rI.

form an at las on the smooth man ifold c p n,

SillCt'; lzk 12 .. xJ + Y;18nd It.} 12 - I -
"'
represented in local coord inates in V in the form
j
.
E "'11 + yAl, t he fune tlo n! can be

!(.... xjI"Yjln ...) '" Cj t I: (cl: - Cj)(x"lt + yJ ) .

~ ~'J

Th e on ly critical po int of th e function! In V J is th e point xjl: '" Yj t '" O. Ie. '"'

.. O. I, ... , j - I. ) + I, .. . , II. Th is critica l point is nondegenenu e , and its index
equals t wice the number o r nesative dlrrero:nces el: - 'i' l.e., t wice the nu mber or
those numbers c.. which a re tess t han c/ . 'ruererore, t he index o f a critical poin t in V o
equals zero , th at or a cr itiC1lI point in V t equ als two , etc . In smeral , the indeK o r a
critical point in 0
b 2),
ThtU, the runet ion! has " critica l poi nt s whose indices equal V, 0 fIi: j fIi: n
Th erefore, t he space CP" has the homotop y type o f the cell compleliX con sistillil o f
cells oreven d imension s 2J, 0 0:;; ) " n, on e o f ellc:h dim ensio n (see Sec. 12. Ch. IV).
For such a com plex K . w e hav e
when k .. 2j ... 1n ,
otherwise.
N' Inlroducno.. U,ITopol~1Y

Since on e o f the l!l"O UPS<; <K: OJ. Ct _ l (1:; OJ is triv ial, in Ihe e omp le;o: C. (K ; G )
eonsisting of the grOI,lps;Ct(K; O J, the differemial can only be trivial. We obtain the
isomotpbism
H W ( ; G ) '" Ct(K; G).
Taking into I.C(lI)Unl the fact that the homolos y groups of spaces which are
homotopy equivalent co incide, we have the fLOal result:

1I1(Cp n; G) _ ra when ~,", 1,jC; 2f1

to otherwise.
EnrrlU 3. Silo,", thaI if Un is a cOlnpac:t. mwoth manifold o f dimcTUiQn n . t hen
H:W- ; G) = O WhCllk > n.

8. EULER CHARACTERISTIC AND LEFSC HETZ NUMBER

Quite imponant in applications is the question when a continuous mlPping

j: X - X ora topological space K intD ilselfh lLS a filledPOint,l.c when a point x
X!Iucl\ tha!f~) '" x exim. SUrfltienl o;onditions for the u i$.tena: o f flllcd po inlS
can be given in terms of homology grou p$ and t heir hom omo rphi slN. The prt$eJl1
U<:tio n u devoted to these q ue:stiom . ThroughoLit below, we wiD consider
topo1ogicallPUes which are compe,tt po lyhedra .
I. The Lefschetz Nu mber of a Simplicial Mapping. Hentdorward ,
we wW wume ee coe ffICient group G to be II field . Co nsider IIsimplielaJ ma pp ing
J: IK I - tK I, wher e in aeeor dan with the ~ment of See. 3. K is a finite
simplicial o;omplex. The indllCtd homomorphism
f . p : Hp(J(: G) - Hp(K: G)

Is an endom orphism o r the vector spa.a: H pff<; G ). Th e choice of II basil in H ",;

G ) ena blc:l us 10 associate Ihe endomorphism with a ma!ri Jl whose spu r Sp
does not depen d on the choice of a besis.
ii. p)
DEFINITION I . ~Wschtttllll",berofQ s"",p!k;QI"'apping r IK I - IK I o r a
compact pol yhedr on IK I Into itself is the quantity

AJ =
.E-. ( -!Y' Sp(f. p) '

DIJt to Ihe li" iltn<:$l of the f\m plicial compltlt K, su m (I) is lite sum of:!. finite
(I )

number o f adde nds (th e finiteness of K is also req uired for Hp {K; GJ to be nnile
dim auional vector spaces and for t he de finil ions of the spurs Sp V. p ) 10 be
correct).
Denote the spu r of the end omorpb i!!m mauix
I,: C,ff< ; G) - Cp(K: G )
of Ihe vector space Cp(J(: 0 ) by Sp Up ).
 Ch . i . Homol oty Theory

THEOREM I. FOI' II #mplkitJt tmlpp/Jtl/, thr / fffmU /1l II Wllid

'"
fy =-
.1:-.(- IYSp<!,).

Th eorem I Slllln thai Ihr A1tcmatln&sum of che spurs of a dlain c:ompla crt -
do mDll>hUm equals Ute ahcrnat ifll su.m of Ihe spun o f the ind uced homoJou croup
endomorphism ,
To prove TheorCl\1 I. lhe foUowin& IWO lemmata are neo:-.-, which are IlD easy
auciK from linear _Iaetln.
LEMMA I lAt A : E - E M an rrtdomarpld$tft 0/ 11 I't'ttor $pIIcr E . ~ 0 wt;l fl'
$Ilb1pr 0/ tlw SptlCtt ~ lind A Eg CEo. 17w1l A di f _ t/lr rmiomorphism
A ; E IE o - EIEo tmd
Sp(A >= Sp(A I ~) +Sp<A). (3)
U1M trd ... 2. Lrr <1 ; E - F br lUI isomor'P/litm 0/ I'/Of ~ 11M A ; E _ E ,
D : F - F oprrvr~ such lilpt fht dial,,,,,,

1$ commu luli vt, I.t ., BlI '" o1A ; thtn

Sp (A) . Sp (8 ). (' J
THIII'II001' 01' TJlEOlUlM Siw:.eJ. : C . (.1:; G) - C . (K; G) is & chain <:ornpll:'X
I-
hOmomDfllh lsm, Jp(Xer a, >C x ee a, and J,(Im a, + .) C 1m a, .. I'
Let us in trod uce the follo';n& dtsilllations :
Ker a, . Z, . Ima..... . = B, . C, CK; G)IKt1'3, ... r,. Z, IB, . H"
B)' Letftma I . we "ave

Sp<!...) . Sp <!... l) + Splf,..l r.>... s p <!, I.,) + SpiI H,)'" Sptf,lr, ) (' )
Bul the clitrermlial a, mchl(:a a c:&llOnlQ! uomorphism 1, : T, - B, _ I' and
1OO1"I,:(lTel'. tbc dlagam

(6)
 11Ilr o'll m ion t il TlIpOlOIY

Bea.use Co(K : G ) x er itO' w~ h~vc

,
SpJh ) =SpJIO) O. .
It is dev that by der...ition the ho mom orphism / : H, - H, coincides with the
(1)

t\omt)Inorptllsm/. p : Hp( K : G ) - H, (K : G ) . Th us, rrom eqwilia (5). (6), (7) , we

""~
Sp (/, ) Sp (/, I., J ~ Sp (/0') ... Sp (/, _ II., _ ,)';

w""",

..E, (- I)' Sp(/, ) - E (-I)"ISp (/1'1. ,)

E (-I)"Sp(/.,):

Ih U5 ,

I: (- I)' Sp(/, ) . E (- I)P SP (fo, ) ,S)

' 00 '00

CO ROU .A RY. Th~ L<lKh~t~ nu",~, "l OW!' rh~ c:O<!rlCknr r~/d o/c:mmU:luistic
;:00"" QM , in /Hlrllc:u/If', oW!, lh~ fi~/ds Q, R 0' C, Is Qn i"t~ll~r.
tn fat t, hlvinl considered in C, ~; 0). basis co nsis tina or orient ed simpleKcs,
we obtain .ha t Sp tip ) is an int eger , and thercrore, 4UC t o (4), A, is an int eger
The rate or the number A, is disclosed by (he roUowinltheorem.
THEOReM 1. u t/ : IK I - IK I ~ If ~mplit:;lilllftQppm, 'md Al .. O. Then therr
uiJa If f utd poi" t a/the mtlpplnl / . 1.1., If poInt;rr e K such thQt /~) "" x.

h OOF Due to (2), il rollows from tbeOOlldil lon 11, * Otbat I: ( - l ySp If,) '" 0,

tben:fou chere Q: p 5UCh tha i Sp <!,) '" O. With respect 10 a basis oonsiSiinJ or
oricDlal sim plucs, the matri:Jl o rthe endc;nnorphism~ C9lUisb o r dr:n>enu t'qu al to
O. + I ancI - I . SuI Sp lip ) ;It 0, thCf'l! is ~ f: /( w eb lb at 1, lrf ) '" *
r~ l .
T'hfteror e / l ,., IS.. homcotrlOf1)hism or ~ 00 10 itselr wttich is Iinc;o, in baryarw:ric
coordinalCl, wb~ the buyccntJe '" is a ru.(d point or tM mappull / .
l..et WI tiisnw .., .mportanl. o;ompkmcnl (0 Th_em 2 lAf.f : IK \")1 - IKl be
a simpllc:ia) tllqlpinJ: it is ttrlainly a continuous ma ppinl J: IKt - IKI , but not
II'CSUIi ly sim plicial . We introduce the rolloWMlI supcrpQ1ition O~}J. (~ Scl;. 1)
o r chain Ilomo lDOf'llbisms
r;
C . l.Kv ' : O) _ C .(K; O) -
ort
C . tKvt ; O).
Tllc chain homomorphism at l] . indtlCCli tl'>c I>omu LosY aroup homomorp hism
By ddinit ion, we put

11./ _ E 1- I)"Sp!9!)!. l.,J. (0)

