Fundamentals of Solar

Photovoltaics

Ms. V. Gayathri, IES, Anna University

 Broad Outline
Physics of Photovoltaic Generation

PV Technologies and Advancement

Environmental Aspect & Economic Aspect

Indian Scenario & Market Players

Future Prospects & Research Activities

History of Solar PV
 How Solar PVs Work
PV cells are made of special materials called semiconductors and in
this case, silicon.

When a photon (a light particle) hits the panel, it has enough energy
to knock an electron loose, allowing it to flow freely.

The panel then has several electrical fields to force the electrons to
move in a certain direction, creating a current which can be used to
do work.
How Solar PVs Work (cont.)
To complete the PV module,
several layers are added.

A - Cover Glass
B - Antireflective Coating
C - Contact Grid
D - N-type Silicon
E - P-type Silicon
F - Back Contact

Here is an example of how a

home can be wired to run on
Solar PV power
 On the Grid, or Off..?
Most residential homes using PV
technology are still linked to the Utilities
power grid

Other option is storing excess generated

energy in battery unit
-No alternate source available then
Physics of Photovoltaic Generation

n-type
semiconductor
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + Depletion Zone
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
p-type
semiconductor
 Photovoltaic System

Typical output of a module (~30 cells) is 15 V, with 1.5 A current

PV System Components
 PV Technology Classification
Silicon Crystalline Technology Thin Film Technology

Mono Crystalline PV Cells Amorphous Silicon PV Cells

Multi Crystalline PV Cells Poly Crystalline PV Cells

( Non-Silicon based)
 Silicon Crystalline Technology
Currently makes up 86% of PV market
Very stable with module efficiencies 10-16%

Mono crystalline PV Cells Multi Crystalline PV Cells

Made using saw-cut from single Caste from ingot of melted
cylindrical crystal of Si and recrystallised silicon
Operating efficiency up to 15% Cell efficiency ~12%
Accounts for 90% of
crystalline Si market
 Thin Film Technology
Silicon deposited in a continuous on a base material such as glass,
metal or polymers
Thin-film crystalline solar cell consists of layers about 10m thick
compared with 200-300m layers for crystalline silicon cells

PROS
Low cost substrate and
fabrication process

CONS
Not very stable
 Amorphous Silicon PV Cells
The most advanced of thin film technologies
Operating efficiency ~6%
Makes up about 13% of PV market

PROS
Mature manufacturing
technologies available

CONS
Initial 20-40% loss in
efficiency
 Poly Crystalline PV Cells
Non Silicon Based Technology

Copper Indium Diselinide

CIS with band gap 1eV, high
absorption coefficient 105cm-1
High efficiency levels

PROS
18% laboratory efficiency
>11% module efficiency
CONS
Immature manufacturing
process
Slow vacuum process
 Poly Crystalline PV Cells
Non Silicon Based Technology

Cadmium Telluride ( CdTe)

Unlike most other II/IV material
CdTe exhibits direct band gap of
1.4eV and high absorption
coefficient

PROS
16% laboratory efficiency
6-9% module efficiency
CONS
Immature manufacturing process
Semiconductor Material Efficiencies
 Emerging Technologies
Discovering new realms of Photovoltaic Technologies
Electrochemical solar cells
have their active component in
liquid phase

Dye sensitizers are used to

absorb light and create
electron-hole pairs in
nanocrystalline titanium
dioxide semiconductor layer

Cell efficiency ~ 7% Electrochemical solar cells

 Emerging Technologies
Ultra Thin Wafer Solar Cells

Thickness ~ 45m
Cell Efficiency as high as
20.3%

Anti- Reflection Coating

Low cost deposition techniques use a
metalorganic titanium or tantanum mixed
with suitable organic additives
 Environmental Aspects
Exhaustion of raw materials
CO2 emission during fabrication process
Acidification
Disposal problems of hazardous semiconductor material

In spite of all these environmental concerns,

Solar Photovoltaic is one of the cleanest form of energy
 PVnomics
PV unit : Price per peak watt (Wp)
( Peak watt is the amount of power output a PV module produces at
Standard Test Conditions (STC) of a module operating temperature of 25C
in full noontime sunshine (irradiance) of 1,000 Watts per square meter )

A typical 1kWp System produces approximately

1600-2000 kWh energy in India and Australia

A typical 2000 watt peak (2KWp) solar energy system

costing $8000 (including installation) will correspond to
a price of $4/Wp
 Payback Time
Energy Payback Time:
EPBT is the time necessary for a photovoltaic panel to
generate the energy equivalent to that used to
produce it.
A ratio of total energy used to manufacture a PV
module to average daily energy of a PV system.

