90 8.

Metric spaces

8.2. Connectedness in metric spaces

Problem set 9
(3.8) Which of the following are connected:
(i) Q IR with usual metric.
(ii) [1, 2) (2, 3] IR with usual metric.
(iii) B1 (1, 0) B1 (1, 0) IR2 with usual metric.
(iv) {(x, y) IR2 |x Q, y [0, 1]} ([0, 1] {1}) , with usual metric
induced from IR2 .
(v) {(x, y) IR2 |xy = 1}, with usual metric induced from IR2 .
Solutions
(i) As
Q = ((, ) Q) ((, ) Q)
where is any irrational, Q is not connected.
(ii) [1, 2) (2, 3] is not connected as =
6 [1, 2) [1, 2) (2, 3] is both open
and closed in [1, 2) (2, 3].
(iii) B1 (1, 0) B1 (1, 0) = X is not connected. as B1 (1, 0) is both open
and closed in X.

(figure)
(iv) Connected

(figure)
2
(v) Let {(x, y) IR |x and y is rational}, Then for (x1 ,y1 ) , (x1 ,y1 )
X,let x1 , x2 Q

(figure)
Then .......... P ABQ X. X is path connected.
Problem set 9 91

((3.9) Show that X is connected if and only if for every proper nonempty
Y X, (Y ) 6= .
Solution
Recall that for =
6 Y 6= X, Y : X {0, 1} is continuous iff (Y ) 6= .
Thus, if X is connected then Y : X {0, 1} being a non constant
function. Hence it is not continuous at some point but A is not constant
at x iff x (Y ). Thus Y 6= .
Conversely: If X is not connected, then Y X s.t. 6= Y 6= X and
Y both open and closed. Clearly (Y ) = Y (X\Y ) = Y (X\Y ) = .
Hence (Y ) = . ThusX not connected exists 6= Y 6= X with
(X) = . Then if Y X, Y 6= , (Y ) 6= . Hence X must be
connected.
(3.10) Let X be a connected metric space containing at least 2 points. Show
X cannot be finite. In fact X has to be uncountable.
Solution
Let X be any finite metric space having at least two points. Then clearly
X is discrete, i.e. every set is both open and closed. Hence X is not
connected.
Now suppose X has at least two points and X is connected. Let
x, y X, x 6= y Consider the function f : X ,
f (x) = d(x1 , x1 ) x X.
Then f is continuous, f (x1 ) = 0, f (x1 ) = 1 claim 0 < < 1, x X
s.t.f (x) = .
Suppose f (x) 6= for any x X. Let A := f 1 (, ), B := f 1 (, ).
Then 0 A, 1 B, both A and B are open and A B = X, not possible.
Hence f attain every value before [0, 1]. In particular f 1 ([0, 1]) X.
Hence X is uncountable.
(3.11) Show that in general intersection/union of two connected set need not
be connected.
Solution
Let X = {1, 2} with discrete metric A = {1}, B = {2}. Then A and B
are connected but A B is not connected.
For Intersection(In IR intersection of connected set is connected)
In 2 , Let X = {(x, y)|x2 + y 2 = 1}
Y = {(0, y)|y }
Then X, Y are connected, X Y = {(0, 1) (0, 1)} which is not con-
nected.
(3.12) Let A, B be non-empty closed subset of X such that A B and A B
are both connected. Show that A and B are both connected.
92 8. Metric spaces

Solution
Let f : A {0, 1} be a continuous map. Then f is constant on A B.
let f (a B) = {0}.
Claim f is constant on A, f (A) = {0}.
Define f : A B {0, 1}

f (x) if x A\B
f=
0 if x B
Then f is continuous. Because for
f 1 {0} = B (f 1 (0) A) closed
1 1
f {1} = f (1) A closed
f is continuous on A B and hence must be a constant, i.e. f is constant
function.

8.3. Dense sets

Problem set 10
(3.13) Let X have a dense set. D. Let Y X.
x D, consider
1
B(x, ) Y
n
If it is non-empty, choose
1
xy B(x, ) Y.
n
Claim. DY := {xy Y | n 1 and x D s.t. d(xy , x) < n1 } is
dense in Y .
Let y Y and > 0 arbitrary. Let n be s.t. n1 < /2. B(y, n1 )
D 6= .(... D is dense in X).
... xD s.t. x B(y, 1/n)
1
. . . y B(x, ) Y 6= .
u
. . . Then xy B(x, n1 ) Y .
. .. d(x, xy ) < 1/n) d(y, xo ) < nz <
d(y, x) < n1
(3.14) Sow that every nonempty subspace of a separable metric space is
separable.

