Opinion

VIEWPOINT
Management of Type 2 Diabetes in 2017
Getting to Goal
Jane E. B. Reusch, MD More than 29 million people in the United States and mic targets. It is important to communicate the progres-
Center for Womens 420 million globally have diabetes, with a projected sive nature of the disease process to patients so they do
Health Research, global prevalence of 642 million by 2040.1,2 This accel- not perceive that their lifestyle failed or that they are
Anschutz Medical
erating pandemic comes with high personal and finan- at fault. Patients with diabetes also require attention to
Center, University of
Colorado, Denver; and cial costs to the individual, society, and the economy. The microvascular risks, cholesterol and blood pressure man-
Denver VA Medical expanding number of antihyperglycemic medication op- agement, and assessment of depression.
Center, Denver, tions for type 2 diabetes, often involving different
Colorado.
mechanisms of action and safety profiles, can be a chal- Pharmacological Management
lenge for clinicians, and the increasing complexity of dia- All FDA-approved medications for treating hyperglycemia
JoAnn E. Manson, MD,
DrPH betes management requires a well-informed strategy for in type 2 diabetes lower hemoglobin A1c levels by 0.6% to
Department of prevention and treatment of this disease. 1.5%. The guidelines published by different associations
Medicine, Brigham and In this Viewpoint, we highlight the importance of are not entirely consistent, but they agree on a set of prin-
Womens Hospital
and Harvard Medical patient-centered goals for glucose-lowering therapy, the ciples including (1) set a glycemia or hemoglobin A1c goal;
School, Boston, essential role of lifestyle modification, the mechanisms (2) start with metformin in most patients; (3) use combi-
Massachusetts; and of action of current therapeutic options and their risks nation therapy to achieve the glycemic goals; (4) avoid hy-
Department of
and benefits, and briefly comment on the recent car- poglycemia;and(5)understandmedicationadverseeffect
Epidemiology, Harvard
T. H. Chan School of diovascular outcomes trials mandated by the US Food profiles(Figure).Theuseofmetforminasfirst-linetherapy
Public Health, Boston, and Drug Administration (FDA). is based on its glucose-lowering efficacy, safety profile,
Massachusetts. weight neutrality, and reasonable cost. Metformin therapy
Patient-Centered Goals should be titrated to minimize gastrointestinal adverse ef-
The American Diabetes Association (ADA) and the Euro- fects. One small cardiovascular outcomes trial and cohort
pean Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD) have data also suggest cardioprotection with metformin.5
Viewpoint
proposed a set of patient and disease characteristics that
have utility in guiding a patient-centered approach for the Combination Therapy
management of type 2 diabetes.3 Some patient character- The guidelines from the ADA and EASD indicate that any
isticssupportmoreandotherssupportlessaggressiveglu- FDA-approved second agent can be used in combina-
cose control. Specifically, tight glucose control (hemoglo- tion with metformin, whereas the American Associa-
binA1c level<7.0%)isrecommendedforanewlydiagnosed tion of Clinical Endocrinologists recommends either in-
patient with diabetes but without disease complications cretin-based therapy or sodium glucose transporter 2
and with a long life expectancy. For patients with long- (SGLT2) inhibition agents.3,6 Importantly, clinicians
standing diabetes, short life expectancy, severe diabetes should not wait until the patients glycemic control de-
related complications, comorbidities, or the inability to teriorates before adding a second agent.
safelyimplementandfollowanintensiveregimen,thegoal Historically, insufficient insulin secretion was treated
istodevelopasimplestrategyfocusedonsafetyandavoid- with either the insulin secretagogue sulfonylureas
ance of hypoglycemia. Establishing and discussing the (currently glibenclamide or glipizide) or insulin replace-
goals of therapy with patients are important. ment therapy. Both have good glucose-lowering efficacy,
and confer risk for hypoglycemia and weight gain. Pio-
Behavior Change and Use of Team Support glitazone, an additional effective option, is not one of the
All strategies to improve blood glucose control will in- medications recommended by the American Association
volve patient engagement in diabetes self-management of Clinical Endocrinologists, possibly due to concern about
and lifestyle change. Formal diabetes education an increased risk of heart failure and weight gain.
about diet, physical activity, blood glucose monitoring,
pharmacotherapy-related issues, and screening for com- Incretin-Based Therapies
plications is imperative both at the outset and at regular Incretin-based therapies augment glucose-dependent
follow-up intervals.4 Most health care systems have di- insulin secretion and confer a low risk of hypoglycemia.
Corresponding etitians and certified diabetes educators for such patient These agents include injectable glucagon-like peptide 1
Author: JoAnn E. support. These resources are underused. These support receptor agonists (GLP1RA) and dipeptidyl peptidase 4
Manson, MD, DrPH,
Brigham and Womens
services complement and augment the primary care cli- (DPP4) inhibitors. Glucagon-like peptide 1 is a hormone
Hospital, Harvard nicians role in endorsing the importance of lifestyle be- secreted by the distal small intestine in response to food
Medical School, 900 haviors at each visit. ingestion. It augments glucose-dependent insulin se-
Commonwealth Ave,
Most patients with diabetes will need to move from cretion, decreases islet glucagon secretion, slows
Third Floor, Boston, MA
02215 (jmanson@rics lifestyle management alone to lifestyle management gastric emptying, and increases satiety. Glucagon-like
.bwh.harvard.edu). combined with pharmacological therapy to reach glyce- peptide 1 is rapidly degraded by the enzyme DPP4.