At present the Energy payback time for PV systems is

in the range
8 to 11 years, compared with typical system lifetimes
of around 30 years. About 60% of the embodied
energy is due to the silicon wafers.
 Solar PV Costs 1980-2000

There has been almost six fold decline in price per peak watt of PV module
from 1980 to year 2000
Solar electricity prices are today, around 30 cents/kWh, but still 2-5 times
average Residential electricity tariffs
 PVnomics .
Module costs typically represents only 40-60% of
total PV system cost and the rest is accounted by
inverter, PV array support, electrical cabling and
installation

Most PV solar technologies rely on

semiconductor-grade crystalline-silicon wafers,
which are expensive to produce compared with
other energy sources

The high initial cost of the equipment they

require discourages their large-scale
commercialization
 Cost Trends - Photovoltaics
100
COE cents/kWh

80

60

40

20

1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

Current cost is 16-25 cents per kWh
Levelized cents/kWh in constant $20001
Source: NREL Energy Analysis Office
Updated: June 2002
 The basic commercialization problem PV
technology has faced for 20 years : markets will
explode when module costs decline, but module
costs can't decline much, until the market grows
much larger
-PV Insider's Report
 The Other Side

Use newer and cheaper materials like amorphous

silicon , CuInSe2 , CdTe.

Thin-film solar cells use less than 1% of the raw

material (silicon) compared to wafer based solar cells,
leading to a significant price drop per kWh.

Incentives may bring down the cost of solar energy

down to 10-12 cents per kilowatt hour - which can
imply a payback of 5 to 7 years.
 However .
If a location is not currently connected to the grid, it is less
expensive to install PV panels than to either extend the grid or set
up small-scale electricity production .

PV : Best suited for remote site applications having moderate/small

power requirements consuming applications even where the grid is
in existence.

Isolated mountaintops and other rural areas are ideal for stand-
alone PV systems where maintenance and power accessibility
makes PV the ideal technology.
 Applications @ PV

Water Pumping: PV powered pumping systems are excellent

,simple ,reliable life 20 yrs
Commercial Lighting: PV powered lighting systems are reliable
and low cost alternative. Security, billboard sign, area, and outdoor
lighting are all viable applications for PV
Consumer electronics: Solar powered watches, calculators, and
cameras are all everyday applications for PV technologies.
Telecommunications
Residential Power: A residence located more than a mile from the
electric grid can install a PV system more inexpensively than
extending the electric grid
(Over 500,000 homes worldwide use PV power as their only source
of electricity)
 Building Integrated systems

These systems use the existing

grid as a back up, as the PV
output falls or the load rises to
the point where the PV's can no
longer supply enough power

PV arrays can form an attractive

facing on buildings and costs are
equivalent to certain traditional
facing materials such as marble
with the advantage of generating
free electricity.

Ideal for situations where peak

electricity demand is during
daytime such as commercial
buildings.
 Present PV Scenario in India
In terms of overall installed PV capacity, India comes fourth after
Japan, Germany and U.S.
(With Installed capacity of 110 MW)

In the area of Photovoltaics India today is the second largest

manufacturer in the world of PV panels based on crystalline solar
cells.
(Industrial production in this area has reached a level of 11 MW per
year which is about 10% of the worlds total PV production)

A major drive has also been initiated by the Government to export

Indian PV products, systems, technologies and services
(Solar Photovoltaic plant and equipment has been exported to
countries in the Middle East and Africa)
 Indian PV Era Vision 2012
Arid regions receive plentiful solar radiation, regions like Rajasthan,
Gujarat and Haryana receive sunlight in plenty.
Thus the Potential availability - 20 MW/km2 (source IREDA)

IREDA is planning to electrify 18,000 villages by year 2012 mainly

through solar PV systems

Targets have been set for the large scale utilization of PV technology
by different sectors within the next five years
A Step towards achieving the Vision

