Symbolism and Allusion

AP English Notes
Mrs. Dibble
In Shakespeares Romeo and Juliet, which of the following does Juliet wish for
when she says, Gallop apace, you fiery-footed steeds,/Towards Phoebus lodging?
a. her lovers arrival
b. the darkness of night
c. the light of day
d. a swift journey to Romeo
e. Nurses return with Romeos message
To correctly answer this question, you must not only have a thorough understanding of
the play, but you must also know that Phoebus Apollo was the Greek god of the sun.
According to Greek mythology, each day his steeds pulled his chariot across the sky;
when he returned to his lodging at the end of the day, night would fall. So the correct
answer is B.
You may ask why it is necessary to have knowledge of classical Greek
mythology, which predates Shakespeares work by over two thousand years, in order
to fully understand Romeo and Juliet. Shouldnt a close reading of the play suffice? In
truth, authors employ many different literary devices to give their text complex layers
of meaning. Some of these devices harness the power of art, religious belief, and
mythology. An authors influences are based largely on cultural traditions: the work of
Shakespeare is informed by the Bible and Greek mythology; a modern Chinese
playwright is very likely influenced by Confucian or Buddhist ideas. Modern American
literature draws upon an increasingly rich, diverse range of cultural traditions, but the
Bible and classical Greek literature and mythology are prevalent in the literature you
will see on the AP exam. Two important devices symbolism and allusion draw
heavily on history, art, literature, religion, mythology, and nature. Some allusions are
so familiar to us that they have become symbolic of certain traits or events. Yet while
these two devices are intertwined, there are some distinct differences.
SYMBOLISM
In its basic sense, a symbol is a thing that represents, or stands for, something else.
The something else is usually abstract and intangible, such as an idea, a feeling, or
a theme. Symbols enable authors to convey these intangibles concretely. This is
usually quite powerful and effective. For example, consider this poem by William
Blake:
The Sick Rose
O Rose, thou are sick!
The invisible worm,
That flies at night,
In the howling storm,
Has found out thy bed
Of crimson joy,
And his dark secret love
Does life destroy.
On the surface, this poem appears to be about a flower that is at risk of being
destroyed by some sort of worm. The poet laments the destruction of something so
joyful by something so dark. The average reader will walk away with little more than
an appreciation of Blakes use of language. But is that all there is? Is it possible that
there is more at work here? After all, there seem to be some unanswered questions:
Why is the worm invisible? What is the dark secret love? Lets look at some of the
words. Think of them in categories.
LIGHT DARK
rose invisible worm
bed of crimson joy night
howling storm
dark secret love
A rose is a flower, but it can also be a persons name. Flowers grow in flowerbeds,
but people also sleep in beds. A worm is similar in form to a serpent. And a serpent is
reminiscent of the serpent in the Garden of Eden. Traditionally, the serpent
symbolizes sin and specifically the temptation that led to the knowledge of good and
evil.
Now read the poem again. Is it possible that the rose symbolizes innocence?
Chastity? Could the worm be a symbol of desire, tempting the innocent girl as the
serpent tempted Eve? Could it signal the loss of childhood, the loss of innocence, and
the emergence of sexuality?
As weve said before, knowing a particular authors style and body of work is
helpful when analyzing a piece with which you are unfamiliar. Christianity was the
centerpiece of Blakes poetic landscape. But his views differed radically from those of
most of his contemporaries. For Blake, it was not so much the existence of desire that
was destructive, but the DENIAL of it. In The Sick Rose, it is not the love per se that
destroys the rose, but rather the nature of that love dark and secret, delivered
through something invisible on a stormy night.
The Universal Nature of Symbolism
All cultures throughout history have created myths, folktales, and other stories
to express their views about the world. Although the particulars of these tales differ
from culture to culture, and from century to century, certain patterns threads can
neverlessless be traced. Certain themes seem to recur: these timeless and universal
symbols are called archetypes.
For example, the well-known tale of Cinderella has reared its head elsewhere.
When we call the heroine Cinderella (France), Aschenputtel (Germany), or Cordelia (in
King Lear), she is the sweet and virtuous daughter (or stepdaughter) who is tortured
and betrayed by her evil sisters/stepsisters. In most versions, virtue and sweetness
triumph; the evil stepsisters are defeated. In the hands of the tragedian, the heroine
may die, but she is still viewed as spiritually triumphant, and good vanquishes evil-
even in a tragedy.
The story of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs provides a good example of
symbolism that exists in most of these tales. The heroines name tells us of her
character, purity, and innocence. The huntsman who spared her life is a man in tune
with nature and life (comparable to the herdsman who spares the life of Oedipus).
