Effects of Sleep Deprivation-Schumacher and Sipes-Final

The Effects of Sleep Deprivation on Memory, Problem Solving, and Critical Thinking 1
The Effects of Sleep Deprivation on Memory,

Problem Solving and Critical Thinking
An Ex-Post Facto Experimental Study
Matthew Schumacher and Desmond Sipes
Psychology 211
Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences
Northern Virginia Community College, Loudoun Campus
Dr. Rosalyn M. King, Professor
May 2015
ABSTRACT
The main focus of this research was to obtain a deeper insight of the negative
implications sleep deprivation had on particular cognitive functions. The research
aimed to assess the correlation, if any, sleep deprivation had on critical thinking,
problem solving skills, and short-term memory of college students. The purpose
was to gain new information, which would better inform college students of the
importance of routinely obtaining the recommended 7-8 hours of sleep. The
method applied in this research was a simple ex post facto design model along
with simple stratified random sampling. The stratum was separated in to two
strata of twenty-five male and females per for a total sample size of fifty. The
experiment took place on the Loudoun campus of Northern Virginia Community
College. The instrumentation used was a Cognitive Function Abilities
Assessment. The data failed to support the hypothesis in this experiment. The
data supports a conclusion, which makes determining any correlation difficult;
however, by accounting for limitations not accounted for initially, better results
could be obtained upon conducting the experiment a second time.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract.....................2
List of Figures...............5
Chapter One INTRODUCTION............................................6
Background
Problem Statement
Purpose of the Study
Major Research Question
Minor Questions
Hypothesis
Theoretical Framework
Significance of Study
Definition of Terms
Delimitations of Study
Limitations of Study
Chapter Two LITERATURE REVIEW......................................12
Overview
Overview of Research Question
Overview of Literature
Causes of Sleep Deprivation
Effect on Memory, Problem Solving, and Critical Thinking
Overcoming Sleep Deprivation
Research Methodologies and Evaluation of Research Designs
Summary
Chapter Three RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY...19
Introduction
Overview of Research Design
Sampling Design
Data Collection
Data Analysis Procedures
Precautions Taken to Ensure Data Validity and Reliability

Limitation of the Research
Expected Findings
Ethical Consideration
Conclusion
Chapter Four DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION.....26
Overview of Data Analysis

Discussion
Limitations Discovered Post Experiment
Future Research
Chapter Five CONCLUSION.......41
Gaps in Understandings and the Research

Summary of Key Findings
Implications and Recommendations for Further Study
References...43
Appendices......45
Appendix A: Informed Consent Form
Appendix B: Cognitive Function Abilities Assessment
Appendix C: Cognitive Function Abilities Assessment Answer Key

List of Figures
3.1: Simple Ex Post Facto Design Diagram..............................................20
3.2: Informed Consent Document Template.............................................46
3.3: Cognitive Function Abilities Assessment..............................................48
3.4: Cognitive Function Abilities Assessment Answer Key.54
4.1: Bar Graph of Male Students Test Scores Compared to Number of Hours of Sleep26
4.2: Bar Graph Female Students Test Scores Compared to Number of Hours of Sleep.27
4.3: Bar Graph of Average Test Scores Comparing Male Students to Female Students .28
4.4: Bar Graph of Average Number of Hours of Sleep Based on Age Comparing Males to Females ....................29
4.5: Correlation Charts of Hours of Sleep Compared to Critical Thinking Test Scores for Males and Females.30
4.6: Correlation Chart of Hours of Sleep Compared to Critical Thinking Test Scores for All Participants ....31
4.7: Correlation Charts of Hours of Sleep Compared to Problem Solving Test Scores for Males and Females .32
4.8: Correlation Charts of Hours of Sleep Compared to Problem Solving Test Scores for All Participants ...33
4.9: Correlation Charts of Hours of Sleep Compared to Memory Test Scores for Males and Females ..34
4.10: Correlation Charts of Hours of Sleep Compared to Memory Test Scores for All Participants ..35
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Sleep is an essential element of the human condition, which allows us to, when obtaining the
correct amount, perform critical daily functions at peak optimization. However, the community at large
often underestimates sleep and its importance, therefore leading people to not be as concerned with a
proper nights sleep, thereby preventing them from performing at peak efficiency.
Background
Sleep is a normal human function that is detrimental to sustaining life yet; individuals are
affected differently by their sleep schedule. There is no doubt that in todays modern world college
students are busy individuals. Whether from the grueling demands of regularly assigned homework
coupled with major projects assigned from a full schedule of classes, or the boss asking them to stay for
just a few hours longer, they are stretched thin. Sleep is a detrimental necessity that when not enough
is obtained, a noticeable depreciation in the daily functioning of the sleep-deprived individual(s) can
have a detrimental impact on the adequate performance of certain critical daily functions.
When an individual routinely has poor sleep habits paired with sleep loss can have a negative
impact on ones health. Sleep is important because it has a determining role in your mental and physical
health, along with quality of life (How Much Sleep is Enough, 2012). However, regardless of the reason
for one to not receive the proper amount of sleep it is imperative that individuals, especially college
students receive the proper amount in order to avoid depreciation in their ability to problem-solve,
think critically and remember adequately.

