Petit-1987 Criterios Deplanos de Falla
Petit-1987 Criterios Deplanos de Falla
Petit-1987 Criterios Deplanos de Falla
00
Printed in Great Britain Pergamon Journals Ltd.
J. P . PETIT
Abstract--This paper gives a detailed description of the use of minor structures on fault planes in various brittle
rocks as indicators of the sense of relative movement. The main kinds of structures described involve sets of
repeated secondary fractures (striated or not) which intersect the slip plane in a direction roughly perpendicular
to the slip direction. Some of the most frequent criteria are new; their reliability is established in the field and by
comparison with both previous and new experiments. It is shown that some of the rarer structures probably
correspond to neo-rupture in intact rock, most probably at the tip of pre-existing joints, while the most frequent
structures are generated by friction on joints, with very little sliding. The possible seismic origin of some
structures is discussed.
R
FAULT PLANE
T
. \
NASSIVE
FR _--.. \ p
[ L>" .0.00EN00 ROCK ( elcept
limestone )
SECONDARY FRACTURES
~"- ANGLE
b -'~w . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PLANES
CLEAVAGE
~NGI F
f
TC~,TE~I~ R ~,~,~ ~ CRJTERfA
RO D
e rlslle froctures _ c/- j - j ; ~ ,~--7-- ,
__-
\\\,x,\\ \ ' , \ \
RM
cr e s c e n f l c froclures
R
! -. '"/~'~
m
Fig. l(a) and (b). Structures of comparable aspect but opposite sense. (c) Tcrnmloiog~ tH uc~cr~puon ,)1 clcmentarx
secondary fractures in a shear context, and for corresponding criteria I see text ~. (d I-(f) Main types of criteria based on
repetitive secondary fractures
their features. To aw)id lengthy non-genetic descriptive can easily be seen m the licld Within groups R and P one
terms such as 'right stepping non-striated fractures in a can distinguish important morphological types with a
left lateral shear' or 'striated secondary fractures dipping second letter: O, if only R or P secondary shear fractures
in the direction of movement of the opposite block', a are present: M, if the main or mean fault plane is
terminology is suggested (Fig. lc) based mainly on completely striated and T. if non-striated secondary
Riedel-type experiments as used in classic works of fractures are observed (Fig. I c & f). As shown later, the
Tchalenko & Ambraseys (1970), Wilcox et al. (1973) fractures called R, here, are striated and make small
and others. These terms are intended only to describe angles with the average fault plane similar to those
the geometrical position of the observed elementary usually observed in Riedel-type experiments. R' will be
fractures in a shear context, but not to imply that the used in the description for high angle antithetic secon-
structures observed can be explained mechanically by dary shears. A problem arises with repeated apparently
Riedel type experiments, especially for structures linked non-striated T fractures dipping at various angles to the
to friction (see below). fault wall in the direction of the missing block. Further
It is convenient to divide structures corresponding to discussion will show that some T fractures have not been
repetitive secondary fractures into three groups (Fig. 1 initiated as macroscopic extensional fractures, so group
d-f): group T, including types showing only repetitive T T in the broader sense must embrace non-striated frac-
fractures (from tension, but see below) and no secondary ture sets of whatever mechanical origin, possibly older
shear fractures, group R, including all types showing than the shearing, dtpping in the direction of movement
secondary synthetic shear fractures (striated) of R orien- of the missing block.
tation, and group P. including all types showing secon- Norris & Barton's tctmmoh)gy (1968) will be used for
dary shear fractures (striated) of P orientation. The the observed steps: accretion steps (risers formed in
morphological difference between these three groups added gouge or crystallized material), and fracture steps
Criteria for movement on fault surfaces 599
(risers cut in solid rock), of incongruous (risers facing observed on the risers (Elliott 1976, fig. 13, Hobbs et al.
