Approaches & Methods

Definitions

Approach: Approach is more accurate to be defined as a way of beginning something 'how to start
a suit'. Therefore, the term can be interpreted as how to get started in learning. In a larger sense, the
approach refers to a set of assumptions about how teaching and learning. Approach is the starting point
of looking at things, the philosophy or belief that is not always easy to prove. Thus, the approach
is axiomatic.

It is a conjunction of ideas related to the nature and teaching of a given language.

It refers to theories about the nature of language and language learning.
It describes how people acquire their knowledge of the language and makes statements about
the conditions which will promote successful language learning.
It offers a model of language competence.
It is the level in which a whole theory and its beliefs are reflected regarding a language and its
learning. It is a much wider concept than a method and technique.
It is the source of the principles and practices of language teaching.
It describes how a language is used and how its constituent parts interlock.

Method: The method defined as way of doing things. In teaching and learning, a method is defined as
'means to an end'. The learning method can be interpreted as a comprehensive way (from beginning to
the end) with a systematic order based on a specific approach to achieve learning goals. the method of
learning is a learning plan that includes the selection, determination, and systematically arrange
material to be taught, as well as the possibility of procuring remedial and how its development.

It is considered the practical realization of an approach

It is understood as a group of procedures, a system that clearly explains how to teach a language
(syllabus organization, contents, skills to be taught, roles of teachers and learners, kinds of
materials to use.
The method is based on a specific approach. The approach is axiomatic whereas the method
is procedural.
When a method has fixed procedures, informed by a clearly articulated approach, it is easy to
describe. However, if a method takes procedures and techniques from a wide variety of sources,
that is that they are used in other methods or are mentioned by other beliefs, it will be very
hard to continue describing it as a method.

Differences

All instructional designs for the teaching of a second or foreign language draw on a number of sources
for the principles and practices they advocate. For example, they generally make explicit or implicit use
of:

A theory of language: An account of what the essential components of language are and what
proficiency or competence in a language entails.
 A theory of learning: An account of the psycholinguistic, cognitive and social processes involved
in learning a language and the conditions that need to be present for these processes to be
activated.

The theory of language and language learning underlying an instructional design results in the
development of principles that can serve to guide the process of teaching and learning. Different
instructional designs in language teaching often reflect very different understandings of the nature of
language and of language learning. The particular theory of language and language learning underlying
an instructional design, in turn, leads to further levels of specification. For example:

Learning objectives: What the goals of teaching and learning will be.

The syllabus: What the primary units of organization for a language course will consist of.

Teacher and learner roles: What roles teachers and learners are expected to play in the
classroom.

Activities: The kinds of classroom activities and techniques that are recommended.

When an instructional design is quite explicit at the level of theory of language and learning, but can be
applied in many different ways at the level of objectives, teacher and learner roles and activities, it is
usually referred to as an approach. Communicative language teaching is generally regarded as an
approach, because the principles underlying it can be applied in many different ways. Teachers adopting
an approach have considerable flexibility in how they apply the principles to their own contexts. When
an instructional design includes a specific level of application in terms of objectives, teacher and learner
roles and classroom activities, it is referred to as a method. With a method, there are prescribed
objectives, roles for teacher and learners and guidelines for activities, and, consequently, little flexibility
for teachers in how the method is used. The teachers role is to implement the method. Audiolingualism,
Total Physical Response and Silent Way are examples of methods. The era of methods, in this sense, is
often said to have lasted until the 1990s, by which time, researchers and applied linguists had shifted
the focus to teachers and the process of teaching, rather than methods. The researchers suggested that
while teachers may draw on principles and practices from approaches and methods they have studied or
been trained in, once they enter the classrooms and develop experience in teaching, their practice is
much more likely to reflect an interaction between training-based knowledge, knowledge and beliefs
derived from the practical experience of teaching and their own teaching philosophy and principles.
 The Grammar-Translation Method

Grammar Translation was the offspring of German scholarship, the object of which, according to one of
its less charitable critics, was to know everything about something rather than the thing itself (W. H.
D. Rouse, quoted in Kelly 1969: 53). Grammar Translation was in fact first known in the United States as
the Prussian Method.

Objectives

- Students will be able to read literature written in the target language

- Students will be able to translate from one language to another

- It Helps students to develop reading and writing skill

- To help students read and appreciate foreign language literature

- Students can become more familiar with the grammar of their native language

Theory of language

it is possible to find native language equivalents for all target language words

important for students to learn about the form of the target language

students should be conscious of the grammatical rules of the target language

literary language is superior to spoken language

Theory of learning

fundamental purpose of FL learning is to be able to read its literature

an important goal is for students to be able to translate

communication is not a goal of learning

learning is facilitated through attention to similarities between the TL and the native language

deductive approach to grammar

language learning is good mental exercise

there is one correct answer

Features

Sentences and longer texts are translated both to and from the learner's first language. Little or no
attention is paid to the ability to speak or communicate. Long lists of words are commonly memorized
without being used in a sentence. Grammar rules are given a lot of attention, especially word endings
and sentence formation. The teacher does not have to be able to speak the target language in order to
teach.

Characteristics of GTM:

Prator and Celce-Murcia (1979:3) listed the major characteristics of Grammar Translation:

(1) Classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the target language.

(2) Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words.

(3) Long elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given.

(4) Grammar provides the rules for putting words together, and instruction often focuses on the form
and inflection of words.

(5) Reading of difficult classical texts is begun early.

(6) Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical analysis.

(7) Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target language
into the mother tongue.

(8) Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.

(9) A focus on learning the rules of grammar and their application in translation passages from one
language into the other

(10) Vocabulary in the target language is learned through direct translation from the native language.
e.g.the house = la casathe mouse = el ratn

(11) Readings in the target language are translated directly and then discussed in the native language.

(12) Grammar is taught with extensive explanations in the native language, and only later applied in the
production of sentences through translation from one language to the other.

(13) Grammar Translation is a way of studying a language that approaches the language first through
detailed analysis of its grammar rules, followed by application of this knowledge to the task of
translating sentences and texts into and out of the target language.

