Road Planning and Design Fundamentals
Road Planning and Design Fundamentals
Road Planning and Design Fundamentals
Chapter 3
Road Planning and Design
Fundamentals
December 2005
i
Department of Main Roads Chapter 3
Road Planning and Design Road Planning and Design Fundamentals
Manual
Manual Contents
Chapter 1
Chapter 12
Framework of the Road Planning and
Vertical Alignment
Design Manual
Chapter 2 Chapter 13
3 Design Philosophy
Chapter 3
Intersections at Grade
Chapter 14
Road Planning and Design
Roundabouts
Fundamentals
Chapter 4
Chapter 15
Application of Design Principles and
Auxiliary Lanes
Guidelines
Chapter 5
Chapter 16
Traffic Parameters and Human
Interchanges
Factors
Chapter 6 Chapter 17
Speed Parameters Lighting
Chapter 7 Chapter 18
Cross Section Traffic signals
Chapter 8
Chapter 19
Safety Barriers and Roadside
Intelligent Transport Systems
Furniture
Chapter 9 Chapter 20
Sight Distance Roadside Amenities
Chapter 21
Chapter 10
Railway and Cane Railway Level
Alignment Design
Crossings
Chapter 11 Chapter 22
Horizontal Alignment Bridges, Retaining Walls and Tunnels
December 2005
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Department of Main Roads Chapter 3
Road Planning and Design Road Planning and Design Fundamentals
Manual
Table of Contents
3.1 Objectives 3-1
3.2 Overarching issues 3-2
3.2.1 Community engagement 3-2
3.2.2 Local Government involvement 3-7
3
3.2.3 Whole of Government approach 3-7
3.2.4 Major structures 3-8
3.2.5 Other design issues 3-9
3.3 Safer roads 3-12
3.3.1 General principles 3-12
3.3.2 Designing for road safety 3-12
3.3.3 Worksite safety 3-18
3.3.4 Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) 3-20
3.4 Transport efficiency and effectiveness 3-24
3.4.1 Land use and transport planning 3-24
3.4.2 Travel demand and demand management 3-29
3.4.3 Traffic forecasting 3-31
3.4.4 Public transport facilitation 3-31
3.4.5 Staged construction 3-39
3.4.6 Life cycle costs 3-41
3.4.7 Design vehicles 3-44
3.5 Fair access and amenity 3-45
3.5.1 General principles 3-45
3.5.2 Fair access 3-45
3.5.3 Cultural heritage 3-45
3.5.4 Community amenity 3-46
3.5.5 On-road amenity development and retention of views 3-49
3.5.6 Pedestrians and cyclists 3-50
3.5.7 Roadside amenities 3-53
3.5.8 Special works 3-53
3.5.9 Stock routes 3-54
December 2005
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Department of Main Roads Chapter 3
Road Planning and Design Road Planning and Design Fundamentals
Manual
3 3.6.5
3.6.6
Engineering design
Fauna
3-59
3-65
References 3-66
Relationship to other Chapters 3-73
Appendix 3A Trip generation rates 3-74
Appendix 3B Ecologically sustainable development assessment 3-81
Appendix 3C Transit lane capacity 3-87
December 2005
iv
Department of Main Roads Chapter 3
Road Planning and Design Road Planning and Design Fundamentals
Manual
List of Tables
Table 3.1 Evaluation criteria for transit lanes (based on PPK et al, 2000) 3-35
Table 3.2 Guidelines for selecting batter slope based on soil types 3-61
Table 3.3 Traffic generation data child care centres 3-75
Table 3.4 Traffic generation data commercial premises 3-75
Table 3.5 Traffic generation rates residential dwellings
Table 3.6 Traffic generation rates fast food outlets
3-76
3-77
3
Table 3.7 Traffic generation data industrial uses 3-77
Table 3.8 Traffic generation rates - service stations 3-78
Table 3.9 Traffic generation data other land uses 3-79
Table 3.10 ESD tools and applicability to network/corridors and phases (Austroads,
2000) 3-81
Table 3.11 Summary of SEA 3-82
Table 3.12 Summary of qualitative ESD assessment 3-83
Table 3.13 Summary of risk assessment. 3-84
Table 3.14 Summary of CIA 3-86
December 2005
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Department of Main Roads Chapter 3
Road Planning and Design Road Planning and Design Fundamentals
Manual
List of Figures
Figure 3.1 Consultation - the Road System Manager perspective (Main Roads, 2005)
3-4
Figure 3.2 Community engagement across the Road System Manager phases (Main
Roads, 2005) 3-5
Figure 3.3 The overall community engagement process (Main Roads, 2005) 3-5
3 Figure 3.4 This alignment captures views and orientates the driver 3-49
Figure 3.5 Advertising signage can adversely affect views 3-50
Figure 3.6 HOV lane capacity for a signalised urban street with a capacity of
650v/h/lane (PPK et al, 2000) 3-87
Figure 3.7 HOV lane capacity for a signalised suburban arterial with a capacity of
800v/h/lane (PPK et al, 2000) 3-88
Figure 3.8 HOV lane capacity for a high standard suburban arterial with a capacity of
900v/h/lane (PPK et al, 2000) 3-89
December 2005
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Department of Main Roads Chapter 3
Road Planning and Design Road Planning and Design Fundamentals
Manual
3
Rev Section by
No.
1 - First Issue Steering Oct
Committee 2000
2 Section Modified. New section added.
3.4.2 Steering Aug
New References. Committee 2001
New Relationship to Other Chapters.
3 All New Chapter. Steering Aug
Committee 2004
4 All Some headings, figures and tables
renumbered. References in text amended to
reflect the renumbering.
Various Term standard changed to design criteria,
sections design parameter or design value where
appropriate.
Term desired speed introduced for the term
speed environment (the two are largely
analogous). Steering Dec
Terms Normal Design Domain and Committee 2005
Extended Design Domain (EDD) introduced
where appropriate.
Some minor amendments to various sections.
Section Community consultation removed and
3.2.1 replaced with community engagement. Text,
related figures and references corrected to
reflect new Main Roads community
engagement publications.
December 2005
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Department of Main Roads Chapter 3
Road Planning and Design Road Planning and Design Fundamentals
Manual
3
3.2.5.4, 3.2.5.2), Intersections and interchanges
3.2.5.5 and (Section 3.2.5.3), Roadside furniture (Section
3.2.5.6 3.2.5.4), Public Utility plant (PUP) (Section
(new) 3.2.5.5) and Drainage (Section 3.2.5.6).
Section Sections deleted and content moved to new
3.3.2.2, Section 3.2.5 (see above). Steering Dec
3.3.2.3, Committee 2005
3.3.2.4,
3.3.2.5,
3.3.2.6 and
3.3.2.7
(old)
Section New content/new section titled Design for
3.3.2 (new) road safety.
Section Dot points amended to include additional
3.4.1.3 references.
References Additional references added and others
corrected.
December 2005
viii
Department of Main Roads Chapter 3
Road Planning and Design Road Planning and Design Fundamentals
Manual
Chapter 3
Road Planning and Design
Fundamentals
December 2005
3-1
of the issues together (i.e. produce a context o purpose of the road;
sensitive design, refer to Chapter 2).
o function of the road
Roads are a facilitator of human, social and
o type of road; and
economic activity. The planning and
design process must deliver a product that o the outcomes expected from the
is suitable for its intended use with an project.
acceptable environmental impact. It must
also accommodate the appropriate needs of 3.2 Overarching issues
December 2005
3-2
will suffer from a perception that Main Community engagement policy,
Roads has made up its mind and is in the principles, standards and guidelines
process of selling the proposal (rather than this publication contains Main Roads
listening and consulting). Figure 3.2 also policy statement, standards and
shows that the ability to make changes (e.g. guidelines linked to the Queensland
through community engagement) reduces as Governments principles for
a project progresses through each phase; community engagement.
early engagement of the community is
Community engagement planner - this
therefore important. Figure 3.3 outlines the
community engagement process.
The clean sheet approach is particularly
publication contains a practical step-by-
step planner to be used when engaging
communities.
3
applicable to route location proposals and
Community engagement toolbox - this
green field sites. Some modification to
publication contains tools that can be
the process could be justified when the
used when informing, consulting and
proposal is to upgrade an existing facility
actively engaging communities.
(e.g. a restoration project). The initial
community engagement and consultation Community engagement resource guide
will require information on the need for the - this publication contains practical
upgrade and the general concept behind it. how to information such as
This will allow the stakeholders to community profiling, managing
understand the intent of the project and to expectations, risk, engaging target
provide more informed input. However, it groups, holding a meeting,
is desirable that alternative proposals for the questionnaires and evaluation.
project be generated after the initial input so For detailed information regarding
that they can be developed in the community engagement, planners and
knowledge of the range of community designers should refer to the above
concerns. The second part of community publications. Some useful definitions are
engagement and consultation will then have included below.
more specific proposals to consider and this
can result in additional issues arising. This Further guidance for specific communities
approach retains the essential elements of is provided by the following publications
the clean sheet approach and avoids (Department of Aboriginal and Torres Strait
settling on preferred alternatives too early Islander Policy and Development, 1998):
in the process. Protocols for Consultation and
Negotiation with Aboriginal People;
3.2.1.1 Further information and
To support policy implementation and Mina Mir Lo Ailan Mun: Proper
community engagement practice, Communication with Torres Strait
community engagement programs should Islander Peoples.
be undertaken in accordance with the
following documents (Main Roads, 2005):
December 2005
3-3
3
Figure 3.1 Consultation - the Road System Manager perspective (Main Roads, 2005)
December 2005
3-4
3
Figure 3.2 Community engagement across the Road System Manager phases (Main
Roads, 2005)
Figure 3.3 The overall community engagement process (Main Roads, 2005)
December 2005
3-5
Community engagement is: range of avenues such as the telephone,
one of the many ways that communities publications and websites and active
and individuals connect and interact with measures by government, to disseminate
government in developing and information to individuals through
implementing policies, programs and education and awareness activities. While
services. It involves a wide range of this is not public involvement, information
government-community interactions, and communication technologies enable
ranging from information to consultation government to move beyond one-way
Consultation can be used to work with Active participation actively involves and
communities on road projects and road empowers people in Main Roads decision
operations, to discuss the impacts of process. It can be used as part of
existing policies and programs and to seek community visioning of transport plans and
solutions to community issues. future road-system planning. However,
some decisions cannot be changed (such as
Consultation alerts staff to community political decisions, legal and legislative
issues such as the impacts of project timing conditions or the location and extent of a
on small businesses (Main Roads, 2005). road project). In these instances, active
Information is: participation should not be used as
expectations may be raised that cannot be
a one-way relationship in which
met (Main Roads, 2005).
information is disseminated to communities
and individuals. It covers both passive
access to information by individuals via a
December 2005
3-6
3.2.2 Local Government in advance of the commencement of
involvement construction. Where adequate time can not
be provided, an alternative arrangement for
All proposals will impact on the payment might need to be negotiated.
responsibilities of Local Government in
some way. Consultation with the relevant 3.2.3 Whole of Government
Local Government/s at all stages of the approach
process is therefore essential. Agreement
must be reached on the details of the project Main Roads is committed to working across
and in particular, any requirements for
changes to Local Government infrastructure
the whole of government to deliver
integrated outcomes to Queenslanders. In 3
or for Local Government input into the many cases it will mean that the objectives
project. and policies of other departments will have
to be considered in the planning decisions
Development of proposals will have to
taken. Consultation with those departments
consider the implications of the alliance
is essential to ensure that planners and
between the Department and Local
designers consider all factors in the
Government (Main Roads, 2000) respecting
planning process.
the protocols of that alliance, and taking the
needs of the whole road system into In particular, the various State Planning
account when deciding on the best options. Policies (SPPs Queensland Government,
Integration with the land use planning 1992 to 2005), and their associated
undertaken by Local Government is an guidelines, could have an impact on
essential part of the planning process (viz. decisions for projects and must be
the Integrated Transport Planning implemented where applicable. These
Framework for Queensland: A Guide for include:
Transport Planning, Queensland SPP 1/92 Development and
Government, 2003). (Refer also to the conservation of agricultural land.
Integrated Development Assessment
System Manual, Main Roads). o Guideline 1 for SPP 1/92: The
identification of good quality
It is also necessary to reach agreement on agricultural land.
the cost sharing arrangements if applicable.
The Agreement between the Local o Guideline 2 for SPP 1/92:
Government Association of Queensland Separating agricultural land and
Inc. and Department of Main Roads for residential land uses.
Cost Sharing based on Responsibilities SPP 1/02 Development in the vicinity
within State Controlled Roads (Main of certain airports and aviation
Roads, 2000) sets out this agreement. It facilities.
must be applied in discussions with the
o Guideline for SPP 1/02:
relevant Local Government/s on these
Development in the vicinity of
matters. Project Managers should ensure
certain airports and aviation
that adequate warning is given to Local
facilities.
Governments to fund their share of the
works. Local Governments normally need
costs confirmed at least one financial year
December 2005
3-7
SPP 2/02 Planning and managing whether screening is required (refer to
development involving acid sulphate the Reduction of Risk from Objects
soils. Thrown From Overpass Structures onto
o Guideline for SPP 2/02: Planning Roads Policy - Main Roads, 2004);
and managing development the required flood immunity for bridges
involving acid sulphate soils. (defined in the Road Drainage Design
SPP 1/03 Mitigating the adverse Manual [RDDM - Main Roads, 2001]);
impacts of flood, bushfire and the type of structure required (e.g.
3 o
landslide.