the movement of the opposite block) and congruous 1976, fig. 7.12) (Fig. 2bl) or where crystallization formed
(opposite case) types. during, or after, the opening of domino-type structures
(Gamond 1983) (Fig. 2b2). This feature is very common
in limestone and sometimes associated with stylolites
SHEAR-SENSE STRUCTURES NOT LINKED TO (Arthaud & Mattauer 1969, fig. ld), but is also found in
SECONDARY FRACTURES igneous rocks (Bl~s & Gros 1980) where it implies high
temperature fluid circulation. The sense is not clear if
Striation due to a ploughing element (Fig. 2a) the slickensides are too thickly coated with the crystal-
line material. In this case Laurent's method for calcite
Striation occurs from an element (a rock or gouge (1987) can lead to shear-sense determination.
fragment or mineral grain) which is obviously harder
than the wall it striates, although it may be of the same
material. During friction it forms deep striae (grooves) SHEAR-SENSE STRUCTURES INVOLVING
terminated at the final ploughing element position. The SECONDARY FRACTURES
end of the plough mark points towards the movement of
the missing wall (Dzulinski & Kotlarcyzk 1965, Tjia 1971 T criteria:
and Hancock 1985; Tjia introduced the term 'prod
marks', while Hancock referred to 'tool marks'). This The mean fault plane (M) is fully striated. Secondary
feature can be integrated with the more general case of fractures are not striated, so they are of T type. They can
'asperity ploughing' (Means 1987). This clear type of make an angle of 30 to about 90 with the main fault
striation is mainly present in limestone. plane (Fig. ld) (see also 'comb fractures', Hancock &
Barka 1987). They can be open or infilled with any
Crystallization linked to irregularities of the fault surface mineral and either planar or curved when viewed as
(Fig. 2b) traces on the fault plane; in the latter case the T~M angle
is about 90 and the curved T fractures make a crescentic
Irregularities on the fault surface exhibit local crystal- shape on the M plane. Crescents are never found alone
lization generally of fibrous minerals (quartz, epidote, but are usually aligned, at least along a short distance,
etc., in magmatic rocks, calcite in limestone). They their horns pointing in the direction of movement of the
appear as a set of steps (accretion steps) whose risers are missing block. These criteria clearly correspond to the
more or less perpendicular to the general striation and 'crescentic fractures' associated with glacial scratches
face in the same direction. These accretion steps are (Harris 1943, Masson & Baud 1974). However, they are
congruous (i.e. risers facing towards the movement of sometimes found associated with faults, especially bed-
the missing block) where euhedral crystal faces are ding plane faults (Wegmann & Schear 1957), or fault
planes in Languedoc limestone (Fig. 3a). Nothing equi-
valent to 'chatter marks' (Harris 1943) due to aligned
Striating spalling or flaking of the fault surface were observed.
a / ( ploughing )
R criteria:
10% M
. . . . . . . . . "N,
b I0% "" M .
", "
~
~
/ ..... t ,~,;~. .....
....."~"'"-'C:-~-'-"-"
i _'.;"
., \\ , ,,,,\
C 10% ~ M
preexisting joint PO
(c)
Fig, 3(a). Crescentic fractures (T fractures) in Languedoc Jurassic limestone. (b) Stereo pair of a right lateral strike-slip
fault in red Triassic High Atlas sandstone (Morocco). U p p e r part shows RO structure: the fault surface corresponds to
splitting throughout a brittle shear zone formed of en-6chelon secondary shears dipping inside the wall. Lower part shows
a PO structure indicating the same slip sense. Some PT structures are visible in the transition zone between RO and PO.
Black stars are aligned along the trace of bedding plane on the fault surface. Arrows indicate sense of movement of missing
block. Scale line is 10 cm. (c) R O structure developed from the tip of a pre-existing joint explaining the features illustrated
in (b); 1--before shearing, 2--after shearing.