(14) Reading and writing are the major focus; little or no systematic attention is paid to speaking or
listening.
(15) Vocabulary selection is based solely on the reading texts used, and words are taught through
bilingual word lists, dictionary study, and memorization.
(16) Accuracy is emphasized. Students are expected to attain high standards in translation
(17) Grammar is taught deductively that is, by presentation and study of grammar rules, which are
then practiced through translation exercises.
(18) GTM views language learning as consisting of little more than memorizing rules and facts in order to
understand and manipulate the morphology and syntax of the foreign language
(19) The sentence is the basic unit of teaching and language practice. Much of the lesson is devoted to
translating sentences into and out of the target language, and it is this focus on the sentence that is a
distinctive feature of the method.
(20) The students native language is the medium of instruction. It is used to explain new items and to
enable comparisons to be made between the foreign language and the students native language.

Principals

- Literary language is superior to the spoken language. Students study literature and fine arts.

- Translating each language into each other is an important goal for learners.

- The authority in the classroom is the teacher.

- The ability to communicate with the target language is not among the goals of instruction.

- The primary skills to be improved are reading and writing.

- Its focus is on accuracy (grammatical correctness) and not fluency.

- Students should be conscious of the grammatical rule of the target language.

Techniques

- translation of a literary passage (Students will be asked to read a literary passage and then translate
the target language into their native language)

- reading comprehension questions (Students answer these questions in the target language)

- antonyms/synonyms (Students are asked to find antonyms in the reading passage or, to define a set of
words based on their understanding of them as they occur in the reading passage)

- cognates

- deductive application of rules (It is important for students to learn about the forms (grammar rules) of
the target language)

- fill-in-the-blanks-exercise

- memorization (Students are asked to memorize new words, grammatical rules, and verb conjugation)

- use words in sentences (Students are asked to make up sentences with the new words they learn in
the text)

- composition (Students are asked to write a composition in the target language)

Advantages

1. The translation is the easiest and shortest way of explanation meaning of words and phrases.

2. Good for language learners to identify some structures of two languages, and some of the
learners study the target language very well by this method.

3. Can improve the learners reading abilities greatly.

4. Almost nothing misunderstanding.

5. Learners have no difficulties to understand the lesson.

6. Save energy (labour-saving method).

Disadvantages

1. Lack of speaking skills.

2. Very little attention is paid to communication.

3. Translation sometimes will miss-leading.

4. Good at teaching about the language not teaching the language.

5. Very little attention is paid to content.

6. Class time is not allocated for students to produce their own sentences

7. less time is spent on oral practice (whether productive or reproductive)

8. Removes any creativity from the class-dull and bored.

9. often little contextualization of the grammar

10. Difficult to describe the actual meaning

The Audiolingual Method

The Audio-Lingual Method, is an oral-based approach. However, it is very different in that rather than
emphasizing vocabulary acquisition through exposure to its use in situations, the Audio-Lingual Method
drills students in the use of grammatical sentence patterns. It also, has a strong theoretical base in
linguistics and psychology.

The objective of the audiolingual method is accurate pronunciation and grammar, the ability to respond
quickly and accurately in speech situations and knowledge of sufficient vocabulary to use with grammar
patterns. Particular emphasis was laid on mastering the building blocks of language and learning the
rules for combining them. It was believed that learning structure or grammar was the starting point for
the student. Here are some characteristics of the method:

language learning is habit-formation

mistakes are bad and should be avoided, as they are considered bad habits
language skills are learned more effectively if they are presented orally first, then in written
form
analogy is a better foundation for language learning than analysis
the meanings of words can be learned only in a linguistic and cultural context

The main activities include reading aloud dialogues, repetitions of model sentences and drilling. Key
structures from the dialogue serve as the basis for pattern drills of different kinds. Lessons in the
classroom focus on the correct imitation of the teacher by the students. Not only are the students
expected to produce the correct output, but attention is also paid to correct pronunciation. Although
correct grammar is expected in usage, no explicit grammatical instruction is given. It is taught
inductively. Furthermore, the target language is the only language to be used in the classroom.

Approach

Theory of language: The theory of language underlying Audiolingualism was derived from a view
proposed by American linguists in the 1950s a view that came to be known as structural linguistics.
Language was viewed as a system of structurally related elements for the encoding of meaning, the
elements being phonemes, morphemes, words, structures, and sentence types. The term structural
referred to these characteristics: (a) Elements in a language were thought of as being linearly produced
in a rule-governed (structured) way; (b) Language samples could be exhaustively described at any
structural level of description (phonetic, phonemic, morphological, etc.); (c) Linguistic levels were
thought of as systems within systems that is, as being pyramidally structured; phonemic systems led to
morphemic systems, and these in turn led to the higher-level systems of phrases, clauses, and
sentences.

Theory of learning: The language teaching theoreticians and methodologists who developed
Audiolingualism not only had a convincing and powerful theory of language to draw upon but they were
also working in a period when a prominent school of American psychology known as behavioral
psychology claimed to have tapped the secrets of all human learning, including language learning.
Behaviorism, like structural linguistics, is another antimentalist, empirically based approach to the study
of human behavior. To the behaviorist, the human being is an organism capable of a wide repertoire of
behaviors. The occurrence of these behaviors is dependent on three crucial elements in learning: a
stimulus, which serves to elicit behavior; a response triggered by a stimulus; and reinforcement,
which serves to mark the response as being appropriate (or inappropriate) and encourages the
repetition (or suppression) of the response in the future (see Skinner 1957; Brown 1980).

Learner roles: Learners are viewed as organisms that can be directed by skilled training techniques to
produce correct responses. In accordance with behaviorist learning theory, teaching focuses on the
external manifestations of learning rather than on the internal processes. Learners play a reactive role
by responding to stimuli, and thus have little control over the content, pace, or style of learning. They
are not encouraged to initiate interaction, because this may lead to mistakes. The fact that in the early
stages learners do not always understand the meaning of what they are repeating is not perceived as a
drawback, for by listening to the teacher, imitating accurately, and responding to and performing
controlled tasks, they are learning a new form of verbal behavior.