Problem Statement
Everywhere you go, you hear people complain that they are tired and do not have any energy.
Students stay up late because they had to work the night before in order to pay for school, they are
trying to finish an assignment that is due the next day, there is some sort of issue at home, or they
decided they would rather do some other leisure activity they enjoy rather than go to bed at a more
appropriate time. However, studies have shown that sleeping is one of the most important things a
person can do. Sleep plays a vital role in learning and when a person fails to obtain enough sleep the
night prior, neurons in the brain might not fire properly, the body becomes out of synch, and it can even
lead to accidental physical injuries (Benefits of Sleep, 2007).
Students need to learn to be able to put down their computers, turn off the TV, say no to a night
on the town, or limit some of their work hours so that they can ensure themselves at least the minimum
number hours of sleep required. Perhaps teachers will even notice a noticeable difference in student
performance if all of their students are receiving the appropriate amount of sleep every night.
Purpose of this Study
The purpose of this study is to enlighten the community at large of the adverse effects that a
lack of sleep can have on the human mind. This study will also provide insight as to how much sleep is
necessary each night for adults and the maximum number of hours a person should remain awake
before going to sleep. The data gathered would help people to create a new sleep pattern that will
guarantee peak performance.
Major Research Question
How does a lack of sleep impact memory, problem solving and critical thinking skills amongst
college students?
Minor Questions
What are the differences between genders?
What age group will be most affected by sleep deprivation?
Is there a point where the skills stagnate after a certain number of hours of sleep?
Hypothesis
College students that obtain between seven to eight hours of sleep each night will achieve
higher scores on the tests administered than those who receive six or less, or nine or more hours of
sleep per night.
Theoretical Framework
People claim to understand that sleep is an important aspect of their life, yet they prove their
ignorance by refusing to get sleep, even when they are tired, because they want to get though one more
level in a game, read one more chapter, watch one more episode, or have just a little more work to
accomplish. Studies have determined that total sleep deprivation negatively effects an individuals
filtering capabilities. Though their visual working memory capacity is left unhindered, if one cannot filter
out the information being taken in, they cannot store anything in their memory (Drummond, Anderson,
Straus, Vogel, & Perez, 2012).
Many people tend to allow themselves to be sleep deprived throughout the week because they
generally believe they can make up for the sleep on the weekend when they get a break from the work
or school week; however, during the period of sleep deprivation, their ability to complete tasks will be
hindered, causing a decrease in the quality of work primarily due to a reduction in attention, memory,
and problem solving tasks (Chiang, Arendt, Zheng, & Hanisch, 2014).
As studies have been conducted, the majority have seemed to come to similar conclusions: a
lack of sleep can have detrimental side effects on the human mind and body, and by regularly obtaining
enough sleep each night, a person can function more efficiently. As a person becomes more sleep
deprived, their attention span shortens and their working memory begins to deteriorate (McCubbin,
Peach, Moore, & Pilcher, 2012). It can then be easily concluded that as these skills decline, the quality of
work will do the same, which is contrary to the mindset of a majority of college students today.
Especially during the time of midterm and final exams, and when project deadlines loom
overhead, a common behavioral pattern becomes apparent in most, if not all, students. Sleep is
sacrificed in order to allow them to continue their work or studying, attempting to finish their work on
time or memorize everything they need to in order to secure a good grade. However, if the past studies
and the results are accurate, these students could be setting themselves up for failure, or at least
keeping themselves from achieving the highest grade possible, while simultaneously negatively affecting
their health.
In all actuality, when otherwise healthy students deprive themselves of sleep, there is an
alteration in the neurophysiological and endocrine systems, rendering all learned and practiced events
during the period of sleep deprivation moot. It can be determined that this is likely due to a decrease in
vigilance and maintained attention (Klumpers, Veltman, van Tol, Kloet, Boellaard, Lammertsma, &
Hoogendijk, 2015).
Significance of Study
This study will prove to be of significance by determining the optimum number of hours
required for individuals to be able to perform at their peak efficiency. As people enter different stages of
life, they become preoccupied with different activities and interests that end up taking up their time and
focus. Some are at a point where they are in school, pursuing their education, while others are in the
workforce, some are raising children and others spend their time engaging in different hobbies and
pleasurable actives, and many are doing any combination of these things.
Unfortunately, people get so distracted with their activities and attempting to do everything
that they want and need to do, their sleep cycles suffer. Sometimes it is unintentional, people get
completely preoccupied and they lose track of time. On other occasions, they purposefully force
themselves to remain awake because there is something they want or feel they need to do, so they lose
even more sleep that night. There are times when a lack of sleep is to be expected; for instance when
parents are raising an infant. Never the less, people still do not make sleep enough of a priority.
It is the desire of the researchers in this study to educate the community of the true importance
of getting enough sleep. By showing them the difference that a proper nights sleep can have compared
to a night without the proper amount; hopefully people will then make an effort to ensure that they get
enough sleep to be able to function efficiently each day.
Definition of Terms
Sleep: The naturally recurring (esp. nightly) condition of repose and inactivity assumed by people and
most higher animals, in which consciousness, response to external stimuli, and voluntary
muscular action are largely suspended.
Adult: All individuals that are 18 years of age or older
Memory: The faculty by which information is remembered; the capacity for retaining, perpetuating, or
reviving the thought of things past; an individuals faculty for remembering information.
Problem Solving: A persons ability to be confronted with mathematical word problems and solve them
to find the correct answer.

Confidence Interval: A range of values so defined that there is a specified probability that the value of a
parameter lies within it.
Critical Thinking: The individuals ability to think logically and answer questions with obvious yet trick
answers.
Circadian Rhythm: The cycle of biological activity based on a 24-hour period of time and is influenced by
the regular variations in the environment
Standard Deviation: a quantity calculated to indicate the extent of deviation for a group as a whole
Fatigue: A condition of muscles, organs, cells, or materials characterized by temporary reduction in
power, efficiency or sensitivity following prolonged use or activity.
(Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, Fifth Edition, 2002)
Delimitations of Study
Study is based at the Loudoun Campus of Northern Virginia Community College
Students in this study are eighteen years of age or older
All subjects receive the exact same test
Limitations of Study
Some participants might provide inaccurate information
Some participants might not put in true effort when completing the tests
No equipment to test the full extent to which the brain is functioning

Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Overview
Sleep is a major aspect in our everyday lives; however, fewer people are getting enough sleep
each night and more are slowly becoming sleep deprived. Sleep deprivation is defined as a condition
that occurs when an individual does not get enough sleep each night (What Are Sleep Deprivation,
2012). There is an immense amount of research being conducted in order to determine how to
overcome sleep deprivation, but in order to surpass any issue, it is important to know who is at risk of
being afflicted by it.
It is important to understand that people of all ages, and ethnicities are at risk of becoming
sleep deprived. More specifically, individuals who have limited time for sleep, such as students, people
who work a lot of hours either at either one or more jobs, as well as caregivers. Also, those who have
schedules that conflict with circadian rhythms such as; shift workers, first responders and individuals
who travel for work can also be at risk of suffering from sleep deprivation. Other individuals that could
be included would be those whose life style choices do not allow them to receive adequate amounts of
sleep such as; individuals who take medication to stay awake, those who abuse alcohol and or drugs, or
those who dont place sleep high on their priority list. Individuals who suffer from various medical
conditions such as heart failure, heart disease, obesity, high blood pressure, diabetes, stroke, transit
ischemic attack (mini stroke), attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, and depression can all suffer from
sleep deprivation as well (Who is at Risk, 2014)
So many people fail to maintain a proper sleep schedule, but sleep is one of the most important
aspects of mankinds everyday life. There are several important aspects to maintaining an adequate
amount of sleep on a nightly basis. These would include: committing new information to memory,
maintaining normal body processes such as proper carbohydrate storage and maintaining proper
hormone levels, reduced tendency for day time sleepiness, thereby reducing human errors such as
medical mistakes and traffic accidents, reduction in irritability and patience, improves concentration and
reduces moodiness and laziness. Sleep disorders have been linked with hypertension, irregular
heartbeat, and increased cortisol levels, while an adequate amount of sleep assists in maintaining
proper immune system function (Benefits of Sleep, 2015).
Overview of Research Question
It is the desire of a majority of research in the field of sleep deprivation to determine what the
optimum amount of sleep is for each person. This would be determined by the efficiency of a persons
memory, problem solving and critical thinking skills after a night of sleep. It is important to understand
what might keep an individual awake at night in order to be able to avoid these obstructions in the
future. The subject is constantly explored and the consensus is that seven to eight hours of sleep is the
optimum amount, but it is the desire of the researchers of this study to confirm these conclusions, while
also aiming to determine at which point, if any, when sleep becomes redundant or a hindrance and
conversely negatively impacts everyday functions.
Overview of Literature
The purpose of this study is to determine the efficacy of sleep and the adverse effects of failing
to receive the proper amount on a consistent basis. The varying articles and studies have all appeared to
come to a complementary consensus on the importance of a consistent sleep cycle, which allows for
seven to eight hours of sleep. Many studies have been conducted within recent years, all of which seem
to use a wide array of different procedures. While at the same time accumulating a plethora of data on
the subject matter showing sleeps benefits and the adversities that can arise from not receiving enough
on a consistent basis.
Causes of Sleep Deprivation
Just like other problems that humanity faces, there is not a single cause for sleep deprivation. If
a person suffers from a sleep disorder, it is very likely that the individual will become sleep deprived, the
issue is determining which disorder the person suffers from so that help can be sought after to assist in
receiving enough sleep. People have been known to suffer from insomnia, sleep terror disorder,
narcolepsy, sleep walking, and sleep apnea; these are just a few of the many disorders that individuals
can suffer from, which can prevent them from achieving an optimum sleep regimen each night as
witnessed by researchers Murphy and Delanty (Murphy, & Delanty, 2007).
Along with officially diagnosable sleep disorders, it has been observed through empirical studies
such as Hershner and Chervins Causes and Consequences of Sleepiness Among College Students that
schedules set by colleges and public schools are partially responsible for students being afflicted with
sleep deprivation. With class times being set early in the morning and late in the evening as well as
work-loads being increased outside of the class room, individuals circadian rhythms can become
discombobulated, causing them to have an inadequate sleep cycle (Hershner, & Chervin, 2014).
The third major factor that can lead to an insufficient amount of sleep is when an individual
makes personal and professional commitments beyond that of what is reasonably accomplished.
Different careers can lead individuals to go extended periods of time without adequate amounts of
sleep each night, for example; medical professionals and shift workers. When said individuals do finally
have the opportunity to go home and rest, they still have to deal with the demands of their socio-
economic factors such as raising a family and environmental noise pollution (Murphy, & Delanty, 2007).
Effect on Memory, Problem Solving, and Critical Thinking
By failing to obtain an efficient amount of sleep each night, there is an increased possibility of
there being one or more adverse effects on the individuals cognitive capabilities. The actual ability to
store information is not completely hindered when a person is suffering from total sleep deprivation;
however, when a person is suffering from a lack of sleep, they may tend to lose the ability to filter
information; therefore, storing more irrelevant information into their working memory, leaving less
room for that which is relevant, making it appear that the memory itself is being hindered. This was
clearly observed through the empirical research study titled: The Effects of Two Types of Sleep
Deprivation on Visual Working Memory Capacity and Filtering Efficiency, which was conducted by
researchers Drummond, Anderson, Straus, Vogel, & Perez (Drummond, Anderson, Straus, Vogel, &
Perez, 2012).
Sleep loss has been shown to be inversely proportional to academic performance; when one
fails to receive an adequate amount of sleep on a nightly basis, the literature states that an individuals
skills in learning capacity, such as memory, attention and problem solving skills are effected the most.
Sleep deprivation can also lead to daytime sleepiness. When these factors are all being faced, students
are likely to achieve lower test scores and lower grade point averages; however, it has been shown that
cognitive function is not hindered as drastically when the individuals are working in groups as when
working alone (Chiang, Arendt, Zheng, & Hanisch, 2014)
An individuals physical and mental health and abilities have been shown to have direct
correlation with sleep deprivation. Research has shown that people who suffer from sleep deprivation,
are more likely to have issues with their cognitive abilities, such as memory and problem solving skills
when the individual also suffers from hypertension, but the relationship does not end there. The
empirical research study Decreased Cognitive/CNS Function in Young Adults at Risk for Hypertension:
Effects of Sleep Deprivation, which was conducted by researchers; McCubbin, Peach, Moore & Pilcher
have also shown that individuals who do not have hypertension are more likely to develop this issue
when constantly depriving themselves of sleep (McCubbin, Peach, Moore, & Pilcher, 2012).
The brain is most effectively influenced by the different chemicals that are naturally released by
the body, but it is very possible to disorient the brain by not releasing, or releasing too much of, a
certain chemical. The empirical research study Neurophysiological Effects of Sleep Deprivation in Healthy
Adults, has shown that people suffering from total sleep deprivation have an increase in dopamine
output and a decrease in cortisol, thereby requiring an increase in a combined effort of production from
the prefrontal and limbic cortical regions. Despite the increase of activity in the brain, individuals still
suffer from decreased cognitive performance (Klumpers, Veltman, van Tol, Kloet, Boellaard,
Lammerrtsma, & Hoodendijk, 2015).
Overcoming Sleep Deprivation
There are multiple ways in which individuals can work to overcome their sleep deprivation and
return to functioning at an appropriate efficiency. Insomnia has been shown to be a lead cause in sleep
deprivation, causing individuals to lie awake at night, unable to achieve sleep, or constantly waking
throughout the night, there are multiple treatments that have been tested and of these, one seems to
stand out. With all the different drugs being used to aid with sleep, acupuncture is actually proving to be
an effective aid and more research is going into discovering the true potential of this treatment (Yuan-
Fang, Jian-Hua, Neng-Gui, Zhao-Hui, Zhen-Hua, Shu-Jun, & Wen-Bin, 2013).
Another aid in the fight against sleep deprivation is natural sleep aids. It is remarkable how
many natural aids there are, most of which come from leaves, roots and tree bark. Some of these aids
include: kava-kava, which is an herbal remedy that relaxes the body and enhances dreaming. Valerian
root, which eases nerve and muscle tension as well as relieves anxiety and chamomile, which is a flower
that is most often drunk as a tea, aids in reducing restlessness and digestion. There are a plethora of
natural remedies that help with releasing Melatonin and Tryptophan, which are natural chemicals in the
body that aid in healthy sleep. One should always choose a natural remedy over its synthetic
counterpart when available (Kopparapu, Puranik, Nargund, Samuel, Shahapurkar, & Mathew, 2012).
A full night of sleep is not always an option with peoples nonstop lives, so the majority of
people turn to different stimulants in order to keep them going during the day. Studies have shown that
when 20mg of d-amphetamines are ingested orally, the individual returns to a cognitive state that was
present prior to being sleep deprived, allowing for an improvement in addition and subtraction as well
as logical reasoning tasks. Amphetamines also reduce a persons response bias by increasing their
confidence in their actions and decisions. It has long been believed that nicotine has the ability to aid in
the retention and enhancement of cognitive functions, when the individual is sleep deprived, due to the
fact that it is a stimulant, but research has actually shown it has no positive effect on the brains
cognitive capabilities, due to its inability to improve sleep latency. L-deprenyl, like nicotine, fails to
improve sleep latency in sleep-deprived individuals thereby negating any improvements on cognitive
performance during the sleep deprivation period. These findings were discovered in the empirical
research of Stimulant Drug Effects on Performance and Behavior After Prolonged Sleep Deprivation: A
Comparison of Amphetamine, Nicotine, and Deprenyl (Newhouse, Penetar, Fertig, Thorne, Sing, Thomas,
& Belenky, 1992).
Research Methodologies and Evaluation of Research Designs
From the literature reviewed prior to conducting this research experiment, these researchers
came to the conclusion that multiple types of methodologies and designs have been used in the various
studies of sleep deprivation reviewed. Some researchers have used methods which primarily studied the
deterioration of the individuals cognitive abilities as they become deprived of sleep. As others
compared those who were sleep deprived to those where were well rested. Multiple researchers in
order to screen for general intellect and testability used tests such as the Peabody Picture Vocabulary
test and the Ravens Progressive Matrices. The majority of the prior experiments reviewed for this study
tend share a balance in being both quantitative, hours of sleep, and qualitative, the individuals cognitive
abilities. Overall, the consensus amongst the researchers of the studies reviewed for this experiment,
was that the preferred method of data collection was by direct observation in a laboratory environment,
complete with EEG, EMG, fMRI and the like. This would include observers, inspectors, scientific research
and data logging each performing a particular piece of the research puzzle.
Summary
The focus of this study is to inform students and possibly individuals in the work force of the
importance of receiving the recommended 7-8 hours of sleep each night and what the possible negative
effects are when sleep is neglected. If individuals are to function at full functional capacity, it is
imperative they receive the optimum amount of sleep on a continuous basis.