Guideline for SPP1/03: Mitigating
bridge or tunnel) and their form (refer
to Chapter 22);
the adverse impacts of flood, cross section requirements (discussed in
bushfire and landslide. Chapter 7, supplemented by Chapter
(Note: At the time of publication a Draft 22);
SPP Protection of Extractive Resources the bridges required for interchanges
also existed.) (discussed in Chapters 16 and 22);
At the time of publication copies of State provision for enforcement (e.g. speed
Planning Polices policies could be found cameras on overhead bridges); and
under the Integrated Planning Act area of
requirements for PUP noting that:
the Department of Local Government and
Planning website (refer to References o requirements should be determined
section). early in the planning process;
In addition the State Coastal Management o PUP inside closed cells of bridges or
Plan (Queensland Environmental Protection tunnels can pose a serious hazard,
Agency, 2002), and relevant regional for example:
coastal management plans, may affect - water and sewer lines can leak so
projects. At the time of publication details proper drainage is required; and
of these plans could be found on the
Environmental Protection Agency website - gas mains should not be placed
(refer to References section). inside closed cells because of the
risk of explosion;
3.2.4 Major structures o high-pressure gas mains present a
serious explosive hazard if ruptured
Chapter 22 discusses the requirements of
and should not be placed on or near
major structures (i.e. bridges, retaining
bridges or in tunnels without
walls and tunnels) and their impact on road
incorporating and taking special
and project development. It provides
precautions;
guidance on the potential structures to be
used and how the choice of the type of o high voltage electrical cables may
structure can affect the cost of the project. have a significant heat output and
may require ventilation;
Factors to be considered in the design of
structures include:
December 2005
3-8
o PUP Authorities may have aquaplaning which should be
restrictions on the location of their minimised in planning and design to
PUP with respect to other PUP; reduce the effect of the combination of
o electrical cable ducting for street superelevation and grade on depth of
lighting is to be provided on bridges water (refer to the RDDM [Main
where required for present or future Roads, 2001]);
lighting; and areas of fog which require good
o PUP may be provided for: delineation;
December 2005
3-9
pavements (e.g. heavy-duty motorway Lighting, including route and
pavements), specialist advice should be intersection lighting (refer to Chapters 8
obtained. Similarly, details of the approach and 17);
to pavement rehabilitation design can be
Traffic signals (refer to Chapters 8 and
found in the Pavement Rehabilitation
18);
Manual (Queensland Transport, 1992). For
special treatments (e.g. foamed bitumen Noise barriers (refer to Chapter 8 and
stabilisation) specialist advice should be the Road Traffic Noise Management:
obtained. Code of Practice [Main Roads, 2000]);
December 2005
3-10
information in addition to what can be Oil pipelines.
ascertained from ground survey. Future
PUP also includes associated ancillaries
proposals for the upgrading of any PUP
(e.g. pits, manholes, valves, etc).
installations should also be determined.
PUP includes, but is not limited to: A detailed assessment of PUP relocation
requirements must be undertaken at
Telecommunications:
business case stage; it should also be
o telephone exchanges; considered, perhaps in less detail, at the
options analysis stage. It is necessary to
3
o high bandwidth communication
conduits fibre optic cables, co- determine the extent of the work and to
axial cables; assess whether early relocation might be
advantageous to facilitate the construction
o low bandwidth communications - process. The various PUP authorities
local connections; should be advised early in the business case
o cables; stage of the proposals so that any affected
PUP can be identified.
o satellite communication facilities;
and Where possible, relocation of PUP should
be minimised by judicious adjustment to
o high bandwidth communication
the design. Minor changes to the design
towers.
can often be made without compromising
Water: the standard of the design and major
o large reticulation systems; savings can consequently be achieved.
December 2005
3-11
occur when the conditions are conducive to indicators), and good visibility to it, is
it and the design of the geometry of the essential.
road must take this into account. The
For more detail on these issues, refer to
phenomenon of aquaplaning is discussed in
Chapter 12, and the RDDM (Main Roads,
detail in the RDDM (Main Roads, 2001).
2001).
Care is required in the combination of
Further discussion on drainage is contained
geometric elements that can lead to
in Section 3.6.5.3.
increasing the depth of water on the
Care is required to ensure that the surface of There is an implicit contract of trust
the water over a floodway is visible for between the travelling public and the
sufficient distance before a floodway, agency providing and managing the road
allowing a driver sufficient time to stop or network on which they travel. By
slow down before entering the water. extension, this trust is also between the road
Appropriate signing (e.g. flood depth user and the road designer. The essence of
the trust is that road users may rightly
December 2005
3-12
expect the agency and its employees to use a contrivance or device to prevent
the best available knowledge in order to injury or avert danger; and
decide how much safety to build into the
the action of keeping safe.
roads they produce. Not using such
knowledge amounts to a breach of trust There is no entirely safe road since crashes
(Hauer, 1999). will occur. We only derive some meaning
for safety by measuring the number of
The aim of those developing policies (e.g.
crashes, deaths and/or injuries, and
policy makers, strategic planners), link
comparing the rate of their occurrence on
strategies and investment strategies, as well
as all road designers, must therefore be to
provide the safest road possible within the
the roads in question in the system
(however the rate is measured refer to
3
Section 3.3.2.3) with what is acceptable and
constraints of cost, operating efficiency and
achievable and with performance on similar
environmental impact, etc. All road design
roads in other jurisdictions (e.g.
is therefore a compromise between a range
international experience).
of factors (refer to Chapter 2).
Hauer (1999) notes that the safety of a road
To be able to produce the best result, there
is measured by the frequency and severity
must be a clear understanding of what is
of crashes occurring on it, and that road
meant by road safety and how the decisions
safety is therefore a matter of degree. He
of the policy maker and the designer affect
also notes that since crashes occur on all
the safety of the road in question.
roads in use, it is inappropriate to say of
This section of the Manual addresses the any road that it is safe. However, it is
question of safety, what it means and how correct to say that roads can be built to a
policy makers, strategic planners, designers, nominal level of safety.
etc need to act to achieve the appropriate
Safety concepts
level of safety in their designs.
Road safety is therefore a relative term
In this Chapter, the term used will be
referring to the difference in performance
crashes rather than accidents to accord
between roads when the crash rate (refer to
with the standard terminology used in the
Section 3.3.2.3) is measured. Thus a safer
recording and analysis of road trauma in
road will have a relatively lower crash rate
Australia.
than a less safe road. This does not mean
3.3.2.2 Road safety what is it? that the number of crashes or deaths will be
less on this safer road than on other less
Definitions safe roads when the safer road is a very
A dictionary definition of safety includes highly trafficked road such as a motorway.
the statements (The Macquarie Library Pty While well designed motorways are built to
Ltd, 1997): a high design standard (refer to definition of
standard in Chapter 2) and can be
the state of being safe;
considered among the safest roads built, the
freedom from injury or danger; very high traffic volumes mean that the
the quality of insuring against hurt, number of crashes and deaths will probably
injury, danger, or risk; be larger than a rural road carrying a
December 2005
3-13
relatively small volume of traffic, even if Ideally, there should be sufficient
that rural road has a much higher crash rate. information on the effect of changes in
What constitutes safety must be more design elements on the level of safety to
closely examined. How does an agency or allow an objective assessment of
a designer determine whether one road is substantive safety. In this ideal case it
safer than another? Traditionally, design would be unnecessary to consider
has relied on developing elements of the nominal" safety. This level of information
road by an objective analysis of the is not currently available for many design
3 particular situation using the laws of criteria but the following four aspects of
physics and measures of the factors being nominal safety still have value (Hauer,
input into those laws (e.g. eye height, object 1999):
height, deceleration rate) applied using an Designs must enable road users to
objective assessment of human behaviour in behave legally. This can be attained by
that situation (refer to the discussion nominal safety.
pertaining to design criteria based on
Designs should not create situations
objective safety in Chapter 2).
with which a significant minority of
But do design criteria determined in this road users has difficulties. This too can
way provide an assurance of safety? To be secured by making roads nominally
assess this, a useful approach is suggested safe.
by Hauer (1999) who proposes a clear
Nominal safety is useful protection
distinction between two kinds of safety to
against claims of professional and legal
analyse situations, namely:
liability.
substantive safety is the measured or
Resorting to nominal safety may be a
expected crash frequency and severity;
temporary necessity when crash
nominal safety is produced by a design frequency and severity consequences
that complies with design criteria, are unknown. In such cases, a
warrants and guidelines, and sanctioned statement about the absence of crash-
design procedures. based information is needed.
Substantive safety is a matter of degree. A It is the case that the nominal safety models
road in use cannot be safe, only safer or less are based on logical analysis and are
so. What level of substantive safety is intuitively sound. They have in general
appropriate is therefore governed by stood the test of time with modifications
considering what level of safety is implemented when actual crash rates have
attainable with the resources available. In indicated that change was necessary. They
contrast, a road can be nominally safe, also provide a framework on which
meaning that it conforms to design criteria, substantive safety analysis can be based.
warrants and guidelines, and sanctioned Most researchers have found difficulty in
design procedures. Whether a road that is obtaining robust relationships between road
nominally safe is always (or even usually) geometry and crash rates.
substantively safer than a road that is not
The crash history of a road should be
nominally safe cannot be said definitively
observed and regularly assessed over time
(from Hauer 1999).
December 2005
3-14
as part of the assessment of the safety of a other purposes but do not usually provide
road. the type of information required to judge
the appropriateness or otherwise of design
3.3.2.3 Measuring road safety elements.
Information on road crashes, deaths and Researchers have studied road crashes with
injuries is collected world wide in a range a view to determining the relationship
of formats including: between the crash rate and the features of
total number of crashes; the road including the various geometric
December 2005
3-15
each event can be related to one or Consistency in design (of a road link) aims
more of the components of the road to produce consistent expectations in
safety system; drivers and so provide them with
an adverse conjunction of events is the confidence that what they see ahead gives
explanatory cause of the malfunction; an appropriate message so they can
and anticipate and act with a high degree of
confidence. It therefore allows the driver to
each event is largely determined by develop virtually automatic responses to
preceding events and their
3
various situations, reducing the driver
circumstances. workload (i.e. freeing up the mental
A crash can therefore occur when sufficient processes that would be consumed in
factors are in alignment and create the deciding the actions required for an
conditions for it. For example, a drivers inconsistent feature for other important
inattention combined with an unexpected decisions).
change in direction on a narrow formation An alternative approach, with similar intent
leading to his/her vehicle being on the is the inherently safer road system
wrong side of the road at the same time as a reported by Jagtman (2004) based on the
vehicle is coming in the other direction are following objectives:
all the ingredients for an inevitable serious
crash. Removing the unexpected change in prevent crashes from happening in the
direction on a narrow formation may avert first place as far as possible; and
the crash. minimise the severity of the limited
crashes that remain.
3.3.2.5 Role of the designer
These objectives are underpinned by safety
Designers must recognise the complexity of principles such as:
the system of which the road is one element
and account for the human requirements as functional use of the road network by
far as is reasonable. Consideration of the preventing unintended use of the roads;
human user is paramount and the impact of homogenous use by preventing large
human capability and behaviour must differences in vehicle speed, mass and
always be accounted for in any design. direction;
Road users can only adapt so far to the predictable use thus preventing
system, therefore the system should be uncertainties amongst road users, by
designed to be user friendly (Dewar et al, enhancing the predictability of route
2002). Making the road easy to read is an choices and the behaviour of road
important part of this consideration and users; and
acceptance of this leads to the self-
the forgiving roadside environment
explaining road concept. If this concept is
concept (refer to Chapter 8).
followed for an entire road link it will have
that characteristic so important to Designers must recognise that drivers are
improving the level of safety consistency not perfect and will make mistakes.
(refer to Chapter 2). Designers must therefore use error
prevention and mitigation strategies to
account for this. For example, drivers will
December 2005
3-16
occasionally leave the road and the designer intersections (refer to Chapter 13 and
must therefore try to warn the driver (e.g. Arndt, 2004)
audible line marking), keep the car
Although definitive relationships are not
occupants safe (e.g. provide a forgiving
available some guidance is available on:
roadside environment with flat batters that
are free of hazards), protect hazards (safety cross sections (McLean, 1996); and
barrier), locate hazards outside clear zones shoulders (Armour and McLean, 1983).
if possible or mitigate the effect of leaving
the road (install breakaway poles, install Designers should never forget that the
crash cushions, provide hazard free clear
zones). In addition, the roadside must be
design is for the user, not the gratification
of the designer. Users are complex beings 3
made as safe as possible, the overall result and are an integral element of the system.
being a forgiving roadside. (Refer to All of the designs must recognise the frailty
Chapter 8 for a description of the forgiving of the human being and, as far as possible,
roadside concept.) provide for this frailty. Eliminating
uncertainty is one large step towards this
Designers must: objective.
understand the road system and the A holistic approach involves taking an
interaction between the parts of the overall perspective and realising that road
system; design is a compromise between the ideal
understand the relation between design and what is reasonable in terms of cost,
elements and crash rate; safety and environmental impacts; the aim
should be to produce a context sensitive
ensure that the combination of elements
design (refer to Chapter 2).
is appropriate to the circumstances;
design with the user in mind (including 3.3.2.6 Guidance for designers
the needs of both the older and younger The application of safety design principles
population of drivers, motorcyclists is an integral part of the development of the
pedestrians and cyclists); design criteria set out in the various
reduce or eliminate uncertainty or the chapters of this Manual. Assumptions
unexpected for drivers; and made, and the principles adopted, are set
out in the individual chapters and all
take a holistic approach to design (i.e.
designers should be familiar with those
produce a context sensitive design
details.
refer to Chapter 2).
The design philosophy to be used is
Since the only way of judging the level of
described in detail in Chapter 2 and should
safety is by the crash rate, it is necessary to
be read in conjunction with this section.
know what the effect of changing a design
element will be. This information is not Details of human factors are discussed in
available for all of the design elements but Chapter 5 and the principles set out in that
there is information available for: chapter are an essential input into designing
for safer operation.
roundabouts (refer to Chapter 14 and
Arndt, 1994); and Chapter 5 also deals with design vehicles
and designers should be familiar with the
December 2005
3-17
requirements of the appropriate design experience should be based on objective
vehicles, another essential component of the assessment of the potential crash rate,
road system. Providing the appropriate particularly compared with other sections of
dimensions for the vehicles using the the road link being designed.
system is integral to a safer design solution.