Teacher roles: In Audiolingualism, as in Situational Language Teaching, the teachers role is central and
active; it is a teacher-dominated method. The teacher models the target language, controls the direction
and pace of learning, and monitors and corrects the learners performance. The teacher must keep the
learners attentive by varying drills and tasks and choosing relevant situations to practice structures.
Language learning is seen to result from active verbal interaction between the teacher and the learners.
Failure to learn results only from the improper application of the method, for example, from the teacher
not providing sufficient practice or from the learner not memorizing the essential patterns and
structures; but the method itself is never to blame. Brooks argues that the teacher must be trained to
do the following:
- Introduce, sustain, and harmonize the learning of the four skills in this order: hearing, speaking,
reading and writing.
- Use and not use English in the language classroom.
- Model the various types of language behavior that the student is to learn.
- Teach spoken language in dialogue form.
- Direct choral response by all or parts of the class.
- Teach the use of structure through pattern practice.
- Guide the student in choosing and learning vocabulary.
- Show how words relate to meaning in the target language.
- Get the individual student to talk.
- Reward trials by the student in such a way that learning is reinforced.
- Teach a short story and other literary forms.
- Establish and maintain a cultural island.
- Formalize on the first day the rules according to which the language class is to be conducted, and
enforce them.

Teachers Goal: Teachers want their students to be able to use the target language communicatively, In
order to do this, they believe students need to overlearn the target language, to learn to use it
automatically without stopping to think , Their students achieve this by forming new habits
in the target language and overcoming the old habits of their native language.

The role of instructional materials: Instructional materials in the Audiolingual Method assist the teacher
to develop language mastery in the learner. They are primarily teacher oriented. A student textbook is
often not used in the elementary phases of a course where students are primarily listening, repeating,
and responding. At this stage in learning, exposure to the printed word may not be considered desirable,
because it distracts attention from the aural input. The teacher, however, will have access to a teachers
book that contains the structured sequence of lessons to be followed and the dialogues, drills, and other
practice activities. When textbooks and printed materials are introduced to the student, they provide
the texts of dialogues and cues needed for drills and exercises.

Tape recorders and audiovisual equipment often have central roles in an audiolingual course. If the
teacher is not a native speaker of the target language, the tape recorder provides accurate models for
dialogues and drills. A language laboratory may also be considered essential. It provides the opportunity
for further drill work and to receive controlled error-free practice of basic structures. It also adds variety
by providing an alternative to classroom practice. A taped lesson may first present a dialogue for
listening practice, allow for the student to repeat the sentences in the dialogue line by line, and provide
follow-up fluency drills on grammar or pronunciation.

Design

Objective: Brooks distinguishes between short-range and long-range objectives of an audiolingual

program. Short-range objectives include training in listening comprehension, accurate pronunciation,
recognition of speech symbols as graphic signs on the printed page, and ability to reproduce these
symbols in writing (Brooks 1964: 111). These immediate objectives imply three others: first, control of
the structures of sound, form, and order in the new language; second, acquaintance with vocabulary
items that bring content into these structures; and third, meaning, in terms of the significance these
verbal symbols have for those who speak the language natively (Brooks 1964: 113). Long-range
objectives must be language as the native speaker uses it. . . . There must be some knowledge of a
second language as it is possessed by a true bilingualist (Brooks 1964: 107).

The Syllabus: Audiolingualism is a linguistic, or structure-based, approach to language teaching. The

starting point is a linguistic syllabus, which contains the key items of phonology, morphology, and syntax
of the language arranged according to their order of presentation. These may have been derived in part
from a contrastive analysis of the differences between the native language and the target language,
since these differences are thought to be the cause of the major difficulties the learner will encounter.
In addition, a lexical syllabus of basic vocabulary items is usually specified in advance.

The language skills are taught in the order of listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Listening is
viewed largely as training in aural discrimination of basic sound patterns. The language may be
presented entirely orally at first; written representations are usually withheld from learners in early
stages.

The learners activities must at first be confined to the audiolingual and gestural-visual bands of
language behavior. Recognition and discrimination are followed by imitation, repetition and
memorization. Only when he is thoroughly familiar with sounds, arrangements, and forms does he
center his attention on enlarging his vocabulary. . . . Throughout he concentrates upon gaining accuracy
before striving for fluency.

When reading and writing are introduced, students are taught to read and write what they have already
learned to say orally. An attempt is made to minimize the possibilities for making mistakes in both
speaking and writing by using a tightly structured approach to the presentation of new language items.
At more advanced levels, more complex reading and writing tasks may be introduced.
Procedure

Since Audiolingualism is primarily an oral approach to language teaching, it is not surprising that the
process of teaching involves extensive oral instruction. The focus of instruction is on immediate and
accurate speech; there is little provision for grammatical explanation or talking about the language. As
far as possible, the target language is used as the medium of instruction, and translation or use of the
native language is discouraged. Classes of ten or fewer are considered optimal, although larger classes
are often the norm. Brooks lists the following procedures that the teacher should adopt in using the
Audiolingual Method:

- The modeling of all learnings by the teacher.

- The subordination of the mother tongue to the second language by rendering English inactive
while the new language is being learned.
- The early and continued training of the ear and tongue without recourse to graphic symbols.
- The learning of structure through the practice of patterns of sound, order, and form, rather than
by explanation.
- The gradual substitution of graphic symbols for sounds after sounds are thoroughly known.
- The summarizing of the main principles of structure for the students use when the structures
are already familiar, especially when they differ from those of the mother tongue. . . .
- The shortening of the time span between a performance and the pronouncement of its
rightness or wrongness, without interrupting the response. This enhances the factor of
reinforcement in learning.
- The minimizing of vocabulary until all common structures have been learned.
- The study of vocabulary only in context.
- Sustained practice in the use of the language only in the molecular form of speaker-hearer-
situation.
- Practice in translation only as a literary exercise at an advanced level.

