UNIT-V

REFRIGERATION & AIR-CONDITIONING

5.1. INTRODUCTION

Refrigeration:

A major application area of thermodynamics is refrigeration which is the science of producing and

maintaining temperatures below that of the surrounding atmosphere, i.e. the transfer of heat from

lower temperature region to higher temperature region.

The devices that produce refrigeration are called refrigerator or heat pump and the cycles on which

they operate are called as refrigeration cycle.

The melting of ice or snow was one of the earliest methods of refrigeration. When ice is placed in a

given space which is warmer than ices melting point 0 C, then space is cooled by the heat flow from

the space to the ice.

The ice changes its state from solid to liquid. This is a non-cyclic process in which the cooling

substance is consumed and discarded. In order to overcome this use of cyclic process is introduced.

The most frequently used refrigeration cycle is the vapour compression refrigeration cycle in which

the refrigerant is used again and again by carrying out vaporization and condensation alternately.

Air conditioning

The maintenance of controlled atmosphere according to the requirements is a space is known as air

conditioning.

There are two types of air conditioning. They are Industrial air conditioning: The controlled

atmosphere that is required for the manufacturing process is called industrial air conditioning.

Comfort air conditioning: The controlled atmosphere that gives maximum comforts the human

beings is called as comfort air conditioning.

5.2. VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM
The modern refrigerating plants work on vapour compression system.

The refrigerant used in this system alternately undergoes a change of phase from vapour to liquid
during the cycle.

The basic operations involved in a vapour compression refrigeration plant are illustrated in the flow
diagram, Fig. 8, and the property diagram, Fig.9.

Fig. 8 Flow diagram for vapour compression refrigeration system

The assumptions made to draw the T-s diagrams are

Condition of the vapour leaving the evaporation and entering the compressor is dry

Saturated.

Compression of vapour in the compressor is entropic.

There is no pressure loss in the system.

There is no undercooling of the refrigerant in the condenser.

Required to drive the system is equal to the difference between the heat rejected in the

Condenser and heat absorbed in the evaporator.

(i) Compression

A reversible adiabatic process 1-2 or 1-2 either starting with state 1 (saturated vapour) called as dry
compression or starting with state 1 (wet vapour) called as wet compression.
 Because of the liquid refrigerant being trapped in the cylinder during wet compression (1-2), dry
compression (1-2) is always preferred.

The liquid in the cylinder may damage the valves and wash away the lubricant oil from the walls of
the cylinder, thus accelerating wear.

Fig. p-V and T-s diagram

(ii) Cooling and Condensing

A reversible constant pressure process 2-3 first desuperheated and then condensed, ending with
saturated liquid. Heat Q is rejected out.

(iii) Expansion

An adiabatic throttling process 3-4 for which enthalpy remains constant which is an adiabatic but not
an isentropic.

Since it is irreversible it is shown in dotted line in the property diagrams.

(iv) Evaporation

A constant pressure reversible process 4-1 completes the cycle. The refrigerant is throttled by the
expansion valve to a pressure.

The saturation temperature at this pressure being below the temperature of the surroundings which
gets cooled.

The evaporator thus produces the cooling effect by absorbing heat Q2 from the surroundings by
evaporation.
5.3.PERFORMANCE OF VAPOUR COMPRESSION SYSTEM

In a vapour compression refrigeration plant, when steady state has been reached, for 1 kg of
refrigerant flow through the cycle, the steady flow energy equations may be written for each
component in the cycle as follows

Neglecting kinetic energy and potential energy changes Compressor

The mass fraction of vapour in liquid-vapour mixture or the quantity of the refrigerant at the inlet to
the evaporator in x

Equation gives the amount of heat removed from the surroundings per unit mass flow of refrigerant.

The coefficient of performance of the cycle

From the p-h chart of the refrigerant the values of enthalpy at all the points of the cycte can be
obtained.

