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NCERT-XII / Unit- 7 Alternating Current
Alternating current The emf induced in the coil varies in magnitude and direction
periodically, is called an alternating emf.
Mean value of AC
Mean value of an AC is defined as that value of steady current , which is
constituted by that amount of charge flowing for the half cycle of the given AC. It
is denoted by I m
Let an alternating current i = Io sin t flows through a circuit with T as time
period .Its instantaneous value is , i = dq / dt
=> dq = i dt = Io sin t dt .1
Total charge flowing for the half cycle of the given AC
So mean value of the given AC is

I m = q /(T/2)
= 2 I0 / .......................................3
Thus, the mean value of an a.c is 0.638 times the peak value of the a.c.
In other words it is 63.8 % of the peak value.
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RMS value of a.c.
The rms value of alternating current is defined as that value of the steady current,
which when passed through a resistor for a given time, will generate the same
amount of heat as generated by an alternating current when passed through the
same resistor for the same time.
It is denoted by Irms.
When an alternating current i=Io sin t flows through a resistor of resistance R,
the amount of heat produced in the resistor in a small time dt is
dH = i2 R dt .1
The total amount of heat produced in the resistance in one complete cycle is
But this heat is also equal to the heat produced by rms value of AC in the same
resistor (R) and in the same time (T),
.
Thus, the rms value of an a.c is 0.707 times the peak value of the a.c. In other
words it is 70.7 % of the peak value.
2
AC Circuit with resistor
Let an alternating source of emf e = Eo sin t be connected across a resistor of

resistance R.
In ideal condition , the potential drop across R must be equal to the applied emf.
so, iR = Eo sin t
i = (Eo /R ) sin t
i = Io sin t.(2)
where Io = Eo /R, is the peak value of a.c in the circuit.
So, it is seen that in a resistive circuit, the applied voltage and current are in phase
with each other
Fig (b) is the phasor diagram showing the phase relationship between the current &
the voltage.
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AC Circuit with an inductor
Let an alternating emf e = Eosin t be applied to a pure inductor of inductance L.

Due to self induction of the coil , a self induced emf is generated which opposes
the applied voltage..
Induced emf e = L .( di /dt)
where L is the self inductance of the coil.
In an ideal inductor circuit induced emf is equal and opposite to the applied
voltage.
Therefore e = e
So it is seen that in an a.c. circuit containing a pure inductor the current I lags
behind the voltage e by the phase angle of /2.
Or , the voltage across L leads the current by phase angle of /2.
Fig b. gives the phasor diagram
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AC Circuit with a capacitor
t is connected across a capacitor of

An alternating source of emf e =E0sin
capacitance C .
At any instant the potential difference across the capacitor will be equal to the
applied emf
e = q/C, where q is the charge in the capacitor .
So it is seen that in an a.c. circuit with a capacitor, the current leads the
voltage by a phase angle of /2.
In otherwords the emf lags behind the current by a phase angle of /2.
Fig (b) represents phasor diagram
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Inductive reactance
XL = L = 2 L, where is the frequency of the a.c. supply
For d.c. = 0; so XL = 0
Thus a pure inductor offers zero resistance to d.c. But in an a.c. circuit the
reactance of the coil increases with increase in frequency.
Capacitive reactance
XC = 1/C = 1/ 2C , where is the frequency of the a.c. supply
For d.c. = 0; so XC =
Thus a pure capacitor offers infinite resistance to d.c. But in an a.c. the capacitive
reactance varies inversely as the frequency of a.c. and also inversely as the
capacitance of the capacitor.
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LCR circuit
t be connected to a series combination
Let an alternating source of emf e =E0sin
of a resistor of resistance R, inductor of self inductance L and a capacitor of
capacitance C as shown in figure below .
Let the current flowing through the circuit be I.

The voltage drop across different elements of the LCR circuit are
(i) across resistor is, VR = I R , VR and I are in phase
(ii) across inductor is VL = I XL , VL is ahead of I by /2
(iii) across capacitor is, VC = IXC , VC lagging behind I by /2
Representing the voltages across R , L and C by OA , OB and OC in the voltage
phasor diagram as shown above , we have OD = VL VC As VL and VC are 180o
out of phase with each other .
Completing rectangle OAPD , whose diagonal OP will give us resultant voltage in
the LCR circuit .
OP2 = OA2 + OD2
V2 = VR2 + (VL VC)2.
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is the net effective opposition offered by the

combination of resistor, inductor and capacitor known as the impedance of the
circuit and is represented by Z. Its unit is ohm.
The phase angle between the voltage and current is given by
so , I = Io sin (t + ) is the instantaneous current flowing in the circuit.

