ASSIGNMENT 3

Aim :- To understand basic sql commands with respect to oracle 10G/11G

References :- http://www.oracle-dba-online.com/

Tools required :- oracle 10G/11G

Introduction to Databases

DATABASE

A database is a collection of Data (Information). Examples of databases, which we

use in our daily life, is an Attendance Register, Telephone Directory, Muster Rule.

Database Management System(DBMS): A database management system is a

collection of programs written to manage a database. That is, it acts as a interface
between user and database.

RDBMS

A Database Management System based on Relational Data Model is known as

Relational Database Management System (RDBMS).

The father of Relational Data Model was Dr. E.F. CODD. He developed the relational
data model by taking the concept from Relational Algebra in June-1970.

Relational Data Model is nothing but 12 Rules which are named after Codd as Codd
Rules. According to Codd a package can be called as RDBMS only if it satisfies the
Codd Rules.
ORACLE

Oracle is an Object-Relational Database Management System. It is the leading

RDBMS vendor worldwide. Nearly half of RDBMS worldwide market is owned by
Oracle.

ORACLE DATABASE

Every Oracle Database Contains Logical and Physical Structures. Logical Structures
are tablespaces, Schema objects, extents and segments. Physical Structures are
Datafiles, Redo Log Files, Control File.

A database is divided into logical storage units called tablespaces, which group
related logical structures together. Each Tablespace in turn consists of one are more
datafiles.

All the tables and other objects are stored in tablespace logically, but physically they
are stored in the datafiles associated with the tablespace.

Every Oracle database has a set of two or more redo log files. The set of redo log files
for a database is collectively known as the database's redo log. A redo log is made up
of redo entries (also called redo records).

The primary function of the redo log is to record all changes made to data. If a failure
prevents modified data from being permanently written to the datafiles, the changes
can be obtained from the redo log so work is never lost.

Every Oracle database has a control file. A control file contains the database name
and locations of all datafiles and redo log files.
Every Oracle database also has a Parameter File. Parameter file contains the name of
the Database, Memory Settings and Location of Control file.

CODDS RULES
1 Information Rule: All information in a relational database including table
names, column names are represented by values in tables. This simple view of
data speeds design and learning. User productivity is improved since
knowledge of only one language is necessary to access all data such as
description of the table and attribute definitions, integrity constraints. Action
can be taken when the constraints are violated. Access to data can be restricted.
All these information are also stored in tables.

2 Guaranteed Access Rule: Every piece of data in a relational database, can

be accessed by using combination of a table name, a primary key value that
identifies the row and column name which identified a cell. User productivity is
improved since there is no need to resort to using physical pointers addresses.
Provides data independence. Possible to retrieve each individual piece of data
stored in a relational database by specifying the name of the table in which it is
stored, the column and primary key which identified the cell in which it is
stored.

3 Systematic Treatment of Nulls Rule: The RDBMS handles records that have
unknown or inapplicable values in a pre-defined fashion. Also, the RDBMS
distinguishes between zeros, blanks and nulls in the records hand handles such
values in a consistent manner that produces correct answers, comparisons and
calculations. Through the set of rules for handling nulls, users can distinguish
results of the queries that involve nulls, zeros and blanks. Even though the rule
doesnt specify what should be done in the case of nulls it specifies that there
should be a consistent policy in the treatment of nulls.

4 Active On-line catalog based on the relational model: The description of a

database and in its contents are database tables and therefore can be queried
on-line via the data manipulation language. The database administrators
productivity is improved since the changes and additions to the catalog can be
done with the same commands that are used to access any other table. All
queries and reports can also be done as any other table.

5 Comprehensive Data Sub-language Rule: A RDBMS may support several

languages. But at least one of them should allow user to do all of the following:
 define tables and views, query and update the data, set integrity constraints, set
authorizations and define transactions. User productivity is improved since
there is just one approach that can be used for all database operations. In a
multi-user environment the user does not have to worry about the data integrity
an such things, which will be taken care by the system. Also, only users with
proper authorization will be able to access data.

6 View Updating Rule: Any view that is theoretically updateable can be

updated using the RDBMS. Data consistency is ensured since the changes made
in the view are transmitted to the base table and vice-versa.

7 High-Level Insert, Update and Delete: The RDBMS supports insertions,

updation and deletion at a table level. The performance is improved since the
commands act on a set of records rather than one record at a time.

8 Physical Data Independence: The execution of adhoc requests and

application programs is not affected by changes in the physical data access
and storage methods. Database administrators can make changes to the
physical access and storage method which improve performance and do not
require changes in the application programs or requests. Here the user specified
what he wants an need not worry about how the data is obtained.

9 Logical Data Independence: Logical changes in tables and views such

adding/deleting columns or changing fields lengths need not necessitate
modifications in the programs or in the format of adhoc requests. The database
can change and grow to reflect changes in reality without requiring the user
intervention or changes in the applications. For example, adding attribute or
column to the base table should not disrupt the programs or the interactive
command that have no use for the new attribute.

10 Integrity Independence: Like table/view definition, integrity constraints are

stored in the on-line catalog and can therefore be changed without
necessitating changes in the application programs. Integrity constraints
specific to a particular RDB must be definable in the relational data sub-
language and storable in the catalog. At least the Entity integrity and referential
integrity must be supported.

11 Distribution Independence: Application programs and adhoc requests are

not affected by change in the distribution of physical data. Improved systems
reliability since application programs will work even if the programs and data
are moved in different sites.
12 No subversion Rule: If the RDBMS has a language that accesses the
information of a record at a time, this language should not be used to bypass
the integrity constraints. This is necessary for data integrity.

According to Dr. Edgar. F. Codd, a relational database management system must

be able to manage the database entirely through its relational capabilities.

Datatypes and Creating Tables

A table is the data structure that holds data in a relational database. A table is
composed of rows and columns.

A table in Oracle Ver. 7.3 can have maximum 255 Columns and in Oracle Ver. 8 and
above a table can have maximum 1000 columns. Number of rows in a table is
unlimited in all the versions.

A table can represent a single entity that you want to track within your system. This
type of a table could represent a list of the employees within your organization, or the
orders placed for your company's products.

A table can also represent a relationship between two entities. This type of a table
could portray the association between employees and their job skills, or the
relationship of products to orders. Within the tables, foreign keys are used to represent
relationships.
Although some well designed tables could represent both an entity and describe the
relationship between that entity and another entity, most tables should represent either
an entity or a relationship.

The following sessions explain how to create, alter, and drop tables. Some simple
guidelines to follow when managing tables in your database are included.

Designing Tables

Consider the following guidelines when designing your tables:

Use descriptive names for tables, columns, indexes, and clusters.

Be consistent in abbreviations and in the use of singular and
plural forms of table names and columns.
Document the meaning of each table and its columns with
the COMMENT command.
Normalize each table.
Select the appropriate datatype for each column.
Define columns that allow nulls last, to conserve storage space.
Clustertables whenever appropriate, to conserve storage space
and optimize performance of SQL statements.
Before creating a table, you should also determine whether to use integrity constraints.
Integrity constraints can be defined on the columns of a table to enforce the business
rules of your database automatically.

Before creating a Table you have to decide what type of data each column can
contain. This is known as datatype. Lets Discuss what datatypes are available in
Oracle.

Datatypes

A datatype associates a fixed set of properties with the values that can be used in a
column of a table or in an argument of a procedure or function. These properties cause
Oracle to treat values of one datatype differently from values of another datatype. For
example, Oracle can add values of NUMBER datatype, but not values of RAW datatype.