There were seven dwarfs not six or eight. Seven is a mystical number, found to be
significant in mythology, religion (seven deadly sins, seven sacraments), and
cosmology (there are supposed to be seven concentric spheres around the earth in the
early medieval philosophical view of the universe); even in gambling, seven is
considered lucky.
The wicked queen/witch/stepmother looks into her magic looking glass and
asks, Mirror, mirror on the wall, who is the fairest of them all? Unfailingly, the
mirror answers truthfully because, symbolically, the mirror represents truth, clarity,
and self-knowledge, as well as vanity. Of course, breaking the mirror promises seven
years of bad luck to the careless party. The mirror has no choice but to reflect the
truth, leading the queen to seek Snow White and try and poison her. With what? An
apple.
The apple is a potent symbol. The juicy red apple represents love and fertility.
It has also represented temptation (even though it was Milton who identified this fruit
as an apple). Fortunately for Snow White, the apple symbolically leads to redemption,
even though the story gives the credit to Prince Charming. This story, like many
others, is filled with secondary meanings such as these. Most of the time we
understand the hidden meaning without quite realizing it; sometimes it just goes
directly to the subconscious.
Allusion
Okay, you are on a hot date. Everything is going great but you realize that it is
almost midnight, your curfew. You explain that you have to leave. Your new friend,
obviously not a keeper, says with sarcasm, Whats the matter? Is your carriage going
to turn into a pumpkin? Obviously, this loser is making a reference to Cinderella.
And since your knowledge of fairy tales is excellent, know exactly what he means.
Jerk!
Such a reference is called an allusion. Authors pepper their poetry and prose
with allusions because these references add depth and complexity to their work. But
if you are unfamiliar with the events and works to which they allude, you will certainly
miss out on even more.
Most of the Western literature of the past 600 years is characterized by the use
of allusions to mythology, classical literature, history, and the Bible. Why? As you
know, authors write with their audiences firmly in mind. After all, complex layers of
meaning are wasted on deaf ears. Writers correctly assumed that their readers were
familiar with their references.
However, such allusions are not relegated to works of the past. For example,
did you know that Luke Skywalker is a modern incarnation of the Greek god Phoebus
Apollo? Luke (the Latin word for light) is the skywalker, striding with his light
across the expanse of the empire. Todays literature (including music and film) are
filled with allusions to classical literature.
Allusions to Know
1. Abraham and Isaac: In Genesis, Abraham was asked by God to sacrifice his beloved son,
Isaac. Abraham made ready to obey. At the last moment, his hand was stayed by an angel
of the Lord. Isaac was spared and Abraham received the Lords blessing. This story is
symbolic of mans willingness to make the ultimate sacrifice to demonstrate his faith and
trust in God. It is also symbolic of the idea that faith shall be rewarded.
2. Absalom: In Samuel II, Absalom was Davids favorite son who was killed in battle while
attempting to usurp his fathers throne. David grieved: O my son Absalom, my son, my
son Absalom! The word alludes to parental grief, and to a lost and faithless son. William
Faulkner used Absalom! Absalom! as the title of a novel.
3. Achilles: In Greek legend, Achilles was the hero of Homers Iliad who was the model of
valor and beauty. He slew the Trojan hero Hector but was himself invulnerable to wounds
because his mother Thetis had held him by the heel and dipped him in the river Styx. Later
he was slain by Paris who shot an arrow into his heel, which had not gotten wet. Today the
term Achilles heel refers to the vulnerable part of a persons character.
4. Agamemnon: In Greek mythology, he was the king who sacrificed his daughter Iphigenia to
win the gods favor for his war against Troy. Also father Orestes and Electra and unfaithful
husband of Clytemnestra.
5. Antigone: Daughter of Oedipus who performed funeral rites over her brother Polynices in
defiance of Creons orders. Her story can be seen as symbolic of the choice between the
gods authority and civil authority or the choice between justice and law.
6. Armageddon: In Revelation, which predicts the apocalypse, Armageddon is the location of
the final cosmic battle between the forces of good and evil. The term is often used in
literature to refer to an apocalyptic climax, or to a time of judgment.
7. Atalanta: In Greek mythology, she was a huntress who promised to marry any man who
could outrun her in a footrace. She was defeated by Hippomenes, who threw three golden
apples to distract her as she ran. She is the archetype of speed, strength, and daring foiled
by a trick of the intellect.
8. Atlas: In Greek mythology, Atlas was one of the Titans who rebelled against Zeus. As
punishment for his actions, he was condemned to forever hold up the heavens on his
shoulders (literally: has the weight of the world on his shoulders).