E ( _ I)" Splel;l / ,l _ ,I:_e( -

,.e
I)" Sp [9 !' / . ). , 1 (10)

and that If AI " 0, tben there exist simplucs '" E J(ltl and ...p E K. SIIch W I T' C ,.1'
and!b'> - ,II' .
Now , we considcr an C1U1p1ewhen! _ I.. : IX I - tX I is lhe idenUly milppull
of th e pol ybcd tOll I K I . DcnOk thc: diIM nsion o f the veeee Sf)lI<'e H, ( I KI ; G) by
fJ', and the numbcrofp-dimcnsional simplu csln the simpuc. ,.:ornpluX byd, . It
is ob vioUS' Ihat
Sp 1(I.. l). p ::: 8 ", Sp (I T.. ),, ) - Sp ( IC. (Ki e)l = dr
fo rmula (!) becomes iU follo ws

E 1- IY'fJ P ( I I)

For mula ( I I) cstab llsha a rclation bctwC('fl the Bl:OmeLJ;C and homol oaicaJ
characteristics o f a polyhed ro n.
DEF1NlT\ON 2. The Eulv d tofVC(trwit: of a c:ompaet POlyhedron IKr is the qu.anut y

(2)

II is elcM lhal ;!d tX I) _ 11., 1"1'

~ 2 . Showthatthe cq\laliIYX(S" ) _ I -+ l-I)" nvalld.
2. The Lefschetz Nwnbet of a Continuous Mapping. In the:
Pl'nolow; 1USOCIHlI, - . COIIWcnd only simpli.cial meppi!llS. Bill the constfllCl ion
of:ll Lcfscbcu numbcl" al>CI th e $W.cmt'n1 of Theorem 2 can be &cncraJncd also for
arbOuvy cont inu ous mappings . In doin, IO, we wil UK the lUIiqUCllC!oS thco l ml of
homokll)' Iheor Y' (sec Sec. $) and the method of aPPr(drrtalOon of a ('oru inuous
mapp\nJ; o f a polyhcdtOll by. simp licial mapp inl.

If c; "' fIeld of d.erx u,""" a n) Ibca $' colftCi6a wilh the p-chrnmOlOft.ol Bc<ti
n~mba' I. of tlM: ~ IXI in the RmC of the dcfmltion In Sec. 1.
 ln t,odue:tion 10 Topol oGY

THEOREM 3 (T He SIMPLIC IAL A PPROXIMATION THEOREM ) Lt l X .. ILl be Q

compad polyllMTon Qnd I ; x - X Q continuous mappmg . Th~n lOT Qny ~ > 0,
tlltl't arr Q triang ulation I< 01 tht polyhedron X . irs T-/II lxu)'cenlric sulxiivi$ion K (r)
Qnd QsimpllclQI mapping I. ; IK(') I - II< I wcll thQt lOT Uri)' point :r E X , lilt in -
f!quQlily p(f(x)./.V<)) -c e holds.
P ROOf We se~ct Oil the polyll~ron X a triang ulation K such Iha t the fill.neu of
the triangulation I< is Jess than <1: . w. will C81l the interio r o f the uni on of all
simplexes, whose vertices are Q E K, the star Sr a with the vertex Q. It is obviou s that
the stars of all vemces o f K fonn a covering of X ; th e inver se images
V - I(St QP)J..,. eX also form a covertoa.
Since X Is co mpact , by the Lebesgu e num ber lemma (see Th eorem 13, Sec. U ,
Ch, II), there exists a number .. > Osuch that any sel o f diam eler'\' < ..is canlaJn~
in one afthe :itls/- IISt QP), We select r such thai the finencss of K (l- l is less than
12 . Then the ,na pping / transfarlTl5 any S1ar St . b V e K (r) into a certain star
St QP, rY' e K . We defi ne a simplicial mapping /. : IKIT) 1 _ IK J by the equalities
J.lb") .. a P , (l3)
EJctrslCt ) 0 . Verify that formula (13) does define a simplicial mappinll ,
Now, we calculate p{f(x), J.(x for x G X. If x is It vertex of K v l then f(St x )
r: St aP , a P to K , and . in panieul.. , ./(x ) e St e e, theref.,re
o(f(~),aP ' - p(f(x ), 1.(.>:) < e, q

If, however , x e Int

havo:l (K) e n
(bo , ... , b q ), when: (b O, .", b q ) e KVI, Then x e
.n-.
St Ql, hence / (.>: ) lies in the simplex determined by [he veruces
SI b l . We.

tJ / , (11)
a i ~ .r. (b i ) , Sincc/c is II simplicial mapp ing.J."') gets into the same SImplex fro m X.
Thus, III thili case a1so p (f~ ) ,fc (x < e.
Ex tn:lses,
,",0 . Show that the mappingfc is homotopic to the mapp ing /'
So , Show that for II compact polyhedron X, there exists a positIve number 0
~ o (X1 su ch that fro m the inequality o (f(.>:), g(x) < Cf satisfieti for each.\: 1!i X C/,
II : X - X being cont inuous mapp ings), it fo llows Ih;lI th e milppings j ilnd 8 are
homotopic .
Due to the uniqueness theorem of homo logy rheory, the isomorph ism H . (I<;
G) '" H~ (X ; GJ ho lds for the comp act polyhedr on X '" IKI, and the refore
dim G $ H;(}(: G) < 00 . Ccnsequernly, the followill& de finition ma y be given .

DEFINtTION J. The L(fschtll numbtrolDcont inuous mDppinrJ: X _ X or a com-
pa~l po lyh edron X into itself is

AI - I: (-1)1' Sp (f~ p ) '

where
 Ch. S. HomoioilYThw r)'

f~p: H; (X ; 0) - H ;CX ;G ), ( 14)

Due- to the uniquene ss theo rem o f homology the ory, for a simphcla l ma pp ing
/ :IX(' ) I -IK1.r ;<Ol,theequa lity

,.. , ..
E (-I)P SP<r.. p ) = E (- !Y'Sp(8'J . l. p l
ho lds. Thus. Defini tio ns I an d 3 ale co nsistent.
(IS)

It Is ob vious tha t for homot op ic cont inuous mappings/. e : X - X, I'>C hav e-

tli = A . Therefore th e Lefschetz num ber of th e mapp ing / : X - X equals that of
its simplicial apPToximalion/~ ; I K V} I - IK I. where K is a tn an gu la lio n of X The
Lefschetz nu mber o f continuous ma pp ing could be defined a s that o f its simplicial
ap proxima tio n withou t the U K of smgu lar ho molo gy theo ry.
Th e Icllowmg th eorem is qu ite use ful for vario us applicat ions . In il$ proof.we
shall use th e unrqueness theo rem of ho mology theo ry.
THE OREM 4 (l EFSC HETZ). Uit / : X - X be a continuous mupping 0/ a co mpact
polyhedron X = IL I into iI~l/, and 11'1 *"
O. Thf!1l there exists Q f IXf!d poinf 0/ the
mapping ! . i.e. Q po inr x e X such fhat ! Vc ) = x.
PROOf . Assume tha t J bas no flXed point s. Th en there Is (3 > 0 suc n th at p (/(;:),
x ) ;lo (J for eac h x e X . Ut.., '= min (P , "'(X (see Ex. S).
COnsider a triangulatlon X of finen ess or/ 3 an d a slmplicial 1'l3.afproxlma llo n
f .,1l o f the map ping/. Fo r arbitra ry po ints x,y o f any simplex r ' e K V , we ha ve the
inequaJ ilies
p(/., I]Vc).)' );;' p(/(x), x ) - PVc. y} - p(/, IJ(;:),fVc ) ;lJ ..,13.
This mean s th at the relation , <1 C /,Il(" ) U impossible. On the o th er ha nd , d ue to
"'hll .. "'I '*
O. there u orq e X v } for which such a relation lS valid (see Exercises I
and S).
The ob tained contra dictio n completes the proo f of the theorem. II
Exercisu
6 . Extend Definition 2 and Theorem 4 to a co mpa ct polyhedron X hornecmcrp htc
to IL L
7~ . Verify that A, = I with the condiucns o f the Brouwer fLled~point theorem (see
Sec. 4, Ch. III ).
3. The Euler Characteristic of a Manifold and Singular Points
of a Vector Field. We now dwell on the application of the obtained rescns to
mani fo ld th eor y .
T HEOREM S. Lei M il tx bo th a smooth,compacf ma llt/old Qnd Q polyhtdro fl . , L et
X ~"} '*
O. Then / or ony vector judd X on Mil, there UlSU a po/lit x (le M ilsuch
thai X ~o} - O.
In ether words, there is no vector field without zetoes on a man ifold Wllh a
nOl\J:ero Euler charec tens tic .
Note that all smoot h,camp..,t manlFokb arc polyhedra.
 h u ,od w OOf\ to TopoloU

p aOOf'. IU it was mcN Klned in Sec. I . Ch. IV. for ~Of fteld X . t her e atsu.
OlIC'-puamelCl" family or diffco morphi" ns U tx . 1) sudllhat U fJc . 0) . .... aed !he
field x is lu inrlflitesimal ~nerat or . Mor eovn. the orbit U U (lr. l) o f Ih e poin t Xu.

cal led th ... int egraI eurve of lhe field X at the polnl x, It is n s} to,..., th at Ih... famil y
of d ifle om orphlsnu U(K. n,
0 " f " t l). carries o ut th... h omotopy between the dif-
feomorphismll VI) = I..,. an d V,, ' M" - M" . where
.,
V"fJc) '" Uf;( . t l '
TMrdote, A l :: A U ' bu t A , x VW" ): thll$. for an y II). we o btain Au -
" '0 ",. ..
.. x W") O. Tbcrdore, the diffeomorphism U" pQSM:S!CI I rued. po int (for CadI
t l) (see Theorem 4).
A$SUme now th at the: field X vanishes now here on M". Th ee , since M" is Im-
pact. fo r a certain fJ :> o. a sufrJci enll y small o :> 0, any XCi M", Ind;n the Rieman -
nian metric. the ineq ualily (3 ~ < X~ ) . X~) :> ., Q ho ldS. He nce, 1liiY point
X e M" is unfailingly shifted by the diffeo morphism V, lIonl the intq;ral curve o rthe
polnlX for Isu fficiutl) y YNJI t :> 0; this can be ehtckcd by eon sidc:rifl8 Ihe inleya!
cu....., in th... chan at the po int x, The 'last sta te me nt is colilrAry 10 t he eJd5l"'noe o f a
fIXed point for the diffeorJLOJ))hism V, .
CO ROl.l.AIlY. (f illS '"'" tllt lf thue Is If01 rI mqk WJc:t<HF....1d w" II_t ~n>a Oil 'lit
~ S" .

