VIBRATION AND

AIR-OVERPRESSURE

INTRODUCTION

Controlling blast-generated ground vibration and airblast is a multi-million

dollar industry in the United States. Many companies and professionals
provide seismic monitoring services and perform pre-blast structural
surveys for the many mines and contractors blasting near urban areas.
Much litigation and damage claim work also evolves from close-in blasting
work. Due to the increasing risks associated with urban blasting, many
contractors favor mechanical excavation over blasting wherever possible.
However, in many applications, mechanical excavation with impact rippers
or hoe-rams is impractical for large-scale excavation work or when rock is
too hard. When done properly, blasting remains the most competitive
method for hard rock excavation. However, if blasting work is done
carelessly, or with poor risk management, it can quickly become the most
expensive excavation method.

Informing a nearby
resident of
impending blast.
This property owner
complained that the
blasts were startling
her, but her
complaints stopped
after regular
notification visits.

From Vibration, Airblast, and Risk Management REVEY Associates, Inc. Page 1
Underground Blasting Technology and Risk Management_____________________________________________

INTRODUCTION

When explosive charges detonate in rock, most of the energy is used in

breaking and displacing the rockmass. However, some of energy is
released in the form of ground vibration and air-overpressure (blast
noise). Air-overpressure pulses from rock blasting are usually generated
at frequencies below the human hearing threshold of 20 Hertz. So, in
other words, air-overpressure is inaudible noise; we cannot hear it but we
can feel it.

Human response to vibration and air-overpressure is very subjective and

people often feel very low levels of vibration and blast noise. When
blasting occurs near populated areas, neighbors often complain about the
annoyance of ground vibration and blast noise, and in some cases,
property owners believe it is causing damage to their structures. However,
in almost all cases where modern blasting technology is used and
regulations are followed, the intensity of airblast and ground vibration is
well below levels that can damage nearby structures.

AC ME

GFR

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BLAST EFFECTS
When explosive charges detonate in rock, they are designed so that most
of the energy is used in breaking and displacing the rock mass. However,
some of the energy can also be released in the form of transient stress
waves, which in turn cause temporary ground vibration. Detonating
charges also create rock movement and release of high-pressure gas,
which in turn induce air-overpressure (noise), airborne dust and audible
blast noise.

In the very-near zone, crushing usually occurs in the rock around the
charge. The extent of this compressive and shear failure zone is usually
limited to one or two charge radii (half the diameter of the charge).
Beyond the plastic crushing zone, the rock or ground is temporarily
deformed by elastic strain waves. For some distance, tangential strain
intensity exceeds the rocks strength and new fractures are created.
Radial cracks are created in rock around detonating charges as a result of
induced strain that exceeds the rocks tensile strength. These cracks
generally do not extend farther than 26 charge radii.

Ground Vibration:
In and beyond the ground cracking zone, stress waves spread through
the rock mass and along the ground surface. As shown in Figure 5.1,
some waves pass through the body of the rock mass. Primary
compression waves and shear waves are examples of body waves. Other
surface vibration waves travel along the ground surface similar to the way
waves travel along the surface of water. In an ideal isotropic and
homogenous rock mass, wave energy would travel evenly in all directions.
However, most rock masses are far from ideal, so wave energy is
reflected, refracted and attenuated by various geological and
topographical conditions. When seismic waves pass through the ground,
ground particles oscillate within three-dimensional space. Soon after
blasting has stopped, vibration energy dissipates and the ground particles
become still.

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Abbreviations:
SH = Shear wave, horizontal
SV = Shear wave, vertical
R = Rayleigh wave
P = Compressional wave

nt
xte
ee P
W av SH

SV

Detonating R
Charge or other
Impulsive
Disturbance

Typical Vibration Waves

The characteristics of ground motion can be measured in several ways.
These measures include:
Particle displacement
Particle velocity
Particle acceleration
Vibration frequency
Displacement is a measure of ground particle travel distance or location
with respect to time. Particle velocity measures the speed of movement
and acceleration is the rate of velocity changes. Vibration frequency is a
measure of ground particle oscillations occurring per second of time.
Frequency is reported in units of Hertz (Hz), which is equivalent to cycles
per second.

Standard industry damage criteria and safe levels of ground motion are
generally based on particle velocity and frequency of motion. The
response of humans to ground motion is primarily influenced by ground
motion velocity and duration of the motion. Vibration intensity is expressed
as Peak Particle Velocity (PPV) or the maximum particle velocity of the
ground. Since ground-shaking speeds are generally quite low, it is
measured in inches per second (in/s).

