Introduction to Failure

Modes Involving

Mechanical Damage

Corrosion fatigue, cavitation, erosion, and erosion-corrosion

differ from other forms of deterioration in the importance that
mechanical factors play in the deterioration process.
Deterioration by fatigue, erosion, and cavitation does not
require a contribution from corrosion reactions. Rather,
damage can be simply the consequence of purely mechanical
interactions between the operating system and the metal.
Repeated stressing of a metal above a threshold stress level can
produce metal fatigue. Rapid, relative movement between a
metal surface and a fluid can produce erosion. Rapid, cyclic,
localized pressure changes within a fluid can produce short-
lived vapor bubbles whose collapse (cavitation) can result in
metal surface wastage (cavitation damage). Fatigue, erosion,
and cavitation do not require a contribution by corrosion; but
in typical cooling water systems, mechanical factors and
corrosion reactions commonly combine synergistically to
produce accelerated deterioration. Since the synergistic
interactions between mechanical factors and corrosion is the
rule rather than the exception in typical industrial
environments, the discussion and case histories for Chap. 11,
"Erosion-Corrosion," and Chap. 12, "Cavitation Damage," will
reflect the importance of corrosion in deterioration involving
mechanical phenomena.
 The powerful influence of mechanical factors on these
phenomena produces distinctive physical features on affected
metal surfaces, as well as determining the locations where the
damage occurs. Hence, metal wastage influenced by
mechanical factors can be sensitive to geometric shapes and
topographical features (surface contours). It is, in this sense,
location specific.
 10
Chapter

Corrosion Fatigue

General Description
Corrosion fatigue, first mentioned in the literature in 1917, refers to
the generation of cracks resulting from the combined effects of cyclic
stresses and corrosion (Fig. 10.1). A near relative of fatigue, which
results simply from cyclic stresses, corrosion fatigue differs from
fatigue due to a synergism produced between the stresses and corro-
sion. Damage produced by the combined effects of the stresses and cor-
rosion is significantly greater than the total damage produced by
stresses and corrosion separately.
Several theories have been proposed to explain the corrosion-fatigue
phenomena. One is that cyclic stressing causes repeated rupture of
protective coatings. Corrosion-fatigue cracks propagate as the coating
is successively reformed and ruptured along a plane.
No common industrial metal is immune to corrosion fatigue since
some reduction of the metal's resistance to cyclic stressing is observed
if the metal is corroded, even mildly, by the environment in which the
stressing occurs. Corrosion fatigue produces fine-to-broad cracks with
little or no branching. They are typically filled with dense corrosion
product. The cracks may occur singly but commonly appear as families
of parallel cracks (Fig. 10.2). They are frequently associated with pits,
grooves, or other forms of stress concentrators. Like other forms of
 Mild, non-specific corrodent

Figure 10.1 Schematic representation of a corrosion-fatigue crack propa-

gating under the influence of a cyclic bending stress and exposure to a
mild, nonspecific corrodent.

environmentally induced cracking, corrosion fatigue produces thick-

walled fractures, even in ductile metals (Fig. 10.3).

Locations
Common locations of corrosion fatigue are planes of constraint, such as
tube sheets, where cyclic stresses may be intensified. See Case History
10.1. Under conditions of flow-induced vibration in heat exchanger tubes,
corrosion-fatigue cracking at midspan regions has been reported. Corro-
sion-fatigue crack initiation at pit sites is common and can be encoun-
tered where sufficient cyclic stresses are operating in pitted regions.

Critical Factors
Numerous factors can have a potentially significant effect on corrosion-
fatigue cracking. Most of these relate to stress and the corrosiveness of
Figure 10.2 A family of short, transverse corrosion-fatigue cracks originating on the
external surface.

the environment. The effect of these factors varies with the metals and
environments involved.