Oracle supplies the following built-in datatypes:

Character datatypes
oCHAR
oNCHAR
oVARCHAR2 and VARCHAR
oNVARCHAR2
oCLOB
oNCLOB
oLONG

NUMBER datatype
Time and date datatypes:
oDATE
oINTERVAL DAY TO SECOND
oINTERVAL YEAR TO MONTH
oTIMESTAMP
oTIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE
oTIMESTAMP WITH LOCAL TIME ZONE

Binary datatypes
oBLOB
oBFILE
oRAW
oLONG RAW

Another datatype, ROWID, is used for values in the ROWID pseudocolumn, which
represents the unique address of each row in a table.

The following table summarizes the information about each Oracle built-in datatype.

Datatype Description Column Length and Default

CHAR Fixed-length character data of Fixed for every row in the table (with trailing
(size[BYTE | length size bytes or characters. blanks); maximum size is 2000 bytes per row,
CHAR]) default size is 1 byte per row. Consider the
character set (single-byte or multibyte) before
setting size.

VARCHAR2 Variable-length character data, Variable for each row, up to 4000 bytes per row.
(size[BYTE | with maximum length size bytes or Consider the character set (single-byte or
CHAR]) characters. multibyte) before setting size. A
maximum size must be specified.

NCHAR (size) Fixed-length Unicode character Fixed for every row in the table (with trailing
data of length size characters. blanks). Column size is the number of characters.
(The number of bytes is 2 times this number for
theAL16UTF16 encoding and 3 times this number
for the UTF8 encoding.) The upper limit is 2000
bytes per row. Default is 1 character.

NVARCHAR2 Variable-length Unicode character Variable for each row. Column size is the number
(size) data of length size characters. A of characters. (The number of bytes may be up to 2
maximum size must be specified. times this number for a the AL16UTF16 encoding
and 3 times this number for the UTF8 encoding.)
The upper limit is 4000 bytes per row. Default is 1
character.

CLOB Single-byte character data Up to 232 - 1 bytes, or 4 gigabytes.

NCLOB Unicode national character set Up to 232 - 1 bytes, or 4 gigabytes.

(NCHAR) data.

LONG Variable-length character data. Variable for each row in the table, up to 232 - 1
bytes, or 2 gigabytes, per row. Provided for
backward compatibility.

NUMBER (p, s) Variable-length numeric data. Variable for each row. The maximum space
Maximum precision p and/or required for a given column is 21 bytes per row.
scale sis 38.

DATE Fixed-length date and time data, Fixed at 7 bytes for each row in the table. Default
ranging from Jan. 1, 4712 B.C.E. format is a string (such as DD-MON-RR) specified
by the NLS_DATE_FORMAT parameter.
 to Dec. 31, 4712 C.E.

INTERVAL YEAR A period of time, represented as Fixed at 5 bytes.

(precision) TO years and months.
MONTH The precisionvalue specifies the
number of digits in the YEAR field
of the date. The precision can be
from 0 to 9, and defaults to 2 for
years.

INTERVAL DAY A period of time, represented as Fixed at 11 bytes.

(precision) TO days, hours, minutes, and seconds.
SECOND The precision values specify the
(precision) number of digits in the DAY and
the fractional SECOND fields of the
date. The precision can be from 0
to 9, and defaults to 2 for days and
6 for seconds.

TIMESTAMP A value representing a date and Varies from 7 to 11 bytes, depending on the
(precision) time, including fractional seconds. precision. The default is determined by
(The exact resolution depends on theNLS_TIMESTAMP_FORMAT initialization
the operating system clock.) parameter.

The precision value specifies the

number of digits in the fractional
second part of the SECOND date
field. The precision can be from 0
to 9, and defaults to 6

TIMESTAMP A value representing a date and Fixed at 13 bytes. The default is determined by
(precision) time, plus an associated time zone theNLS_TIMESTAMP_TZ_FORMAT initialization
WITH TIME setting. The time zone can be an parameter.
ZONE offset from UTC, such as'-
5:0', or a region name, such
as 'US/Pacific'.

TIMESTAMP Similar to TIMESTAMP WITH Varies from 7 to 11 bytes, depending on the

(precision) TIME ZONE, except that the data precision. The default is determined by
WITH LOCAL is normalized to the database time theNLS_TIMESTAMP_FORMAT initialization
zone when stored, and adjusted to
 TIME ZONE match the client's time zone when parameter.
retrieved.

BLOB Unstructured binary data Up to 232 - 1 bytes, or 4 gigabytes.

BFILE Binary data stored in an external Up to 232 - 1 bytes, or 4 gigabytes.

file

RAW (size) Variable-length raw binary data Variable for each row in the table, up to 2000 bytes
per row. A maximum size must be specified.
Provided for backward compatibility.

LONG RAW Variable-length raw binary data Variable for each row in the table, up to 231 - 1
bytes, or 2 gigabytes, per row. Provided for
backward compatibility.

ROWID Binary data representing row Fixed at 10 bytes (extended ROWID) or 6 bytes
addresses (restricted ROWID) for each row in the table.

Representing Character Data

Use the character datatypes to store alphanumeric data:

CHAR and NCHAR datatypes store fixed-length character strings.

VARCHAR2 and NVARCHAR2 datatypes store variable-length character
strings. (The VARCHAR datatype is synonymous with
theVARCHAR2 datatype.)
NCHAR and NVARCHAR2 datatypes store Unicode character data only.
CLOB and NCLOB datatypes store single-byte and multibyte character
strings of up to four gigabytes.
The LONGdatatype stores variable-length character strings
containing up to two gigabytes, but with many restrictions.
This datatype is provided for backward compatibility with existing applications;
in general, new applications should use CLOB andNCLOB datatypes to store large
 amounts of character data, and BLOB and BFILE to store large amounts of binary
data.

When deciding which datatype to use for a column that will store alphanumeric data
in a table, consider the following points of distinction:

To store data more efficiently, use the VARCHAR2 datatype.

The CHAR datatype blank-pads and stores trailing blanks up to a
fixed column length for all column values, while
the VARCHAR2 datatype does not add any extra blanks.
For example if you define empname as char(20) then if you store
names like Sami then name will occupy 20 bytes( 4 bytes for
characters Sami and 16 blank spaces)
And if you define empname as varchar2(20) then if you store
names like Sami then oracle will take 4 bytes only.
Use the CHAR datatype when you require ANSI compatibility in
comparison semantics (when trailing blanks are not important in
string comparisons). Use the VARCHAR2 when trailing blanks are
important in string comparisons.
The CHARand VARCHAR2 datatypes are and will always be fully
supported. At this time, the VARCHAR datatype automatically
corresponds to the VARCHAR2 datatype and is reserved for future
use.
Representing Numeric Data
Use the NUMBER datatype to store real numbers in a fixed-point or floating-point format.
Numbers using this datatype are guaranteed to be portable among different Oracle
platforms, and offer up to 38 decimal digits of precision. You can store positive and
negative numbers of magnitude 1 x 10-130 through 9.99 x10125, as well as zero, in
a NUMBER column.

You can specify that a column contains a floating-point number, for example:

distance NUMBER
Or, you can specify a precision (total number of digits) and scale (number of digits to
right of decimal point):

price NUMBER (8, 2)

Although not required, specifying precision and scale helps to identify bad input
values. If a precision is not specified, the column stores values as given. The
following table shows examples of how data different scale factors affect storage.