LEMMA , . 'Ill ,.... exisfs rI s m ootll lItor F~1d Oil rI oompm:! smoolll n/(m i!old 'lIfd
,Ile sum oj th illdices 01 S/1I1uJar poInts of Ihu/itld equrlls l ilt Eul er chQ' rlcu, isl le
of til ... mrlllllotd.
PI.OOF. l.c:f M " be a eompitl:t,smoot h man if/Xd,j : M " _ R I a Morse f UrM;tio n (a
smooth functio n whose IJI m licitl poi nts are no ndetenaate). 11Ie spaCl' M " bas Ihe
bomotopy IflX' of . ceU complex K . tbe num ber of cells of di mellSion ), or wh il;h
equals th e:nwnber mo. ) o fmtial poinUixl o f indea), or lhe func:tionf (s.tt see . I I .
Ot. IV) . 7be Euler charKtm Mic x (K) o f the SplICe K c;quals

E ( -I )~ dllItGC~(K; G) - E ( -I )~dimc H:(K: G)

~ ~ .. , -0
(compMc: wilh D<:finitlon 2 a nd Theorem I o r lhe present seclion). Th us ,

xW ") E (- "6)
, -,
''' If (K) I Ymo. ) .

On the other han d , due 10 Exercise 10. 5. 6. th... it>da of the ~lIIu1ar poi nt Xj' of

the gradJ,e1ll field equ als (- I )~_ Ther...fore:, E ( - I )~ m(), ) is the sum of the in-
,.,
dices o f singular poin ls of Ih., gra dient rield o f the fUlIClion f .
L e."'IMA 4. TIl" $llm of 0." illdic:t3 0/ ./1I8 U/rI' po/lI ts 01 " ,,"tor flt:ld w"h u okl/td
 Cb . 5. H<>mQk>8)' Theory
",
singular points on 0 co mp oct,smooth man ifold does n o/ defHnd on Ihe choice ojthe
vu:/or fie ld.
We give th e pr oo f of chis lem ma io a nuts he ll. let M~ be a co nnetted mani fold
embedded in R "' , m > n + 1. We select a su ffic ien tly sma ll 'tubular '
neigh bourh ood of th e ma nifold M~ in R"', -l.e.. a neigh bo urhood. U(JvI~ ) whk:h is
the total space of a loc ally trivial fib re sp ace with the base space M~ an d a fib re
homeo mo rp hic to the disc D '" - " . More~r, the pr.ojectl on r of this fibre bundle
is a smoot h reuaetlon, and the ma nif old M~ is a $trong d ef ormation retract of t he
space U tM'~) . intuitively, the t ub ular neighbourhood of the manifold M" ca n be
Imagin ed 10 co nsist of di5C$ D ;' - ~ "') over ea ch pol nt ;r EO M~ Ihal lie in (m - n )-
dime llsion al planes orthogonal to rhe tan gcm planes o f the mani fo ld M" . Thc
set U(JlI~) is a compacl po lyhedro n. It is not co mp licated to s how that
H:" _ 1(a u eM"); z ) ... Z . The gener ator of this grou p is a cycle bO~lOding U( A1") .
T here fore any mapping V' ; aU f)<f") - s " - I determ lne$ an elemen l
deg V' E Z. Conside r a cenain field + : U (Itf" ) - R m which does not vllJIis h on
i1U (M~). We associale Ihe llCld 4' with rhe nonned mapping
4\ :aU IM") - S'" - I, 4\;r ... 4';r/ I4';rI .
The degree deg ~or Ih e mapping of equals the su m of the illdices of sins ula r paints
o f th e fi clr;l e. Now , let v be a vector rlCld on th e manifo ld M~ . We define the field
w: U (JvI" ) - R'" by th e formula w tK) :::> v('X) + x - r(x) . The sum o f the indices
of singular poin ls o f t he field w co incides with the sum o f t he in dices o f singular
po ints of the tan gwt flCld v (by mean s o f t he Sard the orem, the gen eral case may be
red uced to tne study of smooth field s with nondelilenente singular points, and the
app licat ion of the result o f Exercis e 7, Sec. 6). Th e field w o n aUW~ ) Is
ho mo topic , wit hout singular poi n ts, 10 the vector field t tK ) "" x - rtK ) . Hence, fo r
the no rmed mappings 1Oi, t , wc o blain deg ~ '" deg t an d the refore deg ~ doc s no t
de pend on th e flCld v.
Lemm ata 3 an d 4 lead to the followin &theo rem.
TH EOREM 6. TIle su m of rhe indices of singwlQr po ints of Q vector field ....Ith
iw/atu/ singular po/n ls on a compect, smooth numlfold equals the Eu ler
characteristic of Ih e moni/Q/d.
Exer cise 8". Let M~ be 3 co mpact. smooth manifold , an d fjP(MIf) ~ dimcH;(M ~ ;
G) '" O. Show th " l an y Mo rse Function on Ihe m" nifQld M" has nor less than
fj" (frf~) crilkal po ints of ind elC p (Morsc ineq ualilies).

FU RT HER READING

In the last decade, th ere a ppeared $CVer al mon ographs prov iding " s)'Stemalic
app roach to homol ogy theor y and ;15 applications . We indic a te, fitst of all ,
A lgebraic Topo log,y 1731by Spa nier Lec tures On Algeb raic To pology (271 by Cold,
Hom ology and Cohomology . Theo ry [53) by Massey as th ose mo st co rrespond ing
to thc deman ds of l oo ay . Recommendin g lh em fOT 11 pro fo und a nd systematic study
 I n lf odu ~on 10 T opoJOI)'

of bomoIol)'~, 'fie emplw.lze. however, tllat inlrinsically lhey aK ra lheT a u

~liary IlI:XIbooks eofIemu:&t cd on spedal COUfK:l.
SK. t. White siudyina tllor Oll&hly sqlat'ate 10pic:s 10Ul:1Kd u poa in th e prnenl
dlap:a-, II ....m be undoubled1y inlaesl.in8 for the reader to ,..,.. hlsatle snion to the
folknrin. Hleral ar e: the noIion of loornokIsY was lntrod uc:qS &IlI1 elaborat ed 10 lhe
dassialA Nllysis sitOs and tbe live COIIlplc:llWIlLS 10 it by PoiDcari: (see the mlh
YoWme o f Otvyns H~fIri PoittaIrt 163J).
sec. 2. T o lI udy dWn oompkxes an c1 lhcir bomo'olY &fOllPS, 1M ruda is ad
vised to I 01. 11 of Homolou [$1) by M~L:mc .
Sec. 1 . SlmplOal homoJocy lhco ry is wmpaclly and Iho routJtl y upounded in
Oulfine o/CombinaforiGl TopoJOD (6S1 by PonlTYqin . Qui le u seful is also the ac -
q uainlanc:c "",itb Introdwc:r/o'l 10 Homological J)im,nslo'l T1wory alld Com'
binalorlal TopoJav 121 (Ois. 111) by Aluand ro" and Homology Throry 1401
lOu . (-III) by Hilron and Wylie.
Sec. 4 . A brief and Ilco melry-<lrlm ted present ailcn of d llautar homolog y theo ry
i' p yen In Homolopy TMory [11] (01 . 11)by FIIchs CI aI. The dClllftlU o f sinauJ u
thoory au p Yen IX)fDpacl ly and with suflician rigcur In EJe_"I~ tk ' opolo. le :i
Wlri,,6J di/ertNo bik 179J (01 . II) by Tekman . The presenlaLion of Jiqu lar theory
is tlloroup in eM aboe-merll iofled book (401(Ol. VlII) . Co ns>dtn.ble '\tentian ls
p"ell lbere 10 th e"kdmlell de tai ls of the theof}' . In the PlllOf of the th rort'f7l on
bomciirnofpbisms inducec1 by homotopy ma pp iqs. we (o Uo'" MacLanc I'l l
(CII. II . Sec. I) and M U5C)' I'll. since this method enahks 1# not to introduce: CCI-
um WIICCPlS 'aICI"alI, wed in II:XINsiC" CO\1IICS. The Iudti" eaII Sludy the rdation
bc lwoen bomolos7 IIftd bomot09Y JrOUpi in the abo~ofJICIllIoncd boo h by
TclCIIIaII 1791 (01 . IV, Sea. J, 7), Hihom and Wylie {~ (Sec . 1.1) and Fudu C1: aI.
m! (Sec. U ). and also in Homotopy ~ (4l1 (01. II, Sec. Ii and 01. V. Sec . 4)
by Hu S.-T.
Sec. S. The uio ma lk . PPtoadl 10 bomoJoay theor)' is .;"en in FollJttkJtiOM
01 AI~1c Topolov flOI by Eilcnbcrt and Steenrod . A diteet proo f of tbe
cqul\'akncc o f siJDplicW atld Jinaular thcc:lries on rhe QtqOT')' o f polyl\edu is &Iym .
c . in the book by Hilto n an d W ylie J40J (Sec . 1.6). The rca ckr ma y nn d
AJeM.fldroY-Cech hornoJoay t heory in lhe book by T eleman [79J (Ch . n , See. 18)
and, In arca.tcr d elu. In the boo h by A1cxandl OY 1'21. Ill.
See:. 6. The homo;llo sy 8' o up, of spher es ar e c.scul"ed in all the co urses o f
h(lm o loD the ory. We fo llowed th e book by Fu eh s et al. [111 (Secs . 12- 13). In the
lIbQ"e me ntJo nni Com blnatonill Topof()IY [ I] (Or. XV I) by Alcundroy. the
llleofla of 1M:degree of .. mappill! . chara.cr eriSlk (If , vector flCld and inda o f a
sinJUIar poinl are giyCl> c;ltmslyely an d on t he bw o f sim plicial homoiolY lheo ry .
Sec . 7. As Icprds ce U hocnolo.y tllcory. we fammcnc1 lhe lect lll Cill by BollyaIl'
sk y on IJtI.* C<Hrapts of A I" brolc Topolov (I jl ili which . thorough dabontion
o f ccUtheory is PYCilll , and . Iso the books by F uchs eI aI. Ill] (Sec . 12) an d Tdcman
1791 (ClI . VI) .
Sec. I . The notiolSs of the Eukr chanaeristic: and Lcfxbc\z n umbcT ar c
systcmMicaDy c;lPOUlldcd In 1M: book by PontrJqin 1M) (Sea. 6 and (6) and aJso
iIlIlhc boob by AJcxa.ndJOY {II (01 . XVII) and HIlt on an d W ylie 1-40) (See . , .1).
Th e proof o f Ihe U1corcm oa 1I 1ria lllutatioll of smoot h mani fok1s CllIlbe found In
 CII. S. HomolOf,. ThtOr~ ,.,
Gfi1lntlrk '''' /tlm/ion Theo ry by Whitney (0 . IV) 1821 aed In EJtl~f/ro'y Dtj.
/ttf! nl ;(li Topoloty 1601 b~ Mu neres. The rca<kr rna) rin4 th e IhC'Olj' rCSlord ina the
sum o f tM indices o r a vecier r~ld singu lar poi nt'! 011 a man ifold m M Of"$#: T1INry
I~I (Sco:. 6) find Topolof. v f 'om /ht Difft'tf/r;al V;n poi nt 15S!ISco:. 6) b)' Miln ()(
Topia rdated to singula r polnls 0 1 vIor fields 011 a m1Jlirold art o,e:ry imponanl
for die Iheor)' or differenlial tqu tKIIlS oct a ma nIfo ld. An im rod uet ion to th is
lhecxy is ci vcn, C.I . , in Ordill ory Dr/f~"fifll Eq IlOIWtu (101 10\. V) by A,nold .
As boo k o r p)bkm, in homolon theory. the ",'()rk b)' No,i ko.. et aI.
ProbIrrru", ~try 161] rn.iJ" be lakm.
 ILLUST RATIO NS