9. blind leading the blind: And if the blind lead the blind, both shall fall into the ditch. In
the Bible, blindness frequently represents a lack of spiritual enlightenment. This particular
reference from Matthew implies that wisdom cannot be attained through the teachings of
the unenlightened.
10. burning bush: In Exodus, God used this device to catch Moses attention when he wished
to assign him the task of bringing the Israelites out of Egypt. Because the bush burns but is
not consumed, this tale is symbolic of initial reluctance, followed by proof of authoritative
truth. The burning bush also represents physical proof of divinity.
11. by bread alone: In Matthew, Christ said Man shall not live by bread alone, but by every
word .of God. In other words, not all human needs are met by food; human kindness is
also important. (An example is Lears O! Reason not the need speech.) Also refers to the
idea that faith can provide spiritual sustenance.
12. Cain and Abel: In Genesis, Cain murdered his brother Abel out of jealousy. This became a
theological reference to innocent blood, and archetypal brother vs. brother conflict.
13. camel through a needles eye: Jesus criticized the Pharisees for striving to strain out a
gnat, yet being willing to swallow a camel. In Matthew and Luke, he stated that it would
be easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to get into
heaven.
14. Cassandra: In Greek mythology, Cassandra was a daughter of Priam, king of Troy, who
possessed the gift of prophecy but was fated by Apollo never to be believed. As an
allusion, she represents an accurate but unheeded prophet of doom.
15. cast the first stone: In John, a woman caught in adultery was to be publicly stoned. But
Jesus said, He that is without sin among you, let him first cast a stone at her. This is a
warning against hypocrisy.
16. cast thy bread upon the waters: From Ecclesiastes, this injunction advises us to share our
wealth with those who need it and say that it shall be returned to us.
17. conversion of Saul: In Acts, Saul, a Roman citizen, actively persecuted the new Christian
believers. While on the road to Damascus, Saul was blinded by a light from heaven and
heard the words of God. Three days later, he accepted baptism and the scales fell from
his eyes. Saul is known as St. Paul, one of the major figures of the early Christian church.
18. Crucifixion: The death of Christ on the cross, believed by Christians to be the sacrifice that
redeemed fallen humankind.
19. Daedalus and Icarus: In Greek mythology, Daedalus, the great architect, designed the
labyrinth that held captive the Minotaur of Crete. Imprisoned along with his son Icarus, he
designed wings of wax and feathers that would allow them to escape. Despite warnings not
to fly too high, Icarus soared too close to the sun god Apollo. The wax on his wings melted,
and he plunged to his death. It is symbolic of the danger involved in daring to enter the
realm of the gods.
20. Damocles, sword of: A symbol of impending peril in Greek mythology. Damocles was
seated at a sumptuous banquet only to look up to see a sword suspended by a thread over
his head. This spoiled his pleasure. In modern literary usage, the term indicates
impending disaster.
21. Damon and Pythias: In Greek mythology, these were two inseparable friends who would
lay down their lives for one another. They symbolized lasting friendship.
22. Daniel: This biblical hero was cast into the lions den to punish him for his fidelity to his
Christian God. He was divinely delivered. The tale of Daniel in the lions den is
representative of extreme bravery and unwavering faith in the face of adversity. Daniel
also interpreted Nebuchadnezzars dream; thus an allusion to Daniel in literature may also
be interpreted as referring to an uncanny ability to reading the handwriting on the wall.
23. David and Bathsheba: In Samuel, David had an adulterous relationship with Bathsheba.
When she became pregnant, David sent her husband, Uriah, into battle where he was
killed. David and Bathsheba married. The child conceived during their affair died, but
Bathsheba later gave birth to Solomon.
24. David and Goliath: As a young man, David slew the giant (6 feet 9 inches) Philistine
champion, Goliath. The battle and victory become symbolic of the just defeating the
unjust, despite the latters superior strength. Modern example: Jack and the Beanstalk.
25. Dionysus or Bacchus: Greek and Roman name, respectively, of the god of wine, revelry,
the power of nature, fertility, and emotional ecstasy. He is usually thought of in terms of
overuse. Ancient drama festivals were dedicated to him. Today he is the representative of
the Nietzschean philosophy, the creative-intuitive philosophy. Modern example: the
movie Animal House.
26. divide the sheep from the goats: This phrase refers to the biblical parable explaining the
time of judgment, when the faithful (good and saved) would be separated from the
unfaithful (condemned). It alludes to the division of the true from the false, the worthy
from the unworthy.
27. eye for an eye: In Leviticus, the passage Breach for breach, eye for eye, tooth for tooth
recommends the practice of exacting specific and equal punishment for a transgression or
injury; for example, killing a murderer. This was later revised in Matthew: whoever
shall smite thee on thy right cheek, turn to him the other also.