Chapter 3
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
Introduction
The purpose of this study is to gain a better understanding in to the detrimental effects, which
sleep deprivation can have on memory, problem solving and, or critical thinking skills among college
students. As college students today, schedule demands are becoming more vigorous while free time is
diminishing. Whether because of demands from classes, homework assignments, or having a job, less
priority is being given to health. Especially when associated with routinely obtaining the recommended
seven to eight hours of sleep, it becomes imperative that students ensure they get the proper amount of
sleep.
Overview of Research Design
The purpose of this study is to provide insight to college students on the positive effects sleep
can have on their everyday functions and the detrimental consequences of neglecting to obtain the
recommended seven to eight hours of sleep on a consistent basis. This study will be a simple ex post
facto design. Simple ex-post facto design methods are quasi-experimental research techniques, which
compare preexisting groups on a dependent variable. Ex post facto designs masquerade as genuine
research experiments because both are attempting to prove a change in an independent variable causes
a change in a dependent variable, but they differ in that ex post facto designs do not use random
assignment. Ex post facto designs place subjects in groups based off of a particular characteristic or
condition they have experienced or has occurred in the past. Although ex post facto design models
masquerade as regular experiments, they do have the same limitations as non-experimental research.
Figure 3.1 is a graphical representation of a simple ex post facto design model.

Figure 3.1
(Rahimi, 2014)
Data will be obtained through experimentation, more specifically by having the research
subjects sequence the Cognitive Function Abilities Assessment. The Cognitive Function Abilities
Assessment will be distributed among a variety of students throughout the Loudoun Campus of
Northern Virginia Community College. The Cognitive Function Abilities Assessment will be relatively
short in order to ensure it can be facilitated in a timely manner, which will allow the students the ability
to return to their busy schedules as quickly as possible. The desired outcome of this study is to gain
information, which will provide the researchers with knowledge that will potentially aide the students
attending the college in their understanding of the importance of obtaining the recommended seven to
eight hours of sleep each night, and of doing so routinely.

Sampling Design
This study will be using simple stratified random sampling of male and female research studies
at the Loudoun Campus of Northern Virginia Community College. There is no age or ethnicity stratum
for this experiment; however, the strata will be divided into two stratum by gender and equal number of
subjects (25). The data collected will be obtained through the completion of fifty assessments, being
completed by twenty-five males and twenty-five females. It is the desire of this assessment to gain a
better understanding of the correlation between an individuals amount of sleep and their memory,
problem solving and critical thinking skills, and also the correlation between these factors and how, or if
they differ from one gender to the next.
Data Collection
The instrumentation that will be utilized for this ex post facto experimental design will be the
Cognitive Function Abilities Assessment, which will be administered to fifty research subjects from the
Loudoun Campus of Northern Virginia Community College. The simple stratified random sampling design
was chosen due to the need for an equal number of males and females for the study. All research
subjects will be given a consent form, Figure 3.2 (located in the appendix) to read and sign before being
allowed to participate in the experiment. The Cognitive Function Abilities Assessment will be divided
into three sections: 1) a visual experimentation of memory, 2) analytical problem solving questions; and,
3) critical thinking questions. All participants will be volunteers and will be given a maximum of fifteen
minutes to complete the Cognitive Function Abilities Assessment in its entirety. After all of the Cognitive
Function Abilities Assessments have been completed and returned, the researchers will then properly
analyze the data acquired. Strict adherence to all data analysis procedures and statistical calculations
will be followed in order to ensure proper and thorough analysis of the data.
The Cognitive Function Abilities Assessment will be distributed in various locations throughout
the Loudoun campus of Northern Virginia Community College, but the number of men and women
taking the Cognitive Function Abilities Assessment will be kept track of in order to ensure that simple
stratified random sampling occurs. All participants will be seated in front of one or both researchers
from the time of reading and signing the consent form, until the completion of the visual memory
portion of the Cognitive Function Abilities Assessment. This amount of time will be approximately, but
no more than fifteen minutes per individual. The equipment required will be comprised of an ample
supply of writing utensils and the sixty copies of both the consent form, and Cognitive Function Abilities
Assessment. Also the print out required for the visual short-term memory portion of the assessment. If
requested, a draft of the data collection instrument can and will be provided.
Multiple field-tests of the data collection instrument, or the Cognitive Function Abilities
Assessment, were conducted on various participants who were a close representation of the desired
sample population prior to administering the proctored Cognitive Function Abilities Assessment
amongst the research subjects. Multiple field-tests were conducted to determine the most effective
instrument to utilize in the experiment along with ensuring the fifteen minutes the researchers allotted
for completion of the Cognitive Function Abilities Assessment was an adequate amount of time for the
lot of research subjects. After conducting the field tests of the instruments all flaws and possible kinks
were accounted for and were mended accordingly. This gave the researchers peace of mind regarding
the fluidity during the administration of the Cognitive Function Abilities Assessment.
The validity of the instrumentation was verified through the respected authors and their
websites. The critical thinking test is composed of questions, which were taken from a preexisting test
used by the College of Forestry at the Oregon State University Graduate School. The author of the test is
unknown, but the university and the pilot test ensured the validity. Taking SAT prep test questions,
which have been proven to be valid by Study Mode, the problem-solving portion was created. Study
Mode is not affiliated with College Board but has ensured the validity of the questions. Finally, the
memory test was taken from a preexisting test created by Eric H. Chudler, Ph. D. from the Department
of Bioengineering at the University of Washington. All three parties who had created the individual
tests, which make up the field instrument, have been contacted in order to receive permission to use
their respective test, and each party granted us their permission. Figure 3.3 is the final version of the
Cognitive Function Abilities Assessment, which was the instrumentation, utilized in this experiment and
can be found in the appendix. Figure 3.4 is the answer key for the Cognitive Function Abilities
Assessment.
Data Analysis Procedures
Ethnicity and age will not be factors when selecting participants for this study; but gender will
be a factor when choosing participants in order to ensure an equal number of males and females
comprise each stratum. There are no qualifying prerequisites research subjects to be able to participate
in the study, apart from being a current student at the Loudoun campus of Northern Virginia Community
College. All data will be analyzed based on the research question; also the mean test scores of each
stratum will be compared through the use of a t-test. The t-test will be used to see which of the two
experimental groups, males or females, if any, were more negatively affected by sleep deprivation.
Results will be calculated based on the ability to answer questions accurately and compare
scores to the number of hours of sleep in an attempt to determine a correlation between sleep
deprivation and their memory, critical thinking and problem solving skills through the use of bivariate
correlation. The bivariate correlation will measure the strength of the relationship between participant
test scores and their respective number of hours of sleep. This relationship can range from absolute
value 1-0, and the stronger the relationship; the closer the value is to one.
Precautions Taken to Ensure Data Validity and Reliability
All participants partaking in this research experiment will remain anonymous throughout the
testing procedures and will not be required to state any personal information other than providing their
age and gender for documentation. Each individual will be monitored to ensure proper effort is being
engaged during the completion of the assessment, which will aid in the accrual of accurate results. A
pilot test was administered on multiple levels to ensure the allotted time provided deemed appropriate
and also that the assessments will be able to provide accurate data. The external validity of this
experiment is shown in the ability of this project to be carried over to a larger population; more
specifically shift workers, first responders, military personnel, etc.
Limitations of the Research
By limiting the amount of time allotted for individuals to complete the Cognitive Function
Abilities Assessment, they may feel rushed to finish, causing them to make careless mistakes or to not
put in the appropriate amount of effort. There is also the issue of participants providing false
information about themselves such as age, or the number of hours of sleep they received on average
and the night prior to experimentation. In addition, the setting may play a factor in careless mistakes
due to distracting external stimuli in the surrounding area. Due to the nature of this study, internal
validity cannot be completely guaranteed due to the limitations of undergraduate research, to be more
specific there is a lack of access to functional magnetic resonance imaging equipment,
electroencephalogram, electromyography, and psychopharmacology. All other measures to ensure
internal validity have been accounted for. A somewhat major limitation in this methodology is having a
confidence interval of fourteen, which is due to having a smaller sample size for such a large population.
Expected Findings
It is expected to find the results will show a correlation between the numbers of hours of sleep
the subjects obtained the night prior to experimentation and how well they performed on the Cognitive
Function Abilities Assessment. Results should show the individuals who receive fewer hours of sleep,
and are therefore more sleep deprived, would have less success on the tests than individuals who are
well rested. It is possible; however, due to individual ability in certain aspects of the exam, that some
subjects will do inherently better than others which could skew the correlation. It is also possible that
the data could be skewed due to the other limitations, which may arise, whether be from the large
confidence interval or confounds that arise during administration of the assessment.
Ethical Considerations
There are several different aspects taken into consideration after reviewing the ethical
guidelines. All participants partaking in the experiment will be given a consent form to be signed prior to
completing the test. If there is any point where they decide they no longer wish to complete the
Cognitive Function Abilities Assessment, they will be allowed to stop. Ensuring anonymity will protect
confidentiality of all subjects. There will be no manipulation of the data being analyzed in order to skew
the results one way or another.
Conclusion
This methodology will provide insight to college students about the effects their sleep schedule
may have on their memory, problem solving, and critical thinking skills; which would, as a result, have an
effect on their grades. The collected data will assist college students with the necessary information for
them to alter their daily schedule to ensure they routinely receive enough sleep in order to function at
peak efficiency each and every day.