Resonance
Resonance is the phenomenon by virtue of which , current in an LCR circuit is
maximum .
It happens when the natural frequency of the LCR circuit is equal to the frequency
of the energy source .
Equation (i) gives angular resonant frequency and (ii) gives the resonant frequency
Resonant curve :- variation of current with frequency
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Find the expression for Sharpness of resonance / Quality factor of resonance
Let 1 and 2 be symmetrical about 0 , at which , the current amplitude is 1/ 2
times its maximum value of current , such that power dissipated by the circuit
becomes half . We may write
1 = 0 + and 2 = 0 -
The difference 1 - 2 = 2 is called the bandwidth of the circuit.
The quantity (0 / 2 ) is regarded as a measure of the sharpness of resonance.
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So, larger the value of Q, the smaller is the value of 2 or the bandwidth and
sharper is the resonance.
If the resonance should be sharp, the bandwidth will be less , the tuning of the
circuit will veryt be good. If the resonance is sharp , the selectivity of the circuit
is very less .
If quality factor is large, i.e., R is low or L is large, the circuit is more selective.
Q-factor of resonant circuit

The selectivity or sharpness of a resonant circuit is measured by the quality factor
or Q factor.
In other words it refers to the sharpness of tuning at resonance.
The Q factor of a series resonant circuit is defined as the ratio of the voltage across
a coil or capacitor at resonance to the voltage across the resistance.
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Applications of Resonant circuits
How resonant circuit is used in the tuning mechanism of a radio or a TV set ?
The signals from different broadcasting stations, picked up by the antenna of a
radio acts as a source for the tuning circuit , so that the circuit can be driven at
many frequencies. To hear one particular radio station, we tune the radio , by
varying the capacitance of the capacitor in the tuning circuit such that the resonant
frequency of the circuit becomes nearly equal to the frequency of the radio signal
received. When this happens, the amplitude of the current with the frequency of the
signal of the particular radio station in the circuit is maximum.
What type of circuit exhibits resonance ?
The resonance phenomenon is exhibited by a circuit only if both L and C are
present in the circuit. Only then do the voltages across L and C cancel each other
(both being out of phase) and the current amplitude is vm/R, the total source
voltage appearing across R. This means that we cannot have resonance in a RL or
RC circuit.
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POWER IN PURELY RESISTIVE CIRCUIT
We know the emf in purely resistive circuit is in phase with current . They are
given below as
e = E0 sin t ..1
and i = I0 sin t ..2
The instantaneous value of power is given as
P = dW / dt = > dW = eidt = E0I0 sin 2t dt
= E0 I0 [ (1 cos 2t ) dt ]
= E0 I0 [dt cos 2t dt ] .3
So total work done during the whole cycle of the given ac
W = 0W dW = E0 I0 [ 0 Tdt 0 Tcos 2t dt ]
= E0 I0 [ {t}0T {sin 2t /2 }0T ]
= E0 I0 [{T-0} {sin 2(2/)T sin0}/2]
= E0 I0 [.T { 0 0}/2 ]
=> W = (E0/2)( I0/2) .T
=> W/T = ERMS IRMS
=> P = ERMS IRMS .............4
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POWER IN PURELY INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT
We know the current in purely inductive circuit is lagging behind emf by a phase
angle of /2 . They are given below as
e = E0 sin t ..1
and i = I0 sin ( t - /2) .2
P = dW / dt = > dW = eidt = E0I0 sin t sin ( t - /2 )dt
= - E0 I0 [ sin t cos t dt ]
= - E0 I0 [ ( 2 sin t cos t ) dt ]
= - E0 I0 [ sin 2t dt ] .3
So total work done during the whole cycle of given ac
W = 0W dW = - E0 I0 [ 0 T sin 2t dt ]
= - E0 I0 [- cos2t /2] 0T
= E0 I0 [cos2(2/)cos 0 ] /2]
= E0 I0 [ 1 1] / 2
=> W = 0
=> P = 0 .......................4
Current in purely inductive circuit is called wattless current as no power is
consumed
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POWER IN PURELY CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT
We know the current in purely inductive circuit is ahead of emf by a phase angle
of /2 .
They are given below as
e = E0 sin t ..1
and i = I0 sin ( t + /2) .2
P = dW / dt = > dW = eidt = E0I0 sin t sin ( t + /2 )dt
= E0 I0 [ sin t cos t dt ]
= E0 I0 [ ( 2 sin t cos t ) dt ]
= E0 I0 [ sin 2t dt ] .3
So total work done during the whole cycle of given ac
W = 0W dW = E0 I0 [ 0 T sin 2t dt ]
= E0 I0 [- cos2t /2] 0T
= - E0 I0 [cos2(2/)cos 0 ] /2]
= - E0 I0 [ 1 1] / 2
=> W = 0 => P = 0 .......................4
Current in purely capacitive circuit is called wattless current as no power is
consumed
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POWER IN LCR CIRCUIT
Let the emf in LCR circuit is ahead of current by a phase angle of as given
below
e = E0 sin ( t + ) .1
and i = I0 sin t ..2
P = dW / dt = > dW = eidt = E0I0 sin t sin ( t + )dt
= E0 I0 [ sin 2t cos dt + sin t cos t sin