solution Let (X, d) be separable. Then there exists a collection

of sets on X which is countable and every ............... in EX is
a union of elements of u. Let u Y = {U Y + u u}. The
Problem set 10 93

u Y is a countable collection of open sets in V and if A is open

S
in Y , then A = U Y , U open in X. The u Ui , ui , u
i=1

S
A=U Y = (Ui Y ), Ui Y u Y . Hence Y is separable.
i=1
(3.15) Let X be a separable metric space and A be a set of isolated points
of X. Show either A = or A is countable. Hence deduce that any
family of pairwise disjoint open sets is countable.

solution
Let A be the set of isolated points. If x A, then open
ball B(x, r) such that B(x, r) X = {x}. But X being separable,
X has a countable dense set D. D being dense D B(x, r) 6= .
Hence x D Thus A D and hence A is countable.
Let U be any family of pointwise disjoint open sets in X. Since
each U U has to include at least one point of D and some point
cannot belong to two distinct members of U , U has to be countable.
(3.16) Let (X, d) be a metric space and A X. Show that the following
are equivalent
(i) A is dense in X.
(ii) The only closed subset of X including A is X.
(iii) The only open set disjoint from A is
(iv) A intersects every nonempty open set.
(v) A intersects every open ball.

Solution
(i) (ii)
(i) A = X and A is the smallest closed set including A. Thus
(ii) holds.

(ii) (iii)
Let U be open, U A = . Then A U c - a closed set
Uc = X
U =

(ii) (iv) U any nonempty open set. Then U A 6= by (iii)

(iv) (iv) obvious.

(v) (vi) obvious.

(3.17) Consider the metric space (Z, d10 ). Consider the sequence (xn )n1
in Z, where
xn = 1 + 10 + 102 + + 10n1 .
94 8. Metric spaces

Show that (xn )n1 is a Cauchy sequence which is not convergent.

Solution
for n, m N, if n m
xn xm = 10m + 10mn + + 10n1
and hence
1 1
|xn xn |10 = < .
m+1 N
1
Thus |xn xm |10 < N if n, m N, showing (xn )n1 is Cauchy.
Suppose xn x. Thus axn ax in (Z, d10 ) (not |x|10 = |x|10 if
6= 10n ). Thus axn + 1 ax + 1, obviously. But
axn + 1 = 10 + ax(10 + + 10n1 )
a 10(10n1 1)
= 10 +
101
= 10 + 10(10 1) = 10n
1

1
and hence axn + 1 = 10n 0, +|10n |10 = 10 . Thus by uniqueness
of limit, for sum x Z 9x1 = 0, not possible.
(3.18) Shown

Q is not complete with usual metric by showing the sequence
[ 2]
n is Cauchy but not convergent.

Solution For n, m N

 [n 2] [m, 2] 

.
 
 n m 


(3.19) Consider X = IR with the usual metric d and the metric P defined
by
P (x, y) = | tan x tany|.
Show d , but (X, P ) is not complete.

Solution We have already shown that d P . We show (X, P )

is not complete. Consider the sequence xn = n n 1. For
n, m tan : (/2, /3) IR. Then | tan n tan m|.
(3.20) Consider x = {x IR3 | kxk2 =}. Consider X with d2 -metric and
the surface metric
(x, y) = cos1 hx, 0i.
Show that
(i) d2
(ii) Assume {x1 }n1 is di -Cauchy iff it is -Cauchy.
(iii) (X, d2 ), (X, ) are both complete.
Problem set 10 95

Solution
(a) ](i)] is easy as .... bicontinuous
(ii) cos is bi-uniformly continuous
(iii) Follow from the fact that X in d2 -closed in IR3 and P is uni-
forming equivalent to d2 .
(3.21) Consider X = N IR. Let d denote the induced metric N and
denote the metric (x, y) = |f rac1x 31 |, x N
Show
(i) d
(ii) {n}n1 is -Cauchy but not d-Cauchy
(iii) (N, ) is not complete where as (N, d) is complete

Solution (i) That is a metric is obvious. Also if {xn }n1 d-

convergent to x0 then xn must be constant after some stage. Thus
xn = x0 6= n n0 and has it is convergent in -metric also con-
P
versely suppose xn x0 . Since then
 
 1 1 
 xn x0  < n n0


|xn x0 |
< n n0 .
|xn x0 |
... |xa x| < |xn | |x0 | n n0 .
Also n n1 for some n1
   
 1   1 
   1 + 1 =1+ 1
 xn   xn  x0 |x0 | |x0 |
Then for n max{x0 , n}
 2
|x0 |
|xn xn1 | <
1 + x0
Hence {xn }n1 is d-Cauchy and hence constant after some stage.
d
Thus {xn } d0 .
(ii) is obvious
(iii) (N, P ) is not complete for the sequences {n}n1 is -Cauchy:
if n > m
   