Input Data Specified As Stored As

4,751,132.79 NUMBER 4751132.79

4,751,132.79 NUMBER (9) 4751133

4,751,132.79 NUMBER (9,2) 4751132.79

4,751,132.79 NUMBER (9,1) 4751132.7

4,751,132.79 NUMBER (6) (not accepted, exceeds precision)

4,751,132.79 NUMBER (7, -2) 4,751100

Representing Date and Time Data

Use the DATE datatype to store point-in-time values (dates and times) in a table.
The DATE datatype stores the century, year, month, day, hours, minutes, and seconds.

Use the TIMESTAMP datatype to store precise values, down to fractional seconds. For
example, an application that must decide which of two events occurred first might
use TIMESTAMP. An application that needs to specify the time for a job to execute might
use DATE.
Date Format
For input and output of dates, the standard Oracle default date format is DD-MON-RR.
For example:

'13-NOV-1992'

To change this default date format on an instance-wide basis, use

the NLS_DATE_FORMAT parameter. To change the format during a session, use
the ALTER SESSION statement. To enter dates that are not in the current default date
format, use the TO_DATE function with a format mask. For example:

TO_DATE ('November 13, 1992', 'MONTH DD, YYYY')

Be careful using a date format like DD-MON-YY. The YY indicates the year in the current
century. For example, 31-DEC-92 isDecember 31, 2092, not 1992 as you might
expect. If you want to indicate years in any century other than the current one, use a
different format mask, such as the default RR.

Time Format
Time is stored in 24-hour format, HH24:MI:SS. By default, the time in a date field is
12:00:00 A.M. (midnight) if no time portion is entered. In a time-only entry, the date
portion defaults to the first day of the current month. To enter the time portion of a
date, use theTO_DATE function with a format mask indicating the time portion, as in:

INSERT INTO Birthdays_tab (bname, bday) VALUES

('ANNIE',TO_DATE('13-NOV-92 10:56 A.M.','DD-MON-YY

HH:MI A.M.'));

Creating Tables in Oracle

Once you have designed the table and decided about datatypes use the following SQL
command to create a table.

For example, the following statement creates a table named Emp.

CREATE TABLE Emp (

Empno NUMBER(5),
 Ename VARCHAR2(15),

Hiredate DATE,

Sal NUMBER(7,2)

);

To insert rows in the table you can use SQL INSERT command.

For example the following statement creates a row in the above

table.

SQL>insert into emp values (101,Sami,3400);

To insert rows continuously in SQL Plus you can give the following
command.

SQL>insert into emp values (&empno,&name,&sal);

These &Empno, &name and &sal are known as substitution

variables. That is SQLPlus will prompt you for these values and then
rewrites the statement with supplied values.

To see the rows you have inserted give the following command.

SQL> Select * from emp;

To see the structure of the table i.e. column names and their
datatypes and widths. Give the following command.

SQL>desc emp

To see how many tables are in your schema give the following
command.

SQL> select * from cat;

or
SQL>select * from tab;

SQL Queries, SELECT Statement

Use a SELECT statement or subquery to retrieve data from one or more tables, object
tables, views, object views, or materialized views

For example to retrieve all rows from emp table.

SQL> select empno, ename, sal from emp;

Or (if you want to see all the columns values

You can also give * which means all columns)

SQL> select * from emp;

Suppose you want to see only employee names and their salaries then you can type
the following statement

SQL> select name, sal from emp;

Filtering Information using Where Conditions

You can filter information using where conditions like suppose you want to see
only those employees whose salary is above 5000 then you can type the following
query with where condition

SQL>select * from emp where sal > 5000;

To see those employees whose salary is less than 5000 then the query will be

SQL> select * from emp where sal < 5000;

Logical Conditions

A logical condition combines the results of two component conditions to produce a

single result based on them or to invert the result of a single condition. Table below
lists logical conditions.
 Condition Operation Example

Returns TRUE if the following condition is FALSE.

NOT ReturnsFALSE if it is TRUE. If it is UNKNOWN, it SELECT *
remains UNKNOWN.
FROM emp

WHERE NOT (sal IS

NULL);

SELECT *

FROM emp

WHERE NOT

(salary BETWEEN 1000

AND 2000);

Returns TRUE if both component conditions are TRUE.

AND Returns FALSE if either is FALSE. Otherwise SELECT *
returnsUNKNOWN.
FROM employees

WHERE ename ='SAMI'

AND sal=3000;

Returns TRUE if either component condition is TRUE.

OR ReturnsFALSE if both are FALSE. Otherwise SELECT *
returns UNKNOWN.
FROM emp

WHERE ename = 'SAMI'

OR sal >= 1000;

Membership Conditions

A membership condition tests for membership in a list or subquery

The following table lists the membership conditions.

Condition Operation Example

"Equal to any member of" test. Equivalent to

IN "= ANY". SELECT * FROM emp

WHERE deptno IN

(10,20);

SELECT * FROM emp

WHERE deptno IN (SELECT deptno

FROM dept WHERE city=HYD)

Equivalent to "!=ALL". Evaluates

NOT IN to FALSEif any member of the set is NULL. SELECT * FROM emp

WHERE ename NOT IN ('SCOTT',

'SMITH');

Null Conditions

A NULL condition tests for nulls.

What is null?

If a column is empty or no value has been inserted in it then it is called null.

Remember 0 is not null and blank string is also not null.

The following example lists the null conditions.

 Condition Operation Example

Tests for nulls. This is the only condition that you

IS [NOT] should use to test for nulls. SELECT ename

NULL FROM emp

WHERE deptno

IS NULL;

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE

ename IS NOT NULL;

EXISTS Conditions

An EXISTS condition tests for existence of rows in a subquery.

The following example shows the EXISTS condition.

Condition Operation Example

TRUE if a subquery returns at least one row.

EXISTS SELECT deptno

FROM dept d

WHERE EXISTS

(SELECT * FROM emp e

WHERE d.deptno

= e.deptno);
LIKE Conditions

The LIKE conditions specify a test involving pattern matching. Whereas the equality
operator (=) exactly matches one character value to another, the LIKE conditions match
a portion of one character value to another by searching the first value for the pattern
specified by the second. LIKE calculates strings using characters as defined by the
input character set.

For example you want to see all employees whose name starts with S char. Then you
can use LIKE condition as follows

SQL> select * from emp where ename like S% ;

Similarly you want to see all employees whose name ends with d

SQL>select * from emp where ename like %d;

You want to see all employees whose name starts with A and ends with d like
Abid, Adward, Arnold.

SQL>select * from emp where ename like A%d;

You want to see those employees whose name contains character a anywhere in the
string.

SQL> select * from emp where ename like %a%;

To see those employees whose name contains a in second position.

SQL>select * from emp where ename like _a%;

To see those employees whose name contains a as last second character.

SQL>select * from emp where ename like %a_;

To see those employees whose name contain % sign. i.e. % sign has to be used as
literal not as wild char.

SQL> select * from emp where ename like %\%% escape

\;
The UNION [ALL], INTERSECT, MINUS
Operators
You can combine multiple queries using the set operators UNION, UNION ALL,
INTERSECT, and MINUS. All set operators have equal precedence. If a SQL
statement contains multiple set operators, Oracle evaluates them from the left to right
if no parentheses explicitly specify another order.