lLLUSTRAT IO N TO CKAPTEIl I
'1be centnl plIn o f tho: pktl,lre iUwUllles the . tandvd cmbcddinS ehaia of
a>"taIlme StOUPI o r the th ree-d imensional Eu<:lid<:al1 spac:e: thei r.tanebnI JI'OUpt: ,
aubedded into eadl othc:r are deplded as the fundarnc:t:llal dmD.airu (pialonX: bodies:
a attic" tclntted l'Oll, do6e<:abedron). The plaloaic bodies an: dqli<:ud <:1assIc:.I-
Iy, l.e.,thelr <:anonieaI form b pven; tht'Y are R1ppon td by l wo-di~ su r-
f_ Oeavu),amana -...1ridIwc: d i-.:crn the projc<:llve p1llne (c:roas-ca p) , and .spheres
.,..jlh bandl<:a. The fan laJli e 5hapes u d lDterlacinp (as <:omparecl ",;Ih the c:anonlul
objerta) qrnbollu the !OpOIosJe,aI eq uivaknc<: "
AI the lo p, bn.n<:b poi nta of Riemann IUrf~ of vllriOUI mullipli<:itin ar c
dep icted : on the riabl, tbcse of the JUemann su rfaces of the functions "" '"' ~ and
10' .. ..f;; on the left briow, tMI or Ihe sa me functio n .. e >Ii. an d over u. a
man Iro ld wil h bo undary TW izl.n& borwsm mod l .
LLL\lSTRATION TO CHA PTER II
The fi,urc <KaIpyin, tnOIt of the picture iIIustratcs Ihe eonsuue:tion of a
topolopeaJ qJace widely UIoed in lopoiolY , i.e. a :z..adie soleno id poISCSsina many
illl erestlna elUTtnlal p ropen ies. Th e follo wing figures 'I'l
d epicted there : the firsl
soli d lorus is ihadtd , the wo:ond is whit e, the lhU"d is d1aded in dotted lines and lhe
fOw1h is al1adtd doubly. T o otM"ainth e 2-adie soImoid, it if; - r r 10 lake an in-
rlll it~ seqceeee o f netted so lid to ri. eIdl ofwhieh meomPQSaprevioul: twiee 11on,
iu pu'll1ld, and 10 form their inta'lClClioo.
IMid e the opo::niaa,. tONl&lld. sphere with two baDdIes are Ibo...."". TIl.<: an lst's
skiD and hU p rofound kDowkdae o f I;eomctry made it pou ibl e to repr amt eomplcx
inlerlacina of !he four nested $Cilid tort llCCuraldy.
lLLlJ$T1t.ATION TO C HAPTER. III
The c:a.nonial1 cmbcdd:ina o r . swfaoe ofgmlll S into the thr~ Euc:il-
d ID space if; rep~ted 00 the riP t . A homeomorphic: embedd1q of th e same
su r raa: is shown o n tM left . The IWO Objccil lin: ho meomorplUc:, homoto pic: and
eVM isot opi e. ~ anUt II a It'lluhemat ieian and be:hu ehosen these t..,o, vef)' much
different In the ir appearance, fro m III infi oite $C'I o f homeom orphic: imaacs.
IlLUSTRATION TO CH APTBR IV
Hft"~ a.n infi nite total ,pea: o r. <:overing over a t..,o-dlme nsional sur face, vre., a
sp here wilh two baDdies, is depicted.. The artist impan ed the fls ure th e shape o f a
python an d fllId e the ba.sespa ee of the covainS loo k very inlriea,le. Packlna ~eres
Into the thrco-dimeDsioo"a1 Eud1detul spa and . f1Iure ho meomorphic 10 lbe 10l'\lS
are dcplel ed ouwdc the omllal object. The mathcmatiw objccu are placed 50 as 10
aeIlle a rllfltastic: ~pe.
lLLUS'T'RAnON TO CHAPTER V
In>nIcnion o r Ibe pro jOClive pIaDc RPl in R l
/Ii. tqll1ar" is rcpraentcd in t.hceen-
Ire on the black backaround . Tbe lar'Je$1 firure is the KIeiD bollle (stud ied in
lopo&op as n~tab le surface) (:\/,t in t wo (MObIIll strips) a10na a aenerltor
 '"
by ;l plane depicted farther n ght a10na with the line o f inter$U tlon; the lower part IS
planslng downwards; the upper part is being d eform ed (by liftin g the cu rve of in-
lcu cclion and buildi ng Ihe surface up) intO a surtace .....ith boundar y S': a d isc is
being glued to the last , whiCh yields th e SUTra~ RP1. Th e indicated immersio n pro -
CCS1i ca n be also used for turning S! ' Inside o.ut' mt o R l .
011 the oul&ldrts of tile pictu re, a triangulation o f a part or th e XJeln bo ttle SUT -
face;s represented .
A det ailed explanation of this plctur e may serve as 11 mat erial for as mu ch as a
lecture In visual lo polOlr .

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 NAME IN D EX

AleuIOdu J . 12. Il Fos: 1:., ].

A1u.androw P . 5 12. u, 37. 105. 107. 211. Fridlilt M ., 12
".
Akuncbyan R . A . 107
I'\ld! s D. B 108. 146 , 249. 250. 300

Arc:haJII:elsky A. V,. l Oll G ard nn M " 37

Amold V, I., 2.50. 301 Oohlbll~k)' M. 250
Atuli C 1001 Glaumann H . 169
OuiUemln V .. 2.50
Batdman I . Ya 101
Bett i !!.. u, 290 H amillon W .. 213
Birkhotf 0 . I.e
Bok)'lWky V. 0 . 37. ] 00
HauI<kIrl t ",. 11
HIlbert D , J1
8oU.alto 8 16
Borel Eo. 'T1
8om.tIl IC m
HJnm M ., lA'.
HlllOn P ' . )CO
2SO
H opt E . 12, 14. U. 2U
8DIullak0Wl1d V. Ya ...... 1. 1 H II S.T.. l ot6, 1jQ, 2U. 300
BowMkl N. n, 108 HUf'e'Iric;a V,. m
BrOCker n . :uo
,.,
BrOl.,.n" L 12. 1]. I I) . 132. I.... . u.e. hoobl K. I" . 212
.JonlUI C . 13. 16

(;ap(or G 12 " die,. J \07. 101

Cafta/I H . IS KeUoaO . 14
ClWCby A. . .... n, III KotmotorQ\l A. N. 13
bd. E . I). 106. 278 Kr as llOWl' ky M . A. . 146
Cllrmaw lk y A . V 38. 230 K \I, a l" I K . 12. 10I
Ollnn W.. ]1
Cotu\.VOIIH n S. J1 LandllT L 2.50
Cowanl R 37 lcbequc M 13. 104. 139
eoUC IIT H " 17 lcrtdleuS. S. 12. I.e. 292, 195. 2'11
c.owdl 11. 3t Leray J 14. U
lie s.. 212
Dold A 299 l.InddM E 19
DIIbrofta 8 . A . 1.c6. 2A9 L Ullemik P, A. . lJ

t:fr~ V. A. . n Ma.c:Lalle S. , 15. 146. lOO

'EiIft>Mt 5 .. 7. IS. 27'. JOO Madq J.. no
Euler 1-, 26. 27. 32, _ m ~ W .. ] 1 . 144;, 150. 299. )(10
M.t"C)'rl S. P . 10 . 37. 250
Forncllt a A. T . lA!J MlI)'O' W 26$ . 276. 210
F_a 0 .250 Malsa" G.. U
 Name Index