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Persons not familiar with vibration science often confuse particle velocity
values with ground displacement. For instance, if a measured peak or
maximum particle velocity is 2.0 inches, the ground has NOT moved 2.0
inches. Ground particle movement or displacement would be much less
because in one second of time ground particles disturbed by blast
vibration waves will oscillate back and forth many times in a second.

This is why frequency of motion is important because, unlike earthquakes

where frequency of motion is quite low, cycles of ground particle shaking
(frequency) caused by underground blasting usually occurs at 20 to 500
Hz. Since the ground particles are shaking back and forth or up and down
so quickly, similar to running in place, they do not move very far. As
shown in the following Figure, the intensity and frequency of vibrating
ground particles or changes in air-pressure can be determined when
these events are measured and plotted with respect to time.

1 CYCLE Velocity of Particle Motion or Air-Overpressure Plotted

with respect to Time
PPV or dB(L)

TIM E

Peak
Am plitude (+/-)

Event Duration
Idealized Vibration or Air-Overpressure TimeIntensity History Plot

Vibration Damage Control Criteria:

Blast damage criteria generally focus the intensity of vibration expressed
by the peak particle velocity (PPV) and the frequency of the vibration or
cycles-per-second expressed in Hertz.
In Report of Investigations RI 8507, Siskind and others at the US Bureau
of Mines developed recommended safe ground motion limits that vary
with frequency of motion. These limits, in the so-called Z-Curve ranging
from 5.1 to 50.8 mm/s (0.2 to 2.0 in/s), are shown in the following Figure.

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2 5 4 (1 0 )
2 0 3 (8 )

PARTICLE VELOCITY, mm/s (in/s) 1 5 2 (6 )

USBM RI 8507 "Safe Level" Curve

1 0 2 (4 )

50.8 mm/s
(2.0 in/s)
5 0 .8 (2 )

2 5 .4 (1 ) 19.0 mm/s
2 0 .3 (.8 )
(0.75 in/s)
Drywall 40
1 5 .2 (.6 )
Plaster & Lath
12.7 mm/s
1 0 .2 (.4 ) (0.50 in/s)

5 .1 (.2 )
12

2 .5 (.1 )
1 2 4 6 8 10 20 30 40 60 80 100

FREQUENCY, Hz
USBM Safe Level vibration curve from RI 85071

The PPV Limits in RI 8507 were specifically intended to protect typical

wood-frame residential structures from blast-induced vibration caused by
surface mining operations. The clear intent of these limits, as expressed
by the authors in RI 8507, is to prevent cosmetic cracks in plaster or
gypsum walls of residential structures. Since cracking in drywall or plaster
walls does not generally occur until PPV exceeds 100 mm/s (4.0 or in/s),
these limits are indeed extremely cautious. PPV limits from RI 8507 were
never intended for application to heavy civil concrete and steel structures,
or buried pipes.

In US Bureau of Mines study RI 9523 (Siskind et al2), the authors

conclude that buried pipes are generally safe if PPV does not exceed 127
mm/s (5.0 in/s).

1
Siskind, D. E., Stagg, M. S., Kopp, J.W. and Dowding, C.H. (1980). Structure Response and Damage Produced
by Ground Vibration From Surface Mine Blasting. RI 8507, U. S. Bureau of Mines.
2
Siskind, David E., Stagg, Mark S., Wiegand, John E. and Schultz, David L. (1993). Surface Mine Blasting Near
Pressurized Transmission Pipelines, R.I. 9523, U.S. Bureau of Mines.

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Much higher PPV limits than those evolving from RI 8507 can be applied
to protect dams and appurtenant structures. Too often, the cost of work is
increased immensely when widely-published limits intended to prevent
cosmetic cracking in drywall are inappropriately applied to protect heavy
civil and commercial structures, pipes and mass concrete.

The Nature of Vibration Caused by Small Near-Field Charges:

The frequency of vibration in rock or concrete caused by nearby small
charges is generally quite high (50 to 1,000 Hz) and it typically attenuates
to the natural surface-wave frequency of the ground (10 to 30 Hz) at
distances greater than a few hundred feet. For example, a seemingly high
PPV of 127 mm/s (5 in/s) occurring at a frequency of 100 Hz would cause
a temporary elastic particle displacement of only 0.2 mm (0.008 in) [127 /
(2 x 3.14 x 100)]. Corresponding strain in ground or structures is
proportional to displacement, so strain is lessened when frequency of
motion increases.
It is also important to understand that vibrating particles of rock, concrete
or grout bonded to rock or steel are not separated by the amount of
particle displacement because, like two dancers on a ballroom floor, they
are moving together just slightly out of step. Hence, when vibration occurs
at high frequencies of motion, the strain in ground and structures is
reduced.