Chapter 4
DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
Overview of Data Analysis
The intention of this research experiment was to more accurately inform the student body of
the Loudoun campus of Northern Virginia Community College about the detrimental effects sleep
deprivation could have on memory, problem solving and critical thinking skills. It was the desire of the
researchers involved to provide, through the data collected, encouragement for the students to create
and adhere to a proper sleep schedule. It is the aim of these researchers to provide a visual
representation of the data collected and analyzed over the course of this research through the following
graphs and charts. Each display will be provided with a synopsis of the data being represented.
4.1: Bar Graph of Male Students Test Scores Compared to Number of Hours of Sleep
Figure 4.1 represents the average test scores of males in each of the three tested areas on the X-
axis, and the number of hours of sleep that were obtained by the research subjects the night
prior to experimentation on the Y-axis.

4.2: Bar Graph of Female Students Test Scores Compared to Number of Hours of Sleep
Figure 4.2 represents the average test scores of females in each of the three tested areas on the
X-axis, and the number of hours of sleep that were obtained by the research subjects the night
prior to experimentation on the Y-axis.

4.3: Bar Graph of Average Test Scores Comparing Male Students to Female Students
Figure 4.3 shows the overall average test scores shown on the X-axis and comparing males to
females on the Y-axis in each of the three tested areas.

4.4: Bar Graph of Average Number of Hours of Sleep Based on Age Comparing Males to Females
Figure 4.4 compares average number of hours of sleep as shown on the X-axis between males
and females based on age as shown on the Y-axis.

4.5: Correlation Charts of Hours of Sleep Compared to Critical Thinking Test Scores for Males and
Females
P value = 0.353537; Results prove insignificant at P < 0.05
Standard Deviation = 32.86071

(standard deviation is the measure used to quantify magnitude
of variation or dispersion of a set of data values; Standard
deviation of 0 is what is desired)
The t-score is a test used to reject the null hypothesis, the

higher the value of t, the more likely it is to reject the null
hypothesis. This t-test was to compare male and female scores
to see if one gender was more affected by the sleep deprivation
than the other.
t = 1.877891; Failed to reject the null hypothesis. In doing so, it
has shown that neither gender is more affected by sleep
deprivation than the other.
Figure 4.5 consists of two scatter plots that are used to provide a visual representation of the
correlation, if any were to exist, for males and females separately, between the research
subjects critical thinking scores represented on the Y-axis and number of hours of sleep
represented on the X-axis, comparing the differences between the two genders.
The desired P value is less than 0.05, because the value is greater, it has proven the findings of
this research to be insignificant.
The calculated t-score shows that there is no significant difference between the two genders to
claim that one gender is more affected by sleep deprivation than the other.
4.6: Correlation Chart of Hours of Sleep Compared to Critical Thinking Test Scores for All Participants
X Values Y Values X and Y Combined