If is the mass flow of refrigerant in kg/s then the rate of heat removal from the surroundings
 One tones of refrigeration is defined as the rate of heat removal from the surroundings equivalent to
the heat required for melting 1 tones of ice in one day.

If the latent heat of fusion of ice is taken as 336 kJ/kg, then 1 tones is equivalent to heat removal at
the rate of (1000 x 336) I 24 kJ/h or 14,000 kJ/h.

The rate of heat removal in the condenser

Q = (h2 h3) kJ/s

If water cooling is used in the condenser the mass flow rate of cooling water m in kgls, the rise in
temperature of water is (tc2 tc1) and Cc in specific heat of cooling water

For the condition of heat transfer is between the refrigerant and water and there is no interaction with
the surroundings.

Rate of work input to compressor

5.4. VAPOUR ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

The absorption system differs from the compression system in a way that it raises heat energy instead
of mechanical energy to perform refrigeration cycle.

In the basic absorption system, the compressor air absorber - generator assembly involving less
mechanical work. Figure 10 shows a simple vapour absorption refrigeration system, in which
ammonia is the refrigerant and water is the absorbent. This is known as aqua-ammonia absorption
system.

The ammonia vapour at low pressure leaving the evaporator passes to the absorber where it is
dissolved in the weak ammonia solution contained in the absorber. The absorber is cooled by the
cooling water circulation.
 Fig. 10 Vapour absorption refrigeration system

From the absorber strong ammonia solution is pumped to the generator and is circulated through the
system.

The pump increases the pressure of the solution to a minimum value of 10 bar, in order to attain fluid
flow through the condenser.

The strong ammonia solution is heated in the generator by a heating source and vapour is driven out
of the solution. Then the vapour passes to the condenser and it is condensed from the condenser.

The high pressure liquid ammonia passes through the expansion value, there it is converted into low
pressure wet vapour (about 3 bar). Then this cold and wet ammonia vapour passes through the
evaporation when it extracts the latent heat from the brine or substance to be cooled.

5.4.1. COP OF AN ABSORPTION SYSTEM

In a refrigeration plant let us assume, Q G is the heat supplied to the generator from a source at T 1,
temperature, provides refrigeration by extracting QE from the region at a temperature of TR.

This is done in the evaporator and rejects heat Q A from absorber and from compressor to the (sink)
atmosphere at T2 temperature as shown in Fig. 11
 Fig. 11 Energy fluxes in vapour absorption system

5.5. Linde-Hampson System

Linde - Hampson cycle is used successfully for the liquefaction of gases which is shown

schematically and on T-s diagram in Fig.11

Make up gas is mixed with the vapour from previous cycle, the mixture at 2 is compressed a

multistage compressor to state 3.

By this isothermal compression process gas pressure is increased. By providing Intercooling between

each stage of the compression the isothermal process is performed.

The high pressure gas is cooled in after cooler (heat exchanger) to state 4 and it is further cooled in

the counter flow regenerator to state 5.

Then it is passed through the throttle valve, there it is converted into saturated liquid - vapour

mixture in state 6.
 Fig. 11 Linde-Hampson system

The desired liquid (state 7) is collected in the tank and the vapour (state 8) is passed through the

regenerator to increase the temperature to state 9. Then the gas from state 9 is mixed with fresh

makeup gas and the cycle is repeated.

5.6. PSYCHROMETRY
5.6.1. INTRODUCTION:
It is the branch of science which mainly deals with the study of mixture of dry air and water vapour.

It is the foundation on which most of the calculations of air conditioning loads, heat transmission
through structures, cooling towers, etc are based.

The earths atmosphere, the air we breathe, is a mixture of several gases including nitrogen, oxygen,
argon, carbon dioxide, water vapour and traces of other gases.

But generally speaking, in refrigeration applications the atmosphere is considered to be a mixture of

dry air and water vapour.

5.6.2 PROPERTIES OF ATMOSPHERIC AIR

Moist Air

It is a mixture of dry air and water vapour. The quantity of water vapour present in air depends upon
the temperature of the air.