601
,I, P. P~,.t[J
Fig. 5, Sterco pairs for fault structurcs in the Triassic High Atlas sandstone, Morocco. (a) RM 3tructurc on a right lateral
strike-slip fault; (b) Details of the same fault showing a lunate fracture (bottom right: here the tip of the dihedron formed
bv R and M surfaces has been broken) and transition to micro-R shears (left) occurs. A]r~ws indicate sense of movcmem
of missing block
602
Criteria for m o v e m e n t o n fault surfaces
Fig. 7. P criteria from the red Triassic High Atlas sandstone. (a) Stereo pair: PO structure indicating a small displacement
(striation only visible with a hard lens), left-lateral strike-slip fault; (b) stereo pair: PT structure. P surfaces have been worn
by friction; (c) PT structure (with P/T surface ratio about 1) on a left lateral strike-slip fault. Scale lines are 2 cm. Arrows
indicate sense of m o v e m e n t of the missing block.
603
.!, P. PI:.m
Fig. 8(a). PT structure with well developed T fractures, on a left-lateraL strike-slip fauh m the red Triassic High Atlas-
sandstone (Morocco). Black stars are aligned along the trace of bedding plane on fault surface. Arrows indicate sense of
movement of missing block. (b) Detail of a natural P surface of PTstrueture (c)-(e): Sheared surfaces in red sandstone after
shear box tests. (c) Oblique view of sheared surface formed in intact specimen, showing reeonstitution of PT structure at
low normal stress. P fractures appear whitened and striated, T fractures are not, and dip into the specimen: compare with
Fig. 7(c). (d) Detail of surface of a specimen after shear test at high normal stress in intact specimen (same rock as in el,
showing slightly striated and tight R fractures dipping into the specimen. Reconstitution of RO criteria: compare with Fig
}(b, top). (e) Pre-cnt surface (see text) after a 2 mnn relative displacement showing reeonstitution of PO criteria. Scale linc,~
are (b) l ram; (c)-(e) I cm. Arrows indicate sense of movelnent of missing hh~ck
604
Criteria for movement on fault surfaces 605
The P criteria were first used in red, fine-grained sion). P fractures are formed next by the rupture of
sandstone; the striated side of asperities (the striation is bridges between T features.
sometimes only visible with a hand lens) appear as The same geometrical succession was obtained in my
whitened patches due to crushing of quartz grains, and preliminary shear tests on rocks which produced struc-
thus form a striking contrast with the red non-striated tures closely resembling the PT field examples (Fig. 8c).
sides. The PO type has been extensively found because The tests were carried out with a 500 kN (normal and
P surfaces appear on very tiny asperities, for example on shear maximum forces) conventional direct shear
plumose structures, or on the irregularities of any pre- machine on indurated red Permian sandstone from the
existing joints. The formation of this criterion implies Lod~ve basin (Languedoc, Southern France), on dry
very small slips roughly of the same order of magnitude specimens 8 x 8 cm in section at room temperature.
(generally millimetres in sandstone) as the width of the Before peak stress (r = 52 MPa, on = 24 MPa, i.e. for
patch in the direction of movement. Otherwise the values corresponding in this experiment to a very low
striation would have been more extensive and could value of 03), T fractures formed first, and the rupture of
have led to a fully striated slickenside. These PO criteria bridges between them occurred in an explosive way at
have been commonly observed in various magmatic peak stress. Although a certain amount of elastic stress
rocks, where the patches are more typically linked to is stored in the machine during loading, so that explosive
larger often wavy asperities, with chlorite or oxides rupture can be expected (the machine is a 'soft' conven-
often present on the lee side. The PT types have been tional one with hydraulic loading), this type of rupture
observed less often, and mainly in sandstone on a cen- could occur in the Earth's crust, suggesting that the most
timetre scale. These criteria exhibit a variety of mor- regular PT structures could be indicators of micro-
phologies because of the varying ratio P/T (apparent seismic events.