 1  = n m < n = 1
1   
 n m   nm  nm m
Then given > 0, choose h0 s.t. n1o < . Then n, m > no
 
1
 1  < 1 < 1 < .

n m n no
96 8. Metric spaces

Then {n}n1 is -Cauchy but not -convergent. For if it is -.... to

a N then > 0, no s.t. n no
 
1 1 
|rho(n, a) =   < n no
n a
d
{ n1 } { a1 } =
6 0, not then
(N, P ) is not complete.
But (N, d) is complete for every Cauchy sequence in (N, d) is
constant after some stage.
(3.22) Let (X, d) be separable. Show that any uncountable subset A of X
has at least are limit point.

Solution Suppose A is uncountable and has no limit point. Then

x A, x > 0 such that (B)x, x ) \ {x} A = . Thus
{B(x, x ) : x A} is a covering of A, and any two are pairwise
disjoint. Thus covering does not have a countable subcover.
(3.23) Let (X, d) be separable and A X be closed. Then A = P C
where is a perfect set and C is a countable set
Proof. Let P = {x X|B(x, ) A is uncountable. We claim P
is a perfect set. Let x P . Let > 0 be arbitrary. 

8.4. Complete metric spaces

Problem set 11
(3.24) Show that there is no metric on Q which is equivalent to the usual
metric on Q such that (Q, ) is complete.

Solution:
Suppose a metric on Q such that is usual metric and is com-
plete. Then {x} is closed in Q in the usual metric and hence {x} is also
closed in Q the -metric. Further Q \ {x} is dense in Q, for given any

open ball B, consider a dopen ball B inside it, which exists on d . We

know B Q \ {x} = 6 Q, and hence B (Q \ {x}) 6= . Thus Q = xQ {x}
is a countable union of nowhere dense sets, not possible by Boire Category
Theorem.
(3.25) There exists complete metric spaces (X, d) and maps f : X X such
that d(f (x), f (y)) < d(x, y)x, y x but f has no fixed point. (It has a
fixed point of X is compact).

Solution:
Problem set 11 97

Consider f : [1, 0) [1, ), defined by f (x) = x + x1 . Then [1, 0) is

complete,
1 1
kf (x) f (y)k = kx + y k
x y
1 1
kx yk + k k
x y
< kx yk.
1 1
But x + x =x x = 0, not true. Thus f has no fixed point.

(3.26) There exists metric d and d on sets x such that d d , (X, d) and

(X, d ) are both complete but a map f : x x is d-contraction but not

d contraction. (This shows the choice of metric).

Solution:

Let X = {x, y, z} and d be discrete metric on X. Let d be defined by:

d (x, y) = d (x, z) = z; d (y, z) = 1

d (x, x) = d (y, y) = d (z, z) = 0.

Then d is a metric on X and
1
d (a, b) d(a, b) d (a, b)a, b X.
2

Thus d d and (X, d), (X, d ) are complete.
Consider f : X X
f (x) = y
f (y) = z
f (z) = z
Then d(f (x), f (z)) = d(y, z) = 1, then f is not a d-contraction. But f is
a d -contraction.

d (f (x), f (y)) = d (y, z) = 1 < 2 = d(x, y)

d (f (x), f (z)) = d (y, z) = 1 < 2 = d(x, z)

d (f (y), f (z)) = d (z, z) = 0 < 1 = d(y, z)
Therefore
1
d (f (a), f (b)) d (a, b)
2
f is a d -contraction.
(3.27) Give examples of the following:
(i) A nested sequence {Fn } non-empty closed sets in (0, 1) with dia(Fn )
0 and Fn = .
(ii) A nested sequence of {Fn } non-empty closed sets in IR with n=1 Fn =
.
(iii) A rested sequence of non-empty sets in IR with dia(Fn ) 0 and
Fn = .
98 8. Metric spaces

Solution:
(i) Fn := (0, n1 ) is closed in (0, 1), dia(Fn ) = n1 0.
But n=1 Fn = .
(ii) Fn := [n, ) IR. Then {Fn }n1 is rested and closed with
n=1 Fn =
.
(iii) Fn = (0, n1 ] IR Fn is rested, Fn = .
(3.28) Let f : [a, b] IR be a function which is (K, ) Lipschitz, > 1.
Show f is a constant.