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 Opinion Viewpoint

transporter 2, leading to glycosuria. These agents effectively lower

Figure. Glucose Management for Patients With Type 2 Diabetes
hemoglobin A1c level without causing hypoglycemia. Potential adverse
HbA1c Glucose management for patients with type 2 diabetes
effects include polyuria, diuresis, blood pressure lowering, weight loss,
5.7%
ketoacidosis, and increased genital infections. These agents, however,
PREDIABETES

1 Diabetes education on self-management

Lifestyle interventions do not increase the risk of urinary tract infections. The empagliflozin
3%-5% weight loss cardiovascular outcomes trial demonstrated a significant decrease
150 min/wk exercise in all-cause mortality and heart failure9 and the FDA recently recom-
6.5% 2 Add metformin mended approval for a cardiovascular indication.

3 Add a second antihyperglycemic drug Effective Use of Insulin

Basal A patient with hemoglobin A1c level greater than 9% (goal of <7%)
Pio DPP4 GLP1RAa SGLT2a SU insulina
taking metformin and noninsulin medications will require insulin
HbA1c
therapy.3,6 Patient- or clinician-guided titration of basal insulin to fast-
DIABETES

Weight No effect
ing blood glucose goals is safe and effective. A common strategy is
Hypoglycemia No effect No effect No effect No effect
to start with a low dose of long-acting insulin at bedtime (approxi-
MACE No effect No effect
mately 10 units) and titrate to a fasting blood glucose level of less
HF No effect
No effect than 120 mg/dL. This starting dose will not cause hypoglycemia, but
to
insulin titration is crucial (30-50 units usually will be needed).
>9.0% 4 Add basal insulina prandial insulina
Basal insulin can be added to any regimen. It is safe and effective
or SGLT2a or GLP1RAa
to combine basal insulin with metformin, GLP1RA, SGLT2, or pioglita-
zone to achieve glucose control. Two formulations of single-injection
DPP4 indicates dipeptidyl peptidase 4 inhibitors; GLP1RA, glucagon-like
peptide 1 receptor agonists; HbA1c, hemoglobin A1c; HF, heart failure; therapycombininglong-actinginsulinandGLP1wererecentlyapproved
MACE, major adverse cardiovascular events; Pio, pioglitazone; SGLT2, sodium bytheFDA.Thiscombinationdemonstratesexcellentglucose-lowering
glucose transporter 2 inhibitors; and SU, sulfonylureas. effects, weight neutrality or weight loss, and minimal cases of hypo-
a
Indicates a higher-cost drug. glycemia. Consideration of efficacy, adverse effects, and cost of each
medication is necessary to improve adherence and outcomes.
Dipeptidyl peptidase 4 inhibitors maintain endogenous GLP1
concentrations, modestly lower blood glucose, are weight neutral, Summary
and do not cause hypoglycemia. Patient-centered diabetes management can be accomplished with
Injectable GLP1RA increases GLP1 to pharmacological levels, lifestyle modification and combination therapy. Metformin is an op-
robustly lowers blood glucose level, and facilitates weight loss timal first-line agent; newer GLP1 and SGLT2 agents have efficacy
without a risk for hypoglycemia (except when used with insulin or for glucose lowering coupled with weight loss and potential cardio-
sulfonylureas). Glucagon-like peptide 1 can be associated with tran- vascular risk reduction; and insulin therapy is generally safe and ef-