In a typical audiolingual lesson, the following procedures would be

observed:

1. Students first hear a model dialogue (either read by the teacher or on tape) containing the key
structures that are the focus of the lesson. They repeat each line of the dialogue, individually
and in chorus. The teacher pays attention to pronunciation, intonation, and fluency. Correction
of mistakes of pronunciation or grammar is direct and immediate. The dialogue is memorized
gradually, line by line. A line may be broken down into several phrases if necessary. The dialogue
is read aloud in chorus, one half saying one speakers part and the other half responding. The
students do not consult their book throughout this phase.
2. The dialogue is adapted to the students interest or situation, through changing certain key
words or phrases. This is acted out by the students.
3. Certain key structures from the dialogue are selected and used as the basis for pattern drills of
different kinds. These are first practiced in chorus and then individually. Some grammatical
explanation may be offered at this point, but this is kept to an absolute minimum.
4. The students may refer to their textbook, and follow-up reading, writing, or vocabulary activities
based on the dialogue may be introduced. At the beginning level, writing is purely imitative and
consists of little more than copying out sentences that have been practiced. As proficiency
 increases, students may write out variations of structural items they have practiced or write
short compositions on given topics with the help of framing questions, which will guide their use
of the language.
5. Follow-up activities may take place in the language laboratory, where further dialogue and drill
work is carried out.

Advantages

- It aims at developing listening and speaking skills which is a step away from the grammar
translation method
- The use of visual aids has proven its effectiveness in vocabulary teaching

Disadvantages

- The method is based on false assumptions about language. The study of language doesn6t
amount to studying the parole, the observable data. Mastering a language relies on acquiring
the rules underlying language performance. That is, the linguistic, sociolinguistic, and discourse
competences
- The behaviorist approach to learning is now discredited. Many scholars have proven its
weakness.

Conclusion
Audiolingualism holds that language learning is like other forms of learning. Since language is a
formal, rule-governed system, it can be formally organized to maximize teaching and learning
efficiency. Audiolingualism thus stresses the mechanistic aspects of language learning and language
use.

Communicative Language Teaching

Communicative Language Teaching aims broadly to apply the theoretical perspective of the
Communicative Approach by making communicative competence the goal of language teaching and
by acknowledging the interdependence of language and communication. The work of the Council of
Europe; the writings of Wilkins, Widdowson, Candlin, Christopher Brumfit, Keith Johnson, and other
British applied linguists on the theoretical basis for a communicative or functional approach to
language teaching; the rapid application of these ideas by textbook writers; and the equally rapid
acceptance of these new principles by British language teaching specialists, curriculum development
centers, and even governments gave prominence nationally and internationally to what came to be
referred to as the Communicative Approach, or simply Communicative Language Teaching.
Although the movement began as a largely British innovation, focusing on alternative conceptions of
a syllabus, since the mid-1970s the scope of Communicative Language Teaching has expanded. Both
American and British proponents now see it as an approach (and not a method) that aims to (a)
make communicative competence the goal of language teaching and (b) develop procedures for the
teaching of the four language skills that acknowledge the interdependence of language and
communication. Its comprehensiveness thus makes it different in scope and status from any of the
other approaches or methods discussed in this book. There is no single text or authority on it, nor
any single model that is universally accepted as authoritative. For some, Communicative Language
Teaching means little more than an integration of grammatical and functional teaching. Littlewood
(1981: 1) states, One of the most characteristic features of communicative language teaching is
that it pays systematic attention to functional as well as structural aspects of language. For others,
it means using procedures where learners work in pairs or groups employing available language
resources in problem-solving tasks.

Finocchiaro and Brumfit (1983) contrast the major distinctive features of the Audiolingual Method
and the Communicative Approach, according to their interpretation:

Audiolingual Communicative Language Teaching

Attends to structure and form more than Meaning is paramount.

meaning.
Demands memorization of structure-based Dialogues, if used, center around
dialogues. communicative functions and are not normally
memorized.
Language items are not necessarily Contextualization is a basic premise.
contextualized.
Language learning is learning structures, Language learning is learning to communicate.
sounds, or words.
Mastery, or over-learning, is sought. Effective communication is sought.
Drilling is a central technique. Drilling may occur, but peripherally.
Native-speaker-like pronunciation is sought. Comprehensible pronunciation is sought.
Grammatical explanation is avoided. Any device that helps the learners is accepted
varying according to their age, interest, etc.
Communicative activities only come after a Attempts to communicate may be encouraged
long process of rigid drills and exercises. from the very beginning.
The use of the students native language is Judicious use of native language is accepted
forbidden. where feasible.
Translation is forbidden at early levels. Translation may be used where students need
or benefit from it.
Reading and writing are deferred till speech is Reading and writing can start from the first day,
mastered. if desired.
The target linguistic system will be learned The target linguistic system will be learned best
through the overt teaching of the patterns of through the process of struggling to
the system. communicate.
Linguistic competence is the desired goal. Communicative competence is the desired goal
(i.e., the ability to use the linguistic system
effectively and appropriately).
 Varieties of language are recognized but not Linguistic variation is a central concept in
emphasized. materials and methodology.
The sequence of units is determined solely by Sequencing is determined by any consideration
principles of linguistic complexity. of content, function, or meaning that maintains
interest.
The teacher controls the learners and prevents Teachers help learners in any way that
them from doing anything that conflicts with motivates them to work with
the theory. the language.
Language is habit so errors must be Language is created by the individual, often
prevented at all costs. through trial and error.
Accuracy, in terms of formal correctness, is a Fluency and acceptable language is the primary
primary goal. goal: Accuracy is judged not in the abstract but
in context.
Students are expected to interact with the Students are expected to interact with other
language system, embodied in machines or people, either in the flesh, through pair and
controlled materials group work, or in their writings.
The teacher is expected to specify the language The teacher cannot know exactly what
that students are to use. language the students will use.
Intrinsic motivation will spring from an interest Intrinsic motivation will spring from an interest
in the structure of the language. in what is being communicated by the
language.

Common to all versions of Communicative Language Teaching is a theory of language teaching that
starts from a communicative model of language and language use, and that seeks to translate this into a
design for an instructional system, for materials, for teacher and learner roles and behaviors, and for
classroom activities and techniques. Let us now consider how this is manifested at the levels of
approach, design, and procedure.