dt ]
t) cos dt +(
= E0 I0[ (1 cos 2 + t cos t )sin
2 sin dt ]
= E0 I0 [cos dt cos 2
t cos dt + sin 2
t sin dt ]3
So total work done during the whole cycle of he given ac
W = 0W dW = E0 I0 [cos 0 Tdt cos 0 Tcos 2

t dt + sin 0 T sin 2
t dt ]
= E0 I0 [cos {t}0T cos {sin 2

t /2
}0T + sin {- cos2
t /2
}0T ]
= E0 I0 [cos {T-0} cos {sin 2(2/)

/)T sin
/) sin0}/2 {cos2(2/)
/)
]
cos 0}/2
= E0 I0 [cos .T
. cos { 0 0}/2
sin
{ 1
1}/2
1 ]
=> W = (E0/2)( I0/2) cos .T

.
=> W/T = ERMS IRMS cos .
=> P = ERMS IRMS cos .......................4
The term cos is known as power factor of LCR circuit ,

which is equal to cos = R / Z = R / ( XL - XC)
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Transformer
Transformer is an electrical device used for converting low alternating voltage into
high alternating voltage and vice versa and transfering electric power from one
circuit to another.
It is based on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
A transformer consists of primary and secondary coils insulated from each other,
wound on a soft laminated iron core to minimise eddy currents . The a.c. input is
applied across the primary coil ,which produces a varying magnetic flux in it. This,
in turn , produces a varying magnetic flux in the secondary. Hence, an induced emf
is produced across the secondary.
Let Ep and Es be the induced emf in the primary and secondary coils and NP and
Ns be the number of turns in primary and secondary coils respectively. Since same
flux links with the primary and secondary, the emf induced per turn of the two
coils must be the same
.(1)
For an ideal transformer,
input power = output power = > E P IP = ES IS ,
here IP & IS are currents in primary & secondary coils.
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where k is called transformer ratio.
for step up transformer k >1 & for step down transformer k <1
In step up transformer , ES>EP implying that IS<IP .
Thus a step up transformer increases the voltage by decreasing the current, which
is in accordance with the law of conservation of energy. Similarly a step down
transformer decreases the voltage by increasing the current.
EFFICIENCY:
The efficiency = 1 (i.e. 100%), only for an ideal transformer where there is no
power loss. But practically there arc numerous factors leading to energy loss in a
transformer and hence the efficiency Is always less than 1
Energy losses in a transformer
(1) Hysteresis loss : The repeated magnetisation and demagnetisation of the iron
core caused by the alternating Input current, produces loss in energy called
hystcrisis loss. This loss can be minimised by using a core with a material having
the least hysteresis loss. Alloys like mumetal and silicon steel arc used to reduce
hvsterisis loss.
(2) Copper loss: The current flowing through the primary and secondary windings
lead to Joule heating effect. Hence some energy is lost in the form of heat. Thick
wires with considerably low resistance are used to minimise this loss.
(3) Eddy current loss (Iron loss):The varying magnetic flux produces eddy current
In the core. This leads to the wastage of energy in the form of heat. This loss Is
minimised by using a laminated core made of stelloy. an alloy of steel.
(4) Flux loss: The flux produced In the primary coil is not completely linked with
the secondary coil due to leakage. This results in the loss of energy. Tills loss can
be minimised by using a shell type core.
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(5) In addition to the above losses, due to the vibration of the core, sound is
produced, which causes a loss in the energy.
LC OSCILLATIONS
We know that a capacitor and an inductor can store electrical and magnetic energy,
respectively. When a capacitor (initially charged) is connected to an inductor, the
charge on the capacitor and the current in the circuit exhibit the phenomenon of
electrical oscillations.
Let a capacitor be charged qm (at t = 0) and connected to an inductor . The moment
the circuit is completed, the charge on the capacitor starts decreasing, giving rise to
current in the circuit.
According to Kirchhoffs loop rule,
=> [ as i = (dq/dt )]
The charge,so , oscillates with a natural frequency
At t = 0, the switch is closed and the capacitor starts to discharge [Fig.(b)]. As the
current increases, it sets up a magnetic field in the inductor and thereby, some
energy gets stored in the inductor in the form of magnetic energy: UB = Li2
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.
As the current reaches its maximum value im, (at t = T/4) as in Fig.(c), all the
energy is stored in the magnetic field: UB = L i m 2. We can easily check that the
maximum electrical energy equals the maximum magnetic energy. The capacitor
now has no charge and hence no energy.
The current now starts charging the capacitor, as in Fig. (d). This process
continues till the capacitor is fully charged (at t = T/2) [Fig. (e)]. But it is charged
with a polarity opposite to its initial state in Fig. (a).
The whole process just described will now repeat itself till the system reverts to its
original state.
Thus, the energy in the system oscillates between the capacitor and the inductor.
LC oscillations is not realistic for two reasons:
(i)Every inductor has some resistance. The effect of this resistance is to introduce a
damping effect on the charge and current in the circuit and the oscillations finally
die away.
(ii) Even if the resistance were zero, the total energy of the system would not
remain constant. It is radiated away from the system in the form of electromagnetic
waves . In fact, radio and TV transmitters depend on this radiation.
19