28. four horsemen of the apocalypse: In Revelation, John prophesies the end of the world,
the final struggle between good and evil. He uses the metaphor of four enormously
powerful horsemen as the ultimate destructive forces of divine retribution: war, death,
plague, and famine. In literature, the four horsemen remain symbolic of powerful
destructive forces.
29. garden of Gethsemane: This is the garden outside of Jerusalem where the agony and
betrayal of Jesus took place. Symbolically, a place of great physical or psychological
suffering.
30. good Samaritan: In spite of a long-standing mutual hatred between Jews and Samaritans,
a good Samaritan stopped to help a Jew who had been waylaid by thieves, thereby
becoming the prototype of a good neighbor. The term has come to mean anyone who stops
to help a stranger in need.
31. Grail or Holy Grail: Subject to multiple legends, most prominently as the chalice or cup
that caught the blood from Christs side and which he had used at the Last Supper;
probably of even more ancient origin as a fertility symbol. In Arthurian legend, it is the
object of a quest on the parts of the Knights of the Round Table. The Holy Grail brings
health and sustenance to those who hold it and may only be found by the pure of heart.
Modern examples: Indiana Jones, Monty Python.
32. heap coals of fire: In Proverbs, it is said that if you treat your enemy with kindness, it will
sting him as though you had heaped coals of fire upon him. Teaches the lesson of mercy
and cautions to be kind to your enemy.
33. Herod: King of the Jews who ruled Judaea at the time of Jesus birth. In order to assure
his reign, he is reputed to have ordered the massacre of Bethlehems male children born
within a year of Christs birth.
34. house has many mansions: In John, Christ assured Peter that his fathers house has many
mansions. In other words, there is room in heaven for all who believe.
35. Iphigenia: In Greek mythology she was the eldest child of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra.
She was sacrificed by her father in exchange for a guarantee of fair winds for the Greek
fleet on its way to Troy.
36. Isaac: In Genesis, Isaacs son Jacob was a recipient of the promise or covenant with God.
37. Jacob: The biblical patriarch whose twelve sons were the founders of the twelve tribes of
Israel; his name was later changed to Israel.
38. Jacob and Esau: In Genesis, Jacob and Esau were the twin sons of Isaac and Rebekah.
Esau, who was born first, was stronger than his brother, but Jacob was the more clever.
Esau sold Jacob his birthright in a moment of weakness; later, through artful manipulation,
Jacob received his fathers blessing, originally meant for Esau. A literary reference to the
pair may allude to discord between siblings, to the politics of a birthright, or to the idea of
the fortunate or favored son.
39. Jacobs ladder: In Genesis, Jacob dreamed of a ladder from Earth to heaven and heard
the voice of God promise land and favor to his descendants. He awoke to place the stone
on which he had been sleeping as the first stone of a future temple of God. The ladder is
symbolic of the path to God and heaven. The dream also contains references to the
Promised Land and to the covenant with the chosen people.
40. Jephthahs daughter: In Judges, this is the story of another fathers sacrifice of a
daughter to keep a vow. Jephthah vowed to sacrifice whatever living creature emerged
first from his house in return for victory over the Ammonites. His daughter, who was the
first to leave the house, would not let him break his vow but asked for two months respite
to walk the mountains and mourn her virginity, which she retained. She is the model for
later Christian saints who died to protect their virginity. Modern example: Keats The
Eve of St. Agnes.
41. Jezebel: In Kings, she was a Phoenician princess who married King Ahab and urged him to
sin; she became a formidable enemy of the prophet Elijah. In Revelation, Jezebel is the
name given to a false prophet. In literature the term usually refers to a seductive woman
who leads the hero astray. Modern example: Margaret Atwoods The Handmaids Tale.
42. John the Baptist: The prophet who prepared the way for his cousin Jesus as Messiah; the
forerunner of Christs ministry. He was beheaded by Herod at the request of Salome.
43. Joseph and his brothers: In Genesis, Joseph was the eleventh of Jacobs sons. His
brothers became jealous of him and sold him into slavery. He accurately interpreted the
pharaohs dream of seven lean cattle swallowing up seven fat cattle to mean that famine
would follow years of plenty. The pharaoh heeded his warning, grain was stored, and
Egypt was saved. Joseph ultimately forgave his brothers and shared the grain with their
tribes.
44. Joseph and Potiphars wife: In Genesis, Potiphars wife tried to seduce Joseph. When he
refused, she accused him of attempted rape, and he was imprisoned. He was released by
the pharaoh in order to interpret his dream.
45. Joseph in Egypt: Joseph was made governor of all the lands of Egypt, shared grain with
his brothers tribes, and brought about migration of Jacob and all of his family to Egypt.