surfaces), which can be from about 1 (Fig. 7c) to 1/5 (Fig. In my experiments, RO type structures (i.e. very tight
8a). The smaller the inclination of T fractures with and regularly spaced slightly striated fractures with a
respect to the mean plane, the smaller the ratio. In some serrated profile) were obtained by shearing in specimens
cases, the P surfaces have been worn down until they are (Fig. 8d) subjected to high normal stresses (r = 100
parallel to the mean plane (Fig. 7b). As shown in Fig. MPa, on = 80 MPa.) At low normal stress, en-rchelon
3(b), RO, PT and PO criteria are mutually consistent. fractures appeared before peak stresses, but rupture at
Transitions between PO and PT structures have often peak stress was not so brutal. The resulting features
been observed. resemble those observed by Gamond (1985) in non-
dilatant conditions (i.e. with no possible extension paral-
lel to the increasing normal stress). The general tendency
MECHANICAL INTERPRETATION is for the formation of numerous secondary striated R
shears instead of a few isolated non-striated fractures
Although the criteria presented here are of immediate inducing large open dominoes with P fractures. These
use for field geologists, the mechanical origin of the observations suggest that in shear box tests an increasing
corresponding structures is also of interest, as it may give normal stress inducing less dilatant conditions could lead
some indication of the stress and strain conditions progressively from PT type to RO type structures with
involved in fault formation. Thus the first basic require- tighter and shorter striated secondary fracture. If this is
ment is to be able to distinguish between structures true, some of the observed R and T en-rchelon fractures
formed by rupture in intact rock and those produced by could have a common mechanical origin (Fig. 9a & b),
sliding on a pre-existing joint. Gamond (1983) discussed this, with different terminol-
ogy, and concluded that the non-striated fractures (T in
Comparison with tests in intact rock this paper), were in fact Riedel shear fractures that
opened during the sliding of P fractures. As Gamond
Shear box tests. These seem well-adapted to the recon- emphasized, in non-dilatant conditions the shear zone
struction of fault plane marks due to ruptures in intact tends to be narrower and void formation is inhibited.
samples, because the shear plane is imposed by the box
and can thus imitate fracture formation at the tip of a
pre-existing fracture subjected to a shear movement. a i ~! (T)
Gamond's work (1983, 1985, 1987) is apparently the
only application of such tests aimed at recreating geolog-
ical structures linked to shear in intact brittle materials.
Although his experiments were done on an over-consoli-
dated varved clay, the structures obtained at low normal
stress in dilatant conditions (i.e. with the sample allowed b . (R)
[et 2nd (R")
to extend parallel to the imposed constant normal stress,
Gamond 1983, fig. 7) are very similar to PT structures
described here with a P/T surface ratio of about 1. The Fig. 9. Formation of types of secondary fractures in direct shear
fractures appearing first are low-angle T fractures in the experiments in intact specimens (see text). (a) At low normal stress;
(b) at high normal stress. 1st and 2nd indicate chronology of the
present terminology, as they are not striated (see Discus- corresponding fractures.
606 J . P . PETIr
mitted to a shear movement in well-defined stress condi- An idea of the amount of slip involved on faults
tions. Such a model implying stress concentration at the implying friction on pre-existing joints can be obtained
crack tip can be applied to the structures in Fig. 3(b) and from the amount of striated surfaces. PO and irregular
explained in 3(c), where the fault surface showing en- PT structures imply slips of less than a centimeter, while
6chelon R O structures appears to have formed from the slip is greater for RM structures. Some examples in
tip of a pre-existing fracture corresponding to the zone sandstone showed completely striated surfaces corre-
now showing PO structures linked to friction. Thus field sponding to a decimeter slip. Normal stress dependence
observations seem consistent with mechanical data. This is likely only in the case of neorupture for the most
RO, PO association has been very seldom observed on regular forms of PT structures (low a,) and for R O
the field, for reasons given later. PT structures (if the P/T structure (high an).
surface ratio is about 1) could be formed in the same Microseismic events have been inferred by compari-
way. A problem arises with the frequent PT structures son with experiments during the formation of PT struc-
where T surfaces are more developed than P, as in Fig. tures in intact rocks. Such events could also be generated
8(a). This could be because P and T fractures are not by friction, at least in the case of Hertzian structures
necessarily formed during a single shearing movement. involving stick-slip.