Human Response to Transient Vibration:

Research has also shown that the human response to transient vibration--
like those caused by blasting--varies depending on exposure time and the
intensity of the motion. Response curves defining how humans respond to
transient vibration based on these variables are shown in the following
Figure.

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10

Particle velocity (in/sec) 100

Strongly
perceptible
1

(mm/sec)
10

Distinctly
0.1 perceptible

Barely
perceptible

0.01
0.1 1 10 100 1000
Exposure time (s)

Human Response to Vibration - Adapted from Wiss and Parmalee3

Rock Damage:
As indicated in the following Table, minor rock-slabbing or failure
generally does not occur until peak particle velocity exceeds 2,540 mm/s
(10 in/s).
Peak Particle Velocity Effect
(in/s) (mm/s)
10 254 No fracturing of intact rock
10 to 25 254to635 Minor tensile slabbing will occur
25 to 100 635to2540 Strong tensile and some radial cracking
> 100 >2540 Complete breakup of the rock mass

After Bauer and Caldwell (1971)4

3
Wiss, J.F. and Parmalee, R.A. (1974), Human Perception of Transient Vibrations, Journal of the Structural
Division, ASCE, Vol. 4, pp. 349-377.
4
Bauer, A., and Calder, P.N., (1971), The Influence and Evaluation of Blasting on Stability, Proceedings of the
First Conference on Stability in Open Pit Mining, Brawner, C.O., and Milligan, V., eds., SME-AIME, Littleton,
CO, pp. 83-94.

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Vibration Prediction:

It is common industry practice to use empirical equations derived from

geometric scaling theory to predict intensities of blast-induced vibration,
over-pressure in air or water, and strain in materials of concern. The
amount of energy produced by exploding charges confined in drilled holes
is proportional to the weight (W) of the charge. This is a fair approximation
because the unit weight strength of all commercial explosives is generally
between 650 and 800 calories/g.

Distance (D) to the point of measurement defines the volume of ground,

air or water into which energy from the charge is dispersed. Based on
geometric scaling, these two variables can be combined to create a single
variable called scaled distance that essentially defines the relative
energy at any point of concern.

Square-Root Scaling: For linear explosive charges placed in holes drilled

in rock, the energy of vibration-inducing strain waves radiating into the
ground would generally disperse in a radial fashion; hence as the distance
increases energy disperses inversely with the increasing distance radius.
For this geometry, distance is divided by the square root of the charge
size and the resulting dependent variable is the scaled distance.

Cube-Root Scaling: When the height-to-width ratio of a charge is less

than 6:1, the charge is considered a spherical charge and scaled distance
is established by dividing distance by the cube-root of the charge weight.
Cube-root charge scaling is also used for air-overpressure calculations
and curves because the shape of pressure waves transmitted to air from
blasted ground are generally spherical in shape.

To demonstrate the principle of dimensional similitude, consider the

following comparison. If a 1-kg charge is fired in the ground, a specific
intensity of vibration would occur in the ground at a distance of 10 m.
Theoretically, it stands to reason that a larger charge of some size located
100 m from the same measurement point would also generate a similar
level of vibration.

With square-root scaling, the scaled distance for the 1-kg charge at a
distance of 10 m is 10-m-kg-0.5 [10/1-0.5]. If the size of charge in hole at a
distance of 100 feet is increased to 100-kg, the scaled distance is also 10-

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kg-lb-0.5 [100/100-0.5]. Based on the principle of dimensional similitude, as

shown in Figure 1, the estimated intensity of vibration expressed as the
peak particle velocity or PPV in both cases would be approximately equal.

Point 2 m Point 1 Point of PPV

PPV = K (Ds) Measurement

Ds1= Ds2 so PPV 1 PPV 2

W 2 = 1 kg

W 1 = 100 kg
D = 10 m

DsD1s 100 10
DsD2s 10
100 10
1

D = 100 m

Principle of Dimensional Similitude Scaling

Expressions of formulas demonstrating how square-root scaling is used

for peak particle velocity (PPV) prediction follow.
m
PPV K D
Where : Ds D
So : PPV K Ds
m
W W
Where: PPV = Peak Particle Velocity - in/s (mm/s)
D = Distance ft (m)
W = Maximum Charge-weight-per-delay lb (kg)
K = Rock Energy Transfer Constant (K-Factor)
m = Decay Constant (always negative value)
Ds = Scaled Distance ft/lb1/2 (m/kg1/2)

Log-Log Linearity: The empirical exponential-decay relationships used to

predict intensity of ground vibration or air/water overpressure become
linear in logarithmic form similar to the standard straight-line formula of the
form Y = m X + B. In this case, Y = Log PPV, m is the slope of the curve
with a negative value that generally defines the attenuation of energy with
distance and Log K is the Y-Intercept (B).