46. Jonah: Old Testament prophet commanded by God to warn Nineveh of its sinful condition.
Instead, he took his ship in the opposite direction. God struck his ship with a terrible
storm, and the crew threw Jonah overboard. God caused Jonah to be swallowed by a
whale. Jonah prayed and repented, and after three days the whale deposited Jonah safely
onto dry land. This event is thought to prefigure Christs death, three days in the tomb,
and resurrection. Modern example: Pinocchio.
47. Judas Iscariot: One of the original twelve apostles, he betrayed Jesus by selling him out
for thirty pieces of silver and identifying him with a kiss. Later he committed suicide.
Regarded as the prototype of the ultimate betrayer.
48. judgment of Paris: In Greek mythology, a beauty contest was held to determine the
fairest of the goddesses. Paris, the handsomest man in the world, was the judge. The
contestants were Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite (representative of greatness, prowess in
battle, and love, respectively). Angered at not being invited to Thetis wedding, Eris, the
goddess of discord, threw an apple marked To the Fairest into the gathering, provoking
 the goddesses to fight over it. Paris ultimately chose Aphrodite and was promised the love
of Helen in return. This sparked events that led to the Trojan War. Consider similar
elements in Snow White (Mirror, mirror, who is the fairest?); the apple as fruit of
discord; the disastrous choice of love and beauty over less ephemeral attributes. Consider
also the similarities between Paris and Oedipus both were exposed on a hillside as infants
to protect their fathers, bother were rescued by shepherds, and both were cursed by fate.
49. know them by their fruits: In Matthew, Christ warns against wolves in sheeps clothing.
He instructs his followers to know them by their fruits: A good tree cannot bring forth
evil fruit, neither can a corrupt tree bring forth good fruit. This injunction entreats us to
judge others by their actions, not their appearances.
50. labors of Hercules: In Greek mythology, Hercules had to perform 12 fabulous tasks of
enormous difficulty before becoming immortal; killing the Nemean lion, killing the Hydra,
capturing the hind of Artemis, killing the man-eating Stymphalian birds, capturing the oxen
of Geryon, cleaning the Augean stables, capturing the Cretan bull, capturing the horses of
Diomedes, capturing the girdle of Hippolyta (queen of the Amazons), killing the monster
Gorgon, capturing Cerberus, and taking the golden apples of Hesperides.
51. Laius: In Greek mythology, Laius was the father of Oedipus and the original husband of
Jocasta. Killed by Oedipus in fulfillment of the oracle, Laius is a major figure in the Laius-
Jocasta-Oedipus myth in which the son kills the father and takes his place as both king and
husband. The tale is symbolic of the inevitable usurpation of father by son, a familiar
theme in folklore.
52. lamb to the slaughter: Originally, in Isaiahs prophecy, this was the servant of the Lord
who took the sins of his people on himself and sacrificed himself for their expiation, much
as actual goats or lambs were sacrificed. In the New Testament, Christ is frequently
referred to as the sacrificial lamb. The Christian belief is that he atoned for the sins of all
men by taking them upon himself and sacrificing his life in fulfillment of Isaiahs prophecy.
53. Last Supper: The Last Supper was Jesus last meal with his disciples before his crucifixion.
Virtually every aspect of the story has both literal and symbolic associations. During this
dinner, Christ instituted a number of sacraments, especially Communion, in which bread
and wine after transubstantiation become the body and blood of Christ. In consuming
the bread and wine, followers of Christ accept him as their Savior.
54. Lazarus: In the New Testament, he is the brother of Martha and Mary of Bethany, whom
Jesus raised from the dead after four days, prefiguring the resurrection. Lazarus is
symbolic of one who lives after a declared death.
55. Leda: In Greek mythology, Zeus is said to have come to Leda in the shape of a swan to
father four legendary children: Castor, Clytemnestra, Pollux, and Helen. The story of Leda
and the swan is a favorite theme of artists from Michelangelo to Dali.
56. lilies of the field: In Matthew, this is used as an example of the way God cares for the
faithful. If he dresses the lilies so beautifully, surely he will provide raiment for his
children.
57. lion lies down with the lamb: In Isaiah, this is the classic image of the idyllic harmony and
universal peace of the earthly paradise that will come into being when the Messiah arrives.
58. Lot/Lots wife: In Genesis, Lot was a moral inhabitant of the sinful city of Sodom. A
nephew of Abraham, Lot escaped the destruction of the city by the angels of the Lord.