UNION Example

The following statement combines the results with the UNION operator, which eliminates
duplicate selected rows. This statement shows that you must match datatype (using
the TO_CHAR function) when columns do not exist in one or the other table:

select empno, ename, sal, to_char(null) as Transfer Date from

emp

UNION

select empno,ename,to_char(null) as Sal,tdate from oldemp;

EMPNO ENAME SAL Transfer Date

----- ----- ------ -------------
101 Sami 5000
102 Smith 11-jul-2000
201 Tamim 10-AUG-2000
209 Ravi 2400

UNION ALL Example

The UNION operator returns only distinct rows that appear in either result, while
the UNION ALL operator returns all rows. TheUNION ALL operator does not eliminate duplicate
selected rows:

select empno,ename from emp

union all
select empno,ename from oldemp;

INTERSECT Example
The following statement combines the results with the INTERSECT operator, which returns only
those rows returned by both queries:
SELECT empno FROM emp
INTERSECT
SELECT empno FROM oldemp;

MINUS Example

The following statement combines results with the MINUS operator, which returns only rows
returned by the first query but not by the second:

SELECT empno FROM emp

MINUS
SELECT empno FROM oldemp;

SORTING QUERY RESULTS

To sort query result you can use ORDER BY clause in SELECT statement.

Sorting Examples.
The following query sorts the employees according to ascending order of salaries.

select * from emp order by sal;

The following query sorts the employees according to descending order of salaries.

select * from emp order by sal desc;

The following query sorts the employees according to ascending order of names.

select * from emp order by ename;

The following query first sorts the employees according to ascending order of names.If names
are equal then sorts employees on descending order of salaries.

select * from emp order by ename, sal desc;

You can also specify the positions instead of column names. Like in the following query,which
shows employees according to ascending order of their names.

select * from emp order by 2;

The following query first sorts the employees according to ascending order of salaries.
If salaries are equal then sorts employees on ascending order of names

select * from emp order by 3, 2;

SQL functions are built into Oracle and are available for use in various appropriate
SQL statements. You can also create your own function using PL/SQL.
Single-Row Functions

Single-row functions return a single result row for every row of a queried table or
view. These functions can appear in select
lists,WHERE clauses, START WITH and CONNECT BY clauses, and HAVING clauses.

Number Functions

Number functions accept numeric input and return numeric values. Most of these
functions return values that are accurate to 38 decimal digits.

The number functions available in Oracle are:

ABS ACOS ASIN ATAN ATAN2 BITAND CEIL COS COSH EXP FLOOR
LN LOG
MOD POWER ROUND (number) SIGN SIN SINH SQRT TAN
TANH TRUNC (number)

ABS
ABS returns the absolute value of n.

The following example returns the absolute value of -87:

SELECT ABS(-87) "Absolute" FROM DUAL;

Absolute

----------

87

ACOS
ACOS returns the arc cosine of n. Inputs are in the range of -1 to 1, and outputs are in
the range of 0 to pi and are expressed in radians.

The following example returns the arc cosine of .3:

SELECT ACOS(.3)"Arc_Cosine" FROM DUAL;

Arc_Cosine

----------

1.26610367

Similar to ACOS, you have ASIN (Arc Sine), ATAN (Arc Tangent) functions.

CIEL
Returns the lowest integer above the given number.

Example:

The following function return the lowest integer above 3.456;

select ciel(3.456) Ciel from dual;

Ciel

---------

FLOOR

Returns the highest integer below the given number.

Example:

The following function return the highest integer below 3.456;

select floor(3.456) Floor from dual;

Floor

------------

3
COS

Returns the cosine of an angle (in radians).

Example:

The following example returns the COSINE angle of 60 radians.

select cos(60) Cosine from dual;

SIN

Returns the Sine of an angle (in radians).

Example:

The following example returns the SINE angle of 60 radians.

select SIN(60) Sine from dual;

TAN

Returns the Tangent of an angle (in radians).

Example:

The following example returns the tangent angle of 60 radians.

select Tan(60) Tangent from dual;

Similar to SIN, COS, TAN functions hyperbolic functions SINH,

COSH, TANH are also available in oracle.

MOD

Returns the remainder after dividing m with n.

Example
The following example returns the remainder after dividing 30 by 4.

Select mod(30,4) MOD from dual;

MOD

---------

POWER

Returns the power of m, raised to n.

Example

The following example returns the 2 raised to the power of 3.

select power(2,3) Power from dual;

POWER

---------

EXP

Returns the e raised to the power of n.

Example

The following example returns the e raised to power of 2.

select exp(2) e raised to 2 from dual;

E RAISED TO 2

-------------
LN

Returns natural logarithm of n.

Example

The following example returns the natural logarithm of 2.

select ln(2) from dual;

LN

------------

LOG

Returns the logarithm, base m, of n.

Example

The following example returns the log of 100.

select log(10,100) from dual;

LOG

---------

ROUND

Returns a decimal number rounded of to a given decimal positions.

Example

The following example returns the no. 3.4573 rounded to 2

decimals.

select round(3.4573,2) Round from dual;

Round

------------

3.46

TRUNC

Returns a decimal number Truncated to a given decimal positions.

Example

The following example returns the no. 3.4573 truncated to 2

decimals.

select round(3.4573,2) Round from dual;

Round

------------

3.45

SQRT

Returns the square root of a given number.

Example
The following example returns the square root of 16.

select sqrt(16) from dual;

SQRT

---------

Character Functions

Character functions operate on values of dataype CHAR or

VARCHAR.

LOWER

Returns a given string in lower case.

select LOWER(SAMI) from dual;

LOWER

-------------

sami

UPPER

Returns a given string in UPPER case.

select UPPER(Sami) from dual;

UPPER

------------------

SAMI
INITCAP

Returns a given string with Initial letter in capital.

select INITCAP(mohammed sami) from dual;

INITCAP

------------------

Mohammed Sami

LENGTH

Returns the length of a given string.

select length(mohammed sami) from dual;

LENGTH

------------

13

SUBSTR

Returns a substring from a given string. Starting from position p to n

characters.

For example the following query returns sam from the string
mohammed sami.

select substr('mohammed sami',10,3) from dual;

Substr

--------
sam

INSTR

Tests whether a given character occurs in the given string or not. If

the character occurs in the string then returns the first position of its
occurrence otherwise returns 0.

Example

The following query tests whether the character a occurs in string

mohammed sami

select instr('mohammed sami','a') from dual;

INSTR

--------

REPLACE

Replaces a given set of characters in a string with another set of

characters.

Example

The following query replaces mohd with mohammed .

select replace('ali mohd khan','mohd','mohammed') from

dual;

REPLACE

---------

ali mohammed khan

INSTR

Tests whether a given character occurs in the given string or not. If

the character occurs in the string then returns the first position of its
occurrence otherwise returns 0.

Example

The following query tests whether the character a occurs in string

mohammed sami

select instr('mohammed sami','a') from dual;

INSTR

--------

REPLACE

Replaces a given set of characters in a string with another set of

characters.

Example

The following query replaces mohd with mohammed .

select replace('ali mohd khan','mohd','mohammed') from

dual;

REPLACE

---------

ali mohammed khan

TRANSLATE

This function is used to encrypt characters. For example you can use
this function to replace characters in a given string with your coded
characters.

Example

The following query replaces characters A with B, B with C, C with D,

D with E,...Z with A, and a with b,b with c,c with d, d with e ....z with
a.

select
translate('interface','ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZabcdefgh
ijklmnopqrstuvwxyz',

'BCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZAbcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyza')
Encrypt from dual;

Encrypt

-----------

joufsgbdf

SOUNDEX

This function is used to check pronounciation rather than exact

characters. For example many people write names as smith or
smyth or smythe but they are pronounced as smith only.