Characteristics:

CLT is usually characterized as a broad approach to teaching, rather than as a teaching method with a
clearly defined set of classroom practices. As such, it is most often defined as a list of general principles
or features. One of the most recognized of these lists is David Nunan's (1991[6]) five features of CLT:

1.An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language.

2.The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation.

3.The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language but also on the learning
process itself.

4. An enhancement of the learners own personal experiences as important contributing elements to

classroom learning.

5. An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activities outside the classroom.
At the level of language theory, Communicative Language Teaching has a rich, if somewhat eclectic,
theoretical base. Some of the other characteristics of this communicative view of language follow:

1. Language is a system for the expression of meaning.

2. The primary function of language is to allow interaction and communication.
3. The structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses.
4. The primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and structural features, but categories
of functional and communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse.

Features

Communicative Language Teaching is most often defined as a list of general principles or features. One
of the most recognized of these lists is David Nunan's (1991) five features of Communicative Language
Teaching:

an emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language,

the introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation,
the provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language but also on the learning
management process,
an enhancement of the learner's own personal experiences as important contributing elements to
classroom learning
an attempt to link classroom language learning with language activities outside the classroom.

These five features are claimed by practitioners of Communicative Language Teaching to show that they
are very interested in the needs and desires of their learners, as well as the connection between the
language as it is taught in their class and as it used outside the classroom.

Principals

- Teach communicative competence: grammatical competence plus the ability to use grammar
appropriately. Whereas grammatical competence implies the ability to use the linguistic items
correctly, communicative competence in addition involves the appropriate use of grammar.
- Practice functions and forms in context rich environments. Meaning is expressed through
functions and manifests itself in forms
- Give priority to fluency over accuracy. CLT regards fluency is the basic aim of language teaching,
and thus fluency practice should precede accuracy practice. During fluency practice errors
should be left uncorrected, as a rule.
- Make sure there are genuine needs, genuine partners and information gaps in the classroom.
According to CLT, communication is elicited by needs, partners and information gaps.
- Adopt a learner centered attitude. Which means that the teacher regards her students as
partners.
Approach

Theory of language: The Communicative Approach in language teaching starts from a theory of language
as communication. The goal of language teaching is to develop what Hymes (1972) referred to as
communicative competence. Hymes coined this term in order to contrast a communicative view of
language and Chomskys theory of competence.

For Chomsky, the focus of linguistic theory was to characterize the abstract abilities speakers possess
that enable them to produce grammatically correct sentences in a language. Hymes held that such a
view of linguistic theory was sterile, that linguistic theory needed to be seen as part of a more general
theory incorporating communication and culture. Hymess theory of communicative competence was a
definition of what a speaker needs to know in order to be communicatively competent in a speech
community. In Hymess view, a person who acquires communicative competence acquires both
knowledge and ability for language use.

Theory of learning: Elements of an underlying learning theory can be discerned in some CLT practices.
One such element might be described as the communication principle: Activities that involve real
communication promote learning. A second element is the task principle: Activities in which language is
used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning (Johnson 1982). A third element is the
meaningfulness principle: Language that is meaningful to the learner supports the learning process.
Learning activities are consequently selected according to how well they engage the learner in
meaningful and authentic language use (rather than merely mechanical practice of language patterns).

Johnson (1984) and Littlewood (1984) consider an alternative learning theory that they also see as
compatible with CLT a skill-learning model of learning. According to this theory, the acquisition of
communicative competence in a language is an example of skill development. This involves both a
cognitive and a behavioral aspect. Savignon (1983) surveys second language acquisition research as a
source for learning theories and considers the role of linguistic, social, cognitive, and individual variables
in language acquisition. Krashen sees acquisition as the basic process involved in developing language
proficiency and distinguishes this process from learning.

Design

Objective:

Piepho (1981) discusses the following levels of objectives in a communicative approach:

1. an integrative and content level (language as a means of expression)

2. a linguistic and instrumental level (language as a semiotic system and an object of learning)
3. an affective level of interpersonal relationships and conduct (language as a means of expressing
values and judgments about oneself and others)
4. a level of individual learning needs (remedial learning based on error analysis)
5. a general educational level of extra-linguistic goals (language learning within the school curriculum)

These are proposed as general objectives, applicable to any teaching situation.

Syllabus Design:

Discussion of syllabus theory and syllabus models in Communicative Language Teaching has been
extensive. There are several proposals and models for what a syllabus might look like in Communicative
Language Teaching. Yalden (1983) describes the major current communicative syllabus types. Some of
them include functional, structural, notional, interactional, task based, learner generated etc. Some
designers of communicative syllabuses have also looked to task specification and task organization as
the appropriate criteria for syllabus design.

The only form of syllabus which is compatible with and can support communicational teaching seems to
be a purely procedural one which lists, in more or less detail, the types of tasks to be attempted in the
classroom and suggests an order of complexity for tasks of the same kind. (Prabhu 1983: 4)

As discussion of syllabus models continues in the CLT literature, some have argued that the syllabus
concept be abolished altogether in its accepted forms, arguing that only learners can be fully aware of
their own needs, communicational resources, and desired learning pace and path, and that each learner
must create a personal, albeit implicit, syllabus as part of learning. Others lean more toward the model
proposed by Brumfit (1980), which favors a grammatically based syllabus around which notions,
functions, and communicational activities are grouped.