Stress
The level of stress may be, and generally is, much less than the yield
strength of the metal. However, in general, higher stresses increase
crack growth rate and the number of cracks initiated.
Perhaps the most important stress factor affecting corrosion fatigue
is the frequency of the cyclic stress. Since corrosion is an essential com-
ponent of the failure mechanism and since corrosion processes typi-
cally require time for the interaction between the metal and its
environment, the corrosion-fatigue life of a metal depends on the fre-
quency of the cyclic stress. Relatively low-stress frequencies permit
adequate time for corrosion to occur; high-stress frequencies may not
allow sufficient time for the corrosion processes necessary for corrosion

Figure 10.3 Blunt fracture edges

typical of corrosion-fatigue cracks.
fatigue. As stress frequency increases, the failure mode gradually
shifts from corrosion fatigue to simple fatigue at very high frequencies.
A fatigue limit, which is characteristic of simple fatigue, does not typi-
cally exist where corrosion fatigue is the failure mechanism. (Fatigue
limit is the maximum stress below which a metal can endure an infi-
nite number of stress cycles.)
Corrosion
In general, as the corrosiveness of the environment increases, the rate
of crack growth also increases. Environmental factors constituting
"corrosiveness" vary with the metal under consideration.
An important corrosion factor is the formation of crack initiation
sites by localized corrosion, such as pitting. Such sites serve as stress
concentrators. Stress concentrators locally elevate the stress level due
to the geometry of the site (Fig. 10.4). It is common to find corrosion-
fatigue cracks growing from such sites because locally elevated
stresses are sufficiently high to rupture protective coatings. In uncor-
roded areas the stress level is lower and may be insufficient to cause
coating rupture. It is also quite possible that the local environment at
a pit site is more corrosive due to the concentration of aggressive sub-
stances there and, therefore, more prone to produce corrosion fatigue
in the presence of cyclic stress.

Identification

Corrosion fatigue produces tightly closed, relatively straight, typically

unbranched cracks that are frequently observed in parallel families. The
tightness of the cracks may make them difficult to detect visually. They
are commonly found at the bottom of localized corrosion sites such as
pits, although they can form in the absence of pits. They may be oriented
longitudinally or transversely or skewed, depending on the orientation of
the maximum cyclic tensile stress. The cracks will run perpendicularly
to this stress. The cracks have a thick-walled, brittle appearance, even in
ductile metals. Corrosion products commonly cover the fracture faces
but may not be present on the surface of the component.

Stress Stress

Figure 10.4 Schematic representation of localized increase in stress at a

surface discontinuity.
 Corrosion-fatigue cracks can be detected by nondestructive testing
techniques such as magnetic particle inspection, radiography, ultra-
sonics, and dye penetrant. Corrosion-fatigue cracks may occur in
numerous tubes simultaneously. Nondestructive testing of tubes at
locations similar to those in which cracks are observed can be useful.

Elimination
Mitigation or elimination of corrosion-fatigue cracks involves gaining
control of the critical factors that govern the mechanism.

Stress
Reduce or eliminate cyclic stresses. Reduction or elimination of cyclic
stresses frequently requires equipment design modifications. Attention
to external sources of cyclic stress, such as vibrations from machinery
and water hammer, is also required. Internal sources of cyclic stress
may include thermal expansion and contraction and flow-induced
vibration. Cracking from flow-induced vibration is often restricted to
peripheral rows of heat exchanger tubes. Reduction of flow-induced
vibration requires correct spacing of tube supports and/or a change in
the placement and design of baffles. A change of tube metallurgy with-
out an appropriate alteration of tube supports and/or baffling may
cause flow-induced vibration problems where none existed previously.

Corrosion
Techniques for controlling the corrosion factor can be categorized into
three basic approaches:
1. Alter the environment to render it less corrosive. This approach
may be as simple as maintaining clean metal surfaces. It is well
known that the chemistry of the environment beneath deposits can
become substantially different than that of the bulk environment.
This difference can lead to localized, underdeposit corrosion (see
Chap. 4, "Underdeposit Corrosion''). The pit sites produced may
then induce corrosion fatigue when cyclic stresses are present. The
specific steps taken to reduce corrosivity vary with the metal under
consideration. In general, appropriate adjustments to pH and reduc-
tion or elimination of aggressive ions should be considered.
2. Alter the metal to achieve greater corrosion resistance. Since a
metal's susceptibility to corrosion fatigue depends largely on its cor-
rosion resistance in a particular environment, improving corrosion
 resistance also improves resistance to corrosion fatigue. Proper
selection of a metal may eliminate corrosion-fatigue problems alto-
gether. However, care must be taken that the introduction of a new
metal does not result in trading corrosion-fatigue cracking for some
other form of environmentally sensitive cracking, such as stress-
corrosion cracking.
3. Separate the metal from the environment with a physical barrier.
Many corrosion inhibitors make use of this principal to protect met-
als. Proper use of an appropriate inhibitor may reduce or eliminate
pitting. Pits are frequently initiation sites for corrosion-fatigue
cracks. The effectiveness of inhibitors depends upon their applica-
tion to clean metal surfaces. An example of this method is the use of
zinc coatings on steel to stifle pit formation.