Example

The following example compare those names which are spelled

differently but are pronouced as smith.
Select ename from emp where
soundex(ename)=soundex('smith');

ENAME

---------

Smith

Smyth

Smythe

RPAD

Right pads a given string with a given character to n number of

characters.

Example

The following query rights pad ename with '*' until it becomes 10
characters.

select rpad(ename,'*',10) from emp;

Ename

----------

Smith*****

John******

Mohammed**

Sami******
LPAD

Left pads a given string with a given character upto n number of

characters.

Example

The following query left pads ename with '*' until it becomes 10
characters.

select lpad(ename,'*',10) from emp;

Ename

----------

*****Smith

******John

**Mohammed

******Sami

LTRIM

Trims blank spaces from a given string from left.

Example

The following query returns string Interface left trimmed.

select ltrim(' Interface ') from dual;

Ltrim

--------------

Interface
RTRIM

Trims blank spaces from a given string from Right.

Example

The following query returns string Interface right

trimmed.

select rtrim(' Interface ') from dual;

Rtrim

------------

Interface

TRIM

Trims a given character from left or right or both from a given string.

Example

The following query removes zero from left and right of a given
string.

Select trim(0 from '00003443500') from dual;

Trim

----------

34435

CONCAT

Combines a given string with another string.

Example
The following Query combines ename with literal string is a and
jobid.

Select concat(concat(ename,' is a '),job) from emp;

Concat

----------------

Smith is a clerk

John is a Manager

Sami is a G.Manager

Miscellaneous Single Row Functions

COALESCE

Coalesce function returns the first not null value in the expression
list.

Example.

The following query returns salary+commision, if commission is null

then returns salary, if salary is also null then returns 1000.

select
empno,ename,salary,comm,coalesce(salary+comm,salary,1000)
Net Sal from emp;

ENAME SALARY COMM NET SAL

----- ------ ---- -------

SMITH 1000 100 1100

SAMI 3000 3000

SCOTT 1000

RAVI 200 1000

DECODE

DECODE(expr, searchvalue1, result1,searchvalue2,result2,...,

defaultvalue)

Decode functions compares an expr with search value one by one. If

the expr does not match any of the search value then returns the
default value. If the default value is omitted then returns null.

Example

The following query returns the department names according the

deptno. If the deptno does not match any of the search value then
returns Unknown Department

select
decode(deptno,10,'Sales',20,'Accounts,30,'Production,

40,'R&D','Unknown Dept') As DeptName from emp;

DEPTNAME

----------

Sales

Accounts

Unknown Dept.

Accounts

Production
Sales

R&D

Unknown Dept.

GREATEST

GREATEST(expr1, expr2, expr3,expr4...)

Returns the greatest expr from a expr list.

Example

select greatest(10,20,50,20,30) from dual;

GREATEST

--------

50

select greatest('SAMI','SCOTT','RAVI','SMITH','TANYA')
from dual;

GREATEST

--------

TANYA

LEAST

LEAST(expr1, expr2, expr3,expr4...)

It is simillar to greatest. It returns the least expr from the expression
list.

select least(10,20,50,20,30) from dual;

LEAST

--------

10

select least('SAMI','SCOTT','RAVI','SMITH','TANYA') from

dual;

LEAST

--------

RAVI

NVL

NVL2(expr1,expr2)

This function is oftenly used to check null values. It returns expr2 if

the expr1 is null, otherwise returns expr1.

Example

The following query returns commission if commission is null then

returns 'Not Applicable'.

Select ename,nvl(comm,'Not Applicable') Comm from dual;

ENAME COMM

------ ----

Scott 300
Tiger 450

Sami Not Applicable

Ravi 300

Tanya Not Applicable

NVL2

NVL2(expr1,expr2,expr3)

NVL2 returns expr2 if expr1 is not null, otherwise return expr3.

Example

The following query returns salary+comm if comm is not null,

otherwise just returns salary.

select salary,comm,nvl2(comm,salary+comm,salary) Income

from emp;

SALARY COMM INCOME

------ ---- ------

1000 100 1100

2000 2000

2300 200 2500

3400 3400

NULLIF

NULLIF(expr1, expr2)
Nullif compares expr1 with expr2. If they are equal then returns null,
otherwise return expr1.

Example.

The following query shows old jobs of those employees who have
changed their jobs in the company by comparing the current job
with old job in oldemp table.

Select ename,nullif(e.job,o.job) Old Job from emp e,

oldemp o where e.empno=o.empno;

ENAME OLD JOB

----- -------

SMITH CLERK

SAMI

SCOTT MANAGER

UID

Returns the current session ID of user logged on.

Example

select uid from dual;

UID

----

20

USER

Returns the username of the current user logged on.

select user from dual;

USER

---------

SCOTT

SYS_CONTEXT
SYS_CONTEXT returns the value of parameter associated with the
context namespace. You can use this function in both SQL and
PL/SQL statements.

EXAMPLE

The following query returns the username of the current user.

Select sys_context('USERENV','SESSION_USER') Username

from dual;

USERNAME

---------

SCOTT

Similar to SESSION_USER parameter for namespace USERENV the

other important parameters are

ISDBA :To check whether the current user is having DBA

privileges or not.

HOST :Returns the name of host machine from which the

client is connected.

INSTANCE :The instance identification number of the current

instance
IP_ADDRESS: IP address of the machine from which the client is
connected.

DB_NAME :Name of the database as specified in

the DB_NAME initialization parameter

VSIZE
VSIZE(expr)

Returns the internal representation of expr in bytes.

Example

The following query return the representation of ename in bytes.

select ename,vsize(ename) as Bytes from emp;

ENAME BYTES

------ ------

SCOTT 5

SAMI 4

RAVI 4

KIRAN 5

Aggregate Functions

Aggregate functions return a single value based on groups of rows,

rather than single value for each row. You can use Aggregate
functions in select lists and in ORDER BY and HAVING clauses. They are
commonly used with the GROUP BY clause in a SELECTstatement, where
Oracle divides the rows of a queried table or view into groups.

The important Aggregate functions are :

Avg Sum Max Min Count Stddev Variance

AVG

AVG( ALL /DISTINCT expr)

Returns the average value of expr.

Example

The following query returns the average salary of all employees.

select avg(sal) Average Salary from emp;

Average Salary

------------------------

2400.40

SUM

SUM(ALL/DISTINCT expr)

Returns the sum value of expr.

Example

The following query returns the sum salary of all employees.

select sum(sal) Total Salary from emp;

Total Salary

------------------------

26500
MAX

MAX(ALL/DISTINCT expr)

Returns maximum value of expr.

Example

The following query returns the max salary from the employees.

select max(sal) Max Salary from emp;

Maximum Salary

------------------------

4500

MIN

MIN(ALL/DISTINCT expr)

Returns minimum value of expr.

Example

The following query returns the minimum salary from the

employees.

select min(sal) Min Salary from emp;

Minimum Salary

------------------------

1200

COUNT

COUNT(*) OR COUNT(ALL/DISTINCT expr)

Returns the number of rows in the query. If you specify expr then
count ignore nulls. If you specify the asterisk (*), this function
returns all rows, including duplicates and nulls. COUNT never returns
null.

Example

The following query returns the number of employees.

Select count(*) from emp;

COUNT

------

14

The following query counts the number of employees whose salary

is not null.