Proper combination of design criteria can
Further insights into the safety aspects of be used to mitigate a potentially less safe
design are included in virtually all Chapters situation. For example, it might be
of this Manual. necessary to compensate for adopting a
December 2005
3-18
safety of the workforce undertaking the from the construction activity and from
construction; and the passing traffic.
safety of road users (e.g. the general For projects delivered using the more
public, pedestrians, cyclists and traditional scheme delivery process (i.e.
motorists). design, then tender and then construct) the
scheme documents are not required to
3.3.3.1 Safety of workers specify the sequencing of the construction
Designs should ensure that the site is process; that responsibility falls to the
readily accessible by construction personnel
and equipment, and that this can occur
construction contractor. However, the
scheme documents must specify the
parameters or limits within which the
3
safely in the presence of other traffic. The
worksite should be separated from the construction contractor must operate.
general traffic as far as possible and the Issues to be addressed include the
workers protected from the passing traffic following:
with appropriate delineation (and barriers if
warranted). Details of temporary and Maintenance of access to property and
permanent barriers are included in Chapter business this does not only include
8. Signage and reduced speed limits for direct access to adjacent property but
road works may also be necessary; must consider the wider effect on
reference should be made to the MUTCD customer access to established
(Main Roads, 2003). businesses.
efficient and safe traffic movement o traffic diversion (via another route,
through the worksite at all stages of the i.e. detours); and
construction; and o construction of side tracks, paved
easy and safe pedestrian and cycle and/or sealed, or other temporary
movement through and/or around the roadways.
site providing protection for these users
December 2005
3-19
Requirement for safety barrier and natural access control;
barrier terminals when required or as is
natural surveillance; and
appropriate.
territorial reinforcement.
Bus routes maintenance of bus stops
and service to the public is essential. Every design will encompass a mixture of
all three of the concepts in a way
Important data for these considerations
appropriate to the particular requirements of
includes pedestrian and cycle movements,
the site in question. The essential
traffic volume, level of service, percentage
December 2005
3-20
3.3.4.1 Natural access control using see-through fencing or walls (if
Natural access control is a concept directed fencing or a wall is required at all) to
at decreasing crime opportunity. This can ensure external visibility of the area;
be achieved through organised means such ensuring that plants and foliage are
as guards, or by natural means. Natural trimmed and maintained to prevent
access control can be enhanced by: obstruction of visibility;
using clear delineation between public ensuring that entrances are located so
and private areas (e.g. kerbs, that they are easily observed;
landscaping);
providing a hierarchy of elements to
providing the ability to see into a space
before entering it;
3
define public and private space;
providing mixed use activities to
defining walkways clearly; encourage regular use of the
ensuring that pathways are well lit with surrounding space; and
a clear view of the destination; provide appropriate lighting to the areas
using landscaping as a natural barrier of concern.
(but designed so that it is not at the
3.3.4.3 Territorial reinforcement
expense of natural surveillance);
This strategy relies on the concept of
creating common areas used by a range
ownership of the areas involved. The
of people; and
natural access control and surveillance
ensuring that plants and other objects strategies tend to reinforce this concept and
do not obscure views of any of the create a sense of territoriality. This tends
areas of concern. to promote responsiveness by users in
protecting their territory (more
3.3.4.2 Natural surveillance awareness, reporting and reacting) and at
Natural surveillance comes from ensuring the same time, promote a perception of
that all publicly accessible areas are under greater risk for offenders (Crowe, 2000).
observation by the adjacent residents and Some strategies to achieve this are to:
businesses. This is intended to keep
intruders under observation, thereby make the space clearly belong to
creating a perception of risk for potential someone or group;
offenders. Surveillance can be organised- define the intended use clearly;
direct (e.g. police patrol), mechanical (e.g.
ensure that the physical design matches
lighting, surveillance cameras) or natural
the intended use; and
(e.g. windows, glass walls). Some actions
that are available to assist in natural provide the means for normal users to
surveillance are: naturally control activities, control
access and provide surveillance.
ensuring that all publicly accessible
areas can be observed and that it is Territorial Reinforcement can be regarded
clear that the area can be observed; as an umbrella strategy encompassing all
three of the elements of CPTED, even
December 2005
3-21
though each has distinct operational o designing to provide more fixtures
differences. with lower wattage to obtain better
uniformity (and the lighting level
3.3.4.4 Specific cases should enable a person with normal
Parking areas vision to identify a face from a
distance of 15m).
CPTED measures for parking areas that
may be considered include: Pedestrian underpasses
CPTED measures for pedestrian
3
avoiding obstructions to sight lines and
avoiding potential entrapment spots by; underpasses that may be considered
include:
o eliminating dense bushes, solid
fences or advertisements that maximising sight lines and avoiding
obscure the view; entrapment spots:
December 2005
3-22
- designing the fittings such as to o if the bikeway coincides with a
manipulation is prevented; and walkway, lighting should be
- using a wall colour that increases provided unless it leads into an unlit
the efficiency of the lighting (e.g. park or recreational area; and
white or other light colour). o providing lighting in a recreational
enhancing natural surveillance by: area may give a false sense of
security to potential users and a false
o incorporating, if possible, street impression that the path is well used
3
level activities with the at night time.
entrances/exits;
Walkways
o encouraging surveillance
opportunities from adjacent streets CPTED measures for walkways that may be
and nearby buildings; and considered include:
December 2005
3-23
security to potential users and a false social or safety problems (or the
impression that the path is well used perception of them).
at night time.
Bridge overpasses
Bus shelters
The Reduction of Risk from Objects
CPTED measures for bus shelters that may Thrown From Overpass Structures onto
be considered include: Roads Policy (Main Roads, 2004), details
maximising surveillance: a practical risk assessment methodology to
address the issue of objects being thrown
3 o design of nearby land uses should
provide natural surveillance,
from pedestrian overpass structures onto
roads and the resulting serious potential
especially at night and at weekends; danger to motorists. During the planning
o the bus stop should be located so as and design phases this element of CPTED
to be highly visible for potential should be built into the project.
passengers and the casual observer;
and 3.4 Transport efficiency
and effectiveness
o plantings should not interrupt the
visibility of the site or provide 3.4.1 Land use and transport
hiding places (e.g. use high planning
branching trees - no branches less
than 2.4m above the pedestrian 3.4.1.1 General principles
surface and/or low growing plants
Land use and transport demand are
below knee height; maintain/trim
inextricably linked; one will always
vegetation).
influence the other. Therefore, they must
Considering the provision of lighting not be considered separately and an
and if included: integrated planning approach is necessary.
o provide high standards of lighting at A major premise of transport and land use
the stop as well as on the approach planning is that an appropriate balance
routes; and between the various modes of transport be
o restrict landscaping to the type achieved. A system that relies too heavily
described above. on the use of the private car for trips will
not serve the long term needs of the urban
avoiding entrapment areas by: community.
o providing multiple entrance/exit Land use planning has a key role in
routes that enable passengers to providing for an integrated transport
bypass potentially unsafe situations; strategy. Forward planning of the location,
o limited walls/fencing immediately scale, density, design and mix of land uses
adjacent to the stop to a height of can help reduce the need to travel, reduce
1.2m; and the length of journeys and make it safer and
easier for people to walk, cycle or use
o locating the stop to avoid areas of
public transport. Decreases in forms of
inappropriate land uses that create
urban pollution can be achieved through
better land use development and better
December 2005
3-24
design of transport systems. (The transport business activity centres.
sector is one of the largest sources of
This document lists best practice
greenhouse gas emissions in Australia and
initiatives in each section, illustrated by a
private transport is the largest urban land
series of hypothetical case studies. There is
use related source of emissions - refer to
an emphasis on safety (e.g. use of knee-
Section 3.6.4.)
height landscaping, provision of multiple
The Integrated Transport Planning routes so pedestrians can by-pass unsafe
Framework for Queensland A Guide for areas) and passive surveillance (refer to
Transport Planning (Queensland
Government, 2003) sets out the desired
outcomes, directions, principles and
Section 3.3.4) as well as discussion of
issues including density, gradients,
connectivity, traffic calming, footpaths and
3
planning steps to provide hands-on advice cycle paths. Public transport stops are
for integrated transport planning across discussed, with emphasis placed on the
urban, rural and remote locations in importance of complementary facilities
Queensland. It also provides an overview (e.g. telephones, drinking fountains, post
of existing legislation, plans and policies as boxes), while the importance of minimising
well as a checklist of planning steps. All transfer distances and avoiding level
planners should apply the requirements of changes at interchanges between modes is
this publication when undertaking their also emphasised.
projects. Designers should also be aware of
The Australian Model Code Of Residential
these requirements.
Development (AMCORD, Commonwealth
Some of the specific elements that should Department of Housing and Regional
be considered in the transport planning Development, 1995) is a National manual
process are described in the references that for residential design in Australia. It
follow. features comprehensive design guidelines
Shaping Up: A guide to the better practice on:
and integration of transport, land use and neighbourhood design;
urban design techniques (Queensland
integrated movement networks
Transport, 1999) is an outstanding guide to
including pedestrian and cycling
developing urban areas to reduce car
facilities; and
dependence, principally through shaping
(i.e. moulding, designing) places to better the location and design of;
support public transport, cycling and o bus stops;
walking. It includes clearly illustrated
guidelines for: o street lighting;
December 2005
3-25
responsive urban design (that is safe, This can be achieved through a number of
stimulating and sustainable); mechanisms including:
transport, accessibility and the local the Integrated Development
environment; Assessment System (IDAS), which
streetscape and neighbourhood improves the speed and quality of
character; and development assessment by creating a
single integrated development
guidelines for crime prevention assessment system for State and Local
December 2005
3-26
minimise potential conflicts between land When key State or Federal legislation is
use and transport planning objectives at the involved, authority may be vested in the
earliest opportunity. responsible State or Federal agency or
In addition to the involvement of state minister.
agencies at the concept phase, input into the Reflecting the needs and criteria in planning
development assessment process is also be for and maintaining State controlled road
required under the integrated planning corridors in the planning scheme is,
system. however, good practice.
Identifying the current and future land use
in an area is an essential prerequisite for the
The IPA also includes designated land for
community infrastructure as another
3
assessment of the travel patterns and traffic means of integrating land use policy and
demand on any future or current facility. infrastructure provision. Community
The source of this information is the Local infrastructure is defined in a Schedule of
Government for the area, together with any the IPA and this includes State controlled
Regional Plans prepared by Government roads. State controlled roads can be
and/or Regional Organisations of Councils identified on Local Government planning
(ROCs). schemes as an overlay to the scheme. The
Local Government planning schemes purpose of this community infrastructure
contain provisions that provide the strategic designation is to:
vision and goals to guide development for achieve integration of infrastructure
at least a 10 to 15 year period. It is planning and land use planning;
expected that they will be reviewed at least
provide infrastructure more efficiently
once within this time.
and cost effectively; and
The planning scheme preparation or review
give governments and other
process provides state agencies with the
stakeholders greater clarity
ideal opportunity to input into the process
and certainty about intended
in a proactive rather than reactive manner.
future directions for development and
This will help to ensure that the needs of
land use.
State-controlled road corridors can be
safeguarded and protected. 3.4.1.3 Demography
The process also provides the opportunity The future demography of the area will be
to identify future or changing land use intimately bound up with the land uses of
patterns that are an important determinant that area. Estimates of future population
of the need for particular infrastructure and its distribution depend on the
within an area. assumptions made regarding land uses.
Planning schemes reflect community The primary source of demographic
planning policy and land use management. predictions is the Queensland Department
They are the key instruments against which of Local Government and Planning,
the assessment of the majority of Planning Information and Forecasting Unit.
development applications is made. They provide a high, medium and low
series of population forecasts for each shire
together with age composition and other
December 2005
3-27
data. This takes into account many issues o Gulf Savannah Integrated Regional
including land supply, IPA schemes, Transport Plan (Queensland
committed infrastructure and proposed Transport, 2000);
industrial development. Their initial source
o Townsville Port Access Impact
of information includes the census.
Assessment Study (Maunsell, 2000);
Shire prediction should normally be in
o Townsville Thuringowa Integrated
accord with these forecasts. When doing
Regional Transport Plan (TTIRTP
assessments the three rates (high, medium
Queensland Transport, Main Roads,
3 and low) should be considered or evaluated
to manage the risk of over investing.
Townsville City Council and
Thuringowa City Council, 2001);
In the absence of more formal demographic
o Townsville Thuringowa strategy
predictions, data obtainable from Local
plan: framework for managing
Government sources to assist predictions of
growth and development
rate of growth of population may include:
(Queensland Department of
historical growth rate data (including Communication and Information,
building approval figures); Local Government, Planning and
planning investigations such as: Sport, Thuringowa City Council and
Townsville City Council, 2000);
o South East Queensland Regional
Plan 2005-2026 (Queensland Office o Capricornia Integrated Regional
of Urban Management and Transport Plan 2004-2030
Queensland Department of Local (Queensland Transport, 2004);
Government, Planning, Sport and o Gladstone Integrated Regional
Recreation, 2005); Transport Plan 2001-2030
o The South East Queensland (Queensland Transport, 2001);
Infrastructure Program and Plan o Mackay Area Integrated Transport
(SEQIPP - Queensland Office of Plan 2002-2025 (Queensland
Urban Management and Queensland Transport, 2002);
Department of Local Government,
o Border Integrated Transport Plan
Planning, Sport and Recreation,
Draft for Consultation 2004
2005);
(Queensland Transport, 2004);
o Far North Queensland Regional Plan
o Eastern Downs Integrated Transport
(Queensland Department of
Plan (Queensland Transport, 2003);
Communication and Information,
Local Government, Planning and o Gowrie to Grandchester Rail
Sport, 2000); Corridor Study (Queensland
Transport, 2005);
o Cairns Integrated Transport Study
Draft Technical Report (Queensland o Wide Bay Integrated Transport Plan
Transport and Eppell Olsen and 2002-2020 (Queensland Transport,
Partners, 2003); 2002);
o South East Queensland
Infrastructure Plan and Program
December 2005
3-28
2005-2026 (SEQIPP Office of Development, Trade and Innovation and the
Urban Management, 2005); Australian Bureau of Statistics. The
o South East Queensland Regional Applied Population Research Unit based at
Plan 2005-2026 (Office of Urban the University of Queensland is also an
Management and Department of authority in this field.