= 324.25 = 3190 N = 50
Mean = 6.485 Mean = 63.8 (X - Mx)(Y - My) = -292.15
(X - Mx)2 = SSx = 199.551 (Y - My)2 = SSy = 24578
r = ((X - My)(Y - Mx)) / ((SSx)(SSy))

r = -0.1319
Although there is technically a negative correlation, it is weak and very close to 0.
Figure 4.6 provides a visual representation of the pooled results of males and females in the
critical thinking scores of the test subjects, determining a correlation between the scores
represented on the Y-axis and number of hours of sleep of the subjects represented on the X-
axis.
The calculated data presented provides mathematical evidence that there is little to no
correlation between hours of sleep and the scores achieved on each segment of the assessment.
The slight correlation found proved to be negative, which is the opposite of the hypothesized
results
4.7: Correlation Charts of Hours of Sleep Compared to Problem Solving Test Scores for Males and
Females

a
t = 1.994199; Failed to reject the null hypothesis. In doing so, it has
shown that neither gender is more affected by sleep deprivation
than the other.
subjects problem solving scores represented on the Y-axis and number of hours of sleep
represented on the X-axis, comparing the differences between the two genders.
The calculated t-score shows no significant difference between the two genders; therefore
unable to show one gender was more affected by sleep deprivation than the other.
4.8: Correlation Charts of Hours of Sleep Compared to Problem Solving Test Scores for All Participants

= 324.25 =2781 N = 50
Mean = 6.485 Mean = 55.62 (X - Mx)(Y - My) = -6.785
(X - Mx)2 = SSx = 199.551 (Y - My)2 = SSy = 38745.78
r = ((X - My)(Y - Mx)) / ((SSx)(SSy))

r = -0.0024
Although there is technically a negative correlation, it is weak and very close to 0.
problem solving scores of the test subjects, determining a correlation between the scores
represented on the Y-axis and number of hours of sleep of the subjects represented on the X-
axis.
The calculated data presented provides mathematical evidence that little to no correlation exist
between hours of sleep and the scores achieved on each segment of the assessment.
The slight correlation found proved to be negative, which is the opposite of the hypothesized
results.
4.9: Correlation Charts of Hours of Sleep Compared to Memory Test Scores for Males and Females
t = 1.18133; Failed to reject the null hypothesis. In doing so, it has

shown that neither gender is more affected by sleep deprivation
than the other.
subjects memory scores represented on the Y-axis and number of hours of sleep represented
on the X-axis, comparing the differences between the two genders.
The calculated t-score shows that there is no significant difference between the two genders
therefore unable to claim that one gender is more affected by sleep deprivation than the other.
4.10: Correlation Charts of Hours of Sleep Compared to Memory Test Scores for All Participants

= 324.25 = 2747 N = 50
Mean = 6.485 Mean = 54.94 (X - Mx)(Y - My) = 522.205
(X - Mx)2 = SSx = 199.551 (Y - My)2 = SSy = 34574.82
r = ((X - My)(Y - Mx)) / ((SSx)(SSy))

r = 0.1988
Although there is technically a positive correlation, it is weak and very close to 0.
memory scores of the test subjects, determining a correlation between the scores represented
on the Y-axis and number of hours of sleep of the subjects represented on the X-axis.
The calculated data presented provides mathematical evidence that there is little to no
correlation between hours of sleep and the scores achieved on each segment of the assessment.
Discussion
It was originally hypothesized that sleep deprivation would greatly affect the test scores of the
sample. It was believed that the research subjects who were more sleep deprived would score less on
the Cognitive Function Abilities Assessment than those who obtained a proper amount of sleep the
night prior. As the data shows in Figures 4.1-4.10, these researchers failed to reject the null hypothesis.
This research had a large margin of error, making the results rather skewed, thereby not allowing the
outcome to render results which would have been fully accurate or properly represent the total
population.
The total population mean hours of sleep was 6.48 hours, the median was 6.75 hours, and the
mode was 7 hours of sleep the night prior. The standard deviation of the entire sample was 2.015 and
the variance of the sample was 4.061: considering both of these figures were quite large, the data
demonstrated the number of hours of sleep varied greatly from 1.5 hours to 12 hours over the course of
the sample. The strata were then divided into stratum of males and females, each contained twenty-five
research subjects. The mean for the male stratum was 5.98 hours, the median was 6.5 hours, and the
mode was again 7 hours of sleep the night prior. The standard deviation of the male stratum was 1.931
and the variance was 3.728, which was a slightly smaller range in the number of hours of sleep the night
prior to experimentation amongst the male stratum than that of the entire sample. The female stratum
posted comparable numbers with a mean of 7 hours, a median of 7 hours and a mode of 6 hours of
sleep the night prior respectfully. The standard deviation for the number of hours of sleep the night
prior to experimentation of the female stratum was 2 and the variance was 4. The female stratum
posted a similar standard deviation as the male stratum, but had a much larger range in the number of
hours of sleep the night prior to experimentation.
The average score on the critical thinking portion of Cognitive Function Abilities Assessment for
the male stratum was 69% and considerably lower amongst the female stratum at 56%. The average
score on the problem-solving portion of the Assessment amongst the male stratum was 61% and much
lower within the female stratum at 48%. The memory portion of the assessment was closer between the
two stratum; the male stratum averaged 56% and the female stratum 52%. The data was broken down
even further by comparing scores on each portion of the Cognitive Function Abilities Assessment to the
average number of hours slept the night prior to experimentation by stratum.