(i)Water Vapour

Water vapour present in air is known as moisture. The determination of quantity of moisture present
in air is a very important factor in all air conditioning systems.
 Moist air is said to be saturated when it contains maximum amount of water vapour that it can hold.
Such air will be invisible, If we add more water to this air, drops of water will remain in suspension
and will make the air foggy or misty.

If the temperature of mixture of air and water vapour is more than the saturation temperature of the
water vapour, the. vapour will be in a superheated state.

Specific Humidity or Humidity Ratio

It is the mass of water vapour per unit mass of dry air. In a vapour air mixture is denoted by w.

Then specific humidity,

Where
ma mass of dry air,
mf = mass of water vapour associated with the above mass of dry air in a sample of moist air of mass
= (ma + mf)
Absolute Humidity or Vapour Density

It is the mass of water vapour in kg per m of air vapour mixture is denoted by .

Degree of Saturation

It is the ratio of prevailing humidity ratio of moist air to the humidity ratio of saturated air at the
same temperature and pressure.

If w = kg of moisture contained per kg of any air under given conditions, w = kg of moisture

required to saturate one kg of air at the same dry bulb temperature.

Relative Humidity

It is defined as the ratio of actual mass of water vapour in a given volume of air to the mass of water
vapour contained in the same volume at the same temperature when the air is saturated.

Dry Bulb Temperature

It is the temperature recorded by a thermometer whose reading is not affected by the humidity ratio
or by thermal radiation. It is denoted by td
PSYCHROMETRIC CHARTS

A psychometric chart is a graphical representation of various thermodynamic properties of moist air.

Such a chart helps us to readily measure the properties of air and eliminates many time consuming
and tedious calculations which would otherwise be necessary.

Different air-conditioning manufactures have slightly different forms of this chart which may differ
in the location of the information.

But basically they are alike because they all graphically represent the properties of air. Such as
temperature, humidity ratio, relative humidity, enthalpy etc.

One of such charts copy righted by the Carrier Corporation having dry bulb temperature as the
abscissa and humidity ratio or moisture content of air-in kg per kg dry air as the ordinate is shown in
Fig. 12.

(1) Dry Bulb Temperature (td) Lines are straight and vertical lines drawn parallel to the ordinate.

(2) Humidity Ratio (w) Lines are the straight and horizontal lines drawn parallel to the abcissa.

(3) Vapour Pressure (pv) Lines. These are the straight, horizontal and parallel lines with non-uniform

spacing between them. On the given psychometric chart, instead of marking these lines a scale showing

vapour pressure in mm of Hg has been given on its extreme left.

(4) Dew Point Temperature (tdP) Lines are straight horizontal and parallel lines. The cale of dew point

temperature is shown on the saturation line.

(5) Wet Bulb Temperature (t Lines are straight but inclined lines which extend diagonally as shown on

the chart. The scale of wet bulb temperature is again shown on the saturation line.

(6) Enthalpy (h) Lines are the same as the wet bulb temperature lines. The scale of enthalpy is shown on

a diagonal line above the saturation line.

(7) Relative Humidity ( Lines are curved lines. The saturation line shows 100% relative humidity.

(8) Specific Volume Lines are the straight - inclined lines.

 Note:

The lines on the psychometric chart are drawn by assuming standard barometric pressure Of 760 mm
of Hg.

If pressures other than the standard pressure are given necessary correction shall have to be applied.