Local Government, Planning, Sport
3.4.2 Travel demand and
and Recreation, 2005);
demand management
o Integrated Regional Transport Plan
for South East Queensland
(Queensland Government, 1997);
Traffic demand and management may be
influenced by public transportation 3
facilitation (Section 3.4.4).
o South-East Queensland travel
survey (Queensland Transport, 3.4.2.1 Travel demand
2005);
Future travel demand is a function of land
o Petrie to Kippa-Ring Transport use, demography and available choices of
Corridor Study (GHD, 2003); travel mode. Determining this includes
o The Gold Coast Light Rail estimating both the scale of demand for
Feasibility Study (APD et al, 2004 each travel mode and their associated
APD partnership, Parsons patterns that will lead to identifying the
Brinckerhoff, Steer Davies Gleave, future design flows (e.g. private vehicle,
KPMG, Queensland Transport and cyclists, public transport) in a particular
Gold Coast City Council); corridor.
December 2005
3-29
For rural areas, the issue of freight approaches to providing transport
movements is particularly significant in infrastructure;
terms of the level of demand and the
providing appropriate road and traffic
physical and design attributes the corridor
management, local area traffic
will require.
management and street closures; and
Increased use of public transport, walking
providing for freight and the
and cycling is an objective expressed in all
requirements of commercial vehicles.
of the ITRPs targets which are aimed at
December 2005
3-30
private vehicles with multiple passengers Pavement Rehabilitation Manual
and road bound public transport vehicles [Queensland Transport, 1992] for a detailed
are referred to as HOVs. Providing special discussion related to pavement design,
facilities to give HOVs (and other eligible including pavement design traffic).
vehicles which may include motorcycles
The accurate forecasting of a traffic volume
and bicycles, refer Section 3.4.4.1) a level
in 20 years, or other specified times in the
of priority higher than single occupant cars
future, might require specialist skills and
and trucks is one way to achieve the desired
special studies to be undertaken. Some of
outcome (by encouraging the desired
behaviour). If sufficient time savings can
be obtained, then it will be attractive for
the contributing factors have been discussed
in other sections. Another approach is to
extrapolate historical traffic data and
3
people to use HOVs.
modify these figures for the traffic
Planning activities must take account of the generated by specific developments
potential for HOV facilities and use them (factored for growth over the planning
appropriately to cater for the traffic demand period).
and to determine the type and size of
Traffic generated by specific developments
roadway required. Requirements for these
can be estimated from industry norms
facilities are discussed in Section 3.4.4.1.
determined from experience. Appendix 3A
It is beyond the scope of this Manual to provides summary information on trip
address the range of other measures that can generation rates for a range of land uses
be taken to manage travel demand (e.g. the (and cites references to which planners and
use of a parking policy). designers should turn for detailed
information).
3.4.3 Traffic forecasting
Predicted traffic volumes on (i.e. along and
The planning and design of a new road in a across) the road in question is the basis for
corridor depends on having accurate many aspects of the design and can
forecasts of the traffic expected to use it influence the overall impact of the road on
throughout its design life. It is also all of the factors being considered. This
important that an accurate estimate of the applies to the environmental impact as well
traffic generating characteristics of a new as the effect on the range of engineering
development is known so that its impact parameters adopted for the design. The
can be gauged and the development traffic parameters to be used are discussed
properly assessed. In general, planning is in Chapter 5.
based on the traffic expected in 20 years
from the opening of the facility but it might
3.4.4 Public transport
be necessary to obtain predictions for a
facilitation
series of years to determine the potential for
3.4.4.1 Transit lanes
staging of the required works. Heavy-duty
pavements are often designed using a In Queensland, special lanes to
design life of 40 years meaning an estimate accommodate HOVs, and other eligible
of the traffic use over that period is vehicles, are known as transit lanes. This
required. (Refer to the Pavement Design section sets out the objectives of transit
Manual [Main Roads, 2004] and the lanes and the factors to be considered in
December 2005
3-31
their planning and implementation. For a converting a busy general-purpose lane to
comprehensive treatment of this subject, an under-used transit lane, for instance,
refer to the Brisbane HOV Arterial Roads might result in a total person-hour time
Study Report (PPK et al, 2000) and increase. Another example is where a
publications by the Transportation Research proposed HOV facility might meet
Board (1998) and Fuhs (1990). Although technical warrants yet be unacceptable to
the PPK study focuses on Brisbane, it the adjacent community. Further, the
provides basic principles that apply conversion of a parking lane to a HOV lane
throughout Queensland.
3
may make it difficult or unsafe for cyclists
Objectives of transit lanes using it.
In addition to the basic requirements such There will be quantitative and qualitative
as designing for personal safety, cost- aspects to assess both the benefits and
effectiveness, and design criteria (including detrimental aspects of transit lane
provisions for cycling), which are part of implementation. The acceptability of some
any roadway or transit project, the proposals will obviously be case-specific or
following objectives are appropriate for community-specific. There will be
transit lanes: situations where the needs of through
freight movement are very significant in
Increase the attractiveness of HOVs and which case a HOV may not be appropriate
other eligible vehicle types by (as freight vehicles are not HOVs and so
improving their operational efficiency permitted in transit lanes) and other
and reliability. locations where the views of the
Induce a behavioural shift towards surrounding community are strongly for or
HOVs, and other eligible vehicle types, against HOV priority and still other cases
by providing travel time savings and where a balance between all the road users
more reliable trip times for these needs can be readily achieved. There are
vehicles. environmental impacts and policy issues to
be considered as well. For instance, it
Increase the person movement capacity
might be feasible to widen a transit lane to
of road links by increasing the average
cater for cyclists on a key cycling route,
number of persons carried per vehicle.
thus improving the potential for increasing
Implement HOV priority measures such cycling.
that community-wide net benefits
All of these benefits and disadvantages
outweigh any net disadvantages.
need to be considered over time, and there
The key issue in setting out transit lane will be situations where short-term impacts
objectives is the relationship between the may need to be endured in order to
transit lane objectives and those of the rest influence long-term trend lines.
of the transport system. To arbitrarily apply
Despite the best planning intentions, the
measures which meet the above transit lane
reality is that no HOV project should be
objectives could disadvantage non-transit
implemented if it causes unacceptable
lane users in some cases to such a degree
disruption to the rest of the system. Such a
that the net impact on person movement
project could irreparably harm the overall
would be negative. For example,
ability to implement other projects that
December 2005
3-32
together would contribute to achieving HOV lane implementation - when is
overall transport objectives. lane conversion rather than lane
HOV spot treatments such as by queue addition the right answer?
jumps at ramp metering and other traffic Cycling and buses - can cyclists and
signals can provide large benefits for low buses co-exist in shared HOV lane? If
cost. These spot improvements may be part so, how?
of a wider HOV system or may be isolated
Each project will have to consider these
in specific locations where such a facility
issues and provide a facility that best suits
will provide significant benefits. Planners
and designers of individual projects should
be alert to the possibility of including such
the environment (physical and political)
that prevails in the area under
3
consideration.
spot treatment to achieve these benefits at
little additional cost. Vehicle eligibility by type
Key planning issues General-purpose lanes are generally open to
any type of vehicle at any time. However
Based on Brisbane and international
large commercial vehicles that do not have
experience, the most significant issues
as of right access (e.g. B-doubles, type 2
likely to be faced by a HOV network or its
road trains) can only use general-purpose
individual components are:
lanes under permit. A priority facility
Vehicle eligibility by type - what type requires limiting or restricting usage to only
of vehicle constitutes an eligible HOV? a specific type or types of (i.e. eligible)
That is, will the HOV facility be a bus vehicle(s).
lane or a transit lane?
The current Traffic Regulations (as per the
Vehicle eligibility by occupancy (for Transport Operations [Road Use
transit lanes only) - how many Management] Act) allow:
occupants are required in/on each
the following vehicles in bus lanes:
eligible vehicle?
o buses;
Hours of operation peak period, all
day or 24-hour? o taxis/limousines;
Usage criteria and warrants - when is a o emergency vehicles;
priority lane justified, under-used, or o bicycles;
congested?
o any vehicles turning within 100m of
Network consistency and integration - an intersection; and
under what conditions should adjoining
transit lanes use the same rules or does o vehicles accessing adjacent
it make a difference? properties.
December 2005
3-33
o motorcycles; combined bus/car-pool volumes in transit
o emergency vehicles; lanes for three types of roads:
December 2005
3-34
Table 3.1 Evaluation criteria for transit lanes (based on PPK et al, 2000)
December 2005
3-35
These measures will fall under one of the pedestrian, the cyclist and the transit
following three functional groupings: passenger (refer also to Section 3.5.6).
Group 1 - Convenience/ encouragement In any community, there is a demand for
which includes: public transport to and between work,
o employer incentives; shopping, education and leisure activities,
and in residential areas.
o ride-match program;
The level and nature of demand for these
o vanpool program; transport services are determined by such
3 o
o
guaranteed ride home;
marketing; and
factors as density of development, spatial
distribution of activities and the socio-
economic characteristics of an area as well
o information. as the demographics of the areas
Group 2 Parking which includes: population. The extent to which public
transport can meet the potential demand is
o park and ride car park; influenced not only by these factors, but
o carpool car park; also by the road layout, hierarchy and
geometry in the service area and the quality
o preferential parking spaces; and
of the amenities provided.
o preferential parking rates;
Local and international research indicates
Group 3 Policies and social issues. that passengers desire the following
amenities in order of priority (South
It is beyond the scope of this Manual to
Australian Government, 2000):
deal with these measures in detail. PPK et
al (2000) contains a detailed discussion of shelter;
these issues.
seating;
Specific treatments
information;
Details of specific HOV treatments are
an attractive and clean environment;
given in Chapter 7.
security;
3.4.4.2 Passenger transport modes
accessibility;
The information on bus routes given in this
directional signage;
section is based on Shaping Up
(Queensland Transport, 1999). Refer to convenient transfer between modes;
Shaping Up for any additional information direct pedestrian access to their
required above what is given in this section. destination; and
Planning SA (South Australian
reassurance.
Government, 2000) touches on most of the
detailed elements of the urban fabric that The role that public transport should
can influence people in making real choices perform on various classes of road is as
in selecting their travel mode. It sets out discussed below.
general urban design principles and then
looks in turn at the specific needs of the
December 2005
3-36
Safety frequency and timing of services.
Safety for transit passengers centres mainly Reassurance for passengers involves
on the ability to wait in a public place providing route and travel information at
without fear of assault or harassment. This stops, stations and interchanges between
is most acute at night and is exacerbated by modes of transport, working towards
isolation. In addition to personal safety, providing real time information about
passengers who access public transport by routes and travel, providing a clock in
car or bicycle require a secure place to park waiting areas, and providing clear
3
their vehicle. Personal safety can be directional signage to, from and within
enhanced by: stations, stops and interchanges.
Convenience Trains
Convenience for transit passengers is In major urban areas, trains often provide a
largely related to information and certainty major public transport service. It is
about obvious and direct paths, and about important that good quality access to
railway stations for all modes (walking,
December 2005
3-37
cycling, buses, motorcycles and private car) all bus stop locations while also being
is provided where required. Facilities could accessible for people with disabilities;
include:
locating lesser activity centres (e.g.
pedestrian and cyclist underpasses or smaller schools, local shops,
overpasses; commercial centres, post offices and
on-road and/or off-road pedestrian and public buildings) on, or very close to,
cycle facilities; the routes between the major activity
centres;
3
bus priority measures;
kiss and ride facilities;
placing residential centres such that
residents have a choice of major
motorcycle parking; activity centres, in either direction on
the bus route/s;
bike storage facilities; and
implementing progressive co-ordinated
bus stops.
development of land parcels which
Buses enable new or extension bus service to
In rural areas well removed from urban be implemented efficiently, or which
communities, the major public transport fill-in gaps in existing route
requirement is for school buses. Providing catchments; and
access to the road system for this service is ensuring opportunities for inter-modal
usually the dominant public transport issue. trips by providing safe and convenient
However, some long distance services cycling access to bus interchanges.
require some level of access and these must
Bus routing and road planning options
also be considered (refer to Chapter 20 for
details of some bus stop requirements). Ease of bus movements between the various
road types must be considered in the design
Land use planning and bus routing
of the road layout, intersection layout and
The general philosophy of land use intersection control.
planning for efficient bus transport is that
In particular, buses should not be expected
which best combines:
to cross, or make uncontrolled right turns
providing direct routes between major onto, highly trafficked arterial roads
activity centres (such as retail centres, through a Stop or Give Way control.
industrial estates, commercial centres, Channelisation, roundabout or traffic signal
large schools, and significant leisure control should be introduced on bus routes
centres) and the patronage source (i.e. to assist bus access to the arterial system.
the residential areas); Alternatively bus priority measures should
providing appropriate density of be implemented. Wherever possible in
residential developments along such such circumstances, T-junctions rather than
routes which should be within a four way intersections should be used as
convenient walking distance to bus these significantly improve safety and
stops; accessibility.
December 2005
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of bus priority should be considered (refer be carefully assessed. Particular factors to
to Section 3.4.4.1). be considered include the following:
High volume arterial roads (typically Bus access/egress and stop facilities
found in the high population urban should not be intermixed with normal
areas) car parking or affected by private
Arterial roads are very suitable for trunk vehicle queues.
express or limited-stop bus services. As Bus route diversions off the sub-arterial
volumes of traffic and congestion increase or collector roads through the centre
on high volume arterial roads, provision of
HOV lanes may be appropriate to support
should be as short as possible, in both
distance and time.
3
public transport objectives and maintain
Bus stop facilities should be as close as
reliability for bus operations. Wherever bus
possible to the pedestrian access
stops occur, passengers should be isolated
facilities for the centre.
as far as practicable from the arterial road
traffic by providing stopping areas clear of Colleges and hospitals should be
the main carriageway (preferably on service located convenient to major transport
roads) and pedestrian access facilities routes (but not adjacent to arterial
segregated from the arterial road vehicles roads) and have good pedestrian access
(via grade separation desirably, or between the public transport stops and
pedestrian signals as a minimum). the facility. A shelter and even covered
walkways (for very high volume routes)
Lower volume arterial roads (typically
are desirable. Note that these facilities
found in lower population urban areas,
can be significant generators of traffic
small cities and rural towns), sub-
with different requirements from the
arterial and collector roads
through traffic on arterial roads. Noise
Principal pedestrian access to, facilities for, is an issue for these facilities if they are
and routes of, major bus services are best located too close to an arterial road.
suited to sub-arterial and collector roads.