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When vibration data from specific sites is available, standard least-

squares regression methods can be used to determine constants (K and
m) for site-specific best-fit 50% and 95% upper envelope curves. For
new projects where site specific data is not available, blasting engineers
can estimate appropriate constants based on the strength of rock, elastic
properties of the ground, water content, and confinement of blast charges.

As shown in the following Figure, vibration data and curves generally fall
within the bounds defined by Oriard (1970). For curves with a presumed
slope of -1.6, K values generally vary from 24 to 605 (171 to 4316 Metric)
Curve slopes (m) for both imperial and metric (S.I.) units generally vary
from -1.0 to -1.9.

Range of PPV Curves (Oriard)

10.00
(254)
Peak Particle Velocity - in/s (mm/s)

K Imperial = 605
V = K [D/W1/2 ]-1.6 K Metric (S.I.) = 4316
HI
K Imperial = 242 G
H
K Metric (S.I.) = 1726 CO
TY NF
PI IN
CA EM
1.00 L
DA
EN
T,
(25.4) TA C O
K Imperial = 24 FR UP
K Metric (S.I.) = 171 O LI
M NG
DO ,A
W ND
N-
HO RO
LE CK
0.10 NOTES: BE ST
NC RE
(2.54) ATTENUATION SLOPE:
H
BL
NG
AS TH
-1.6 is typical but slope may vary TI
NG
depending on wave types
and other modifying factors.
Slopes usually vary between -1.0 and -1.9
0.01
(0.25)
1(0.45) 10 (4.52) 100 (45.2) 1000 (452)
S ca le d D istan ce - ft/lb 1 /2 (m /kg 1 /2 )

Typical Boundaries of Vibration Data (Oriard, 1970)5

Sample regression curves for vibration, overpressure, strain and

acceleration measurements made in various studies by REVEY
Associates, Inc. are shown in following Figures.

5
Oriard, L.L., (1970). Blasting Operations in the Urban Environment, Association of Engineering Geologists
Annual Meeting, Washington, DC, October 1970, published in Bulletin of AEG, Vol. IX. No. 1, October, 1972.

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SRRQ PPV Curve (Yr 2005)
PPV (in/s)
10.000
1.28

95 % PPV 40 . 1 D
W
1.000

0.100 1.28

50 % PPV 18 . 8 D
W

0.010
1.0 10.0 100.0 1000.0
1/2
Scaled Distance (ft/lb )
Correlation Coefficient = 0.796

Vibration attenuation curves for California Rock Quarry

Yerba Buena Island PPV

10000.000
1.82
1000.000 PPV 95 % 3041 .3 D

W
PPV (mm/s)

100.000
1.82

10.000 PPV 50%1410 D

W

1.000

0.100
1.0 10.0 100.0 1000.0
CorrelationCoefficient= 0.976 Scaled Distance (m/kg1/2)

Vibration attenuation curves for Study on Yerba Buena Island, CA

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Using Scaled Distance Relationships to Establish Safe Charge Weights:

By setting PPV, overpressure or strain equal to a mandated limit,

prediction equations can be rearranged to calculate a minimum Scaled
Distance (Ds) value that blasters can use to calculate maximum charge
weight-per-delay. The form of the rearranged formula for particle velocity
follows. Similar relationships are used for overpressure, strain,
acceleration, etc.

Ds PPV K
1
m

For example, if the desired PPV-limit for buried pipes is 5.00 in/s, with
cautious constants with K = 240 and m = -1.6, the limiting Scaled Distance
(Ds) is 11.2 ft-lb-0.5 [(5.00 / 240) (1 / -1.6)].

Once minimum scaled distance values are established in project

specifications or blasting plans, field blasters can use very simple
equations to determine maximum charge-weights-per-delay or the
maximum weight of explosive firing within any 8-millisecond time frame.
When electronic-delay detonators are used, the delay windows can be
reduced to 5 or so milliseconds without incurring cumulative effects of so
separated charges. The simple relationship between scaled distance and
maximum-charge-weight-per-delay (W) is:

W D D s
2

Where: D = distance (m or ft)

Ds=Scaled Distance - (m-kg-0.5 or ft-lb-0.5)
W = Maximum-charge-weight-per-delay (kg or lb).