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So mean value of the given AC is

Let an alternating source of emf e = Eo sin t be connected across a resistor of

Let an alternating emf e = Eosin t be applied to a pure inductor of inductance L.

t is connected across a capacitor of

Let the current flowing through the circuit be I.

is the net effective opposition offered by the

so , I = Io sin (t + ) is the instantaneous current flowing in the circuit.

Q-factor of resonant circuit

How resonant circuit is used in the tuning mechanism of a radio or a TV set ?

The signals from different broadcasting stations, picked up by the antenna of a

signal of the particular radio station in the circuit is maximum.

What type of circuit exhibits resonance ?

The resonance phenomenon is exhibited by a circuit only if both L and C are

voltage appearing across R. This means that we cannot have resonance in a RL or

and i = I0 sin t ..2

The instantaneous value of power is given as

P = dW / dt = > dW = eidt = E0I0 sin 2t dt

So total work done during the whole cycle of the given ac

= E0 I0 [ {t}0T {sin 2t /2 }0T ]

= E0 I0 [{T-0} {sin 2(2/)T sin0}/2]

=> W = (E0/2)( I0/2) .T

=> W/T = ERMS IRMS

=> P = ERMS IRMS .............4

angle of /2 . They are given below as

and i = I0 sin ( t - /2) .2

The instantaneous value of power is given as

P = dW / dt = > dW = eidt = E0I0 sin t sin ( t - /2 )dt

So total work done during the whole cycle of given ac

Current in purely inductive circuit is called wattless current as no power is

They are given below as

and i = I0 sin ( t + /2) .2

The instantaneous value of power is given as

P = dW / dt = > dW = eidt = E0I0 sin t sin ( t + /2 )dt

So total work done during the whole cycle of given ac

=> W = 0 => P = 0 .......................4

Current in purely capacitive circuit is called wattless current as no power is

P = dW / dt = > dW = eidt = E0I0 sin t sin ( t + )dt

= E0 I0 [ sin 2t cos dt + sin t cos t sin

So total work done during the whole cycle of he given ac

W = 0W dW = E0 I0 [cos 0 Tdt cos 0 Tcos 2

= E0 I0 [cos {t}0T cos {sin 2

= E0 I0 [cos {T-0} cos {sin 2(2/)

=> W = (E0/2)( I0/2) cos .T

=> W/T = ERMS IRMS cos .

=> P = ERMS IRMS cos .......................4

The term cos is known as power factor of LCR circuit ,

The charge,so , oscillates with a natural frequency

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