Intermodal transport: People can walk,
At bus stops, passengers should be isolated
cycle or use other vehicles (e.g. car,
as far as practicable from the road traffic by
motorcycle to get to public transport.
providing a bus pull off area clear of the
Appropriate facilities are required for
main carriageway.
all modes and user types to support
Local roads intermodal trips.
Local roads should be restricted to Consultation with Local Government and
residential traffic only and are not suitable other stakeholders regarding the above
for use as bus routes. points is essential.
Major developments and bus access
3.4.5 Staged construction
Where a large commercial development,
such as a shopping centre, office park, 3.4.5.1 Principles
college or hospital is planned for an area The potential for developing a project in
away from the central city area, the needs stages has to be determined in the Concept
of, and demands on, public transport should Phase. Appropriate staging will require a
December 2005
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detailed analysis of the traffic impacts of Other examples include:
the staging and the likely life of the stages
providing space for piers for a future
proposed.
overpass;
Proper attention must be given to the design
designing for a future overpass rather
to ensure that future construction of the
than an underpass;
next stages can be achieved without undue
disruption to the road users and the adjacent allowing space for future widening into
property owners. This can affect various the median;
December 2005
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to ensure that the project can be constructed to their methods provided all of the
economically while minimising disruption. requirements are met.
In contrast, staging of a project defines the
Closely allied to sequencing is the number
works to be carried out over an extended
of construction contracts required to
time frame to achieve some ultimate goal
implement each stage of the project. To
for the standard of the road.
manage risk, traffic or cash flow, it might
During planning and design (i.e. concept be advantageous to have separate contracts
and development phases) planners and for specific aspects of the project.
designers must:
Ensure that the project can be
Preloading (to encourage early settlement),
over-bridges, interchanges, specialist or
proprietary works, some environmental
3
constructed in an economical manner
and that residents, business, traffic and management devices, PUP alterations and
pedestrians are not unduly disrupted in landscaping are some of the aspects where
the process. This might require it may be appropriate to have separate
changes to the planning and design, and contracts. Refer to Volume 1 of the Main
some additional works to ensure that a Roads Project Delivery System (MRPDS -
satisfactory and safe outcome is Main Roads, 2005) for further details on
achieved (refer to Section 3.3.3). selecting the appropriate delivery method.
December 2005
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a choice between a low initial cost with replacement and ongoing maintenance is a
high recurring costs of maintenance and consideration. Concrete safety barriers
rehabilitation, or a high initial cost with low have the highest capital cost but also the
ongoing costs. The whole of life costs of lowest ongoing costs since they are not
such choices can be estimated and a usually damaged in a collision and there is
decision can be made based on economic little other maintenance required. They
grounds. In some cases, the volume of may also remain fully functional
traffic will be a determining factor (e.g. immediately after impact.
type of surfacing) but availability of
December 2005
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life costs of each option can be calculated to debris removal from drainage inlets and
help an appropriate decision to be reached. outlets (which affects size and type of
Where space is available, an earth mound opening, use of grates, hydraulic
can provide distinct advantages as generally design);
they have a higher aesthetic value to surface drainage features (such as use
adjacent property owners and the travelling of natural materials, concrete lining,
public. In addition, they can offer safety channel shapes, use of bicycle safe
benefits, are low maintenance, fire proof, grates);
can be landscaped and obviate the graffiti
problem. Earth mounds are particularly
suitable in rural areas as they are more in
bridges (refer to Section 3.4.6.2);
noise barriers (refer to Section 3.4.6.2);
3
character with rural settings than wall type materials requiring painting (note that
structures. galvanized products remain unpainted);
3.4.6.3 Maintenance needs safety barriers (refer to Section 3.4.6.2);
The ongoing maintenance costs of the landscaping elements (refer to Section
various features of a design must be 3.4.6.4); and
considered in the decision making process. safe access for maintenance personnel
In addition the design must provide and vehicles.
adequate access for maintenance activities.
The maintenance requirements of the 3.4.6.4 Landscaping
following are some aspects that must be
The whole of life costs of landscaping is
considered when planning or designing a
heavily dependent on the type of treatments
road:
adopted and the standard of appearance
pavements (refer to Sections 3.2.5.2 desired. Refer to the Road Landscape
and 3.4.6.2); Manual (Main Roads, 2004) for further
o pavement edges (e.g. seal shoulders information.
to reduce maintenance Issues to be considered include:
requirements);
the growth habit of trees and shrubs
o outer wheel path pavement (e.g. know the expected size of trees
deformation (e.g. sealing shoulders and shrubs at maturity) and the location
reduces deformation and hence of these with respect to the clear zone;
maintenance requirements if the
the impact of root growth (as they may
thickness of pavement is adequate);
intrude into drainage lines, cause
o flush seal pavements require reseal heaving of pavements and footpaths);
every seven years on average;
watering costs; and
batter slopes (e.g. steeper slopes require
maintenance costs (e.g. costs of
expensive boom mowing while flatter
mowing, pruning and weed control).
slopes can be slashed);
The Roadside Landscaping Policy (Main
line marking (as different materials
Roads, 1994) should also be referenced.
have different durability);
December 2005
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3.4.6.5 Public Utility Plant (PUP) cost analyses account for these costs, which
The objective should be to reduce the need are affected by:
for future road openings for PUP to zero. road roughness;
This is an unlikely possibility but the fewer
grades;
road openings, the lower the long term
costs for the road. To minimise the number length of travel;
of road openings, careful attention to the accident rates; and
location of the PUP in the first instance is
December 2005
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nearly all parts of the state declared road 3.5.2 Fair access
system.
The hierarchy of roads adopted by Main
In some cases, the appropriate vehicle
Roads for administering the road system
should be a FEV, regardless of the current
provides the means by which fair access is
vehicles permitted on the road in question.
achieved in Queensland (refer to Chapter
This will allow the appropriate geometry
1). This hierarchy allocates a reasonable
for future use to be accommodated with
share of the use of the road to traffic
very little, if any, expense in the first
travelling long distances and local
instance. Retrofitting the road for the larger
vehicles in the future could be expensive.
property access traffic depending on the
demand in an area. Research has proven
3
3.5 Fair access and that the accident rate increases as the
amenity number of property access points increases.
This means it is appropriate to restrict
3.5.1 General principles property access in some cases in favour of
the through traffic to provide safe
RCQ (Main Roads, 2002) sets out the movement of the major demand.
principles of fair access and amenity. It
It is also necessary to provide fair access to
means investing in roads for community
pedestrians and cyclists to provide safe and
quality of life, including access,
convenient movement for this part of the
employment, cultural heritage and amenity
road user population (refer Section 3.5.6).
through:
providing fair access across 3.5.3 Cultural heritage
Queensland;
Cultural heritage (both Indigenous and
undertaking roads programs that European) issues must be identified and
contribute to employment objectives; their impact must be considered in the
respecting culture and conserving planning and design process. For guidance
cultural heritage; on all matters related to indigenous cultural
heritage reference must be made to the
integrating roads into the community;
Indigenous Cultural Heritage Policy and
and
Guidelines Manual (Main Roads, 2004).
considering the aims of other Guidance for all other cultural heritage
government agencies in partnership matters is provided in the Cultural Heritage
with them. Manual (Main Roads, 1998). (The parts of
the Cultural Heritage Manual that deal with
The planning and design process must
indigenous cultural heritage have been
recognise these principles and apply them
superseded by the Indigenous Cultural
to all projects. The principles relevant to
Heritage Policy and Guidelines Manual,
the planning and design process are
however the remaining parts are still
captured in the following sections. Since
current.)
consultation is a feature of many aspects of
the planning and design process, that aspect All native title issues must be identified and
is discussed in Section 3.2. appropriate actions taken in planning of a
project. The required notifications should
December 2005
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be prepared and submitted at the same time Department of Families, Youth and
as land resumption requests are made to Community Care 1997a, 1997b).
minimise delays in obtaining right-of-way.
Heritage listings advice from the
3.5.3.1 Aboriginal Cultural Heritage Queensland Environmental Protection
Act 2003 and the Torres Agency must be sought where there is
Strait Islander Cultural any possibility of an impact on a
Heritage Act 2003 heritage listed site.
Vegetation protection orders (by-laws)
3 Indigenous Cultural Heritage Policy and
Guidelines Manual (Main Roads, 2004)
includes policy, guidelines and procedures
and Green Areas Local Governments
could have tree preservation orders
which enable Main Roads to meet its and/or rare tree listings and these could
statutory duty of care not to harm have a significant effect on the planning
indigenous cultural heritage. These acts: and design of the project.
December 2005
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o reduced flexibility in building The extent of land required should be
modifications (e.g. future dwelling determined from the clearance requirements
extensions prevented); and defined in Chapter 7. Such land might be
o reduced amenity (e.g. loss of required for such things as noise mounds,
neighbourhood parks). sedimentation ponds, gross filter traps and
buffer zones as well as space for
Severance of farming properties this maintenance activities. Where future
might require accommodation works to development of the road will require
provide for:
3
property in addition to that required for the
o animal and machinery access (e.g. current project (e.g. staging), it is desirable
cattle creeps); to determine these future requirements in
the first stage so it can be acquired at the
o relocation of farm infrastructure;
same time, and so that multiple resumptions
o maintenance of access to irrigation, on the same property are avoided (i.e.
dams, bores, streams, etc; resume once but in so doing allow for
o restoration of fencing (including future requirements). This will avoid undue
dingo and rabbit fences where disruption to property owners in the future
applicable); and and provide a secure basis for future
planning by Main Roads. It also minimises
o construction or relocation of grids. the risk of unnecessary relocation of PUP
Mining leases consultation with the (refer to Sections 3.2.5.5, 3.4.5.1 and
Queensland Department of Natural 3.4.6.5).
Resources and Mines is required.
3.5.4.2 Effect on adjacent
Quarry leases consultation with the landholders
relevant Local Government/s is
required. Planning must address the potential impact
on adjacent landholders in addition to the
Town plans respect for the town plan effects on that property actually required for
and its objective is essential. the project. Issues that must be considered
Consultation with the relevant Local include:
Government/s can assist in locating a
new road to reinforce the objectives of Property values properties not
the plan rather than be in conflict with required for acquisition can be affected
it (refer to Section 3.4.1). by the options in different ways and this
might be an issue in deciding between
Land required for the project should be alternatives. Costs of amelioration
considered during the concept and works could also be a consideration.
development phases. Any land for
environmental amelioration must also be Community severance might require
identified at this stage. Final requirements special consideration of pedestrian and
should be determined at the preliminary cyclist facilities, together with
design stage and resumption plans prepared provisions for local traffic movements.
in accordance with the Drafting and Design Local Government and State owned
Presentation Standards (Main Roads, 2002). land the future use of adjacent land
owned by government authorities might
December 2005
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have a significant effect on the required to obviate this effect (refer to
development of the road proposal. Chapter 17).
Considerations could include:
Airport (aerodrome) extensions
o access requirements (might need to projects adjacent to airports require
incorporate additional lanes, consultation with the airport
channelisation or traffic signals); (aerodrome) authorities with respect to
o service roads; future airport (aerodrome)
developments (e.g. future runway
3 o contributions by
infrastructure; and
others to the
extensions).
Ports (clearance heights and shipping
o special needs for education, police, manoeuvre clearances).
hospitals, day care centres, libraries,
etc. Other Institutions such as the following
should also be considered:
Emergency Services the project might
adversely affect the level of service that o war memorials;
can be provided by the various o hospitals;
emergency services (e.g. ambulance,
o retirement villages; and
fire brigade and police) and access
requirements should be considered. For o vibration sensitive facilities or
example, traffic signals might be industries.
required to allow rapid access from a
station to the road for the fire brigade. 3.5.4.3 Noise and noise barriers
December 2005
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when located near other road furniture benefit if an areas natural beauty is readily
(e.g. safety barriers). visible. Points of interest include areas of
Set back noise barriers a sufficient high scenic value and include natural and
distance to allow the designed man-made features.
deflection of a safety barrier to occur Natural features include:
without impacting the noise barrier.
hinterlands;
required to allow for deflection (refer to
Chapters 7 and 8 for the lateral mountain ranges;
clearances required). In some cases, a
noise barrier may be incorporated as an
integral part of the design of a rigid
the ocean; and
December 2005
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progress is being achieved in a reasonable value of distant and close views. The
time. benchmark to determine the impact of a
To achieve this, the road has to be aligned structure on a view is that the structure
such that the point of interest falls within should not dominate, distract or diminish
the drivers field of vision when looking the ability to appreciate the view. The
straight ahead. The feature must then Road Landscape Manual (Main Roads,
remain within this field (including 2004) addresses some of the issues
peripheral vision) while changing position regarding aesthetics for roads.