Abraham had argued with the Lord over his intended destruction of the innocent along with
the guilty. Lot and his family were warned about their impending doom, but his sons-in-
law thought He was joking. Lot took his wife and daughters and fled. God warned them
not to look back, but Lots wife could not resist, and was turned into a pillar of salt. The
tale of Lots wife is illustrative of the idea that God punishes those who are disobedient.
59. magi: Latin plural of magus, wise man. Traditionally, they have the names Melchior,
Gaspar, and Balthazar. The gifts of the magi brought to the Christ child were gold
(symbolic of royalty), frankincense (the emblem of divinity), and myrrh (the symbol of
death). The Christmas story of the three wise men visiting the manger represents the
showing forth of the newborn Christ child to the Gentiles (non-Jews). This moment of
awareness is known liturgically as the Epiphany.
60. mammon: From the Aramaic word for wealth, as used in the Bible. Mammon became the
evil personification of riches and worldliness and the god of avarice. Modern examples: In
Spensers Faerie Queen and Miltons Paradise Lost, Mammon personifies the evils of greed.
61. Mary, the Virgin: In the gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, Mary is the mother of
Jesus and the wife of Joseph. Symbolic of purity, virginity, and maternal love, she is the
object of special devotion in the Roman Catholic Church and the major subject, along with
her son, of thousands of works of art, especially the art of the Renaissance.
62. Mary Magdalene: She is the reformed prostitute who may have been the woman saved
from the mob in the let them cast the first stone story. She washed Jesus feet with her
tears and dried them with her hair. She was present at the Crucifixion and is said to have
been one of the first to see the tomb open three days later (Easter Sunday). She
represents the meaning of true contrition and the power of forgiveness.
63. massacre of the innocents: At the time of the birth of Jesus, Herod, the king of Judaea,
hoping to squelch any possible threat to his throne, ordered the death of all male babies
born in Bethlehem during a two year period determined by the appearance of an
extraordinary star in the East. Joseph, warned in a dream, took Mary and Jesus and fled
to Egypt, thus escaping massacre.
64. Medusa: In Greek mythology, Medusa was the chief of the three Gorgons monsters who
had snakes for hair, and faces so horrifying that he sight of them turned men to stone. She
was killed by Perseus, who took her head with a sword given to him by Hermes. Pegasus,
the winged horse, sprang from her blood.
65. Minotaur: In Greek mythology, this was a monster with a bulls head and a mans body.
Poseidon sent a bull from the sea as a signal of favor to Minos. As a result, Minos was
crowned king of Crete. But he neglected to sacrifice the bull to Poseidon. Angered,
Poseidon caused Minos wife, Pasiphae to become enamored of the bull. The offspring of
their union was the Minotaur, which was imprisoned by Minos in the labyrinth designed by
Daedalus. Modern examples: Mary Renaults novels Bull from the Sea and The King Must
Die.
66. Moses: He received the Ten Commandments from Jehovah on Mr. Sinai. Following the
patten of the archetypal heros life, Moses was a foundling child rescued by Pharaohs
daughter and raised to be a prince of Egypt. As an adult, he led his own people, the
children of Israel, out of bondage in Egypt, through the Red Sea on dry land, and on a 40-
year journey searching for the Promised Land. Because he committed one arrogant sin
striking a rock to bring forth needed water he himself was not permitted to enter the
Promised Land.
67. Myrmidons: In Greek mythology, these were people from Thessaly who accompanied
Achilles at the siege of Troy. They were known for their brutality and savagery. According
to legend, they were originally ants who were turned into humans to populate a Greek
island.
68. Nebuchadnezzars dream: Nebuchadnezzar was the most powerful and the longest-
reigning king of Mesopotamia. He brought Babylon to the heights of its power during the 6 th
century B.C. and is credited with creating the fabled Hanging Gardens of Babylon. He
conquered Jerusalem, burned the Temple of Solomon, and exiled the Israelites to Babylon.
During the reign, he had a series of prophetic dreams or visions, which he was unable to
interpret. He questioned all the wise men of his kingdom and condemned them to death
because they could not interpret his dreams. Then Daniel came forward and explained
that the dream of a statue with a head of gold, chest and arms of silver, belly and thighs of
bronze, legs of iron, and feet of iron and clay foretold the succession of kingdoms that
would follow Nebuchadnezzars each less glorious than the last. Daniel also foretold the
emergence of an indestructible kingdom of God. Daniel was rewarded with high position.
69. Nemesis: In Greek mythology, she was the personification of righteous anger. Nemesis
punished those who transgressed upon the natural order of things, either through hubris or
through excessive love of good material goods. Currently, the word usually refers to an
unbeatable enemy.
70. nirvana: This Sanskrit word means going out, like a light. Buddhists believe that in this
doctrine of release, a state of perfect bliss is attained in life through the negation of all
desires and the extinction of the self. Nirvana is union with the Buddha, an ideal condition
of harmony.