Cautions
Corrosion-fatigue cracks can be difficult to see because of their tight-
ness. Nondestructive testing techniques should be used in suspect
areas. Evidence of gross corrosion does not necessarily accompany
corrosion-fatigue cracking. Deposits may cover crack sites, rendering
them undetectable until the deposits are removed. Simple visual
examinations of crack appearance may be insufficient to distinguish
between the various modes of environmentally induced cracking such
as corrosion fatigue, stress-corrosion cracking, and sometimes hydro-
gen embrittlement. In such cases a formal metallographic examination
is required. Corrosion fatigue may be distinguished from simple
fatigue by observing that fatigue cracks commonly occur singly and
corrosion-fatigue cracks frequently occur in families.

Related Problems
See Chap. 9, "Stress-Corrosion Cracking."
CASE HISTORY 10.1

Industry: Utility
Specimen Location: Surface condenser tube, inlet end
Specimen Orientation: Horizontal
Environment: Internal: Circulating water pH 7.8-8.2
External: Steam and condensate treated with an oxygen
scavenger and ammonia, pH 7.8-9.2, temperature ambient
to 15O0F (660C)
Time in Service: 25 years
Sample Specifications: 1 in. (25 mm) outer diameter, 30 ft (9 m) long, inhibited
admiralty brass

Figure 10.5 shows the appearance of numerous failures that had occurred
in a short time in the water box inlet end. Cracking of this type was a
recurrent problem in this condenser. Approximately 9% of the tubes in the
condenser had been plugged. The condenser was in cyclic service, although
the failures had occurred while the boiler itself was out of service.
Note the proximity of the circumferential crack to the rolled section of
tube where it had contacted the tube sheet. (Slight distortion of the tube
occurred during its removal from the tube sheet.) Figure 10.6 shows the
straight, unbranched character of the crack.
Microstructural examinations of tube wall cross sections taken from the
cracked region revealed straight, unbranched cracks running directly
across the metal grains (transgranular), typical of corrosion-fatigue cracks.
The cracks originated on the external surface, although evidence of very
shallow corrosion-fatigue cracks was also observed on the internal surface.
Corrosion was superficial.
The cyclic stresses responsible for this failure were apparently bending
stresses associated with cyclic thermal expansion and contraction.

Figure 10.5 Circumferential corrosion-fatigue crack adjacent to location of tube sheet.

Figure 10.6 Straight, unbranched crack on the surface. (Magnification: 33x.)

CASE HISTORY 10.2

Industry: Utility
Specimen Location: Turbine condenser tube
Specimen Orientation: Horizontal
Environment: Internal: Well water 950F (350C), pH 7.9, sulfate 900 ppm,
chloride 330 ppm, molybdate water treatment
External: Steam and condensate
Time in Service: 1 year, cyclic operation
3
Sample Specifications: A in. (19 mm) outer diameter, admiralty brass

The short circumferential cracks apparent in Fig. 10.7 are precursors of

the complete, brittle fractures shown in Fig. 10.3. Numerous fractures had
occurred adjacent to the tube sheet over the past year.
Microstructural examinations revealed that the primary cracks
originated on the internal surface at the base of shallow pit sites. Fewer
cracks originated on the external surface, also at the base of shallow pit
sites. The cracks are straight, transgranular and filled with dense
corrosion products, typical of corrosion-fatigue cracks. The cyclic stresses
responsible for this cracking were apparently bending stresses produced
by thermal expansion and contraction.
Figure 10.7 Short, tight, circumferential corrosion-fatigue cracks on the internal surface
made apparent by discoloration from "weeping."