The average critical thinking score for the 3 hours or fewer male stratum was 78%, the average
problem-solving score on the assessment was 64% and the average score on the memory portion of the
assessment was 51%. There were no research subjects in the female stratum, which received 3 hours of
sleep or fewer the night prior to experimentation. Pertaining to the 4 hours of sleep category; the male
stratum scored an average of 50% on the critical thinking portion, 55% on the problem-solving portion,
and 74% on the memory portion, while the average score on the critical thinking portion amongst the
female stratum was 50%, 33% on the problem-solving portion, and 46% on the memory portion. The 5-
hour male stratum scored an average of 73% on the critical thinking portion of the Cognitive Function
Abilities Assessment. The average problem-solving score was 52%, and the average memory score was
92% within the same 5-hour male stratum. The 5-hour female stratum scored an average of 80% on the
critical thinking portion of the assessment, an average of 52% on the problem-solving portion, and a
39% on the memory segment of the assessment. The 6-hour male stratum scored an average of 62% on
the critical thinking segment of the assessment, a 60% on the problem-solving segment and a 43% on
the memory segment of the assessment; whereas the female stratum of the same category scored an
average of 54% on the critical thinking section of the assessment, a 47% on the problem-solving section,
and a 26% on the memory section.
As for the 7-hour category, the male stratum critical thinking average score was 71%, 65%
average score for the problem solving, and a 53% for the average score on the memory portion of the
assessment. The female 8-hour category scored an average of 70% on the critical thinking section, an
average of 50% on the problem solving section, and a 77% on the memory section of the assessment,
whereas the female stratum of the same category scored an average of 65% on the critical thinking
portion, an average of 56% on the problem solving portion, and an average of 46% on the memory
section of the assessment. The final category was the 9 hours + group. In the male stratum the average
score on the critical thinking section was 70%, an average of 78% on the problem solving, and an
average of 71% on the memory section while the female stratum scored an average of 52% on the
critical thinking portion, an average of 42% on the problem-solving portion, and an average of 75% on
the memory portion respectfully.
In an attempt to determine the significance of the data collected in this experiment, these
researchers calculated the correlation coefficient or r-score using the corresponding equation:
()()
= . From there, the p-values of each segment of the assessment were
[x2 ()2 ][ 2 ()2 ]
determined using a significance level of 0.05. The p-value for the critical thinking segment of the
Cognitive Function Abilities Assessment for the entire sample was 0.354 < 0.05, which is not significant.
The p-value for the problem-solving segment of the assessment for the entire sample was 0.990 < 0.05,
again proving not to be significant. Also, the p-value for the memory segment of the assessment for the
entire sample was 0.074 < 0.05, also proving no significance at this level. These researchers data failed
to be significant at the 0.05 level, thereby failing to prove the null hypothesis. What this means is there
was not a proven correlation between sleep deprivation and the three cognitive abilities, which were
assessed in this experiment.
Based on these data, it is extremely difficult, if not impossible to prove any positive correlation
between sleep deprivation and critical thinking, problem solving, and memory. This is not to say the
experiment was completely flawed, upon performing the experimentation a second time while
accounting for limitations, which were neglected during the initial trial, these researchers hypothesize
the data would show a positive correlation between sleep deprivation and critical thinking, problem-
solving, and memory just as prior researchers and experiments have proven in the past.
Limitations Discovered Post Experiment
Any experiment is subject to limitations and it can be difficult to predict all the limitations that
may arise during the experimental process. These researchers discovered that without the proper
imaging machines, it is very difficult to observe the level of impairment, which sleep deprivation can
have on an individual. When it comes to the three areas assessed in this experiment, each individual had
a different level of ability, so one research subject could still do better in the different areas after
receiving little to no sleep than one who has had a full night of uninterrupted sleep.
It has been determined by these researchers, should this experiment be repeated at the same
level, it would be best to have the research subjects complete the Cognitive Function Abilities
Assessment prior to any period of sleep deprivation, also during a period of sleep deprivation and then
again after receiving a full night of sleep. This would better show how sleep deprivation affects each
individual rather than basing the results on an average that may not be compatible to each subjects
abilities.
Future Research
If this research were to be conducted again, it would be advantageous to have equipment such
as functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging equipment, Electroencephalogram, or an Electromyography
machine available to image and analyze the brain and its function as it works to solve the problems are
placed before the research subjects. Due to the fact these researchers are undergraduate students, such
equipment was unavailable for their use. Another factor that would greatly improve the results of the
experiment would be to obtain a larger sample size.
Due to a lack of time and resources, these researchers only managed to obtain a sample size of
fifty students to function as research subjects. With a campus population of 11,000 students, a more
appropriate sample size would be one with a size of five hundred subjects, thereby more accurately
representing the population and the effects of sleep deprivation. These researchers used a sample size
and confidence interval calculator in order to determine an appropriate sample size by use of the

equation:

thereby showing that with such a huge population, these researchers would have

needed to obtain a sample size of five hundred subjects in order to have a confidence interval of four.
However, with the small sample size of fifty, the confidence interval was fourteen, thereby leaving a
large margin of error.

Chapter 5
CONCLUSION
Gaps in Research
Many researchers have taken the time to focus on the different aspects of the cognitive abilities
of individuals in multiple different populations as well as what sleep deprivation is and how it can affect
each person differently, whether in mood, cognitive abilities, or in overall health. Though this particular
research project is lacking, there is a wide range of previous research on the subject, and even more will
be conducted in the future to help the world population fully understand why sleep is so important and
help lead to a healthier future.
Summary of Findings
The hypothesis of this study states that college students who obtain between seven to eight
hours of sleep each night will achieve higher scores on the tests administered than those who receive six
or less, or nine or more hours of sleep per night. It was also predicted that one gender would be
affected more by sleep deprivation than the other. The data obtained failed to support either of these
hypotheses due to the lack of resources, a small sample size and the limited time allotted for the
experiment. As shown in figures 4.6, 4.8, and 4.10, there was very slight correlation between sleep and
the abilities of the research subjects, and two of the correlations were negative, showing the opposite of
the desired results. However, all three correlations were close enough to zero to determine that there is
no correlation between the two factors. The results of this research project are not in line with previous
research and it would be advised to conduct this research again in an attempt to find more accurate
data.
Implications and Recommendations for Further Study
This research experiment should be repeated using a larger sample size as well as the
appropriate instruments for measuring brain functions and activity. It would also be recommended to
expand the population to more than just one campus of a single community college. There could be a
drastic shift in the efficiency of all students if they were to maintain an appropriate sleep schedule on a
daily basis. By accounting for all of the limitations, which these researchers encountered throughout the
experimental process, the next time the experiment is conducted, the data obtained will establish a
correlation between sleep deprivation and critical thinking, problem solving, and memory.
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APPENDICES
APPENDIX A
Figure 3.2 Informed Consent Document Template
Effects of Sleep Deprivation
INTRODUCTION
You are invited to join a research study to look at Sleep Deprivation. The decision to join, or
not to join, is up to you. In this research study, we are
investigating/testing/comparing/evaluating the effect that a lack of sleep has on memory,
problem solving and critical thinking skills.
WHAT IS INVOLVED IN THE STUDY?

If you decide to participate you will be asked to complete a questionnaire and a test. We think
this will take you a maximum of 10 minutes.
The investigators may stop the study or take you out of the study at any time they judge it is in
your best interest. They may also remove you from the study for various other reasons. They
can do this without your consent.
You can stop participating at any time.
RISKS
This study does not involve any risks.
BENEFITS TO TAKING PART IN THE STUDY?

It is reasonable to expect the following benefits from this research: learning exactly how your
sleep habits are effecting you and determine if you need to alter them in any way. However, we
cant guarantee that you will personally experience benefits from participating in this study.
Others may benefit in the future from the information we find in this study.
CONFIDENTIALITY
We will take steps to keep information about you confidential, and to protect it from
unauthorized disclosure, tampering, or damage. All tests will be anonymous so that no identities
will be shared with anyone.
YOUR RIGHTS AS A RESEARCH PARTICIPANT?

Participation in this study is voluntary. You have the right not to participate at all or to leave the
study at any time. Deciding not to participate or choosing to leave the study will not result in
any penalty or loss of benefits to which you are entitled, and it will not harm your relationship
with Desmond Sipes or Matthew Schumacher.
CONTACTS FOR QUESTIONS OR PROBLEMS?

Contact Desmond Sipes at 703-798-3267, inheritance4dragon@aol.com, or Matthew
Schumacher at 703-477-9552, mschumacher7099@email.vccs.edu if you have any questions or
concerns about the study, any problems, unexpected physical or psychological discomforts, any
injuries, or think that something unusual or unexpected is happening.
Consent of Subject (or Legally Authorized Representative)

Signature of Subject or Representative Date
_________________________________________________
APPENDIX B
Figure 3.3 Cognitive Function Abilities Assessment
Cognitive Function Abilities Assessment

This is an undergraduate research experimental procedure in which research subjects will be given a
total of fifteen minutes to complete this assessment. Subjects are asked to complete as much of the
assessment as possible. This assessment is divided in to three sections. Each section will test a different
ability. The three abilities tested will be critical thinking, problem solving, and short-term memory. The
critical thinking and problem solving sections are to be done on your own without any assistance, i.e.
calculators, cell phones, peers, etc. When the short-term memory portion is reached, raise hand and a
researcher will assist with the final memory portion.
Date: _______________
Age: ____________
Hours of Sleep on Average: ___________________
Hours of Sleep Last Night: ____________________
Gender: ______________
Critical Thinking
1. Do they have a 4th of July in England?
A. Yes
B. No
C. Maybe
D. I don't know
2. How many birthdays does the average man have?
A. 78
B. 65.5
C. one per year
D. None
3. Some months have 31 days, how many have 28?
A. One month and that is February

B. February, every 4 years.
C. All months have (at least) 28 days
D. None of the above
4. A woman gives a beggar 50 cents, the woman is the beggar's sister, but the beggar is not the
woman's brother. How come?
A. The beggar is the woman's sister!