December 2005
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and attractive routes for cycling and CPTED (refer Section 3.5) also influences
walking need to be incorporated into road the design of facilities for pedestrians and
designs at the concept phase to encourage cyclists.
use of these modes and to ensure the safety
Mixing cyclists and pedestrians is
of these at-risk road users.
increasingly common and raises safety
Pedestrian issues (South Australian issues. Hybrids (e.g. skateboards and roller
Government, 2000) include: blades) are also common in some areas and
safety - avoiding conflicts with cars and introduce additional considerations of
comfort - wider footpaths, good paving, The needs of pedestrians and cyclists must
places to wait and sit, opportunities for be incorporated into the concept phase and
people-watching; included in the relevant elements of the
road design. Chapter 5 describes the basic
security - good lighting, active
parameters for assessing these
frontages, pedestrian routes not
requirements. Special features will often be
separated from roads; and
required to accommodate their needs.
interest - building frontages (for
In some cases, an overall strategy is in
window shopping), landmarks,
place to provide a network of cycle ways
attention to detail in the paving surface
and pathways and these strategies form the
and texture, art in public places,
basis of the decisions required for the
unfolding views.
facilities to be included. Planners and
The needs of cyclists (South Australian designers should ascertain the strategies in
Government, 2000) include: place for the area in question and
safety - safety is again about avoiding incorporate the necessary features into the
conflict with cars through clearly project. Main Roads has developed a
marked lanes, lowering/calming the Cycling on State controlled Roads policy
speed of adjacent traffic, providing high (Main Roads, 2004) - designers and
kerbs to prohibit cars from parking on planners must comply with it.
the footpath, safe crossings; and Providing for pedestrians and cyclists is a
convenience - speed maintenance, major function of Local Government. It is
connectivity, clearance, smooth therefore necessary to ensure that Main
surfaces, appropriate vegetation, secure Roads proposals are compatible with the
storage at the end of the trip and Local Governments responsibilities, and
changing/shower facilities. vice versa. This could involve sharing
costs between the Local Government and
Main Roads, both for construction and for
December 2005
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maintenance. The responsibilities and cost When providing a cycling facility, consider
sharing arrangements are set out in the whether an on-road or off-road facility is
Agreement between the Local Government required. Off-road facilities provide the
Association of Queensland Inc. and highest separation from motorised traffic
Department of Main Roads for Cost for this at-risk road user group, but could
Sharing based on Responsibilities within increase land resumption requirements and
State Controlled Roads (Main Roads, also increase the cost; these issues must be
2000). taken into account. In rural areas it might
3 The following issues should be addressed in be more feasible to provide for the highest
the concept phase. degree of separation via off-road paths
because the cost of the construction may be
Cyclists less than the cost of widening the road
Cycling facilities or cycle friendly designs pavement (as extra land would rarely be
(e.g. provision of wider road shoulders) required in these cases). The most
must be considered on State Controlled appropriate type of cycling facility will
Roads in accordance with the Cycling on depend on speed and volume of traffic,
Sate Controlled Roads policy (Main surrounding land uses and the types of user
Roads, 2004). Provision for cycling expected on the facility.
increases the safety of all road users and Potential bicycle/motor-vehicle conflict
avoids the impedance created by having points may require special treatment.
cycling in the general use traffic lanes. Special intersection treatments such as
Planners and designers need to consult with advanced stop lines, storage bays, bike
the Local Government to ensure that lanes or bike crossing signals, might be
installation of the cycling facility conforms required and the cost included in the project
to the regional and local authority cycle costing. The planning and design process
network plans. If no such plans are in should pay particular attention to cycle trip
place, consultation with the local authority generators (e.g. schools and shopping
staff, local representative user groups (e.g. centres) and pinch points (e.g.
Bicycle User Groups [BUGs]) and local channelised intersections). Any need for
cyclists will be necessary. Refer to Chapter the use of grade-separated structures (e.g. at
5, the Guide to Traffic Engineering Practice interchanges) should be identified in the
(GTEP) Part 14 (Austroads, 1999) and the concept phase.
MUTCD (Main Roads, 2003) for guidance
on provision of cycling facilities. Pedestrians
Queensland Transport has also published a Provision for pedestrians will be required
number of cycle notes that may be useful on all Sate Controlled Roads in built up
(Queensland Transport, 2005). However, areas except those such as motorways
for State Controlled Roads the order or where separate provision will need to be
precedence is: built into the project. Note however that
1. Chapter 5 and the MUTCD (Main the cost of providing a footpath is normally
Roads, 2003). borne by the relevant local government.
The concept phase should include
2. The GTEP Part 14 (Austroads, 1999). consultation with the Local Government
3. The Queensland Transport Cycle Notes. and community groups to confirm the
December 2005
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requirements for pedestrians (refer also to should also be consulted and adhered to
Chapter 5). (Main Roads, 1997, 1998 and 2002).
If a footpath is required its width must be
3.5.7.2 Rest areas
determined; Chapters 5 and 7 provide
guidance. The width necessary for the Rest areas are established, located and
installation of PUP must be taken into designed in accordance with Main Roads
account. Footpath width will affect the land Provision of Roadside Amenities policy
acquisition requirements. (Main Roads, 2003). They are off road
3
stopping places providing at least safe
Potential pedestrian/motor-vehicle conflict
parking, shade, picnic tables, benches and
points may require treatment. Special
rubbish bins. Toilets, water and barbecue
intersection treatments could be needed and
facilities with fuel and lighting may be
the costs to the project of providing the
provided in accordance with the Provision
necessary facilities must be taken into
of Roadside Amenities policy (Main
account (refer to the GTEP Part 13 -
Roads, 2003). Access to the rest area must
Austroads, 1995).
be properly designed with attention to the
Note that all pedestrian facilities provided required acceleration and deceleration lanes
must be in accordance with design criteria and turning facilities (refer to Chapters 13
for people with disabilities. and 20).
Combined pedestrian and cycling (i.e.
3.5.8 Special works
shared) facilities
It is important to note that Chapter 5 and Special works include:
the GTEP Part 14 (Austroads, 1999) outline Cattle creeps which might be required
design requirements for shared where a new road severs a rural
pedestrian/cycling facilities, which are also property. They are usually placed
designed using design criteria that are where the vertical alignment affords the
suitable for people with disabilities. Shared opportunity but it could be necessary to
facilities are often a safe, cost effective adjust the design to accommodate the
solution in outer urban and rural residential crossing to make it convenient for the
areas. property owner to use.
December 2005
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3.5.9 Stock routes Main Roads is a referral agency for IDAS,
which requires that developments be
Stock Routes are managed by the referred to Main Roads for assessment
Queensland Department of Natural when certain conditions are met. The
Resources and Mines from a central office referral triggers and thresholds are
in Brisbane. Where Limited Access described in the Integrated Development
declarations could impact on a Stock Route, Assessment System Manual (Main Roads).
the Queensland Department of Natural
Resources and Mines must be consulted Applications are referred to Main Roads to
December 2005
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ESD refers to a concept of identifying the For Main Roads to achieve the
ecological, economic and social aspects of a Governments objectives concerning ESD,
proposal and ensuring that it: a road project must at the very least
... improves the total quality of life, both advance one of the above principles and not
now and in the future, in a way that adversely impact the others (Austroads,
maintains the processes on which life 1995). Main Roads already uses many
depends (UNESCO). tools for assessing ESD in the concept,
development and implementation phases of
ESD may be defined as using, conserving
3
projects. Principal tools that can be used
and enhancing the communitys resources within the project charter are outlined in
so that the ecological processes on which Appendix 3B of this Chapter.
life depends are maintained, and the total
quality of life, now and in the future, can be 3.6.2 Scope
increased (Australian National Strategy for
ESD Commonwealth of Australia, 1992). Environmental considerations cannot be
It is not a balance; it refers to the need to addressed in isolation of other road and
advance each ecological, economic or transport planning or design practices. The
social objective without loss of value in any Environmental Protection Act (Queensland
one of them. Government, 1994) places responsibility on
all Queenslanders to meet a general
To achieve the objectives of ESD and
environmental duty. This means that Main
environmental principles, environmentally
Roads (and its contractors) must not carry
sensitive decisions are to be employed
out any activity that causes, or is likely to
throughout the concept and development
cause, environmental harm unless the
phases of a road project. These principles
responsible party has taken all reasonable
are then to be carried through to
and practicable measures to prevent or
construction and maintenance activities
minimise the potential for harm to occur.
(e.g. implementation phase). The four
Therefore, all activities undertaken by and
guiding principles of ESD follow:
on behalf of Main Roads should consider
Improve well-being to enhance environmental impacts and incorporate
individual and community well-being environmental treatments where required.
and welfare by following a path of With this in mind, appropriate
economic development that safeguards environmental issues have been
the welfare of future generations. incorporated within all relevant chapters of
Ensure intergenerational equity to this Manual.
provide for equity within and between This chapter only provides guidelines of
generations. some key environmental issues to assist the
Protect biodiversity to protect faunal planning and design of State Controlled
and floral diversity. Roads. These issues should not be
considered in isolation; they should be dealt
Maintain ecological processes to with in conjunction with all the other issues
maintain essential ecological processes that need to be considered.
and life-support systems.
Further detailed environmental information
relevant to the planning and design of road
December 2005
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projects can be obtained from the following Austroads Environmental Risk
publications (and Chapter 1): Assessment (Austroads, 2001).
Pre-construction Processes Manual However the above list is not exhaustive
(Main Roads, 2005); and specialist advice should be sought.
The Road Project Environmental
3.6.3 Environmental
Management Processes Manual (Main
assessment
Roads, 2004);
December 2005
3-56
Key areas for consideration include the (MOUs) apply planners must
following (refer also to the following notes establish whether such MOUs exist and
as indicated): consider their requirements.
1,2
World Heritage properties . Notes to above dot points:
1,2
Wetlands (e.g. Ramsar and otherwise 1. The location and extent of these areas
significant wetlands). can be identified from the Environment
Australia web site (the website at the
Protected areas (e.g. National Parks and
time of publication was
3
2
Nature Reserves ).
www.environment.gov.au).
2
Fish habitat reserves .
2. The location and extent of these areas
2
Endangered bio-regional ecosystems . can be identified from the Road
Areas that are known to support Corridor Environmental Assessment
internationally, nationally, state, Main Roads Intranet page on ARMIS
regionally and/or locally significant Online. This requires interrogation of
flora and fauna species and relevant databases and field
communities (as per the Environment assessments as part of the process.
Protection and Biodiversity Officers of external organisations
Conservation Act and the Nature should contact the relevant Main Roads
2,3 District to obtain this information.
Conservation Act) .
3. This requires interrogation of relevant
Sites of indigenous and non-indigenous
3 databases and field assessments that are
cultural heritage significance .
undertaken as part of the environmental
High risk soil types (e.g. acid sulphate, assessment process. Officers of
3
sodic and toxic soils) . external organisations should contact
the relevant Main Roads District to
Contaminated sites.
obtain this information.
Areas which provide connectivity of
3 When deciding the appropriate location of
habitats for plant and animal species .
road corridors, the need for early
3
Good quality agricultural land . consideration of any areas with key
3 environmental values and limitations cannot
Mineral reserves .
be overemphasised.
Noise and vibration sensitive
3 Planners, including strategic planners, and
receptors .
designers should:
Declared areas (e.g. irrigation,
Visit the site preferably, in the company
groundwater recharge, approved
3 of an environmental specialist, during
property plans) . Local Governments
the concept and development phases to
generally hold information regarding
ensure that all of the proposed
approved property plans and these plans
environmental elements are practical
might identify conservation areas on
for the site.
freehold or leasehold lands.
Ensure environmental assessment
Environmentally sensitive areas where
documentation has been provided with
existing Memoranda of Understanding
December 2005
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the design brief. If it has not been, seek stakeholders as a way of meeting
instruction with regard to the Australias international commitments.
environmental considerations of the
The Mission Statement for the National
project.
Greenhouse Strategy is:
Ensure environmental constraints (e.g.
Australia will actively contribute to the
no-go areas, cultural heritage sites)
global effort to stabilise greenhouse gas
and opportunities (e.g. suitable sites for
concentrations in the atmosphere at a level
stockpiles, construction compounds)
that would prevent dangerous interference
3 are defined on design drawings or in
contract documentation
environmental specialist can assist).
(an
with the climate system and within a time
frame sufficient to:
allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to
The Road Project Environmental Processes
climate change;
Manual (Main Roads, 2004) describes the
assessment and reporting requirements and ensure that food production is not
these are summarised in the Pre- threatened; and
construction Processes Manual (Main enable economic development to
Roads, 2005). proceed in a sustainable way.
3.6.4 Greenhouse strategy As part of the overall strategy being
implemented by the Australian
(Refer to Promoting Best Practice in Government, Queensland Transport,
Transport and Land Use Planning together with Austroads and the Australian
publication [Queensland Transport et al, Greenhouse Office, produced, in 2002, a
2002] for detailed information; this section document called Promoting Best Practice
is based extensively on that document.) in Transport and Land Use Planning. This
The National Greenhouse Strategy is an extensive resource of information
(Commonwealth of Australia, 1998) is the available to assist in minimising greenhouse
primary mechanism through which gas emissions when undertaking planning
Australias international commitments will and design for transport infrastructure.
be met. The reduction of greenhouse gas emissions
The Australian Government developed a from the transport sector will contribute to
National Greenhouse Response Strategy as the achievement of additional
a means of meeting Australias environmental, economic and social
international obligations under the objectives. These include:
Framework Convention on Climate Change reduced business costs through
and as a basis for examining greenhouse decreased traffic congestion;
issues. However, this strategy was
improved urban air quality; and
subsequently extended to form the National
Greenhouse Strategy (Commonwealth of greater public transport accessibility for
Australia, 1998). The National Greenhouse members of the community through
Strategy (Commonwealth of Australia, more efficient use of infrastructure and
1998) provides details of existing actions land.
and measures to be implemented by
December 2005
3-58
Land use planning has a key role in 3.6.5 Engineering design
providing for an integrated transport
strategy (refer also to Section 3.4.1). 3.6.5.1 Introduction
Forward planning of the location, scale,
Planners and designers, in seeking to
density, design and mix of land uses can
develop a context sensitive design (refer to
help reduce the need to travel, reduce the
Chapter 2), should take a holistic approach
length of journeys and make it safer and
to the design and consider all of the
easier for people to walk, cycle or use
elements as a whole, taking account of how
public transport. Decreases in forms of
3
they interact with and affect each other. In
urban pollution can be achieved through
some cases, the solution will only come
better land use development and better
from an iterative approach that tries various
design of transport systems.
solutions and assesses them against the
The transport sector is one of the largest required criteria until the most effective
sources of greenhouse gas emissions in answer emerges (e.g. options analysis).
Australia and private transport is the largest
The following sections discuss some of the
urban land use related source of emissions.
major road planning and design issues that
The characteristics of urban form
impinge on environmental values. Other
significantly influence greenhouse gas
elements can also have an effect (e.g.
emissions from the transport sector. In
alignment) and these effects must be
Australia in 1998, transport was the second
accommodated where they occur. The
largest contributor of emissions from the
elements discussed in the following
energy sector. In terms of total net
sections have a direct and enduring effect
emissions, transport comprised 16% of
on the environment.
Australian emissions.