Select count(sal) from emp;

COUNT

------
12

STDDEV

STDDEV(ALL/DISTINCT expr)

STDDEV returns sample standard deviation of expr, a set of numbers.

Example

The following query returns the standard deviation of salaries.

select stddev(sal) from emp;

Stddev

-------

1430

VARIANCE

VARIANCE(ALL/DISTINCT expr)

Variance returns the variance of expr.

Example

The following query returns the variance of salaries.

select variance(sal) from emp;

Variance

-------

1430

Joins
A join is a query that combines rows from two or more tables, views, or materialized
views. Oracle performs a join whenever multiple tables appear in the
query's FROM clause. The query's select list can select any columns from any of these
tables. If any two of these tables have a column name in common, you must qualify
all references to these columns throughout the query with table names to avoid
ambiguity.

Join Conditions

Most join queries contain WHERE clause conditions that compare two columns, each
from a different table. Such a condition is called ajoin condition. To execute a join,
Oracle combines pairs of rows, each containing one row from each table, for which
the join condition evaluates to TRUE. The columns in the join conditions need not also
appear in the select list.

Equijoins

An equijoin is a join with a join condition containing an equality operator ( = ). An

equijoin combines rows that have equivalent values for the specified columns.

For example the following query returns empno,name,sal,deptno and department

name and city from department table.

select
emp.empno,emp.ename,emp.sal,emp.deptno,dept.dname,dept.ci
ty from emp,dept where emp.deptno=dept.deptno;

The above query can also be written like, using aliases, given below.

select e.empno, e.ename, e.sal, e.deptno, d.dname, d.city

from emp e, dept d where emp.deptno=dept.deptno;

The above query can also be written like given below without using table qualifiers.

select empno,ename,sal,dname,city from emp,dept where

emp.deptno=dept.deptno;

And if you want to see all the columns of both tables then the query can be written
like this.

select * from emp,dept where emp.deptno=dept.deptno;

Non Equi Joins.

Non equi joins is used to return result from two or more tables where exact join is not
possible.

For example we have emp table and salgrade table. The salgrade table contains grade
and their low salary and high salary. Suppose you want to find the grade of employees
based on their salaries then you can use NON EQUI join.

select e.empno, e.ename, e.sal, s.grade from emp e,

salgrade s where e.sal between s.lowsal and s.hisal

Self Joins

A self join is a join of a table to itself. This table appears twice in the FROM clause and
is followed by table aliases that qualify column names in the join condition. To
perform a self join, Oracle combines and returns rows of the table that satisfy the join
condition.

For example the following query returns employee names and their manager names
for whom they are working.

Select e.empno, e.ename, m.ename Manager from emp e,

emp m where e.mgrid=m.empno
Inner Join

An inner join (sometimes called a "simple join") is a join of two or more tables that
returns only those rows that satisfy the join condition.

Outer Joins

An outer join extends the result of a simple join. An outer join returns all rows that
satisfy the join condition and also returns some or all of those rows from one table for
which no rows from the other satisfy the join condition.

To write a query that performs an outer join of tables A and B and returns all
rows from A (a left outer join), use the ANSILEFT [OUTER] JOIN syntax, or
apply the outer join operator (+) to all columns of B in the join condition. For
all rows in A that have no matching rows in B, Oracle returns null for any
select list expressions containing columns of B.

To write a query that performs an outer join of tables A and B and returns all
rows from B (a right outer join), use the ANSIRIGHT [OUTER] syntax, or apply
the outer join operator (+) to all columns of A in the join condition. For all
 rows in B that have no matching rows in A, Oracle returns null for any select
list expressions containing columns of A.

To write a query that performs an outer join and and returns all rows from A
and B, extended with nulls if they do not satisfy the join condition (a full
outer join), use the ANSI FULL [OUTER] JOIN syntax.

For example the following query returns all the employees and department names and
even those department names where no employee is working.

select e.empno,e.ename,e.sal,e.deptno,d.dname,d.city
from emp e, dept d where e.deptno(+)=d.deptno;

That is specify the (+) sign to the column which is lacking values.

Cartesian Products

If two tables in a join query have no join condition, Oracle returns their Cartesian
product. Oracle combines each row of one table with each row of the other. A
Cartesian product always generates many rows and is rarely useful. For example, the
Cartesian product of two tables, each with 100 rows, has 10,000 rows. Always include
a join condition unless you specifically need a Cartesian product.

SUBQUERIES

A query nested within a query is known as subquery.

For example, you want to see all the employees whose salary is above average salary.
For this you have to first compute the average salary using AVG function and then
compare employees salaries with this computed salary. This is possible using
subquery. Here the sub query will first compute the average salary and then main
query will execute.

Select * from emp where sal > (select avg(sal) from emp);

Similarly we want to see the name and empno of that employee whose salary is
maximum.

Select * from emp where sal = (select max(sal) from emp);

To see second maximum salary

Select max(sal) from emp where

 sal < (select max(sal) from emp);

Similarly to see the Third highest salary.

Select max(sal) from emp where

sal < (select max(sal) from emp Where

sal < (select max(sal) from emp));

We want to see how many employees are there whose salary is above average.

Select count(*) from emp where

sal > (select max(sal) from emp);

We want to see those employees who are working in Hyderabad. Remember emp and
dept are joined on deptno and city column is in the dept table. Assuming that wherever
the department is located the employee is working in that city.

Select * from emp where deptno

in (select deptno from dept where city=HYD);

You can also use subquery in FROM clause of SELECT statement.

For example the following query returns the top 5 salaries from employees table.

Select sal from (select sal from emp order sal desc)

where rownum <= 5;

To see the sum salary deptwise you can give the following query.

Select sum(sal) from emp group by deptno;

Now to see the average total salary deptwise you can give a sub query in FROM
clause.

select avg(depttotal) from (select sum(sal) as depttotal

from emp group by deptno);
WITH

The above average total salary department wise can also be achieved in 9i using
WITH clause given below

WITH

DEPTOT AS (select sum(sal) as dsal from emp

group by deptno)

select avg(dsal) from deptot;

GROUP BY QUERIES

You can group query results on some column values. When you give a SELECT
statement without group by clause then all the resultant rows are treated as a single
group.

For Example, we want to see the sum salary of all employees dept wise. Then the
following query will achieved the result

Select deptno,sum(sal) from emp group by deptno;

Similarly we want to see the average salary dept wise

Select deptno,avg(sal) from emp group by deptno;

Similarly we want to see the maximum salary in each department.

Select deptno,max(sal) from emp group by deptno;

Similarly the minimum salary.

Select deptno,min(sal) from emp group by deptno;

Now we want to see the number of employees working in each department.

Select deptno,count(*) from emp group by deptno;

Now we want to see total salary department wise where the dept wise total salary is
above 5000.
For this you have to use HAVING clause. Remember HAVING clause is used to filter
groups and WHERE clause is used to filter rows. You cannot use WHERE clause to
filter groups.

select deptno,sum(sal) from emp group by deptno

having sum(sal) >= 5000;

We want to see those departments and the number of employees working in them
where the number of employees is more than 2.

Select deptno, count(*) from emp group by deptno

Having count(*) >=2;

Instead of displaying deptno you can also display deptnames by using join conditions.

For example we want to see deptname and average salary of them.

Select dname,avg(sal) from emp,dept

where emp.deptno=dept.deptno group by dname;

Similarly to see sum of sal.

Select dname,sum(sal) from emp,dept

where emp.deptno=dept.deptno group by dname;

Now we want to see the cities name and the no of employees working in each city.
Remember emp and dept are joined on deptno and city column is in the dept table.
Assuming that wherever the department is located the employee is working in that
city.