B. Not possible.
C. The beggar is an in-law.
D. The woman is the beggar.
5. Why can't a man living in the USA be buried in Canada?
A. The Canadian Government does not allow Americans to be buried in Canada.

B. The man is not dead yet!
C. It is a trick question and the man is a Canadian living in America.
D. The man is living between the border.
6. How many outs are there in an inning?
A. There are 3 outs.

B. There are 6 outs.
C. There are 4 outs.
D. None of the above
7. Is it legal for a man in California to marry his widow's sister?
A. Yes, as long as she is alive.

B. Yes, if the man is from California.
C. You can't marry like this in California.
D. No, the man would be dead.
8. Two women play five games of checkers. Each woman wins the same number of games. There are
no ties. Explain this.
A. Because they aren't wearing ties!

B. The women are not playing each other.
C. These two women are playing men.
D. Women don't wear ties.
9. Divide 30 by 1/2 and add 10. What is the answer?
A. 25
B. 50
C. 65
D. 70
10. A man builds a house rectangular in shape. All sides have southern exposure. A bear walks by the
house. What color is the bear? Why?
A. ...black...bears are black

B. ...white...
C. ...brown...the house is on a steep slope
D. There is no answer and this is a stupid question.
Problem Solving
1. The distance from town A to town B is five miles. C is six miles from B. Which of the following could
be the distance from A to C?
I 11
II 1
III 7
A. I only
B. II only
C. I and II only
D. II and III only
E. I, II, or III.
2. Of the following, which is greater than ?
A. 2/5
B. 4/7
C. 4/9
D. 5/11
E. 6/13
3. If an object travels at five feet per second, how many feet does it travel in one hour?
A. 30
B. 300
C. 720
D. 1800
E. 18000
4. What is the average (arithmetic mean) of all the multiples of ten from 10 to 190 inclusive?
A. 90
B. 95
C. 100
D. 105
E. 110
5. If the product of 6 integers is negative, at most how many of the integers can be negative?
A. 2
B. 3
C. 4
D. 5
E. 6
6. Which of the following can be used to illustrate that not all prime numbers are odd?
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
E. 5
7. Half the people on a bus get off at each stop after the first, and no one gets on after the first stop. If
only one person gets off at stop number 7, how many people got on at the first stop?
A. 128
B. 64
C. 32
D. 16
E. 8
8. The total weight of a tin and the cookies it contains is 2 pounds. After of the cookies are eaten,
the tin and the remaining cookies weigh 0.8 pounds. What is the weight of the empty tin in
pounds?
A. 0.2
B. 0.3
C. 0.4
D. 0.5
E. 0.6
9. In a sports club with 30 members, 17 play badminton and 19 play tennis and 2 do not play either.
How many members play both badminton and tennis?
A. 7
B. 8
C. 9
D. 10
E. 11
Memory
A researcher will show a picture, which will depict a series of letters. The picture will be shown for a
period of three seconds, after that time the researcher will take the picture away. The subjects are to
write down as many letters as remembered. There will be six trials, letters from each trial should be
written on a separate line.
Trial The letters I remember

# are:......................
1
6
APPENDIX C
Figure 3.4 Cognitive Function Abilities Assessment Answer Key
Critical Thinking
1. A
2. C
3. C
4. A
5. B
6. B
7. D
8. B
9. A
10. B
Problem Solving
1. E
2. B
3. E
4. C
5. D
6. B
7. B
8. C
9. B
Memory
1. U M
2. T Z L D
3. K X C E J O
4. A V C Y I S E H
5. L B F Q R P M A U X
6. Z Q E C T B U M O N R V

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The Effects of Sleep Deprivation on Memory, Problem Solving, and Critical Thinking 1

The Effects of Sleep Deprivation on Memory,

Matthew Schumacher and Desmond Sipes

Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences

Northern Virginia Community College, Loudoun Campus

Dr. Rosalyn M. King, Professor

Chapter One INTRODUCTION............................................6

Precautions Taken to Ensure Data Validity and Reliability

Overview of Data Analysis

Gaps in Understandings and the Research

Appendix A: Informed Consent Form

Appendix B: Cognitive Function Abilities Assessment

Appendix C: Cognitive Function Abilities Assessment Answer Key

3.1: Simple Ex Post Facto Design Diagram..............................................20

3.2: Informed Consent Document Template.............................................46

3.3: Cognitive Function Abilities Assessment..............................................48

3.4: Cognitive Function Abilities Assessment Answer Key.54

think critically and remember adequately.

lead to accidental physical injuries (Benefits of Sleep, 2007).

Purpose of this Study

guarantee peak performance.

Major Research Question

What are the differences between genders?

What age group will be most affected by sleep deprivation?

sleep per night.

Straus, Vogel, & Perez, 2012).

enough sleep to be able to function efficiently each day.

muscular action are largely suspended.

Adult: All individuals that are 18 years of age or older

to find the correct answer.

parameter lies within it.

the regular variations in the environment

Fatigue: A condition of muscles, organs, cells, or materials characterized by temporary reduction in

power, efficiency or sensitivity following prolonged use or activity.

(Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, Fifth Edition, 2002)

Study is based at the Loudoun Campus of Northern Virginia Community College

Students in this study are eighteen years of age or older

All subjects receive the exact same test

Some participants might provide inaccurate information

No equipment to test the full extent to which the brain is functioning

being afflicted by it.

sleep deprivation as well (Who is at Risk, 2014)

proper immune system function (Benefits of Sleep, 2015).

Overview of Research Question

conversely negatively impacts everyday functions.

Causes of Sleep Deprivation

witnessed by researchers Murphy and Delanty (Murphy, & Delanty, 2007).

Effect on Memory, Problem Solving, and Critical Thinking

working alone (Chiang, Arendt, Zheng, & Hanisch, 2014)

Lammerrtsma, & Hoodendijk, 2015).

Overcoming Sleep Deprivation

Fang, Jian-Hua, Neng-Gui, Zhao-Hui, Zhen-Hua, Shu-Jun, & Wen-Bin, 2013).

& Belenky, 1992).

Research Methodologies and Evaluation of Research Designs

imperative they receive the optimum amount of sleep on a continuous basis.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

Overview of Research Design

Figure 3.1 is a graphical representation of a simple ex post facto design model.

eight hours of sleep each night, and of doing so routinely.