Learner role:

The emphasis in Communicative Language Teaching on the processes of communication, rather than
mastery of language forms, leads to different roles for learners from those found in more traditional
second language classrooms. Breen and Candlin describe the learners role within CLT in the following
terms:
The role of learner as negotiator between the self, the learning process, and the object of learning
emerges from and interacts with the role of joint negotiator within the group and within the classroom
procedures and activities which the group undertakes. The implication for the learner is that he should
contribute as much as he gains, and thereby learn in an interdependent way.
(1980: 110)

Teacher Role:

Several roles are assumed for teachers in Communicative Language Teaching, the importance of
particular roles being determined by the view of CLT adopted. Breen and Candlin describe teacher roles
in the following terms:
The teacher has two main roles: the first role is to facilitate the communication process between all
participants in the classroom, and between these participants and the various activities and texts. The
second role is to act as an independent participant within the learning-teaching group. The latter role is
closely related to the objectives of the first role and arises from it. These roles imply a set of secondary
roles for the teacher; first, as an organizer of resources and as a resource himself, second as a guide
within the classroom procedures and activities. . . . A third role for the teacher is that of researcher and
learner, with much to contribute in terms of appropriate knowledge and abilities, actual and observed
experience of the nature of learning and organizational capacities. (1980: 99)

Other roles assumed for teachers are needs analyst (The CLT teacher assumes a responsibility for
determining and responding to learner language needs), counselor (the teacher-counselor is expected to
exemplify an effective communicator seeking to maximize the meshing of speaker intention and hearer
interpretation, through the use of paraphrase, confirmation, and feedback), and group process manager
(CLT procedures often require teachers to acquire less teacher-centered classroom management skills. It
is the teachers responsibility to organize the classroom as a setting for communication and
communicative activities).

The role of instructional materials: We will consider three kinds of materials currently used in CLT and
label these text-based, task-based, and realia.

i. Text-based materials: There are numerous textbooks designed to direct and support
Communicative Language Teaching. Their tables of contents sometimes suggest a kind of
grading and sequencing of language practice not unlike those found in structurally organized
texts. Some of these are in fact written around a largely structural syllabus, with slight
reformatting to justify their claims to be based on a communicative approach. A typical
lesson consists of a theme, a task analysis for thematic development, a practice situation
description, a stimulus presentation, comprehension questions, and paraphrase exercises.
ii. Task based materials: A variety of games, role plays, simulations, and task-based
communication activities have been prepared to support Communicative Language Teaching
classes. These typically are in the form of one-of-a-kind items: exercise handbooks, cue
cards, activity cards, pair-communication practice materials, and student-interaction
practice booklets.
iii. Realia: Many proponents of Communicative Language Teaching have advocated the use of
authentic, from-life materials in the classroom. These might include language-based
realia, such as signs, magazines, advertisements, and newspapers, or graphic and visual
sources around which communicative activities can be built, such as maps, pictures,
symbols, graphs, and charts.

Procedure

Savignon (1983) discusses techniques and classroom management procedures associated with a
number of CLT classroom procedures (e.g., group activities, language games, role plays), but neither
these activities nor the ways in which they are used are exclusive to CLT classrooms. Finocchiaro and
Brumfit offer a lesson outline for teaching the function making a suggestion for learners in the
beginning level of a secondary school program that suggests that CLT procedures are evolutionary rather
than revolutionary:

1. Presentation of a brief dialog or several mini-dialogs, preceded by a motivation (relating the dialog
situation[s] to the learners probable community experiences) and a discussion of the function and
situation people, roles, setting, topic, and the informality or formality of the language which the
function and situation demand. (At beginning levels, where all the learners understand the same native
language, the motivation can well be given in their native tongue.)
2. Oral practice of each utterance of the dialog segment to be presented that day (entire class
repetition, half-class, groups, individuals) generally preceded by your model. If mini-dialogs are used,
engage in similar practice.
3. Questions and answers based on the dialog topic(s) and situation itself. (Inverted wh or or questions.)
4. Questions and answers related to the students personal experiences but centered around the dialog
theme.
5. Study one of the basic communicative expressions in the dialog or one of the structures which
exemplify the function. You will wish to give several additional examples of the communicative use of
the expression or structure with familiar vocabulary in unambiguous utterances or mini-dialogs (using
pictures, simple real objects, or dramatization) to clarify the meaning of the expression or structure.

6. Learner discovery of generalizations or rules underlying the functional expression or structure. This
should include at least four points: its oral and written forms (the elements of which it is composed, e.g.,
How about + verb + ing?); its position in the utterance; its formality or informality in the utterance;
and in the case of a structure, its grammatical function and meaning. . . .
7. Oral recognition, interpretative activities (two to five depending on the learning level, the language
knowledge of the students, and related factors).
8. Oral production activities proceeding from guided to freer communication activities.
9. Copying of the dialogs or mini-dialogs or modules if they are not in the class text.
10. Sampling of the written homework assignment, if given.
11. Evaluation of learning (oral only), e.g., How would you ask your friend to ? And how would you ask
me to ?

Such procedures clearly have much in common with those observed in classes taught according to
Structural-Situational and Audiolingual principles.

Conclusion

Communicative Language Teaching is best considered an approach rather than a method. It refers to a
diverse set of principles that reflect a communicative view of language and language learning and that
can be used to support a wide variety of classroom procedures.

Task-Based Language Teaching

Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) refers to an approach based on the use of tasks as the core unit of
planning and instruction in language teaching. A task- based approach aims to provide learners with a
natural context for language use. As learners work to complete a task, they have abundant opportunity
to interact. Such interaction is thought to facilitate language acquisition as learners have to work to
understand each other and to express their own meaning.

Task-Based Language Teaching proposes the notion of task as a central unit of planning and teaching.
Although definitions of task vary in TBLT, there is a commonsensical understanding that a task is an
activity or goal that is carried out using language.

Nunan (1989: 10) offers this definition for task:

The communicative task [is] a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending,
manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused
on meaning rather than form. The task should also have a sense of completeness, being able to stand
alone as a communicative act in its own rights

Here is a denition of a pedagogical task:

an activity or action which is carried out as the result of processing or understanding language (i.e. as a
response). For example, drawing a map while listening to a tape, listening to an instruction and
performing a command may be referred to as tasks. Tasks may or may not involve the production
of language. A task usually requires the teacher to specify what will be regarded as successful
completion of the task.

According to Breen-

any structured language learning endeavor which has a particular objective, appropriate content, a
specied working procedure, and a range of outcomes for those who undertake the task. Task is
therefore assumed to refer to a range of work plans which have the overall purposes of facilitating
language learning from the simple and brief exercise type, to more complex and lengthy activities such
as group problem-solving or simulations and decision-making.

The key assumptions of task-based instruction are summarized by Feez:

The focus is on process rather than product.