Select dept.city,count(empno) from emp,dept

where emp.deptno=dept.deptno

Group by dept.city;
ROLLUP

The ROLLUP operation in the simple_grouping_clause groups the selected rows based
on the values of the first n, n-1, n-2, ... 0 expressions in the GROUP BY specification, and
returns a single row of summary for each group. You can use the ROLLUP operation to
produce subtotal values by using it with the SUM function. When used
with SUM, ROLLUP generates subtotals from the most detailed level to the grand total.
Aggregate functions such as COUNT can be used to produce other kinds of
superaggregates.

For example, given three expressions (n=3) in the ROLLUP clause of

the simple_grouping_clause, the operation results in n+1 = 3+1 = 4 groupings.

Rows grouped on the values of the first 'n' expressions are called regular rows, and
the others are called superaggregate rows.

The following query uses rollup operation to show sales amount product wise and
year wise. To see the structure of the sales table refer to appendices.

Select prod,year,sum(amt) from sales

group by rollup(prod,year);

CUBE

The CUBE operation in the simple_grouping_clause groups the selected rows based on
the values of all possible combinations of expressions in the specification, and returns
a single row of summary information for each group. You can use the CUBE operation
to produce cross-tabulation values.

For example, given three expressions (n=3) in the CUBE clause of

the simple_grouping_clause, the operation results in 2n = 23 = 8 groupings. Rows
grouped on the values of 'n' expressions are called regular rows, and the rest are
called superaggregate rows.

The following query uses CUBE operation to show sales amount product wise and
year wise. To see the structure of the sales table refer to appendices.

Select prod,year,sum(amt) from sales

group by CUBE(prod,year);
CASE EXPRESSION

CASE expressions let you use IF ... THEN ... ELSE logic in SQL statements without having
to invoke procedures.

For example the following query uses CASE expression to display Department Names
based on deptno.

Select empno,ename,sal,CASE deptno when 10 then

Accounts
When 20 then Sales
When 30 then R&D
Else Unknown end
From emp;

The following statement finds the average salary of the employees in the employees
table using $2000 as the lowest salary possible:
SELECT AVG(CASE WHEN e.sal > 2000 THEN e.sal
ELSE 2000 END) "Average Salary" from emp e;

Data Manipulation Language (DML) Statements

Data manipulation language (DML) statements query and manipulate data in existing schema
objects. These statements do not implicitly commit the current transaction.
The following are the DML statements available in Oracle.

INSERT :Use to Add Rows to existing table.

UPDATE :Use to Edit Existing Rows in tables.
DELETE :Use to Delete Rows from tables.
MERGE :Use to Update or Insert Rows depending on condition.
Insert

Use the Insert Statement to Add records to existing Tables.

Examples.

To add a new row to an emp table.

Insert into emp values (101,Sami,G.Manager,

8-aug-1998,2000);
If you want to add a new row by supplying values for some columns not all the columns then
you have to mention the name of the columns in insert statements. For example the following
statement inserts row in emp table by supplying values for empno, ename, and sal columns only.
The Job and Hiredate columns will be null.

Insert into emp (empno,ename,sal) values

(102,Ashi,5000);

Suppose you want to add rows from one table to another i.e. suppose we have
Old_Emp table and emp table with the following structure

Emp
Old_emp

Column Datatype &

Column Datatype &
Name Width
Name Width
Empno Number(5)
Empno Number(5)
Ename Varchar2(20)
Ename Varchar2(20)
Sal Number(10,
Sal Number(10,
Hiredat 2)
Tdate 2)
e Date
Date
Job Varchar2(20)

Now we want to add rows from old_emp table to emp table. Then you can give the
following insert statement

Insert into emp (empno, ename, sal)

select empno, ename, sal from old_emp;

Multitable Insert

Suppose we have sales table with the following structure.

Sales
Prodi Prodname Mon_Amt Tue_Amt Wed_Amt Thu_Am Fri_Am Sat_Amt
d t t
101 AIWA 2000 2500 2230 2900 3000 2100
102 AKAI 1900 2100 2130 3100 2800 2120

Now we want to add the rows from SALES table Weekly_Sales Table in the
following Structure.

Prodi Prodna WeekDa Amoun

d me y t

101 AIWA Mon 2000

101 AIWA Tue 2500
101 AIWA Wed 2230
101 AIWA Thu 2900
101 AIWA Fri 3000
101 AIWA Sat 2100
102 AKAI Mon 1900
102 AKAI Tue 2100
102 AKAI Wed 2130
102 AKAI Thu 3100
102 AKAI Fri 2800
102 AKAI Sat 2120

To achieve the above we can give a multi table INSERT statement given below

Insert all
Into week_sales(prodid,prodname,weekday,amount)
Values (prodid,prodname,Mon,mon_amt)
Into week_sales(prodid,prodname,weekday,amount)
Values (prodid,prodname,Tue,tue_amt)
Into week_sales(prodid,prodname,weekday,amount)
Values (prodid,prodname,Wed,wed_amt)
Into week_sales(prodid,prodname,weekday,amount)
Values (prodid,prodname,Thu,thu_amt)
Into week_sales(prodid,prodname,weekday,amount)
Values (prodid,prodname,Fri,fri_amt)
Into week_sales(prodid,prodname,weekday,amount)
Values (prodid,prodname,Sat,sat_amt)
Select prodid,prodname,mon_amt,tue_amt,wed_amt,thu_amt
 Fri_amt,sat_amt from sales;

Update

Update statement is used to update rows in existing tables which is in your own
schema or if you have update privilege on them.

For example to raise the salary by Rs.500 of employee number 104. You can give the
following statement.

update emp set sal=sal+500 where empno = 104;

In the above statement if we did not give the where condition then all employees
salary will be raised by Rs. 500. Thats why always specify proper WHERE condition
if dont want to update all employees.

For example We want to change the name of employee no 102 from Sami to Mohd
Sami and to raise the salary by 10%. Then the statement will be.

update emp set name=Mohd Sami,

sal=sal+(sal*10/100) where empno=102;

Now we want to raise the salary of all employees by 5%.

update emp set sal=sal+(sal*5/100);

Now to change the names of all employees to uppercase.

update emp set name=upper(name);

Suppose We have a student table with the following structure.

Rollno Name Maths Phy Chem Total Average

101 Sami 99 90 89
102 Scott 34 77 56
103 Smith 45 82 43

Now to compute total which is sum of Maths,Phy and Chem and average.
update student set total=maths+phy+chem,
average=(maths+phy+chem)/3;

Using Sub Query in the Update Set Clause.

Suppose we added the city column in the employee table and now we want to set this
column with corresponding city column in department table which is join to employee
table on deptno.

update emp set city=(select city from dept

where deptno= emp.deptno);

Delete

Use the DELETE statement to delete the rows from existing tables which are in your
schema or if you have DELETE privilege on them.

For example to delete the employee whose empno is 102.

delete from emp where empno=102;

If you dont mention the WHERE condition then all rows will be deleted.

Suppose we want to delete all employees whose salary is above 2000. Then give the
following DELETE statement.

delete from emp where salary > 2000;

The following statement has the same effect as the preceding example, but uses a
subquery:
DELETE FROM (SELECT * FROM emp)
WHERE sal > 2000;

To delete all rows from emp table.

delete from emp;

Merge
Use the MERGE statement to select rows from one table for update or insertion into
another table. The decision whether to update or insert into the target table is based on
a condition in the ON clause. It is a new feature of Oracle Ver. 9i. It is also known as
UPSERT i.e. combination of UPDATE and INSERT.
For example suppose we are having sales and sales_history table with the following
structure.