Mil_ J .. 14~. 2$O. lOl Schn>rebnann L. 0 ., l)

Millkowsld H . , 49 Sh itow' O . B., U)
M1nan)'M E, A ., 107 Spanier E., 146, 299
MUbdlcMO A. S. 10&. 1-46, 249 Spin.k M., 250
MobI... A. , 19 , 17 Spriftaa J ., 2)Q
Mol''' M. , n . 143 5I:crft rod N 1 ,1 5, 37. 27' , )t)(l
Muncra J ., 149. )(II Sl:ewut J .,:UO
51:_ A .. 106, 101
NO"ll;ov S. p ". 101, 1"6, 250, 301
T ckman C ., 101, )t)(l
Pasynkov B. A., 107. 108 Tidal M.. ~S, 96, 114
Poi~ H., II, 11, n. 14, 2" , soc T ihollov A. N., 13, I I, 10'2. 106
Pollo maryov V. A. lOll Thofpe J ., 250
Pon tryaa1n L. S.. I), 14, 15, 108,249,250. ThreUfall W ., 31, 108. 146
1""
PO$lnlkov M. M., U , 249, 250 UryJOR P. S., 12, 13, 92, \13 . \15, 108, 114
PO$lon T ., 250
Van "-'pea E .. 131
lk Rhun 0 ., 14, 249 VafaU aov N. B., n
Jt.1elIwvt 0 .. 11, 14, n, II I , Its , 1O1 Yldoris L 26S, 276. 2llO
kieu F.. 11
flobbim H .. 37 WalllllDC A. , UIl , 250
Roblin V. A. , 14, 146, 2411 WDentTau K., 10'2
Wbiw-d J.. U
Sa l'll A., lin WltitMy H .. 14, U , m, 301
Sdlawta' J .. 14 Wrllt S., JOO
Sdfnt H ., 17. 108. 1-46
San J P., U ZIlbtd lto P. P.. 146
 SUBJECT INDEX

AbsoM ~, S6. 140 C ' -anbcddinl . 183-185. I"

AleJWldrov theorem, lOS C'. functlon . 11<4- 18 1, 183
A1SCbr,. O'-Ierm, 178, 179
of C'-flltlCllonil, 118, 119 C"_immc:rsion, 181. 184
difference, 118 C"-manifold, 163, 164, 167. 168, In-I80.
of prrns, 180, 201 181, IM-I8I. 1IlO, 194. 195, 197
Lie, 111 C'mappina , 148, 1' 1. 1$) . l SI! , 160. 114,
AruLllheorem, 104 1110-1 13.18'.181, 196, 197
Atlas, iss. 1((1. 16) . 164. 166 , 167. 111.112, C"-smooth nen, 1'19, 180
179, 18 1. 183. 187. 1930195, 198, C'"-sll'Ul;turc. 163, 164, In, 1n-181, 185-187
202.204,207 ,108,291 C"-su bmanl fol d. 158. 164, 189. 198
rnaximoJ, 163, 173, 186, 187 C'_ bmc rsIOll, I83
orientill$ , 198 C"-atlas. 164. 169
rot a.ubmanifold M-. ISS, 159 C"'. lnx:t ure. 163, 113

...
AutomorpJrlsms, 130. III

COWIllIble , 4). 90, 100, 107, 163

for . ne i&bbourhood 'JSkm . 90
C""_al1u. 166
C"'-dl an. 159 '
C""-e:mbcddUll. \83
C"' function. 115, 199,200
C"".imlnn'ion,l 84
lor a toJlO/Oly. 42. 1) C""-mulrold, 165-110. :201, 114
Belti numbe 290 C""'>UUCllrn:, 164. 167-169, 113, 183, 191,
Bihull;tot, lll
""
-
8ijtaion, 82, Ill. 122, 190-19'2. 219. zn. C"". .. bmcn ion , 183
no. no Cl.tesY. 11$-121, 127. 144, 181, 118. 268.
Boluno IlHr:>rem, 86 271, 218. 179
Bor,ulr. tlKar.... . 239 O ".chy_Baunialr.o.... lr.i imqul1it y. 48

....
o f . dix. ~
of. h emislliler~, $ \
Cell, 238, 239, 24$, 249, In. 289. 290
Cd l COI'lIPIeK, 2)8, 239. 243. 249. 251, 281.
282, 289-291. sse
opc:n.lOl', 12. 2$4 I tJI<:ric. 2'8
rdative, 263. 264 Cdlu11r clecomJ)OSldon , 23<;1, 289
of. oct, 71 Cerll~ !)'IIIm<lf)' . 68
Brouwtr l b _ , 8, 1)2. 1404 , I" . 163, 2M . Cent red 'ySlc:m~ 99, 102
m OWn, 2$4. 161. 26J . 214-277
rd ative , 264
V"'-IIu , 161-164. 161. 1'72. 113, 176, 11'1, ,i nsul ar, 269
1'19,1 81, 186.193 supporl of. 11.
e.quivalml, 162 Ch oJn rule , 150
C'-<hart , " '-159. 161 0...11, 159-161. 163, 164, 166, 167. 163.
C'4irtcomorph lml. 151-1H . 155, In. 162, 17 1_114, 1'19_181. 1"_1 ", 1119- 19 1.
164, 171, 181, lin, 186, I", 194 19)197, 20 1-2Oi'. 209, 2 11, 298
 Subj ect index

compatible, 162, 166. 161 c" ....i1lnear. 1'2, IS3, I"

ao,., local . IS8, 162, 16S, 166, 167, 170. 111.
ball, 14 173. 174, 180, 182. 18S. 193, l ~ .
dis.e. 49, 14 196 , 20$-207, 2O'J.213. 239243.
h...nh~rc , 51 244.14S. 289. 291
001,,", .10, 76, 175 of. poim (vcetOJ), 48
convex, 231, 2$8 projl;ve, 166
Cobor dism r'ng,. 14 standard . 149. IS2, US , 161
CohomolOSY Coset, 14 1, m.l23, zzs. 2.54, 2SS, 2S7. Ul.
FOUl'S. 280. 281 274,:m
d.rory, 280, 2&1 Cot anscm bundle, lOS, 208
Combinatorial appro~m.l lon, 134 Covector, 208, 211, 213
Com mula nl, 141,417 Cov.eto. rICk! , 21Z, 11l
Commutator, 2 12 Cov~ tl.8 , 42, 46, 80, 97, US, 19J , 296
Com pacta, 103 countabl e, 97
Compattlfieallon I1nite. 97, 98 ,1 01
maximal", 106 Inflnile , 98
ea e-pctm, lOS, 28' looa1ly Fi nite, 97. 98, 173, 177, 178, 19S
Sl:one-th, 106 mOl!OdTom y of, 21S
Ca mpier ""h<eted, an . 2J4
chain. US . 2'6. 259, 260, 2.62, 263. open, 97-99, 10 1, 17S, I n, 195. 1 20
269-211.21).276.281.289,290. 293 of a 5paee. 42
ll ollular, 210, 281 countable, 'J7
oochai n. 280. 281 of a SUblp&CC, 'J7
q u,odem , 2j6, 263. 214 Cow ri"ll (locally trivial fibre SI. .... ), 213.
sim plicial , 2$7, 2S8, 261, 263U7. 276 , 219,121 ,212, 229-131, 133
280. 281, 292. 29S map , 219. 220, 221-226. 229
ba .y<;mtrk wbdivi5Y.m o f. 266, 267, rarnWed . ) 1. 23.3, 2J4
276, 2n . 295 reluJar, 224, ill
(mite , 258, 2'9 universal, 223, 226-228. 230
Compollttll Cov erirt& Itomotopy pro pat y. 217. 22 1, 233
eannceted , 88, 194. 218, 2.29, 230, cnl<rion
2.l).234, 238 of a base , 42, 80
of mapp!rtg,I, SO, &2. 96 cauchy , 7S
pal h , 113. 121 of connectednu!:, "
vector. 190. 192, 193, 196.203,205.208 , Croum:tion. ZI6
109 .211 Curve
Con e <1lu1v.,k ot , 191
0 . .... I comp le" . 260. 26 1, 282 10le,nll, 211, 213. 298
ovor a I~. 111 ~mple ~lostd. 13
Contraetioo. 114 smooc h, 157, 191
eonve,.. encc Cycle, 2H .:m. 26 1, 26S, 29(1, ass
absol ute. 96 ho rnoloSOIlS , ::IS) , 2SS, 26 1-263. 27 1,
uniform, 11,96 In,til
C""rdin' le homologous 10 2.,.0 , ::IS) , 261,277
r.pre:senlltWn. 180-182. I". 190. 193. relat,ve, 26J 26S, 27S
w., 108, 11 Cylinder, 18.21.82,170. 2J6, 238, 272
trand Qlmal'OfUI . 2 11 mappiog, 116, 117
Coordinltel
bU)'OOtlrle , 2S8, 166, 268, 271. 294 l)e fo, ma!ion , Ill. 116. 244-247
Ca: lcsia n . 166 com hinatori al, 1l3, B6
 Subject inw
'" conlinUOUi. 112, 113 2) 5. 292. 21'S . 2972911
linear, US form ula. 21
DoUft ,ubslhutlon, ra
of. mapplllll. 10M, 145. 19'9, 133. 211. Exactn.., LIliom . 2'79
2115.2 87.299 Exci' ioo axio m . 219
mod>l\o 1, 187. las . 199 Ellponcnl ial llow. 1l2
o f linaltl arily of. fWK:lioll . 240 Exle. ;or of a ...... 12
DerivatIv e, ISO, 189. 196
Development. 59. In , 1$9 I'ac lor
ea nOllical . 62. l39- 14 1 erou p, 1. 1. 224. 22S. 2'6. 259. 281
cqvi~ . 61 see , 19, 'I,ll)
nOlHlficnllblc. 60 s~c . 7. 22, 29. sa . Sol. !9. 67. 102. 10l ,
orlen\.ble. 60 117. U2, In, 167, 1M, 216. 214,
Diffn:norphi,m, 151, 153. IS8, 161, 180. 238. 281.2V
Il l , 19], l ~ , 198,202., 2 10. 211, F&Clorizlllion , 2$6. 290
291. 298 f'lbf e. 192. ) 9), 1 ~ . 1%, 207. 208. 212,
t';u\5itiool, 171 215-223, m. 226, 22lI. 229. 230.
Differential . 255. 262. 169-2'11, 281. Z89, 232. 299
""", bundle . 215, 219. 299
of .. function. 1ll8, 205 lrlvlLl.2l S
Dimm3ion F'U1lte ~ net , 104
axIom, 27'!I flnt co uol &bilily vlom. 90. 9 1
of . C........ifol d . 16J Funclion
of upace, lSO, 28' als en 28. 235
""~
product , 80, 213-216
an&lytic, 1-48. 170. 111, I H . 181
Iular . 17.
sum, 2S<4. 189 bilinear. 195
J)bJoinl uniOll.1I6, 117, 165, 202, 1J:f1. D7, bounded. sa. 10l
17.,_283 co mposite. ISO
DUt&nOe. 16, 21 continuo ..... 93. 95, se. 102 . LOS, 180