Fig. 12 Psychrometric chart

COOLING-LOAD ESTIMATE
The components of the cooling load for air-conditioning can now be summarized as follows. The
load is classified as the room load, that which fans on the room directly, and the total load, that falls
on the apparatus.
Room Load
A. Room Sensible Heat (RSH) :
Solar and transmission heat gain through walls, roof, etc.
Solar and transmission heat gain through glass.
Transmission gain through partition walls, ceiling, floor, etc.
Infiltration.
Internal heat gain from people, power, lights, appliances, etc.
Additional heat gain not accounted above, safety factor, etc.
Supply duct heat gain, supply duct leakage loss and fan horsepower.
 The sum of all the above gives the room sensible heat (RHS) load. For the purpose of psychrometric
analysis, the following component is also included in the room sensible heat.
Bypassed outside air load.
The sum of items (i) to (viii) gives the effective room sensible heat (ERSH).
Room latent heat (RLH)
Infiltration
Internal heat gain from people, steam, appliances, etc.
Vapour transmission
Additional heat gain not accounted above, safety factor, etc.
Supply duct leakage loss.
The sum of these gives the room latent heat (RLH). The other heat gain
considered for psychrometric analysis is:
Bypassed outside air load.
The sum of the items (i) to (vi) above gives the effective room latent heat(ELRH)
The sum of the room sensible heat and room latent heat above gives the effective room total
heat (ERTH). But the sum of items (i) to (vii) in room latent heat and (i) to (v) in room latent
heat gives the room total heat (RTH)
For grand total load on air-conditioning apparatus
A. Sensible heat:
Effective room sensible heat (ERSH)
Sensible heat of the outside air that is not bypassed
Return duct heat gain, return duct leakage gain, dehumidifier pump horsepower and
dehumidifier and piping losses.
The sum of items (i) to (vii) gives the total sensible heat (TSH)
B. Latent heat
Effective room latent heat (ERLH)
Latent heat of outside air which is not bypassed
Return duct leakage gain
The sum of items (i) to (iii) above gives the total latent heat (TLH)
Finally the sum of A and B gives the grand total heat (GTH)

Heating load estimate:

 An estimate of the heating load is made on the basis of the maximum probable heat loss of the room
or space to be heated. Thus the plant for the heating system is to be designed that it has a capacity
just sufficient to meet the heating load requirement, which develops when most severe weather need
not be taken into account
Accordingly, the following points in heating load calculations are note worthy
(i) Transmission heat loss
The transmission heat loss from walls, roofs, etc. is calculated on the basis of just
the outside and inside temperature difference.
Q = UA (ti -to)
Thus, no allowances need be made for the walls and roof being exposed to
sun. Also, the time lag and decrement factor are to be ignored.
(ii) Solar Radiation
There is generally no solar radiation present and hence no solar heat gain at the
time of the peak load, which normally occurs in the early hours of the morning.
(iii) Internal Heat Gains
Internal heat gains from occupants, lights, motors and machinery etc., diminish the heating
requirement. These negative loads should be accounted for in applications, such as theatres,
assembly halls, Stores office buildings, etc., where these loads are constantly present.
But allowance for these loads must be made only after careful consideration. An important aspect to
keep in mind is the use of the space at night, weekends or other unoccupied periods. Also, the
heating plant should have sufficient capacity to bring up tilt inside temperature to the design value
before the occupants come in.
Psychrometric Process:
Ex.no1: The atmospheric conditions are 25C DBT and specific humidity of 12 grams/ kg of air. Determine
the following partial pressure of vapour, dew point temperature, and relative humidity.
Solution
Corresponding to 0.0195 bar from steam table dew point temperature is 17C. From steam table

corresponding to 25C DBT pvs = 0.03166 bar

SENSIBLE HEAT FACTOR (SHF)

The process of cooling and dehumidification occurs so frequently in air conditioning that the
psychometric line which represents this process has been given a special label.

It is the change that takes place in sensible heat and latent heat.

Fig. 13 Sensible heat factor

Now we can define sensible heat factor as Sensible heat factor or SHF

If the cooling process involves the removal of only sensible and no latent heat, the sensible heat

factor line is horizontal and the numerical value of sensible heat factor is 1.

The scale on the extreme right of the psychometric chart is the sensible heat factor scale which is

drawn with reference to a point shown as a dark circle on 50% RH line (near 25C DBT).

ROOM SENSIBLE HEAT FACTOR (RSHF)

It may be defined as the ratio of the room sensible heat to the room total heat.