71. Noah and the flood: In Genesis, when God decided to punish the wicked of the world with
a terrific flood, he chose Noah, a good man, to build an ark. Noah, his family, and pairs of
animals of the world lived on the ark during the 40 days and 40 nights of the deluge, while
everyone and everything else perished. After he ark came to rest on the top of Mr. Ararat,
Noah, his wife, his sons and their wives, and the animals emerged to repopulate the Earth.
The rainbow that appeared represents Gods promise that never again would He destroy
Earth by flood. Flood themes appear frequently in mythology. Examples: the epic of
Gilgamest in Sumerian legend; Vishnu in Hindu mythology, Deucalion in Greek mythology.
72. Odyssey: Ninth-century B.C. epic poem, attributed to Homer, which recounts the story of
the ten-year long homeward journey of Odysseus and his men after the Trojan War. The
Odyssey is a source of our knowledge of many Greek myths and legends, as well as the
basis for many modern works. The most outstanding of these is James Joyces Ulysses.
More recently, the movie O Brother, Where Art Thou? Was based loosely on the Odyssey.
73. Oedipus: In Greek mythology, Oedipus was the son of Laius and Jocasta. In response to an
oracle, Oedipus was abandoned at birth and raised as the son of Polybus and Merope, king
and queen of Corinth. When grown, Oedipus leaned of the prophecy that foretold tha the
would kill his father and marry his mother two of the worst taboos in human civilization.
In an attempt to avoid fulfilling the prophecy, he left his adopted land, Corinth, and fled to
Thebes, his actual birthplace. En route, he encountered and in his pride and ignorance
slew Laius, the king of Thebes. He also answered the riddle of the sphinx, saving Thebes
from paying the annual tribute of its best youth to the monster. As a reward, he was made
king of Thebes and he married Jocasta, the queen and his mother, thus fulfilling the
prophecy and continuing the curse of the House of Atreus. Freud based his well-known
theory of the Oedipus complex on this myth.
74. Pandora: In Greek mythology, she was the first woman, comparable to Eve in biblical
allusion. Like Eve, Pandora, whose name means all gifts, was given the power to bring
about he ruin of mankind. Zeus gave her a closed box filled with all the evils of the world
and warned her not to open it. Her curiosity got the best of her, and when she opened the
box, all the evils flew out, and they have continued to harm human beings ever since.
Today, Pandoras box refers to a gift that turns out to be a curse. It also refers to the
unanticipated consequences of ones actions, as in opening a can of worms.
75. Persephone: (Roman name: Proserpine) In Greek and Roman mythology she was the
goddess of fertility and queen of the underworld. The daughter of Zeus and Demeter
(Ceres), she was kidnapped by Pluto (Hades). Her mother grieved so deeply that all earthly
crops died and perpetual winter threatened. A bargain was struck: Persephone would
spend half the year with Hades hence autumn and winter and return to her mother for
half the year, allowing the revival of the crops during spring and summer. The myth of
Persephone is the classical explanation for the seasons.
76. Pharisees: In Matthew, these were members of an ancient Jewish sect that emphasized
strict observance of the Law. Self-righteous and separatist, they refused contact with any
not of their kind. Consequently, the term Pharisees developed a negative connotation, and
is usually interpreted to mean hypocrites.
77. Phillistines: These traditional enemies of the Israelites fought against Samson, David, and
other major Jewish heroes. In contemporary usage the term connotes an ignorant, crude,
and rude person lacking in culture and artistic appreciation and characterized by
materialistic values.
78. Phoenix: This mythical bird lived for 500 years, burned to death, and then rose from its
own ashes to being life anew. For this reason, the phoenix frequently symbolizes death and
resurrection, or eternal life.
79. Pontius Pilate: The Roman governor before whom Jesus was tried. When he could not
convince the mobs to release Jesus, he washed his hands, symbolically cleansing himself of
 what was to follow, and turned Jesus over for crucifixion. In contemporary usage, a
Pontius Pilate is one who betrays his own moral convictions and submits to the pressure of
others, washing his hands of the matter.
80. Procrustes: In Greek mythology, Procrustes was a thief of Attica who placed anyone he
captured on an iron bed. If the person was to tall, he cut off whatever hung over; if too
short, he stretched the person until he fit. The term Procustean bed connotes a rigid
standard to which exact conformity is enforced.
81. Prodigal Son: In one of Jesus parables, this is the younger son who wastes his portion,
or his inheritance. His father forgives him and celebrates his homecoming over his older
brothers protests. Modern examples: Prince Hal in Shakespeares Henry IV, Part II; the
childrens tale Peter Cottontail.