Basic elements are purposeful activities and tasks that emphasize communication and meaning.
Learners learn language by interacting communicatively and purposefully while engaged in the
activities and tasks.
Activities and tasks can be either:
those that learners might need to achieve in real life;
those that have a pedagogical purpose specific to the classroom.
Activities and tasks of a task-based syllabus are sequenced according to difficulty.
The difficulty of a task depends on a range of factors including the previous experience of the learner,
the complexity of the task, the language required to undertake the task, and the degree of support
available.

Task-based training identified several key areas of concern:

1. analysis of real-world task-use situations

2. the translation of these into teaching tasks descriptions
3. the detailed design of instructional tasks
4. the sequencing of instructional tasks in classroom training/teaching

Academic tasks are defined as having four important dimensions:

1. the products students are asked to produce
2. the operations they are required to use in order to produce these products
3. the cognitive operations required and the resources available
4. the accountability system involved
Characteristics of task-based language teaching

Although there is a divergence of views among the advocates of task-based language teaching in
relation to the core principles of TBLT, Swan (2005) emphasizes that there is a general agreement
among them on the characteristics listed below:

Instructed language learning should mainly contain natural or naturalistic language

use, and the activities are related to meaning rather than language.
Instruction should support learner-centeredness rather than teacher-centeredness.
Because totally naturalistic learning does not normally give rise to target-like accuracy,
engagement is essential to promote the internalization of formal linguistic elements
while keeping the perceived benefits of a natural approach
This can be realized best by offering opportunities for focus on the form, which will
attract students attention to linguistic components as they emerge incidentally in
lessons whose main focus is on meaning or communication
Communicative tasks are especially suitable devices for such an approach.
More formal pre- or post-task language study may be beneficial. This may make
contribution to internalization by leading or maximizing familiarity with formal
characteristics during communication
Traditional approaches are unproductive and unsuitable, particularly where they require
passive formal instruction and practice isolated from communicative work

Characteristics of Tasks

1. one-way or two-way: whether the task involves a one-way exchange of information or a two-way
exchange
2. convergent or divergent: whether the students achieve a common goal or several different goals
3. collaborative or competitive: whether the students collaborate to carry out a task or compete with
each other on a task

4. single or multiple outcomes: whether there is a single outcome or many different outcomes are
possible
5. concrete or abstract language: whether the task involves the use of concrete language or abstract
language
6. simple or complex processing: whether the task requires relatively simple or complex cognitive
processing
7. simple or complex language: whether the linguistic demands of the task are relatively simple or
complex
8. reality-based or not reality-based: whether the task mirrors a realworld activity or is a pedagogical
activity not found in the real world.
Principals of TBLT

i. Making errors is natural and is considered as a part of the process in acquiring the target
language.
ii. Exposure to comprehensible input is crucial.
iii. Learning tasks facilitating learners to engage in interactions are essential
iv. Learners need to be encouraged to produce the target language as producing the target
language facilitates learning.
v. Although language production may be encouraged from the early stage in the learning
process, it is reasonable to allow a silent period.
vi. Second language teaching and learning pace should be made reasonable for both learners
with higher and lower aptitude.
vii. Language learning tasks should be varied to cater for the needs for both extrovert and
introvert learners
viii. The choice of teaching and learning tasks and content should be based on learner age.
ix. Learning tasks should arouse and maintain learners learning motivation.

Approach

Theory of language:

TBLT is motivated primarily by a theory of learning rather than a theory of language. However, several
assumptions about the nature of language can be said to underlie current approaches to TBLT. These
are:

i. Language is primarily a means of making meaning- TBLT emphasizes the central role of
meaning in language use.
ii. Multiple models of language inform TBI- Advocates of task-based instruction draw on
structural, functional, and interactional models of language Berwick uses task goals as one
of two distinctions in classification of task types. Foster and Skehan (1996) propose a three-
way functional distinction of tasks personal, narrative, and decision-making tasks. TBI is
not linked to a single model of language but rather draws on all three models of language
theory.
iii. Lexical units are central in language use and language learning- Vocabulary is here used to
include the consideration of lexical phrases, sentence stems, prefabricated routines, and
collocations, and not only words as significant units of linguistic lexical analysis and language
pedagogy.
iv. Conversation is the central focus of language and the keystone of language acquisition-
Speaking and trying to communicate with others through the spoken language drawing on
the learners available linguistic and communicative resources is considered the basis for
second language acquisition in TBI; hence, the majority of tasks that are proposed within
TBLT involve conversation.
Theory of learning:

TBI shares the general assumptions about the nature of language learning underlying Communicative
Language Teaching. However, some additional learning principles play a central role in TBLT theory.
These are:

i. Tasks provide both the input and output processing necessary for language acquisition-
Tasks are believed to foster processes of negotiation, modification, rephrasing, and
experimentation that are at the heart of second language learning.
ii. Task activity and achievement are motivational- Tasks are also said to improve learner
motivation and therefore promote learning. This is because they require the learners to use
authentic language, they have well-defined dimensions and closure, they are varied in
format and operation, they typically include physical activity, they involve partnership and
collaboration, they may call on the learners past experience, and they tolerate and
encourage a variety of communication styles.
iii. Learning difficulty can be negotiated and finetuned for particular pedagogical purposes-
Another claim for tasks is that specific tasks can be designed to facilitate the use and
learning of particular aspects of language.

Design

Objective: Goals in TBLT are ideally to be determined by the specific needs of particular learners.
Selection of tasks, according to Long and Crookes (1993), should be based on a careful analysis of the
real-world needs of learners. TBLT has to facilitate students language learning by engaging them in a
variety of tasks that have a clear outcome. It has to give learners confidence in trying out whatever
language they know, experience of spontaneous interaction, the chance to benefit from noticing how
others express similar meanings, chances for negotiating turns to speak, chances to try out
communication strategies. It also has to engage learners in using language purposefully and
cooperatively and develop learners confidence that they can achieve communicative goals.