The Delhi Government has decided to make use of solar power

compulsory for lighting up hoardings and for street lighting
 By the year 2030, India should achieve
Energy Independence through solar power
and other forms of renewable energy
Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam
President of India
Independence Day Speech, 2005
 Global Scenario
Solar Electric Energy demand has grown consistently by 20-25% per
annum over the past 20 years (from 26 MW back in 1980 to 127MW
in 1997)

At present solar photovoltaic is not the prime contributor to the

electrical capacities but the pace at which advancement of PV
technology and with the rising demand of cleaner source of energy
it is expected by 2030 solar PV will have a leading role in electricity
generation

Research is underway for new fabrication techniques, like those

used for microchips. Alternative materials like cadmium sulfide and
gallium arsenide ,thin-film cells are in development
 The Major Players
Crystalline Si a-Si/c-Si CIGS CdTe
Sharp United Solar Avancis First Solar
Kyocera
Kaneka Showa Shell Antec Solar
BP Solar
Q-Cells Fuji Electric Wurth Solar AVA
Mitsubishi Sharp DayStar PrimeStar
SolarWorld Mitsubisihi Nanosolar Solar
Sanyo
Schott Solar
Schott Solar There are currently about 325
Isofoton AMAT
licensees companies developing or
Motech
Suntech SunTech producing solar cells.
Evergreen Solar PowerFilm Total PV production is
GE Energy
OptiSolar forecasted to be ~10 GWp in
EPV 2009, but demand may only be
~ 3.5 GWp (which can be met
by top 10 companies).
30% increase in global manufacturing of solar cells every year
The growth of solar energy

The growth rate is

among the fastest in
energy sources. Most of
the growth is driven by
the growth in Germany,
Japan, and USA.

From IEA
Expected Future of Solar Electrical Capacities
 Production and Disposal Concerns
Production - Worker Health and Safety
Amorphous silicon - Silane, an explosive gas, is used in making
amorphous silicon. Toxic gases such as phosphine and diborane
are used to electronically "dope" the material.
Copper indium diselenide -Toxic hydrogen selenide is
sometimes used to make copper indium diselenide, a thin-film PV
material.
Cadmium telluride -Cadmium and its compounds, which are
used in making cadmium telluride PV cells, can be toxic at high
levels of lung exposure.

Disposal
Module lifespan typically around 30 years
Some material classified as hazardous waste
Recycling process not yet perfected
 Research Needs for Photovoltaics

Lower Costs
Efficiency improvements will help to lower costs of PV electricity
Low-cost storage required for significant penetration of the grid (> 10%)
In the case of silicon solar cells, there is a need for a high-quality, thin silicon wafer or
sheet (10 50 m) that can be produced at low cost
Automated high throughput process with intelligent process control
Well need to replace silver contacts with lower cost materials such as copper or
carbon-based materials (nanotubes?)
At an annual production of ~ 154 GWp (~ 2016), the PV industry would be using
the entire annual production of Ag (~ 19,000 tons/yr)
Low-cost (i.e. abundant) materials must be incorporated into reliable, high
performance PV modules and systems (annual total U.S. electricity demand is ~ 3 x
1012 kWh which can be met by PV arrays with an area of 100 miles x 100 miles in the
U.S. Southwest).
 Concluding Remarks
The key to successful solar energy installation is to use quality
components that have long lifetimes and require minimal
maintenance.

The future is bright for continued PV technology dissemination.

PV technology fills a significant need in supplying electricity,
creating local jobs and promoting economic development in rural
areas, avoiding the external environmental costs associated with
traditional electrical generation technologies.

Major power policy reforms and tax incentives will play a major role
if all the above said is to be effectively realized.
 The Light at the end of the Tunnel

By 2020 global solar output could be 276 Terawatt hours, which

would equal 30% of Africa's energy needs or 1% of global
demand. This would replace the output of 75 new coal fired
power stations. The global solar infrastructure would have an
investment value of US$75 billion a year. By 2040 global solar
output could be more than 9000 Terawatt hours, or 26% of the
expected global demand

Report European Photovoltaic Industry Association (EPIA) and

Greenpeace
 Can technological developments and the
transition to a culture that is more aware
of the need to safeguard the environment
help create a world powered by the Suns
Energy ?