....
p-adk , 17 dlffc.ent'ilblc,l80
holomorpbic .IH
imllik h. ISO
of . subdiv'Slon , 132- ind... of. 2041
o f. lopologkal uianale. 57 periodic, I II
fmbcddilII. 18, 46.11 6, 117,1 44, Ill , 1. $mOOIb . 1'6, IS?, 173. 17" . 178119.
183. 187, 2 11, 249. 250, 2j6, 199-201, 212. 211. 235-2:J.6. 238.
274-276, 279, 282 243 247, 249. 28'. 291
monomo , ph;"m, 255 supporl or, 175
uandud . I n , ISS, lSi U. yson. 95. 9l\
Endomotpililm . 185. 292-294 Functor, 118, 121, 127. 28'
Ep;mo<ph1Im . 1)\1, 256, 117 conl'avarianl , 120, 121. 1044. 280
Eq uations of mot'on in HamillooJan form . eovartam, 119-122. 1044. 217. 21t . 263.
au 271. 278
Equival once, $I, 113, lJ 6, 117, 119. I n . ror8etful . 120
161, 16'.l, 118, ' II , 190, 191, 198. homoloty . 269
218, 123. U1 Fundamental theorem of allebra. 132
~"".

....,
,S2. 58, L13. 16J, 118. 190, L91,
198,21 6. 2n.
2~9 . 262. 291 Geomet ric .el atiol\$. 111
O<'r""" 179. 199,200,203
dlarllCte:istle. 1.6. 27. M, 66, 1"1, 23", 0 Iuin8,54
 SUbi' Inllu
'"
Gl ad .....' r..ld. J.4J ...1. ti...., 26 1
GrOUPS. ns, 118 , 130. 139. 144 o f . oimplQ . 254. U2
A tlC1tan , 121, 122. 127, l la , 136. ])8, o f , lmlllld . 1 co m plex , H 7. 259-262,
141, 14 ) . 224. 2SS, 260. 268-26\1 . 26' . 268. 290
271, 279. 281, 18S, 290 .. nsul a r , UlI . 271, 2 74. 276. 280, 2116
o f k.dimentional bound ""... li~ of . 'Ph.... , 281. 284
ch ain. 254. 2SS. 262, 28 1 Homology theory. 278-281, 284 , 2/1' . 296
cochain . 28 1 u"aa rdi na ry, 28O
cyclic . 140 ' impllcial , 211, 280
d iscrete lr....fo l"lrUtion . 22) 11nsular, 268, 273-280. 297
dynanncal . 209 , 2 10 Homomo rphi ,m 11/1, 121, 127, 129 . 119.
of forrnll i linear oo mbl na lion., 1$4, li9. 142, 167. 222, 223, 226. 2S5.2n .
2612 70. 28.1. 281
'"
f'ee. 1]9. 14 1, 14J
f""dameoW , 128, 130, 1)6. ])9 , 141.
bo ondary , ZSS, 263. 274. 28 1
Or (halo co mplexes . 2S~
21S, 22 1-224, 2J2 , 277 ch ain-homotOPic. 272. 273, 277
o f a knOl O(lmpl.mcm . 36, 141 (oboondary, 281
bomu1l1O<'phb m o f , m co nneo:tln8. 257. 264, 265. 274. 278
8C11eral linra<, 1611 rOllCtOfial, 27l, 279
ho mol0PY. 12(l..lll, 127. 128 , 1l2. 142. o f ho molorY lI' oo PS, 255. 271-271
1 4 ~ , 211. n s. 238, 248, 271. 284. o f I>omot opy. "ou ps, 127
m H omo topy, l IZ, 114, 121. 12)- 128, 135, 142.
o f k -dlm el1lional chain.I , li9 14S. 217, 220, 221, 21'1
o r k-dlmc:nsional cycles. 25~ a ~lom, 279
mo l'lGdromy.22 $o221 ( h l ln . 272, 271
1'" .,..lI y d iW>ll,lnUOll' , ran ,f.,.m .lion. clu., Ill . 121, I n-Ill, 1l71l 9 , 143,
223-226 145 . 222. 2lD-212, 248
com bln . to,i. l, 1l2, 114. 116
eont inoo w . 114 . 1) 6
H eln. Bord
Hc>, ian, 240
.h_em. 'n cqulva len ce, 10 , 114. 111. 142, 2lS. 2 36 .
218. 23/1, 20442015. 2A6-2A\>, 2n.
Hilbcn cube. 11l6. 107 275, 289, 291. 292
Ho mC1l<llo rph llm , 11. 18 .44. 45 , ~ I. S4. 57. liKed en<lo-polnl , 130, 221. 210. 212
59.68.76, " . 102. 114. 119. 122, lheOf}', Il l . 121, 122
132. 116. 117. 141. ISO. 1~2. lype:. 114, I n , 141, 1lS, m.21'), 244.
IS7 1S9. 16 1- 164, 166-173, ne, 177. 2015,247.24/1, 268.289.191 ,2/18
11Sl. 181. 18S. I'l l. 211 , 215. H opf
217.220 . zu-aas. U8. 229 , 231. bundl e, 2B, 216
ll), 234. 239, :259, 2S~. 294 ma p P!\li , 2IS
coordln .Le, 215. 232 t h ~em . 286. 21111
loc al. 44. 144, 1 8 ~, 219, 220 . 228231 Hu rewlez lheorem . 278
rectifylns. 2 1 ~ H)'l'el' lllllM , 170 . 260
relal ;.e ,l22
Homolotly s ro ops . 1M, lll. 254. 260. 163 . Ideal. 178, 1'79
270, 274. 275 , 217, 280, 292 Imrnerll on . I 82. 18S
orcell lm pIUU , 289 Implic!l flln(don lheore"' , ISO. 1 ~ 1
o f chain co mpl....... 2" Incidcn llC codflc:ien l o f cel li . 290
o f a man'fnld , 1$1 l n n llltu ; m&lgenOJllor , 20\1, 210, 298
o f. pair , 263, 28) Inl eriQr o f a .. t, 1 1
o f . poln t. 270 Inlm edlat. vaIl1e lMQICm, &6
o f . polyhedron , 259 , 260. 262 In"".... mallPl ns theorem. 151, I S) , 154.
or ... quoll.nl ( OMpl"", 256 1Sf;. 243
~, II ' . IN- Ill. 141, 143. I" , _ .... 161
1' 1, "2. 20).202. 12S. U6, 1$4. _>Cfttabk. 199
U I. XU. u.s. 21", m, 110, o ne .., imcast<lnlOl. 67, 154
2J2..ZI6,293 on mt.lion of, 1!M, 1911, 211
h OIOp)', 36 1mOOlh, 161. 170, Ill . 11', 112. Ill! .
119, 191, 1" 195. 201, 202. 203,
Jaoobi. id enti l ~ . 212 209, 211, 21) , 21S, 249, 29'l
J800bbn lM lrill, 149-1' 1, tsJ- IS6, 160, 1' 1, topolO&ica!, 1'8. 16)
119. :!ln , 'JIn,2O$, 211 u t.blc , 58, ' 7, 167
JOf1l.an lbcorm.. IJ, 26 . n u 1aooa of . 6J
I~ . 15, 57, 60, 99, 170,
KaDel., U 9, 14O, :H6, 114, m ,ll'll 17" , 2l6, 20016, 20411 . 25l . 2S4
trial\alll.il or, ,.
""""c1assltieauoa of. 36 _h boUlldary. 112. 17) . 164
d ovulu f, lti wilhoui bounobt), 254
tomp<:N:;lio n of, ](i, l7 ttfo"'iimR$lonll, 2J6..1)8. :B4
equiYalenl , 36 MaJlplnaJi
r'l~f~I, 34-36. 141 amne. IJ2
fowfokl, J6 . nal Yl;';, I"'. 163. 181
iooIop)' type o f. )6 bl,..::ti...., 18, 119, 155,156, lU . 114. 232
poI)'1OUl , )6-)7 dlanacri&tK. D9
priInc,)4, J6 dosed , ...... ."
pro4un or,
360-)7 of _pact spa_, 91. 10 .
1aIDC, l' 10000posWoo of. 118
u doll . n, 36, 141 t ORl 1.lnl . I I" . 115, 122, 286. 217
IJM aI , 36, 141 COCIllnuous , 11, ...... 41.7',79. &2 , U, 85,
WIld, 37 \13,96, 10 1, 104. 106, Il l, I l l , 114.