All licensed and capable blasters are trained to understand and apply
scaled distance equations. For example, if a blast occurs 20m from a
buried pipe where a minimum scaled distance of 5.5-m/kg1/2 is mandated
to control vibration, the maximum charge-per-delay would 13.2 kg [(20 /
5.5)2]. If the distance increases to 40m, the allowable charge-per-delay
increases dramatically to 53 kg [(40 / 5.5)2].

Establishing minimum scaled distance controls, in addition to firm not-to-

exceed PPV limits, provides additional protection by taking some of the
guesswork out of learning what charge sizes are needed to conform to
certain vibration and overpressure limits.

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Detonator Accuracy Effects:

Long Period (LP) detonators with timing delay intervals generally ranging
from zero to 8,000 milliseconds are generally used for blasting rock in
underground applications.

For practical vibration-prediction purposes, the industry applies the 8-

millisecond rule whereby the maximum weight of all charges firing within
any 8-millisecond time period is considered the maximum-charge-per-
delay. However, it is well known that timing errors occur in the
pyrotechnic delay elements and these errors are magnified with longer
delay times.

If the nominal firing time of a LP detonator is 6,500ms, the actual firing

times of say eight detonators in holes using this delay will vary due to
timing errors or cap scatter. With an estimated standard deviation of
1%, 68% of the detonators (i.e. 5 6 of them) will fire within a time
window of no less than 130ms (+/- 1-estimated standard deviation, which
is +/- 65ms about the mean). The remaining 2 -3 detonators will have
firing times even further displaced from the mean. The statistical
calculation is complex but it can be easily appreciated that the probability
of any two of the 6,500ms detonators firing within any 8ms window will
be low and that of three firing within 8ms will be extremely low. Thus it is
reasonable to assume the effective charge-weight-per-delay in this
situation could be taken as the amount of explosive in just one or two
holes, rather than all eight.

The effective charge-weight-per-delay can be established using the

reduction factors shown in the following table. These particular reduction
factors were established by Dr. Terry Matts6.

EFFECTIVE CHARGE-PER-DELAY FACTORS

Delay Time (ms) Reduction Factor Effective Charge
0 to 2000 1.00 100%
2001 to 4000 0.50 50%
4001 to 6000 0.33 33%
> 6000 0.25 25%

6
Matts, T., (2012). Blast Vibration Control - Long Delay Pyrotechnic Detonators & the 8ms Rule

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The strain induced in rock and structures attached to ground will be

proportional to the velocity of particle vibration. In critical applications,
programmable electronic detonators with accuracy of +/- 0.5 milliseconds
can be used to assure accurate timing and better predictability of vibration
and strain. When electronic detonators are used the intensity of vibration
and strain created by a series of delay-timed charges is generally not
cumulative if they are separated by 4 milliseconds.

Comparable recordings of vibrations from tunnel blasts using electronic

and conventional LP detonators are shown in the following Figure.

AIR-OVERPRESSURE (AIRBLAST)
Overpressure, as its name implies, is the transient pressure change
caused in air, water or any other fluid medium affected by explosions.
Pressure changes are caused by acoustical waves travelling through the
medium at the speed of sound. The speed of sound is varies in different
materials, depending on the density of the medium. For instance,
pressure waves travel at the speed of 4,920 ft/s (1,500 m/s) in water,
whereas they travel at only 1,100 ft/s (335 m/s) in aira much less dense
medium. When educating the public about blasting effectsalways use
the term Air-overpressure instead of airblasta term with negative
connotations.

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It is also important to note that blast noise (overpressure) creates

resonating pressure changes in air or water, whereby the pressure is
actually increasing and decreasing above and below the ambient
pressure of the medium. When calculating maximum overpressure values,
the absolute value of the greatest pressure change is usedregardless of
whether it is positive or negative change. The frequency of the noise or
overpressure is determined by measuring the number of up and down
pressure change cycles occurring with one second of time. Blast noise
occurs at a broad range of frequencies and the highest intensity blast
noise usually occurs at frequencies below that of human hearing (<20
Hz). Because of this, instruments that measure impulsive blast noise or
airblast are capable of recording at very low frequencies, typically down
to 2 Hz.