sient nausea and vomiting (lasting 1-3 months). It is essential to com- fective for patients not controlled with noninsulin agents. In younger,
municate with the patient about the risk of nausea prior to titration healthy, newly diagnosed patients, a hemoglobin A1c level less than
with GLP1RA agents and, if needed, treat the gastrointestinal ad- 7% should be the goal; in older individuals with comorbidities, less
verse effects to improve adherence. Recently published trials on car- stringent goals with a focus on safety and avoidance of hypoglyce-
diovascular outcomes demonstrate a cardiovascular benefit of 2 mia are critical. Antihyperglycemic therapy should be combined with
agents in this class: liraglutide7 and semaglutide.8 evidence-based treatment of cholesterol and blood pressure for car-
diovascular risk reduction. Although the cardiovascular benefits of
Sodium Glucose Transporter 2 SGLT2 and GLP1 agents merit consideration, these medications are
Sodium glucose transporter 2 inhibitors decrease renal reabsorption not replacements for statin therapy or blood pressure manage-
of glucose in the proximal tubule by blocking the sodium glucose ment for reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease.

ARTICLE INFORMATION 2. American Diabetes Association. Diabetes of Clinical Endocrinologists and American College of
Published Online: March 1, 2017. statistics. http://www.diabetes.org. Accessed Endocrinology on the comprehensive type 2
doi:10.1001/jama.2017.0241 January 4, 2017. diabetes management algorithm2016 executive
3. Inzucchi SE, Bergenstal RM, Buse JB, et al. summary. Endocr Pract. 2016;22(1):84-113.
Conflict of Interest Disclosures: The authors have
completed and submitted the ICMJE Form for Management of hyperglycemia in type 2 diabetes, 7. Marso SP, Daniels GH, Brown-Frandsen K, et al.
Disclosure of Potential Conflicts of Interest. 2015. Diabetes Care. 2015;38(1):140-149. Liraglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2
Dr Reusch reported receiving grant funding from 4. Sherr D, Lipman RD. The diabetes educator and diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2016;375(4):311-322.
AstraZeneca and Merck; and serving on the board the diabetes self-management education 8. Marso SP, Bain SC, Consoli A, et al; SUSTAIN-6
of directors for the American Diabetes Association. engagement. Diabetes Educ. 2015;41(5):616-624. Investigators. Semaglutide and cardiovascular
No other disclosures were reported. 5. Holden SE, Jenkins-Jones S, Currie CJ. outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J
Association between insulin monotherapy versus Med. 2016;375(19):1834-1844.
REFERENCES insulin plus metformin and the risk of all-cause 9. Zinman B, Wanner C, Lachin JM, et al;
1. US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. mortality and other serious outcomes. PLoS One. EMPA-REG OUTCOME Investigators. Empagliflozin,
Diabetes statistics. http://www.cdc.gov/diabetes 2016;11(5):e0153594. cardiovascular outcomes, and mortality in type 2
/data/statistics/2014statisticsreport.html. Accessed 6. Garber AJ, Abrahamson MJ, Barzilay JI, et al. diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2015;373(22):2117-2128.
January 4, 2017. Consensus statement by the American Association

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