SALES SALES HISTORY

Prod Month Amount Prod Month Amount

SONY JAN 2200 SONY JAN 2000

SONY FEB 3000 SONY MAR 2500
SONY SONY
SONY MAR 2500 APR 3000
AKAI
SONY APR 3200 JAN 3200
SONY MAY 3100
JUN 5000

Now we want to update sales_history table from sales table i.e. those rows which are
already present in sales_history, their amount should be updated and those rows which
are not present in sales_history table should be inserted.

merge into sales_history sh

using sales s
on (s.prod=sh.prod and s.month=sh.month)
when matched then update set sh.amount=s.amount
when not matched then insert values (prod,month,amount);

After the statement is executed sales_history table will look like this.

SALES_HISTORY
Prod Month Amount
SONY JAN 2200
SONY FEB 3000
SONY
SONY MAR 2500
AKAI
SONY
APR
JAN
3200
3200 Data Definition Language
SONY MAY
JUN
3100
5000 (DDL) Statements
Data definition language (DDL) statements enable you to perform these tasks:
 Create, alter, and drop schema objects

Grant and revoke privileges and roles

Analyze information on a table, index, or cluster

Establish auditing options

Add comments to the data dictionary

The CREATE, ALTER, and DROP commands require exclusive access to the specified
object. For example, an ALTER TABLE statement fails if another user has an open
transaction on the specified table.
The GRANT, REVOKE, ANALYZE, AUDIT, and COMMENT commands do not require exclusive
access to the specified object. For example, you can analyze a table while other users
are updating the table.
Oracle implicitly commits the current transaction before and after every DDL
statement.
Many DDL statements may cause Oracle to recompile or reauthorize schema objects.
DDL Statements are

CREATE :Use to create objects like CREATE TABLE, CREATE FUNCTION,

CREATE SYNONYM, CREATE VIEW. Etc.
ALTER :Use to Alter Objects like ALTER TABLE, ALTER USER, ALTER
TABLESPACE, ALTER DATABASE. Etc.
DROP :Use to Drop Objects like DROP TABLE, DROP USER, DROP
TABLESPACE, DROP FUNCTION. Etc.
REPLACE :Use to Rename table names.

TRUNCATE :Use to truncate (delete all rows) a table.

Create

To create tables, views, synonyms, sequences, functions, procedures, packages etc.

Example

To create a table, you can give the following statement

create table emp (empno number(5) primary key,

name varchar2(20),
sal number(10,2),
 job varchar2(20),
mgr number(5),
Hiredate date,
comm number(10,2));

Now Suppose you have emp table now you want to create a TAX table with the
following structure and also insert rows of those employees whose salary is above
5000.

Tax
Empno Number(5
Tax )
Number(1
0,2)

To do this we can first create TAX table by defining column names and datatypes and
then use INSERT into EMP SELECT . statement to insert rows from emp table. like
given below.

create table tax (empno number(5), tax number(10,2));

insert into tax select empno,(sal-5000)*0.40

from emp where sal > 5000;

Instead of executing the above two statements the same result can be achieved by
giving a single CREATE TABLE AS statement.

create table tax as select empno,(sal-5000)*0.4

as tax from emp where sal>5000

You can also use CREATE TABLE AS statement to create copies of tables. Like to
create a copy EMP table as EMP2 you can give the following statement.

create table emp2 as select * from emp;

To copy tables without rows i.e. to just copy the structure give the following statement

create table emp2 as select * from emp where 1=2;

Temporary Tables (From Oracle Ver. 8i)

It is also possible to create a temporary table. The definition of a temporary table is

visible to all sessions, but the data in a temporary table is visible only to the session
that inserts the data into the table. You use the CREATE GLOBAL TEMPORARY
TABLE statement to create a temporary table. The ON COMMIT keywords indicate if the
data in the table is transaction-specific (the default) or session-specific:
ON COMMIT DELETE ROWS specifies that the temporary table is transaction
specific and Oracle truncates the table (delete all rows) after each commit.
ON COMMIT PRESERVE ROWS specifies that the temporary table is session specific
and Oracle truncates the table when you terminate the session.
This example creates a temporary table that is transaction specific:
CREATE GLOBAL TEMPORARY TABLE taxable_emp
(empno number(5),
ename varchar2(20),
sal number(10,2),
tax number(10,2))
ON COMMIT DELETE ROWS;
Indexes can be created on temporary tables. They are also temporary and the data in
the index has the same session or transaction scope as the data in the underlying table.

Alter

Use the ALTER TABLE statement to alter the structure of a table.

Examples:

To add new columns addr, city, pin, ph, fax to employee table you can give the
following statement

alter table emp add (addr varchar2(20), city

varchar2(20),
pin varchar2(10),ph varchar2(20));

To modify the datatype and width of a column. For example we you want to increase
the length of the column ename from varchar2(20) to varchar2(30) then give the
following command.

alter table emp modify (ename varchar2(30))

To decrease the width of a column the column can be decreased up to largest value it
holds.

alter table emp modify (ename varchar2(15));

The above is possible only if you are using Oracle ver 8i and above. In Oracle 8.0 and
7.3 you cannot decrease the column width directly unless the column is empty.

To change the datatype the column must be empty in All Oracle Versions.

To drop columns.

From Oracle Ver. 8i you can drop columns directly it was not possible in previous
versions.

For example to drop PIN, CITY columns from emp table.

alter table emp drop column (pin, city);

Remember you cannot drop the column if the table is having only one column.
If the column you want to drop is having primary key constraint on it then you have to
give cascade constraint clause.

alter table emp2 drop column (empno) cascade constraints;

To drop columns in previous versions of Oracle8.0 and 7.3. and to change the column
name in all Oracle versions do the following.

For example we want to drop pin and city columns and to change SAL column name
to SALARY.

Step 1: Create a temporary table with desired columns using subquery.

create table temp as select empno, ename,

sal AS salary, addr, ph from emp;

Step 2: Drop the original table.

drop table emp;

Step 3: Rename the temporary table to the original table.

rename temp to emp;

Rename
Use the RENAME statement to rename a table, view, sequence, or private synonym for a
table, view, or sequence.
Oracle automatically transfers integrity constraints, indexes, and grants on the old object to the
new object.
Oracle invalidates all objects that depend on the renamed object, such as views, synonyms, and
stored procedures and functions that refer to a renamed table.
Example

To rename table emp2 to employee2 you can give the following command.

rename emp2 to employee2

Drop

Use the drop statement to drop tables, functions, procedures, packages, views,
synonym, sequences, tablespaces etc.

Example

The following command drops table emp2

drop table emp2;

If emp2 table is having primary key constraint, to which other tables refer to, then you
have to first drop referential integrity constraint and then drop the table. Or if you
want to drop table by dropping the referential constraints then give the following
command

drop table emp2 cascade constraints;

Truncate

Use the Truncate statement to delete all the rows from table permanently . It is same
as DELETE FROM <table_name> except
Truncate does not generate any rollback data hence, it cannot be roll backed.
If any delete triggers are defined on the table. Then the triggers are not fired
It deallocates free extents from the table. So that the free space can be use
by other tables.

Example

truncate table emp;

If you do not want free space and keep it with the table. Then specify the REUSE
storage clause like this

truncate table emp reuse storage;