Reducing greenhouse gas emissions in the 3.6.5.2 Cross section
transport sector relies heavily on Chapter 7 discusses cross section design,
encouraging environmentally friendly and the particular requirements of the wet
forms of transport such as walking, cycling tropics. The significant issues, other than
and using public transport. Planners, batter slopes, relate to the total width of
including strategic planners (and designers) cross section and the extent of clearing
should be alert to the need to provide for required. The issues with respect to batter
these forms of transport in convenient and slopes are worthy of further discussion in
attractive ways when developing their the Section.
plans. A range of sources of information to
Detailed discussion of the engineering
assist in the planning process is available
requirements of batter slopes is given in
and reference to them can be found in
Chapter 7 and that chapter should be read in
Queensland Transport et al (2002).
conjunction with Main Roads
However, the largest effects on emissions Specifications and the comments in this
are related to the broader planning aspects section, which are directed to the
as described in Sections 3.4.1, 3.4.2 and environmental sustainability of batter slope
3.4.4. design.
When designing batter slopes, planners and
designers should review the geotechnical
December 2005
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data with regard to soil types (for soil conjunction with the application of a
erosivity and dispersiveness) in surface cover. Roughening should be
addition to assessing the stability of cut and done along the contour or at an angle to
fill batters. Guidelines to assist in the a grade that reduces velocities before
design of batter slopes follow: discharge.
Direct overland flow away from the Benching should not occur in dispersive
batter face using catch banks and/or soils. If benching is required in
catch drains. Be aware that catch- dispersive soils, consult an
December 2005
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Table 3.2 Guidelines for selecting batter slope based on soil types
During the concept phase and in particular, the proposed drainage structure (or
the development phase, it will be necessary drainage works) might conflict with
to undertake a more detailed examination of PUP or other structures thereby
the requirements of major drainage affecting the structures size, shape and
structures when: location.
cultural heritage issues arise; The overall effect of the structure on the
native title issues arise; cost and/or land requirements will
determine the extent of design required at
the size and shape of the structure the various phases of the project. This
affects the land acquisition required; could require a detailed hydrological or
environmental impacts might be hydraulic analysis to be undertaken; if a
significant; complex hydrological or hydraulic analysis
is required, specialists should undertake it.
the vertical distance from the base of
(Refer also to the RDDM [Main Roads,
the drainage path to the bottom of the
2001]). Discussion of some specific issues
pavement is critical;
follows.
the height of the upstream head might
cause flooding problems; and
December 2005
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Major drainage structures In the early stages of a planning project, an
A major drainage structure is one where the approximate waterway area for cross
cost of the structure has a significant effect drainage structures should be calculated to
on the total cost of the project and includes provide an estimate of the extent of work
structures over rivers or creeks. Planners required. The RDDM (Main Roads, 2001)
and designers will need to assess the describes approximate methods. A
approximate structure sizes early in the preliminary assessment of the type and size
concept phase (e.g. proposal and/or options of culvert can be determined from this
December 2005
3-62
longitudinal drainage system this should caused by tractor mowing of the
be avoided. The water level at the outlet is median invert.
also a major consideration. Refer to the
Consider collecting road run-off from
RDDM (Main Roads, 2001) for design
bridge scuppers and discharging run-off
methods.
into a sediment basin, gross pollutant
Consideration of the environmental issues trap or other relevant first flush
for longitudinal drainage is important to containment device. This is
reduce erosion risk and the resulting particularly important where the run-off
sediment laden water and maintenance
costs. Key issues include:
would otherwise be directed into a pond
or the base flow channel, and/or if
upstream of a sensitive environment
3
Limit the use of V drains, particularly
in erosive soils. Parabolic or flat- (e.g. wetland, fish habitat reserve).
bottomed drains should be used in Design the transition between
preference. The latter may still require longitudinal drains (e.g. table drains)
armouring but in these circumstances a and a cross-drainage culvert to avoid
combination of armouring and slopes in the drain with high potential
vegetation treatments are more likely to for scour. Specific erosion protection,
succeed. and/or particular attention to the design
Limit flow velocities for longitudinal of the drainage structures will be
drainage for different soil types. (Refer required.
to the RDDM [Main Roads, 2001] also Refer to the RDDM (Main Roads, 2001) for
provides guidance on acceptable flow further details.
velocities.) Flow velocities may be
Complex hydraulic analysis
slowed through the use of roughening
techniques (e.g. embedded rock, Where the major drainage structure is on a
turfing), check dams and/or vegetation. waterway that requires precise analysis,
Where check dams are installed, specialist advice should be sought about the
designers need to ensure that the design flood immunity required, and the type and
and location will not cause a hazard to size of structure required. Complex
errant vehicles. Limiting flow hydrological and hydraulic analysis is
velocities is preferred over maintaining generally required on the following
high flow velocities and providing waterway types:
armoured structures (e.g. by paved waterways in/from large catchments;
channel to energy dissipaters). In
addition, an increase in the number of waterways in/from complex catchments
diversion drains (or turnouts, level (e.g. multi stream systems peaking at
spreaders) from the longitudinal different times during the design flood);
drainage should be considered. waterways with unsteady flows;
Notwithstanding the above, median
flood plains;
longitudinal drainage will usually have
a concrete lined invert to assist waterways downstream from dams,
maintenance and reduce the risk of weirs and reservoirs;
errant vehicles rolling after hitting ruts
waterways with tidal flow; and
December 2005
3-63
waterways with significant local As these conditions occur below the ground
storage. surface, some level of geotechnical
Minor drainage structures investigation will normally be required
during the options analysis (in the concept
There is generally no requirement to phase) to allow preliminary geotechnical
undertake any design calculations for minor models to be developed for use in the
drainage systems in the early concept assessment of the options.
phases. In the early concept phases:
The level of investigation will vary from a
December 2005
3-64
for settlement, stability, need for Design Manual (Main Roads, 2000)
ground improvements, construction provides details on such designs. The
programming and investigation following should be considered:
requirements and timing.
Accommodation of fish passage (if an
Subgrade soil conditions that will identified requirement in the Review of
influence pavement design and Environmental Factors), use an arch or
drainage. bridge in preference to a culvert. The
Presence of acid sulphate soils. RDDM (Main Roads, 2001) provides a
December 2005
3-65
Australian Standards (2000): AP-R166/00:
References
Ecologically Sustainable Development
AASHTO (1997): Highway Safety Design Toolbox.
and Operations Guide. Austroads (2001): Environmental Risk
APD partnership, Parsons Brinckerhoff, Assessment.
Steer Davies Gleave, KPMG, Queensland Bornhorst, Ward, Veitch: Guidelines to
Department of Transport and Gold Coast Planning and Design for Bus Public
City Council (2004): The Gold Coast Light Transport in Regional Conurbations.
December 2005
3-66
GHD (2003): Petrie to Kippa-Ring Queensland Department of Aboriginal and
Transport Corridor Study. Torres Strait Islander Policy and
Hauer, Ezra (1999): Safety in Geometric Development (1998): Protocols for
Design Standards. Consultation and Negotiation with
Aboriginal People.
Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE)
(2003): Trip Generation. Queensland Department of Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander Policy and
Jagtman, H. M. (2004): Road Safety by Development (1998): Mina Mir Lo Ailan
3
Design (Eburon Delft) Mun: Proper Communications with Torres
McLean, J. R. (1996): Review of accidents Strait Islander People.
and rural cross section elements including Queensland Department of Transport and
roadsides ARR 297, ARRB Transport Eppell Olsen and Partners (2003): Cairns
Research Ltd Integrated Transport Study Draft
Mark Doonar & Associates (1998): Technical Report.
Building Better Bus Shelters - for Queensland Department of Transport,
Queensland Transport. Queensland Department of Main Roads,
Maunsell (2000): Townsville Port Access Townsville City Council and Thuringowa
Impact Assessment Study. City Council (2001): Townsville
Thuringowa Integrated Regional Transport
Parsons Brinckerhoff (2005): Robina to
Plan.
Tugun Rail Impact Assessment Study (the
internet website current at the time of Queensland Department of Main Roads
publishing was: (1994): Roadside Conservation Policy.
http://www.pb.com.au/robina/). Queensland Department of Main Roads
PIARC (2003): Road Safety Manual. (1994): Roadside Landscaping Policy.
December 2005
3-67
Queensland Department of Main Roads Queensland Department of Main Roads
(1998): Land Use Development and State (2001): Road Drainage Design Manual.
Controlled Roads.
Queensland Department of Main Roads
Queensland Department of Main Roads (2002): Access Policy for Roadside Service
(1998): Service Centre Policy. Centre Facilities on Limited access Roads.
Queensland Department of Main Roads Queensland Department of Main Roads
(1998): Service Centre Strategy - No 1/98 (2002): Drafting Design and Presentation
Cunningham Highway (Ipswich Motorway) Standards.
3 - Warrego Highway.
Queensland Department of Main Roads
Queensland Department of Main Roads
(2002): Environmental Management Policy
(1998): Stock on Hoof on State-controlled and Strategy.
Roads - Guidelines. (Note this policy was
Queensland Department of Main Roads
under review at the time of publishing this
(2002): Guide to the Management of
Chapter.)
Roadside Advertising.
Queensland Department of Main Roads
Queensland Department of Main Roads
(1999): Cost Benefit Analysis Manual for
(2002): Red Imported Fire Ant Policy and
Road Infrastructure Investment.
Strategy.
Queensland Department of Main Roads
Queensland Department of Main Roads
(2000): Guidelines for Assessment of Road
(2002): Roads Connecting Queenslanders.
Impacts of Development Proposals.
Queensland Department of Main Roads
Queensland Department of Main Roads
(2002): Traffic and Road Use Management
(2000): Road Traffic Noise Management:
Manual.
Code of Practice.
Queensland Department of Main Roads,
Queensland Department of Main Roads
(2003): Manual of Uniform Traffic Control
(2000): Fauna Sensitive Road Design.
Devices.
Queensland Department of Main Roads
Queensland Department of Main Roads
(2000): Agreement between the Local
(2003): Pest Management Policy.
Government Association of Queensland Inc.
and Department of Main Roads for Cost Queensland Department of Main Roads
Sharing based on Responsibilities within (2003): Policy for the Provision of
State Controlled Roads. Roadside Amenities.
December 2005
3-68
Queensland Department of Main Roads Queensland Department of Main Roads
(2004): Environmental Legislation (2005): Interim Clearing Within Road
Register. Boundaries Policy.
Queensland Department of Main Roads Queensland Department of Main Roads
(2004): MRS11.51 Environmental (2005): Interim Policy - Stock on hoof on
Management Specification (Interim). State-controlled roads - Straying - advice.
Queensland Department of Main Roads Queensland Department of Main Roads
(2004): Policy for Cycling on State (2005): Main Roads Project Delivery
Controlled Roads.
Queensland Department of Main Roads
System, Volume 1.
Queensland Department of Main Roads:
3
(2004): Road Landscape Manual. Integrated Development Assessment System
Queensland Department of Main Roads Manual.
(2004): Reduction of Risk from Objects Queensland Department of Transport
Thrown From Overpass Structures onto (1992): Pavement Rehabilitation Manual.
Roads.
Queensland Department of Transport
Queensland Department of Main Roads (1995): Draft Transport Assessment Guide.
(2004): Road Project Environmental
Queensland Department of Transport
Management Processes Manual.
(1999): Shaping Up: A guide to the better
Queensland Department of Main Roads practice and integration of transport, land
(2004): Pavement Design Manual. use and urban design techniques - 2nd
Queensland Department of Main Roads edition, Government of Queensland,
(2004): Standard Drawings Roads Manual. Brisbane.
December 2005
3-69
Queensland Department of Transport Queensland Government (1994):
(2004): Capricornia Integrated Regional Environmental Protection Act.
Transport Plan 2004-2030.
Queensland Government (1992): State
Queensland Department of Transport Planning Policy (SPP) 1/92 Development
(2004): Border Integrated Transport Plan and conservation of agricultural land. (The
Draft for Consultation 2004. internet website current at the time of
Queensland Department of Transport publishing was:
(2005): Gowrie to Grandchester Rail http://www.ipa.qld.gov.au/codes/codespolic
December 2005
3-70
Queensland Government (2002): State Queensland Government (2003):
Planning Policy (SPP) 2/02 - Planning and Integrated Transport Planning Framework
managing development involving acid for Queensland A Guide for Transport
sulphate soils. (The internet website Planning (Queensland Transport,
current at the time of publishing was: Department of Main Roads, Department of
http://www.ipa.qld.gov.au/codes/codespolic Local Government and Planning in
ies.asp) association with Local Government
Queensland Government (2002): Guideline Association of Queensland).
for State Planning Policy (SPP) 2/02 -
Planning and managing development
involving acid sulphate soils. (The internet
Queensland Office of Urban Management
(2005): South East Queensland
Infrastructure Plan and Program 2005-
3
website current at the time of publishing 2026 (SEQIPP).
was:
Queensland Office of Urban Management
http://www.ipa.qld.gov.au/codes/codespolic
and Queensland Department of Local
ies.asp)
Government, Planning, Sport and
Queensland Government (2003): State Recreation (2005): South East Queensland
Planning Policy (SPP) 1/03 - Mitigating the Regional Plan 2005-2026.
adverse impacts of flood, bushfire and
Roads and Traffic Authority (RTA New
landslide. (The internet website current at
South Wales - 2002): Guide to Traffic
the time of publishing was:
Generating Developments, Issue 2.2.
http://www.ipa.qld.gov.au/codes/codespolic
ies.asp) South Australian Government (2000):
Planning SA - Transport Choice and Urban
Queensland Government (2003): Guideline
Design: Design Issues for Accessible
for State Planning Policy (SPP) 1/03 -
Neighbourhoods, Department of Transport,
Mitigating the adverse impacts of flood,
Urban Planning and the Arts, South
bushfire and landslide. (The internet
Australia, Adelaide.
website current at the time of publishing
was: Straker, A. (1998): Management of Roads
http://www.ipa.qld.gov.au/codes/codespolic as Biolinks and Habitat Zones in Australia,
ies.asp) Presented at the International Conference
on Wildlife Ecology and Transportation,
Queensland Government (2004): Draft
Florida.