P fractures could be formed by compressive rupture Most of the examples presented are found in fine-
limited by bridges in any older, even irregular, en- grained sandstone because of the presence on faults of
6chelon fracture set of any origin. numerous secondary fractures of various kinds. This can
be explained by the possibility of extensive intragranular
Criteria for friction on pre-existing joints micro-fracturing. The amount of porosity present in this
sandstone encourages the formation of extensional frac-
The shear box data presented here give good evidence tures because of stress concentrations on pores and at
for the formation of PO structures from friction even at grain contacts (Dunn 1973). Thus, once microfractures
low an on an irregular pre-existing joint. The transition are well developed, through-going shear can occur and
observed from PO to PT structures (irregular types) fracture strength is decreased. If porosity is very low, as
could be explained by the formation of some kind of T in quartzites, one can expect the formation of long
fractures during friction due to tensile stresses develop- tensile fractures which would inhibit the formation of
ing at the base of the P side of asperities subject to minor shears to a varying degree. In the sandstone
friction. This, however, remains speculation. The fric- described, a small amount of highly deformable material
tional origin of tensile fractures corresponding to T in the matrix such as clay minerals or calcite can also help
criteria is clear, at least in the case of crescentic fractures shear formation, as they facilitate sliding at grain bound-
where Hertzian-type stresses are involved. On the other aries. However, RM structures implying a lot of friction
hand, it has not been experimentally proven that RM and secondary shear formation were found in low poros-
structures originate from friction on a pre-existing joint, ity rocks such as granite or various volcanic rocks. But
even if cutting tool experiments suggest a possible origin the best examples were found in faults linked to major
of R shears. One can speculate that RM structures could strike-slip zones where much higher deviatoric stresses
be generated by the continuing relative movement on can be expected. In these cases micro-fractures are
R O structure and corresponding wearing, but in this observed, too, but associated with a certain amount of
case the formation of accretion steps is likely to occur, plastic deformation in grains.
while the field examples show that the risers of macros- While comparison with previous experiments helps
copic steps are always due to fracture in rock. Moreover, understand the formation mechanisms of some of these
R fracture distribution seems much more irregular than structures, others will need more specific experiments
one would expect from R O structures, so this type of for their reconstitution. Two problems are (i) can secon-
formation for RM structures seems unlikely. dary shear fractures be formed by friction and (ii) how
do stress and strain influence the type of rupture in
various rocks, in shear box tests? Experiments must be
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION carried out on the same material as the equivalent
structure on the field, otherwise comparisons will be
The abundance of PO, RM and the irregular forms of rendered inaccurate because of the strong influence of
P T structures have been noticed in the field, as well as the physical properties of the rocks involved on the type
the scarcity of R O and regular PT ones. This can be and conditions of rupture.
explained by the fact that the former (corresponding to The results of experiments, combined with accurate
friction on pre-existing joints) are more frequently descriptive data from natural faults should lead to a
formed than the latter (due to neo-rupture), because better understanding of shear-sense criteria in fractured
friction does not need such high stress levels as neo- rocks.
rupture. But that does not imply a separate tectonic
phase, because stress concentrations inducing neo-rup- Acknowledgements--I would like to thank an anonymous reviewer,
ture can occur at the tips of pre-existing, non-intercon- D r P. L. Hancock and Prof. W. Means for all their valuable sugges-
tions, B. Sanche for the thin sections and G. Garcia for some of the
nected joints. The corresponding geometry is probably diagrams. I am indebted to A. T. P. Plis, Failles et Sismogen~se for
not very frequent. financial support.
608 J . P . PETIT