-
116111, 127, In, In , H4. 1404.
La&rUliC &llOI'il1lm, 1A) 145, 14' . lao. I' l , 114, 19l. 202,
lAbc:spio RlUDbet. 10', UO, 296 20$ , 21" 21' . zn, m , 221 ,
....aUIDber, 291.
~,' ,197
m-m
m.zu, 1JlI, 269. no. 274,
291, 2Sl4, 296. 291
di ff<ftOtli.t>1c. I..,
m,

I..iDdd6f' J lb<on!:tIo, 119, 9D 4111bec1dinl, 120, ue. us. 2$1

1lnII= aJIllfoxlm. lI01l of a palll . 1l5 . 139 epilnoJpIUc. 200
L.oc&IIr klYW fible rpKC, 21S-219, 199 equivalence~, H
!..oops, U 7-129, 1]7, 212, 2lA, 227, 230, U ltl\Sloo o r. 114, 111 . 120
lJl, 171 o f fmOl .pacel . 55
com binaloriaUy homoIo pic, 133, 1)4 r...Ed poInn of, 14, Ill, 144, I" , 167
COllu aalble, IJ,. IJ9. W ....ph of, n , U , 160, 1116
\id. , 1)1 IJ4 . 1l'1 , 139 homoIOPIC. Il l , m-us . 122. 143, 211,
m. m . 216. 111. 296. m
.....,"'"
atactnx. , " 1
booNMOPJ' in .." .... 11" 116. 142
1101iolld}' - . b. 149
alla1)1k. 16). 17I Lajeeu w . 18. Ill. 114
'-'J*i, 167, 1&4, 1I 1, 241, Z'T1 ItOmOrpluc,I42
COI\lpIQ, 171 11ft of, 216. 211 . 220, 221. 228, 2.13
t onnec:l od, 15). 199 lonear . 119. ISO. 189. 196. l!n. 200-m.
GrllS&lllann. 169 :104 . 2 10.212 .218
H. usdGrfr , 16j , 17'1' lonariuuon Dr. I SO
bEYd , 144, 10U or man Ifolds . 110. II I
 S ubj ecl mdex

o f metric >pa~ .. , 47 0,.,

'"
n01"rll, 119.121. 168. 169 ~I . 46
n=, I II di.., 49, 74
open . 44, 79, 82 parallelepiped . 42
o f pal ". 119, 121 Ope ration
produ Cl of. 83. 17() o f a ddln8 an edge. In
proJX', Ifill of a ddin a ' vortex. 132
rank of. 1S(l, 152 clo .ure. 7()
r. cufyona theo rem . 1~ 2. IS8. 160. eo n"0Iu"on. 6 1
184.186. 244 g1uin8, 61
resid..., ellw . 55. 57, ~ 9 , 132, 216, :n4 Interio r, 70
. esu ietlon of. 45, 114 . ubdi .....ion .6 1
., m pllelal , 266, 268, 2912 97 Orbit of a poin l, 67. 167, 210, 211. 223 225
....ootll., 149, ' S2. 16 1, 180. In . 187.
18S. 191. 192. 1%-19'J, 2(\1, 2(12, '"
Orien\(\\Ion
21)4,212,21 8.240, 291 o f. haUl. 198
o f .phere! , ~-:M9 of a ",anil., 57 . 5lI
lur p;li"e , 18, 51, 59. 19. 93, 188, 2 15,
2 19,228-229 P art ition <If unhy. 175, 178, 195
Mayer-Vierori. PillI. , n. 87. 1I 2, I)(). 143. ISJI, 228. 212
~ scq lltn CC , Z6S, 266, 216. 280 combinatOflal ly hom Olnp;c, In
Melfi<. 16. 21. 106, 111,258 ccnscen . 129, 1l6, 220-112 . 230, 2:12
Euelidea n , 45. 189 cominuOllI , 134. 1l6. 137
Riemannian , 19' . 209. 298 elemen llll'Y , 132. 134
l land v d , ' 01 line, 132
M' nlr.olllllr.l;neq ualily . 49 tIomOlopic . 134
MlSb;U$ II';". 19-20. !3.26. 54. 199. 2 16 IIn. ar , 112
Module, 212 null. 136
Monom orpld un , 200. 222, 215. 226. 232. p, <>due<of. 129
155,283 reverse. 129
MOfpl'lUm, 1I8 12(\, 181.218,268 .imple eondnuow . 13
idmrily, 1I9 smoolh. 208. 209
left in"ene, 119 POln... 48, 149. 189
r;sll.tln""rsc. 119 bou nda ry, n
lwo-oided In,, en~. 119 brancll . 2)3. 13'
o f Y<:C1 0r bundl6. 218 mulllplicilYo r, 234 , 2n
MOI se crldeal. 150. 182, 2:15 ,2)9-24 1, 144-249,
rund ion, 298, 299 289.292
;Mq UIliliQ . 299 Index o f. 247249
l ~ m rna. 241, 243, 245 inlerio r. 7 1, 132
iWla led, 71, 98, 160, 240
NeIghbo urhood IIm;t , 70. 98, 104
coor dinate, 158. 213, 2 15, 2 11. 219, 220 . noncr itical . 182. 240
224.228-131,232 nondcli elln"l lc, 240, 241. 243_244, 245.
elw>enl ar) , 223. 224 249, 288, 289, 29 1. 298
of a win 43. 76 ncnregular , ISO, 151. 1&2. 185
o f a winlll inl1nily, 56 non.i nsular. 150. 1112
o f . set. 9 1, 9J ..,war, 150, 151. 153. 160. 182. IU ,
l pherieal , 90 IU, 191, 288
tu bulv .299 slng ul. r. ISO. 161, 182. 184. 23)-23 5.
Nor mallubsroup. 224. 226, 217 2$1. 287.289,297_299
Nunle"" ions , eq" ivaJenl , 248 lnde,. o f. 287.289. 29&, 299
,.
PoI )'hcdn.. 2Jl U 9, 161 . 279-211 . UI, 292. rlM>CtJoOf\au, K pa . . ...... !n
2$1).291, 299 lII nllilc. 9I
~ .... o f the IIontolotY ~_ o f. LcbQaue. 74 . m . :w.

"'"
' ........ . 21
......'"
_ .41 ,47 , 74. 11 .91. 9l, 116, \76
PI"O,ec'lOoft . I n, :zo1, 1m. 21S, 216. 1 19 , partidy do red, 4 1
m . 122.. 2:26. 227.230, 2.ll, U ' . _ N . ... . 92
,...'"
onIO faa.... 51*'< , n . So4
scq uaW.allr CompaQ , I OJ
sloriati.... St. 117
Itandard. 152, 1S6. 160, I" Se'win&. 117, 1St
JlueoltapbK:. IN, 160. 171. 193 .-rldd, on
Pro}ec:li-c Simplu. :tW, 2:17-2S9. 262 . 264, 269. 2'77,
planc, 20 , ".!II, 140. 141, 16& 214, 19S2;97
waw. 6&. HI). 1M . 166. 169. 170, 199. barycenlfe o r. 266, 276
2 19. 2U. 29\ QI,viUneu , 162, 26S, 267, 268, 210
lmpln , 68 o rimled, :U1l-26 1, .26) . 264. 2U
, cal ,68 ' inJl1l:ll , 169-274, 276. '2'77. 28J
J>ropo:flIC1 lI andto' d . :U1. :U8 , 269 , 216
topolo"eal. 12, 4S. 59. 85. III Sim plIcial
o f mnlic .paces, Ie aN!l'onlma hon theo rem , '296
of lopoloP:al opac:a, 70 paniUon. 266. 2U
SkclctoJI , 289. 290
Rdinnnent , 9O,!in. 91,100, 177 s.-
Iklna. IU. I II, ,.- base . 2I S2 17 , 2 1t, 221. m, i l l. 2)4,
,.,
IUOOA ddormaticD. 116. 117, 145. 1M.
'"
b&Ic-polnl . I ll. 121. 271
..cak ,II S eeee, l IS
Itclt Ktioa . Il l, 115. II" ,4.4. 214. m COO\pacI. 91. 105. Il l. In. 114 . 214
"'rona ddonnalioa. 116 COO\pIcl 16
'"Uk, II ' ......pIotdy .q ular, 106
_r~u..l.lon . 17 1, In. III. 119, Its,
211.21)
Sard theorem , 117, Ill. 2-19. 2951 ..........tcd.,. , ... II I , 115. 130 , 2.\0. 2) )
SccOfld _ 'o.biIity Wom. 199 2, 16' or oontia UO<l1 fWlctlo fl$. 16
~&lJ0tl WDnu. , . contractible, 114- 117,114

"'- COn"i'rjlftll, 17
fuet, 2' . , 156. zs -. 263. 2&5. 274, 279,
diswnnoaed, ..
di=ete . 219. 21$, 221
EuclId...". 48, 130 . 189. 199.204, 221.
m. "" 235, Z49, 211, 21) . 28'
lIomoJoe;r . 274, 281 , 2114 rinat ly comp;u:t, 97, 98
of . pal. , 263. 16S. 283,:wI rtni1t1y-trianaulabk. 12
lUn4amcntal. 7' Ha usdorfr. 4) . 14. Ill. In. 97-10 1, 105.
of palnu of . I PKC. 17 211, 2).1, 239, lSI
opl,a1 . 2j.4 ht::rcditar il, ...........1, 92