These so called "linear scale" measurements are typically expressed as

dBL. Regular acoustical noise measurements taken for the purpose of
monitoring compliance with industrial sound-pressure-level standards
almost always use weighted scales that discriminate against low
frequency noise. Therefore, for a similar noise source, A-weighted and C-
weighted scales will usually record significantly lower levels of noise.

The regulatory limit defined by USBM for airblast measured with 2-Hz
response seismographs is 133 dB-L. Damage to old or poorly glazed
windows does not occur until air-overpressure reaches about 150 dBL.
More importantly, since the decibel scale is a logarithmic ratio, the actual
overpressure at 150 dBL is 0.092 psi, versus 0.013 psi at 133 dBL.
Therefore, the actual pressure at the 133-dB-L limit, is over seven times
(0.092/0.013) lower than the threshold damage level at 150-dB-L. The
relationships between actual overpressure expressed in psi and decibel
scale measurements are shown in the following Equations.

NOTE: Due to the logarithmic ratios used to decibel values,

seemingly small changes in decibel readings can equate to large
changes in absolute overpressure (psi).

dB
dB 20 Log10 P or psi Po 10 20
Po
Where: dB = decibels, P = overpressure (psi), Po = Threshold of Human Hearing Pressure (2.9 x 10-9 psi).

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The following limits for blast-induced air overpressure, recommended by

the U.S. Bureau of Mines, are generally found in the regulations
promulgated by most government agencies. Air-overpressure limits vary
based on the frequency response and sampling rate of recording
instruments.

USBM RECOMMENDATION from RI 84857

Lower Frequency Limit of Measuring System Maximum Level

0.1 Hertz high pass system Flat Response 134 Peak

2 Hertz high pass system Flat Response 133 Peak

5 or 6 Hertz high pass system Flat Response 129 Peak

C- weighted system for events Slow Response 105 Peak

with duration less than 2.0 sec.

Overpressure Effects and Equivalent Units

dB psi kPa Effect

180 2.90000 20.0000 Structural Damage

170 0.91706 6.3246 Most Windows break
160 0.29000 2.0000
150 0.09171 0.6325 Some Windows Break
140 0.02900 0.2000 OSHA Maximum for Impulsive Sound
130 0.00917 0.0632
120 0.00290 0.0200 Pressure produced by 20 mph wind
110 0.00092 0.0063
100 0.00029 0.0020
90 0.00009 0.0006 OSHA Maximum for 8 Hours
80 0.00003 0.0002

7
Siskind, D.E., Stachura, V.J., Stagg, M.S., and Kopp, J.W.,1980, US Bureau of Mines Report of Investigations
8485.

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MEASURING VIBRATION AND AIR OVERPRESSURE

Ground vibration and air-blast are measured by special instruments using
transducers that are sensitive to velocity and microphones that record air-
overpressure. These instruments, usually called seismographs, have
three separate transducers that measure blasting vibration or particle
motion in the longitudinal, vertical, and horizontal directions. Together, the
three sensors give a three-dimensional record showing how ground
particles respond to passing seismic waves. The vibratory speeds of
disturbed ground particles relatively low, usually fractions of an inch per
second. Ground particle velocities should not be confused with the speed
of the sonic stress waves that cause ground vibration.

Blast-induced stress waves travel through rock at speeds measured in

thousands of meters or feet per second, whereas ground vibration is
measured in mm or inches per second.

Most compliance seismographs are also equipped with 2-Hz-Response

microphones. Modern seismographs are computer controlled, and are
capable of storing vibration and overpressure records in computer
memory. With some instruments, records can then be downloaded to
other computers where special software can be used print event reports,
perform various data analysis and make back-up copies of event files.

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The frequency range of ground motion induced by rock blasting is

generally between 2 and 250 cycles per second (Hz). Velocity
transducers, can accurately measure motions in this frequency range and
their cost is much less than that of accelerometers. Moreover, signals
from velocity transducers require less signal conditioning. Due to these
advantages, damage criteria and equipment used in commercial mining
and construction work is generally based on velocity measurements.
However, accelerometers and other special equipment are often used for
very close-in blasting work where the frequency and intensity of motion
exceeds the capabilities of velocity transducers.

For underground measurements, as shown below, geophone housings

containing triaxial velocity transducers can be bolted to specially
constructed brackets that are in turn bolted to rock or concrete surfaces

Bracket and Leveling Plate for Mounting Geophone to Rock

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TYPICAL VIBRATION MONITORING REPORT

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MONITORING REPORT SHOWING CHARGE PROPAGATIONS

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