CASE HISTORY 10.3

Industry: Refinery
Specimen Location: Surface condenser: bed air blower cat cracker
regeneration system
Specimen Orientation: Horizontal
Environment: Internal: Cooling water 90-12O0F (32-490C), pH 6.6-6.8
(pH 4 occasionally), 30-60 psi (0.2-0.4 MPa)
External: 650 psi (4.5 MPa), steam condensate pH 8-9
Time in Service: 10 years
3
Sample Specifications: A in. (19 mm) outer diameter, admiralty brass

Transverse cracks shown in Fig. 10.8 were found in a total of 15 tubes

from random areas of the condenser. The equipment had been in
continuous service for 2 years. Cracks had not been observed previously.
Visual examinations disclosed that the cracks originated on both the
internal and external surfaces, although there were more on the internal
surface. Thin coatings of deposits partially covered both the internal and
external surfaces.
Microscopic examinations revealed that the cracks were unbranched and
transgranular, typical of corrosion-fatigue cracks. These examinations also
revealed that the cracks tended to initiate at sites of intergranular
corrosion or at pit sites, both of which are stress concentrators.
Intergranular corrosion and pitting are frequently associated with deposits
covering the metal surface.
The orientation of the cracks reveals that cyclic bending stresses or
cyclic axial stresses were active. The intensification of these stresses at
pits and intergranular corrosion sites produced the cracks observed.

Figure 10.8 Transverse cracks on the internal surface.

CASE HISTORY 10.4

Industry: Refinery
Specimen Location: Surface condenser for air compressor
Specimen Orientation: Horizontal
Environment: Internal: Cooling water: phosphonate and zinc water
treatment
External: Steam and condensate with ammonia and
hydrogen sulfide
Time in Service: 8 years
3
Sample Specifications: /4 in. (1 .9 cm) outer diameter, admiralty brass

Numerous transverse cracks of the type illustrated in Figs. 10.2 and 10.9
were discovered upon inspection. Cracks had not been observed previously.
Some cracks were clustered into small areas along one side of the tube,
but close examination revealed numerous cracks scattered over the tube
surface. Chemical spot tests revealed the presence of sulfur-containing
compounds on the external surface.
Microscopic examinations revealed tight, unbranched, transgranular
cracks originating on the external surface. Many of these cracks originated
at shallow pockets of corrosion.
The orientation of the cracks indicates that cyclic bending stresses or
cyclic axial stresses generated by thermal expansion and contraction
provided the responsible stresses. The large number of crack initiation
sites and the tightness of the cracks indicate high-level stresses.
 Although reducing the corrosivity of the external environment would
reduce cracking, in this case it is judged that cyclic, operational stresses are
predominant. Until the source of the stresses is determined and reduced or
eliminated, it is doubtful that a permanent solution can be achieved.

Figure 10.9 Close-up of cracks. (Magnification: 7.5x.)

CASE HISTORY 10.5

Industry: Primary metals

Specimen Location: Heat exchanger: aftercooler of an oxygen plant
Specimen Orientation: Horizontal
Environment: Internal: Oxygen
External: Cooling water at 950F (350C), phosphate and
zinc water treatment
Time in Service: 5 years
5
Sample Specifications: /s in. (16 mm) outer diameter, copper

Longitudinal cracks of the type illustrated in Fig. 10.10 affected numerous

tubes in the exchanger. Cracking was a recurrent problem.
Visual examinations disclosed several cracks, each very tight and
difficult to see. Examinations under a low-power stereoscopic microscope
revealed many short cracks running parallel to the primary crack.
 Microstructural examinations revealed intergranular, sparsely branched
cracks originating on the external surface. Some cracks initiated as
transgranular fissures.
Intergranular corrosion-fatigue cracks in copper may be difficult to
differentiate from stress-corrosion cracking. The longitudinal orientation
of the cracks revealed that the cyclic stresses were induced by fluctuations
in internal pressure.

Figure 10.10 Longitudinal corrosion-fatigue crack originating on the external surface.