The room total heat means the sum of room sensible heat and the room latent heat. The room latent

heat load is due to the moisture rejected by persons working in the room and steam load supplied by

cooker, coffee, tea pots and such other moisture evaporating devices.

The sensible heat load may be due to the persons, lighting, electrical and mechanical devices

working in the room and solar radiation, etc.

 If RSHF = room sensible heat factor

RSH = room sensible heat

RLH = room latent heat

Fig. 14 Room sensible heat factor

The conditioned air supplied to the room must have the capacity to take up both room sensible and
latent heat load simultaneously.

The required final condition in the room say given by point A on the psychometric chart (Fig. 14)
when joined with point B, which represents supply air conditions, gives a line which is called room
sensible heat factor line.

The slope of this line gives the ratio of room sensible heat to room latent heat. A little consideration
will show that supply air, having its conditions given by any point on this line will be able to offset
the given room heat load.

In other words supply air can have conditions marked by point 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., to satisfy the
requirement.

AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS

The comfort air conditioning is divided into two as

Summer air conditioning:
The air cooling and dehumidification used in summer is known as summer air conditioning
Winter air conditioning:
 The air cooling and dehumidification used in winter is known as winter air conditioning. For
air conditioning we have to know the basics of psychrometry.
Definition

Psychrometry (sy-krometry) means literally, the measurement of cold, from the Greek psychos, cold. It

is the special name that has been given to the modern science that deals with air and water vapor

mixtures. The amount of water vapour in the air has a great influence on human comfort.

Air and humidity a physical mixture: The water vapour in the air is not absorbed or dissolved by the
air. The mixture is a simple physical one, just as sand and water are mixed. The temperature of the
water vapor is always the same as that of the air.
Saturated air:
Air is said to be saturated when it contains the maximum amount of moisture that it can hold. The
amount of moisture at the saturation point varies with the temperature of the air; the higher the
temperature, the more moisture the air can hold.
Dewpoint:
The saturation point is more usually called the dew point, for if the temperature of the saturated air
falls below its dew point, some of the water vapour in it must condense to liquid water, generally in
drops.
The dew that appears early in the morning on foliage when there is normally a drop in temperature,
if the air is moist, is such a condensation, and is, as is readily recognized, the source of the term
dewpoint. The sweating of cold water pipes is also the condensation of dew from moist air on the
cold surface of the pipes.
Condensation of saturated air:
Condensation of water vapour from the air can take place at any air temperature, providing the
temperature is below its dewpoint. In nature, moisture is condensed on foliage and other surfaces as
dew if the air temperature is above 32 degrees F.
If the temperature of the surface is below freezing, the moisture condenses as frost. Above the
earth's surface it is mist and when the mist is very thick, it is called a fog. If such condensation on
dust particles is high in the air, the fog is then called a cloud.
Under certain conditions of sudden cooling with much condensation, the droplets grow so large that
they can no longerfloat in the air, and then they fall as rain.
Sometimes a layer of air at a temperature below 0C exists high in a storm area; through this cold
layer, raindrops may be carried down and up several times by air currents until they freeze and fall as
 hail. In cold weather when the temperature is below 0C, condensation on the dust in the air forms
snowflakes.
Sensible heat of air:
The heat of air is considered from three standpoints. First, sensible heat is that measured by
household, or dry-bulb, thermometers. This is the temperature of the air itself, without regard to any
humidity it may contain.
It may be well to emphasize this by stating that sensible heat is the heat of dry air.