State Planning Policy (SPP) - Protection of
Extractive Resources. (The internet website The Macquarie Library Pty Ltd (1997):
current at the time of publishing was: The Macquarie Dictionary, third edition.
http://www.ipa.qld.gov.au/codes/codespolic Transportation Research Board (TRB)
ies.asp) (1998): NCHRP Report 414 HOV
Systems Manual.
Transportation Research Board (TRB)
(2000): Highway Capacity Manual.
December 2005
3-71
United States Department of
Transportation, Federal Highway
Administration (1997): Flexibility in
Highway Design, FHWA-PD-97-062 HEP-
30/7-97(10M) E.
December 2005
3-72
Relationship to other
Chapters
This Chapter relates to all Chapters of this
Manual. It relies on Chapters 1 and 2 for
overall context and particularly relevant
Chapters include:
Chapter 7;
Chapter 8; 3
Chapters 10, 11 and 12;
Chapters 13, 14 and 16;
Chapter 20; and
Chapter 22.
December 2005
3-73
dealings between developers and Main
Appendix 3A Trip
Roads. This publication is freely available
generation rates
on the Main Roads website
(www.mainroads.qld.gov.au).
The Transport Assessment Guide draft
document (Queensland Transport, 1995) Trip generation rates for other land uses are
provides a summary of average basic traffic available from a number of sources,
generation rates for development in urban including:
areas.
the Guide to Traffic Generating
Appendix 3A provides only basic trip Peak Rate refers to the trips in the
generation rates for some land uses to peak hour, which varies between
assist people who may not have traffic different regions and roads.
engineering training. It should be Trip is defined as a one way
recognised that by simplifying the rates, vehicular movement from one point to
site specific variations cannot be taken another and excludes the return trip.
into account. In all instances, it is
desirable to use recent, local data. For Child care centres
detailed information further reference Traffic generation rates for childcare
should be made to: centres should be based on the licensed
The Roads and Traffic Authoritys maximum enrolments allowed on any one
(RTAs) Guide to Traffic Generating day.
Developments (which is available Of the three types of child care centres
from the Main Roads Central commonly found in urban areas, pre-school
Library or which can be purchased facilities have, on average, higher traffic
from the RTA); and generation than long day care centres which
the Guidelines for Assessment of in turn have higher generation rates than
Road Impacts of Development before school/after school care.
Proposals (for details see below). Peak times commonly coincide with the trip
The proportion of development traffic that to/from work, however they can also vary
impacts on State Controlled Roads has to be with operating hours of the centre. Some
assessed for each development. The adjustments to these peak hours may be
methodology for the assessment of necessary where the centre is remote from
developments that impact on State the general place of work.
Controlled Roads is provided in the The rates in Table 3.3 are based on
Guidelines for Assessment of Road Impacts childcare centres in urban locations. A
of Development Proposals (Main Roads, reduction of up to 20% may be applicable
2000). While the guidelines are not in areas remote from commercial centres.
mandatory, they provide a basis for the
December 2005
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Table 3.3 Traffic generation data child premises. The RTA data (Table 3.4) is
care centres based on sites with a mean peak hour mode
split for cars of 0.62 and a mean peak hour
Peak
car occupancy of 1.19 (52% car drivers).
Rate Daily
Description Unit Source* Employee density also affects generation
(per Rate
rates, with the RTA data based on 4.75
unit) 2
employees per 100m GFA. A site specific
Pre-school 1.4 N/A Child RTA
analysis may indicate different figures
Long Day
3
0.8 N/A Child RTA should be used.
Care
Before/After Table 3.4 Traffic generation data
0.65 N/A Child RTA commercial premises
School Care
Notes: Peak
* Description Rate Daily
Unit Source*
RTA Roads and Traffic Authority, NSW. Source* (per Rate
Unit)
Commercial premises
100m
All 2 10 RTA
Commercial premises generally refer to GFA
offices with little or no manufacturing or Notes:
retail facilities. The nature of a business *
and the proximity of its premises to the RTA Roads and Traffic Authority, NSW
Central Business District (CBD) affect the
traffic generation of it. Dwellings
A survey by the RTA found that computer Residential buildings are usually treated
and technology driven businesses have the under three categories:
highest employee densities and high visitor detached dwellings (e.g. traditional
trips. Management, legal and accountancy house on block);
type offices have average employee
densities while customer orientated offices medium density dwellings (e.g. town
such as banks have the lowest employee houses); and
densities but higher visitor trips. high density dwellings (e.g. apartment
To assess a proposed development, the buildings).
likely future tenant mix needs to be There is a trend to smaller residential lots
determined, keeping in mind that it may giving higher density development, coupled
change in the future. with increased HOV usage, in
Office intensity is usually measured in developments remote from the inner
terms of floor area with Gross Floor Area metropolitan areas.
(GFA) being the typical unit of Other factors that affect traditional traffic
measurement. generation rates are the size of
Peak times for the majority of offices developments, with those beyond about 200
coincide with the roadway peak hours. lots tending to have trip attractors (e.g.
Mode split and car occupancy are to be schools, shops) contained within the
considered when assessing commercial development.
December 2005
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For medium to high density dwellings, the Fast food outlets
smaller units (up to 2 bedrooms) are more
Fast food outlets can be classified as one of
likely to have a lower vehicle generation
the following groups, with reasonable
rate, and vice versa for larger units and
generation consistency within these groups:
townhouses (three or more bedrooms).
McDonalds or Hungry Jacks;
The rates for high density dwellings (in the
CBD), do no include vehicle generation KFC or Red Rooster;
rates for commercial purposes, which Pizza shops; or
December 2005
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Table 3.6 Traffic generation rates fast When considering entire industrial areas,
food outlets the site peak often coincides with the
adjacent major road peak. Isolated facilities
Peak
Daily may have different site peak times to road
Description rate Unit Source*
rate peak times and locations need to be
/unit
reviewed in a site-specific basis.
McDonalds, 180 N/A Vehicles RTA
Hungry A summary of some of the available traffic
Jacks generation data for industrial land uses is
KFC, Red
Rooster
100 N/A Vehicles RTA
shown in Table 3.7.
Table 3.7 Traffic generation data
3
Pizza shops 12 N/A 100m QT industrial uses
and other GFA
Peak
small Daily
Description rate Unit Source*
outlets rate
/unit
Notes:
100m
*Abbreviations are as follows: 1 5 RTA
GFA
RTA Roads and Traffic Authority, NSW Factories
100m
QT Queensland Transport N/A 4-5 QT
GFA
Industrial 100m
Warehouses 0.5 4 RTA
Industrial sites vary significantly in type GFA
December 2005
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30% only stop for goods only and 20% stop Shopping centres
for refuelling and goods.
The traffic generated by shopping centres is
Factors affecting peak hour generation rates most influenced by the proximity of other
that need to be considered are the proximity centres and hence the size of the urban
of other service stations and convenience catchment. On site facilities such as
stores, hours of business, the volume of cinemas, restaurants, etc can also have a
passing traffic and ease of access into the significant impact on generation rates.
facility.
Refer to the Guide to Traffic Generating
3 In most urban localities, peak usage of
service station facilities coincides with the
Developments (RTA, 2002), and Appendix
F of the Guidelines for Assessment of Road
road peak with the largest generation Impacts of Development Proposals (Main
occurring during the afternoon peak period. Roads, 2001) for information regarding
A summary of some of the available traffic shopping centres.
generation data for service stations is shown Other land uses
in Table 3.8. This data should only be used
Table 3.9 provides a summary of some of
for service stations in urban locations.
the available traffic generation data for a
Service stations/service centres/road-houses
variety of other land uses.
located on major rural highways are
expected to develop significantly different Modifying factors
generation rates and patterns. These will Traffic generation rates may be affected by
require a site specific analysis. the provision of good quality pedestrian
Table 3.8 Traffic generation rates - access and appropriate cycling facilities (on
service stations and/or off-road). This is particularly so
around:
Peak
Daily
Description rate Unit Source* schools;
rate
/unit recreational facilities, and
With
100m shopping areas.
Convenience 66 N/A RTA
GFA
Store The extent of any reduction in traffic
100m generation rates will have to be consistent
Urban - All 70 700 QT
GFA with the circumstances prevailing at the
Notes: site, and the potential for change in mode in
*Abbreviations are as follows: the future.
RTA Roads and Traffic Authority, NSW
QT Queensland Transport
December 2005
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Table 3.9 Traffic generation data other land uses
Peak Daily
Land use Type range Unit Peak time/comment Source*
rate rate
Amusement Centre All 10 N/A 100m GFA - ITE
Bank All 20 N/A 100m GFA - QT
Car Repair Tyres/brakes 6 N/A 100m GFA - QT
Car tyre Retail All 1 10 100m GFA - RTA
3
Caravan Park Urban 0.4 4 Occupied site - QT
Caravan Park Rural 0.8 8 Occupied site - QT
Metropolitan-
3 20 100m GFA 6-7pm weekdays RTA
regional centre
Metropolitan-
Fitness Centres
sub regional 9 45 100m GFA 6-7pm weekdays RTA
area
All 10 80 100m GFA - QT
Hotel All 100-200 N/A Vehicles - QT
Medical Centres All 13 N/A 100m GFA - QT
Medical Centres All N/A 30-70 Doctor - QT
Assume 100%
Motel All 0.4 3 Unit RTA
occupancy rates
Motel All 0.4 4 Occupied Unit - QT
Motor Showrooms All 0.7 N/A 100m GFA N/A RTA
Total daily trips can be
Restaurants All 5 60 100m GFA greater if lunch is RTA
served.
Restaurants All 5 N/A 100m GFA - QT
Rates of resident funded
facilities are generally
Retirement/ Ages greater than subsidized
Aged/Disabled 0.1-0.2 1-2 Dwelling RTA
homes facilities as indicated by
the higher end of the
range
Schools State Primary 0.2 N/A Student - QT
Schools State Secondary 0.12 N/A Student - QT
Schools Private 0.1 N/A Student - QT
Squash Courts All 3 N/A Court Evening peak rates RTA
Squash Courts 2 courts 17 N/A Court - QT
Squash Courts 4 courts 13.5 N/A Court - QT
Squash Courts 6 courts 10.5 N/A Court - QT
Squash Courts 8 courts 8.8 N/A Court - QT
December 2005
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Peak Daily
Land use Type range Unit Peak time/comment Source*
rate rate
100m site
Swimming Pools All 4.95 N/A - RTA,QT
area
Tennis Courts All 4 45 Court - RTA
Tennis Courts All 4 N/A Court - QT
Truck Terminals Road Transport 1 5 100m GFA - RTA
Truck Terminals Truck Stop 1.3-3.3 13 100m GFA - QT
3 Video Stores
Video Stores
Friday
Saturday
22.8
49.9
N/A
N/A
100m GFA
100m GFA
4-6pm peak time
5-8pm peak time
RTA
RTA
Notes:
*Abbreviations are as follows:
ITE - Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE). ITE data is from Trip Generation ((ITE, 2003) which is based on
empirical data from trip generation studies conducted in the USA by public agencies, developers and consulting firms).
RTA Roads and Traffic Authority, NSW
QT Queensland Transport
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Appendix 3B Ecologically
sustainable development
assessment
Table 3.10 outlines the applicable designers should refer to Austroads ESD
Ecologically Sustainable Development toolbox (Austroads, 2000) for a complete
(ESD) process and tools relating to the list, and detailed explanation of, ESD and
phases of a project. The use of some of the ESD tools.
3
these tools is summarised in the following
pages of this Appendix. Planners and
Table 3.10 ESD tools and applicability to network/corridors and phases (Austroads,
2000)
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Strategic Environmental Assessment
(SEA)
Strategic
Environmental SEA is an important tool for the integration principle of ESD
Assessment (SEA)
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Qualitative ESD assessment
The use of qualitative ESD assessment is recommended as an initial review tool to provide a
rapid coverage of key project aspects from an ESD perspective. The approach is also useful
Qualitative ESD
for graphical presentation of the relative performance of project options. Qualitative ESD
Assessment
Assessment may be used to aid the decision making process at the early stage of a
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Risk assessment
Table 3.13 Summary of risk assessment.
3
Intent and area of development. Risk Assessment is a critical technique for examining the need for a project.
application Risk Assessment is a key ESD tool. It is particularly important for implementing the
precautionary principle.
Risk assessment is a discipline with mature methodologies. Can be used for a wide variety of
Strengths risk assessments including assessment of transport risk, safety risk, societal or health risk,
environmental risk and ecological risk.
Weaknesses Limitations relate to difficulties with quantifying consequences and risk exposure.
Moderate to high. The level of difficulty varies with the scope. Qualitative risk assessment
Level of Difficulty can be made much easier than quantitative risk assessment. The level of time and resources
required is also a function of the level of detail required.
Typical applications include route selection and comparative risk assessment by transport
mode for a given transport task.
Applicability
Concept Phase Development Phase Implementation Phase Operation Phase
9 9 9 -
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Sulphate Soils Management Plan
(Queensland Government, 2002).
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Cumulative Impact Assessment (CIA)
Table 3.14 Summary of CIA
Cumulative Impact CIA techniques assist the implementation of the precautionary principle of ESD.
Assessment (CIA)
CIA is used in planning, policy development and environmental assessment. Since the
approach explicitly considers interactions between different activities as well as interactions
Intent and area of across time, it is well suited as an ESD assessment tool for transport infrastructure projects.
3
application CIA is a useful tool for examining impacts that arise at different times and in different places.
These include global impacts of greenhouse gas emissions and regional impacts relating to
large water bodies or air sheds.
CIA provides for cumulative thinking. It allows project suitability and need satisfaction to
Strengths
be compared with other projects and community needs.
Weaknesses -
Level of Difficulty Moderate to High
Typical applications include route selection and comparative risk assessment by transport
mode for a given transport task.
Applicability
Concept Phase Development Phase Implementation Phase Operation Phase
9 9
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Appendix 3C Transit lane capacity
Figure 3.6 HOV lane capacity for a signalised urban street with a capacity of 650v/h/lane
(PPK et al, 2000)
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3
Figure 3.7 HOV lane capacity for a signalised suburban arterial with a capacity of
800v/h/lane (PPK et al, 2000)
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3
Figure 3.8 HOV lane capacity for a high standard suburban arterial with a capacity of
900v/h/lane (PPK et al, 2000)
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