"" rio$Cd. 4 1, 7 1. 1 4, 92. '3 . 91

coonpaa. 100, un, 1(Jol., 115-' 18. ...
" " - p hil; . '"
bc.aot.0P7 oquMllet>l, 114
boroOlOP7 " ," ole. III
_ eel, 1'1 Ian. 69. 10) , 161

.............
. - I.. .... u. n. TI l

da>>'rd. 1O
acnuabuod. 69. UJ . 224
liocv, 119
1ocIIII:r OOOlIIpaQ , 99 . 100, l OS. 112, 113.
dosa'ele. 71
'"
 me..i<:, 15, 16, 2 1. 75, 89. 90, 92, 96 ,10) , sm ootb , 163, 17]. I'l l
'"
107 , Ill. 112 , 119, 120, 189 o f a sUbmalllfold . 186
mdtiza ble, 106, 101 , 259 or a t""8ent bundle, 19'. 20~
" ..imple , III topological. 2 1, 16l
nOllCompaCl, 97, lOS, 112, IJI S" b<:ompIOll, 255. 265
normal, 91.93. 96, 114, 118, 2)9. 2$lI Subman ifo ld , 1'9. 161, IlI6-18lI. 200
l...:on'!C"Ie<l, l XI, 131. 22J. 2.2;8 n-dimensional, 159, 2n
or bil , 67 , 68. 169,291 o.letu abl e, 198
orient ed, 198 smoolh , IH
paracompa<1, <n, <n., 100 , 107, 165,217 Sobmtu;on. 182
p;n h-wnn<:>C.td. 87. 130. 1J8, 217. 219. $l<bset
2212 26, 232,274. 277. 218.283. 2S'I dOled . 9 1, 96
Icw;ally, 227, 228 , 230. 231 o pen , 41, 41, n
Phase, 18lI. 195, 209 SUh5Pa. compact. 98 . 10 1
re, ulat , 91, 92, 99, 10\. 101 S" pe'POSil;o n , 1$0. \51, 218, 226. 269. 27].
l.mIi-lo<:1llly l--GOMeaed . 221, 228 , 23 1
separable, 1 1, 89
n and a rdly em be<l'k d, 149
Surfaces '"
ab"'ac l, 174
ll",enl. 188-192, l~, 195. 198,201,202, dosed, 25, 57, 87. 234
215,145 equ ivalenl,66
to p%f,iel.I, 15.21. 33, ..0. 43 , 61, 99, ienus of, 2', 6', loll, 142 , 2Jl
119. 121. 1311 , 157. Il 9. 16 1. 164 , n0<l4 osed, :25
1'79. 181, 18J, lH . 188, 1921114, non-orlei!lable , 60, 266
)08. 211 , 221, 23', 258, 269, 211, o rienla ble, 60, 26'
272 .276,278.281.282,292 Riermnn, 18, 110. 111, 18 1, 233
P"lt o f. 119. 121 smooth, IS'
welshl Of, 106 10poiosiCal classification of, 2j
t opolosu:aUy com plete. 101 lwo-dJrueru;onal ,22
100al , 215-211. 219 , 22J , 210, 299 IW'HlIt.d, 181
"nlv.rw cov inll, ll3 wiUI bound... y. 25, 171
tri~n&ulllbk:, 2)4
uncountabl e. 90 Tan'....'
vcctar , 178, 189, 1111, 1112, 195, 19B202. bllfldlc, 192.199. 20221)4, 21] , 216. 2 18
2i). 2 17. 2 19. 124, asa. 2\Il to a curve, 188, 18\1. 196
Spbe , II . 21, 58, 74. 87, 103, 10', 114, plane; 188, 189, 299
122, 143-145, 157. 1' 9-16 1. 167. v OC!ot , 188, 190-191, 19'9, 201,202.203.
17l, 186. 199, llJ , 215, 216. 233, 20', 2082 11
235. 2311 . 24\1, 253 , 254, 2J9, 28\, vec'or space, liII
283. 285. 2M. 288. 290 Tansenlial m;>p, 1\16-1 99, 201, 202, 21)4, 2 18
Milnor. 182 Tet,ahw.on, 2S4
Spheroid , 122, 118. Il l, 142 Tiet,..,Uryson theorem , 9l , 96 , 114
St"bili, y su bl!J'Oup , 225 Tih ono v
S' ate of a system , 111.8. 209 cube, 106
Slone '''COtem . 101 p' od"ct ,88, 107, 112, 113
Stoneetc" lheotem, 106 tbeo tem , 102. IOJ. 106. 100
StruCl,,'" T opo loflic:oJ
..!gob ,e. 179 polYBOll. 26
a nalyt ic. 16J , 171 p,DdUCI, 102, 170. 2ll
com ple 110. 171 sum. 116
diff ... enl lal . 161, 119 , 180 lri~.S1
IIIduo:o:N, 161, 181 type, 142
'" Sll bjec t in dCll

To PQ!OlY. 7, II. 12. 14, 15. 21.41. 4S. 53. 1t of .. po lyhedr on, 258. 260
C anuian prolh,lCl. 16 S of a spllcrc. S8
Coat1er, 4 1
co mPt-open, 11 2. 217 Uniqueness thcOJem. 279281, 2801 , US . 296.
com parison of , 4\ ,~

diKrelC. 40. 114. 85, 90. 165. 218.221,

124, 229, 232, :03
1i~. 40
,, -
Ur~ n

major. 93, 95
H. \ISdo<ff, 41, 93 minor , 92, 93
htredilllry, .,. 98 1"~.92,1l1'7
indllCed, .5. 046, 78, &t, In , 101 , 120. In,
,.~
169. 211. 2! &
lQllIUma 41 crltlem, 182.239-240. 244-24$
metric.'" """,<:ritial, 182, 243
minlmaJ,4\ DOlUcsular . 182 , 117, 240
llalunJ , ' 2 nomlnlU1ar, 112
ofpoill\wiu O:;In~crgcnco, 111, 112 regular . 112, 186-l88. 199,240, 189
Pfoduct.80.81, 112 ,inguw-, 1n
quoUtnt , 52, 53, 19. 2204 Van Kampoq lllfDum, lJa
slr ongcr. 41 VeetQl', 48. 149, 189
slronl est . H . 78, 79. 258 bun&, 20'1. 117, 218
subWt for . 42 r.elck. 116.213, 116, 211. 287-219. 197-
Tihono v. 8 1. t07 m
Ifl,.., 41, 84 d'arxl...nstk of, 145, 287
of unlrormco<Iversence, Il l, 112 Pl'ooua of, 212
weak...., 41. '3 ' (!llliion of. 145. 287
weakest , 80, 8\, 180, 19l 1moolb . 211, 112, 243.244. 298
Torsion eoo:frI4'i'lIl, 290 sped $!,2 11
TOJUi , 2 1. 61, 82, 103. 112, 130, 141, 170, Vedeniwv lllcorem , 92. 290
171, 184. 2Zo1, 1360241, US. 25]
d ..... tOpm cPl of, 60 Wtd&c.. 1l7, 128, Ill. l39
lwo.diJnemlOnal, 81, 236 We!esIrllu llleoTem. 90, 102
Triall,gu1ali\>n , 24, 51. 58, 67,134,139.234, Whitney lbcortm . 187
2SB. 259, 262, U S, 2611, 279, 2110.

"''''
finenc:sl or, 258, 2%, 291
 10 T H E READER
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USSR

P7ln Ud In tlte Union 01 So Y/c' SociDIIsI Repub lics

 ALSO F R O M MIR P U BL I S HER S

M . KRAS N OV. Can do se, (phys.-Math.), A . KIS ELEV, C a n.d .

Sc. (Phys.-Ma th.) a nd G. M AKA REN KO, Cando Sc.
(phys. M a th.)

A Book of Problems
10 Onlinary DlfferentJal EquaUons
This p ro blem book co ntains exercises for courses tn differen -
tial equa tio ns a t techni cal institu te s. Topics covere in clu d e t h e
m ethod 0 r isoclines for equatio ns o f the-firs t a n d second o rder,
p roblems in finding orthogo nal trajectories. the use of th e
m ethod of s uperpositio n in so lving linear differential equa-
tions of o rder". linear d ependence and linear independe nce o f
a sys te m of fu nctions, p roble ms in solvin g li ne ar equa tions
w ith constan t and variab le c oefficients, boundary value
proble m s for diff erential e quatio ns , integrating equa tions in
power se ries, asymptotic integratio n, integrating s ys t em s ot'
differential equ ations, Lyapunov st a bility. a nd the operator
m ethod.
The book is intended fo r s t udents o r technical institutes.
A .81TSADZE, Co rr. M em. USS R Acad. Sc. an d
D. KALiN IC H ENKO. nse,

A C olltttio n of Problems
o n the Equations of Math em ati cal Pbysics
T his collect io n ccntains more Ihan 800 p roblems and exeretses
for a course of pa rtial differential eq uations. la ugh t in the
unive rsities to the students of maJ hema.t.icaJ, mechanical.
physica l an d en&ioeering special iza tio ns. The material of this
book: is arranged acco rding to t~e tradili onal sections of the
co urse - eq ua tions of elliptical, hype rboli c an d pa rabolic
types . Special attention is devot ed to method s most frjuently
enco untered in practice Fo urier's m eth o d, method of integral
transformations, me th od o f finite differences. 'variational
methods, etc. .
T he book is intended for un iversi ty stude nts studying the run -
d am entals o f the theory of p artial differential equations.
V. VLADIM IRQV. Mem. USSR Acad . Sci.

Generalized Fu nctions
tn Ma tbematicsl Physics
This book is an expanded version ofa cou rse of lectures delive-
red by the aut hor over'. number of years 10 undergraduat es.
graduate: studen ts and associates of the Moscow Ph ysico-
1l:chnlcal lnstlt ute and the Steklov Malhemalica11nstitu te.lt
is designed lor specialists interes ted in the applicati ons of
generalized functi ons.