Latent heat in air:

Second, air nearly always contains more or less moisture. Conditions of complete absence of
moisture rarely occur, perhaps only in d sert regions.
Any water vapor present, of course, contains the latent heat which made it a vapour. Such latent heat
of the moisture in the air may be spoken of as the latent heat in the air.
Total heat of air:
Third, any mixture of dry air and water vapor, that is, air as we usually find it, does contain both
sensible heat and latent heat. The sum of the sensible heat and latent heat in any sample of air is
called the total heat of the air.
It is usually measured from zero degrees as a convenient starting point. Air-conditioning deals with
these various heats of the air and the condensation of the moisture in it as well. Three different
temperatures are needed to understand and control the operations. These are the dry bulb temperature
(DBT), wet-bulb temperature (WBT), and dewpoint temperatures (DPT).
Dry-bulb temperature:
The dry-bulb temperature is the temperature of the sensible heat of the air, as measured by an
ordinary thermometer. Such a thermometer is called in psychrometry, or air-conditioning
engineering, a dry-bulb thermometer, because its bulb is dry.
Wet-bulb temperature:
It is also known as adiabatic saturation temperature. A wet-bulb thermometer is an ordinary
thermometer with a cloth sleeve, of wool or flannel, placed around its bulb and then wet with water.
The cloth sleeve should be clean and free from oil and thoroughly wet with clean fresh water.
Sling psychrometer:
In air-conditioning work, the two thermometers, wet-bulb and dry-bulb, are usually mounted side by
side on a frame, to which a handle or short chain is attached so that the thermometers may be whirled
in the air, thus providing the high velocity air current for evaporation.
 Such a device is called a sling psychrometer. The psychrometer must be whirled around rapidly, at
least four times per second.
When the wet bulb thermometer is examined at intervals, its temperature reading will be found to be
dropping; when no further drop is observed, that reading gives the correct wet-bulb temperature.
Dewpoint temperature:
The dewpoint depends upon the amount of water vapour in the air. If air at a certain temperature is
not saturated, that is, if it does not contain the full quantity of water vapor it can hold at that
temperature, and the temperature of that air falls, a point is finally reached at which the air is
saturated for the new, lower temperature and condensation of the moisture then begins. This point is
the dewpoint temperature of the air for the quantity of water vapor present.
Relation of dry-bulb, wet-bulb and dewpoint temperatures:
The definite relation ships between the three temperatures should be clearly understood. These
relationships are:
When the air contains some moisture but is not saturated, the dewpoint temperature is lower
than the
dry-bulb temperature, and the wet-bulb temperature lies between them.
As the amount of moisture in the air increases, the differences between the temperatures
grow less.
When the air is saturated, all three temperatures are the same.
Humidity:
The word humidity is often used in speaking generally of the moisture, or water
vapour, in the air. It has, besides, two technical meanings in the forms absolute humidity and relative
humidity.
Absolute humidity:
It is the amount of moisture present in unit volume of dry air.
Specific humidity (or) humidity ratio (w):
It is the amount of moisture present in unit mass of dry air

Relative humidity (R.H (or) ):

Relative humidity is the ratio of ass of moisture in unit volume of dry air to the moisture

required to saturate the same at same temperature.

 For example, if the air were fully saturated, its relative humidity would be 100 percent. If the air

contained no moisture at all, its relative humidity would be zero percent. If the air were half

saturated, its relative humidity would be 50 percent.

Comfort:
In air-conditioning practice, the term comfort is used to mean not comfort in the sense of mere
pleasure, such as relaxing in a soft armchair, but rather comfort in the sense of physiological well-
being and general efficiency of mind and body.
 JAYAM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY,
DHARMAPURI

DEPARTMENT : MECHANICAL
YEAR / SEM : SECOND/ FOURTH
SUBJECT : ME1251 / THERMAL ENGINEERING
UNIT-V
REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

Part-A

1. What is a tone of refrigeration?

2. What is refrigerant?

3. How are refrigerants numbered?

4. What is specific humidity?

5. What is degree of saturation?

6. What is a psychrometer?

7. When do the DBT, WBT, and DPT become equal?

Part-B

1. Explain the vapour compression cycle with the help of T-s and p-h diagrams. Can this cycle be

reversible? If not why?

2. a refrigeration plant produce 0.139 kg/s of the ice at 5C from water at 30C. if the power required to

drive the plant is 22 kW. Determine the capacity of the ice plant in tones and the actual COP. The

specific heat of ice is 2.1 kJ/kg.K.