Syllabus Design: A TBLT syllabus, specifies the tasks that should be carried out by learners within a
program. Nunan (1989) suggests that a syllabus might specify two types of tasks:

1. real-world tasks, which are designed to practice or rehearse those tasks that are found to be
important in a needs analysis and turn out to be important and useful in the real world
2. pedagogical tasks, which have a psycholinguistic basis in SLA theory and research but do not
necessarily reflect real-world tasks

Norris, Brown, Hudson, and Yoshioka (1998) provide examples of representative real-world tasks
grouped according to themes (like planning a vacation or application to a university). In addition to
selecting tasks as the basis for a TBLT syllabus, the ordering of tasks also has to be determined.

Learner Roles:

A number of specific roles for learners are assumed in current proposals for TBI. Primary roles that are
implied by task work are:
 i. Group participant- Many tasks will be done in pairs or small groups.
ii. Monitor- Class activities have to be designed so that students have the opportunity to notice
how language is used in communication. Learners themselves need to attend not only to
the message in task work, but also to the form in which such messages typically come
packed.
iii. Risk-taker and innovator- Many tasks will require learners to create and interpret messages
for which they lack full linguistic resources and prior experience.

Teachers role:

Additional roles are also assumed for teachers in TBI, including:

i. Selector and sequencer of tasks- A central role of the teacher is in selecting, adapting,
and/or creating the tasks themselves and then forming these into an instructional sequence
in keeping with learner needs, interests, and language skill level.
ii. Preparing learners for tasks- Most TBLT proponents suggest that learners should not go into
new tasks cold and that some sort of pre-task preparation or cuing is important. Such
activities might include topic introduction, clarifying task instructions, helping students learn
or recall useful words and phrases to facilitate task accomplishment, and providing partial
demonstration of task procedures.
iii. Consciousness-raising- Current views of TBLT hold that if learners are to acquire language
through participating in tasks they need to attend to or notice critical features of the
language they use and hear. This is referred to as Focus on Form. TBLT proponents stress
that this does not mean doing a grammar lesson before students take on a task. It does
mean employing a variety of form-focusing techniques, including attention-focusing pretask
activities, text exploration, guided exposure to parallel tasks, and use of highlighted
material.

The role of instructional materials:

Pedagogic materials- Instructional materials play an important role in TBLT because it is dependent on a
sufficient supply of appropriate classroom tasks, some of which may require considerable time,
ingenuity, and resources to develop. Materials that can be exploited for instruction in TBLT are limited
only by the imagination of the task designer.

Realia- TBI proponents favor the use of authentic tasks supported by authentic materials wherever
possible. Popular media obviously provide rich resources for such materials. Some of the task types that
can be built around such media products are like newspapers, televisions, internet etc.

Classification of Tasks

Pica, Kanagy, and Falodun (1993) classify tasks according to the type of interaction that occurs in task
accomplishment and give the following classification:

1. Jigsaw tasks: These involve learners combining different pieces of information to form a
whole (e.g., three individuals or groups may have three different parts of a story and have to piece the
story together).
 2. Information-gap tasks: One student or group of students has one set of information and
another student or group has a complementary set of information. They must negotiate and find out
what the other partys information is in order to complete an activity.

3. Problem-solving tasks: Students are given a problem and a set of information. They must
arrive at a solution to the problem. There is generally a single resolution of the outcome.

4. Decision-making tasks: Students are given a problem for which there are a number of possible
outcomes and they must choose one through negotiation and discussion.

5. Opinion exchange tasks: Learners engage in discussion and exchange of ideas. They do not
need to reach agreement.

Procedure

The core of the lesson or project is, as the name suggests, the task. Teachers and curriculum
developers should bear in mind that any attention to form, i.e., grammar or vocabulary, increases
the likelihood that learners may be distracted from the task itself and become preoccupied with
detecting and correcting errors and/or looking up language in dictionaries and grammar references.
Although there may be several effective frameworks for creating a task-based learning lesson, the
basic outline stands:

Pre-Task: In the pre-task, the teachers present what will be expected of the students in the task phase.
Additionally, in the "weak" form of TBLT, the teacher may prime the students with key vocabulary
or grammatical constructs, although this can mean that the activity is, in effect, more similar to the
more traditional present-practice-produce (PPP) paradigm. In "strong" task-based learning lessons,
learners are responsible for selecting the appropriate language for any given context themselves.
The instructors may also present a model of the task by either doing it themselves or by presenting
picture, audio, or video demonstrating the task.

Task Cycle: During the task phase, the students perform the task, typically in small groups, although this
depends on the type of activity. Unless the teacher plays a particular role in the task, the teacher's
role is typically limited to one of an observer or counselorthereby making it a more student centered
methodology.

Post Task: If learners have created tangible linguistic products, e.g. text, montage, presentation, audio or
video recording, learners can review each other's work and offer constructive feedback. If a task is set to
extend over longer periods of time, e.g. weeks, and includes iterative cycles of constructive activity
followed by review, TBLL can be seen as analogous to Project-based learning.
Present Practice Produce (PPP) in Task Based Learning Approach

During an initial teacher training course, most teachers become familiar with the PPP paradigm.
A PPP lesson would proceed in the following manner.
First, the teacher presents an item of language in a clear context to get across its meaning. This
could be done in a variety of ways: through a text, a situation build, a dialogue etc.

Students are then asked to complete a controlled practice stage, where they may have to repeat
target items through choral and individual drilling, fill gaps or match halves of sentences. All of
this practice demands that the student uses the language correctly and helps them to become more
comfortable with it.
Finally, they move on to the production stage, sometimes called the 'free practice' stage. Students
are given a communication task such as a role play and are expected to produce the target language
and use any other language that has already been learnt and is suitable for completing it.

Conclusion

Few would question the pedagogical value of employing tasks as a vehicle for promoting communication
and authentic language use in second language classrooms, and depending on ones definition of a task,
tasks have long been part of the mainstream repertoire of language teaching techniques for teachers of
many different methodological persuasions. TBLT, however, offers a different rationale for the use of
tasks as well as different criteria for the design and use of tasks. It is the dependence on tasks as the
primary source of pedagogical input in teaching and the absence of a systematic grammatical or other
type of syllabus that characterizes current versions of TBLT, and that distinguishes it from the use of
tasks in Competency-Based Language Teaching, another task-based approach but one that is not
wedded to the theoretical framework and assumptions of TBLT.