82. Prometheus: (Greek for forethought) A Titan and champion of men against the gods,
Prometheus stole fire from Mount Olympus and gave the precious gift to humans. As
punishment for his transgression, Zeus had him chained (or nailed0 to a mountain where an
eagle tore out his entrails each day. The organs regenerated overnight. He was eventually
freed by either Hercules or Zeus (accounts differ). He is the hero of Aeschylus Prometheus
Bound and Shelleys poem Prometheus Unbound. He is also the subject of the golden
statue above the skating rink at Rockefeller Center in New York City.
83. Proteus: In Greek mythology, Proteus was Poseidons herdsman and a prophet. He was a
sea god who could assume any form he wished. In current usage, protean means versatile.
84. Pygmalion: In Greek mythology, Pygmalion was a sculptor and king of Cyprus who created
a statue of Aphrodite. He fell in love with his own creation, and Aphrodite herself
answered his prayer. The statue came to life, and he married her. The statue is named
Galatea in other versions of the story. George Bernard Shaws play Pygmalion and the
musical My Fair Lady the story of Professor Henry Higgins and his creation, Eliza
Doolittle are based on this myth.
85. Pyrrhus: King of Epirus in ancient Greece. For 25 years he waged a series of wars. He
often won, but lost too many soldiers in the process. At the time of death, he had
succeeded only in bringing Epirus to ruin. A pyrrhic victory is one that was won at much too
high a price.
86. Rachel and Leah: In Genesis, these are the two wives of Jacob. Jacob had been promised
Rachel in marriage if he worked seven years for her father. He was tricked into marrying
Leah, Rachels older sister. After promising to work another seven years for Laban, the
girls father, he also married Rachel. Rachel and Leah referred to together as the
matriarchs of Israel.
87. Romulus and Remus: In Roman mythology, these are legendary twins, sons of Mars and a
vestal virgin who was put to death at their birth. The boys were thrown into the Tiber but
were washed ashore (compare to Moses) and suckled by a she-wolf. They were found by a
herdsman and his wife, who brought them up as their own. As adults, Romulus and Remus
decided to found a city (Rome) on the spot where they had been rescued from the Tiber.
When an omen declared Romulus to be the true founder of the city, the brothers fought,
and Romulus killed Remus. Note the similarities between this story and that of Cain and
Abel (the demigod status of the foundling father) and Oedipus (the coincidental raising by a
herdsman). Virgils great Roman epic poem, the Aeneid, was so titled because the twins
were said to be the sons of Aeneas.
88. Ruth: Ruth was a Moabite widow who refused to abandon her mother-in-law Naomi. Her
lovingly loyal behavior became the model for good women to follow. Eventually, she
married Boaz and became the great-grandmother of David. Her intertribal marriage to
Boaz also represents openness to the world.
89. Sabine women, rape of: In Roman legend, Romulus solved the problem by finding wives
for the men in his new settlement by stealing and raping the virgins of the Sabines after
luring the men away to celebration. After subsequent war, the tribes intermarried by
accord, and the settlement flourished.
90. Salome: In Matthew, because Salome so pleased Herod, the governor of Judaea, by
dancing at his birthday feast (legend has it that it was the Dance of the Seven Veils),
 Herod promised her anything she asked for. Salomes mother had divorced her husband
and married Herod. John the Baptist had denounced the marriage and was imprisoned for
doing so. Salome asked for John the Baptistss head, and she was given it on a platter.
91. satyrs: In Greek mythology, a race of goat-men, sometimes considered woodland
demigods, with the tail and ears of a horse and the legs and horns of a goat. They were
followers of Dionysus and were best known for chasing wood nymphs. Satyrs were a major
feature of the satyr play, which traditionally followed a tragic trilogy. The satyr play
treated serious matters in a grotesquely comic way. Shakespeare used vestiges of the form
in plays such as A Midsummer Nights Dream and e.e. cummings goat footed balloon
man.
92. Scylla and Charybdis: In Greek mythology, a jealous Circe turned the nymph Scylla into a
sea monster with twelve feet, six heads on long necks, and menacing rows of teeth with
which she devoured sailors. There terrible Charybdis, hurled into the sea by Zeus, hid
under rocks and created a whirlpool. Together they were a formidable danger to ships
passing through the Straits of Messina. They came to be understood as metaphors for the
dangerous rocks on one side of the passage and a devastating whirlpool on the other. The
popular phrase is between a rock and a hard place.
93. Sermon on the Mount: This is the sermon given by Jesus (as recorded by Matthew) in
which he expresses the essence of his teachings. The sermon begins with the beatitudes:
Blessed are the poor, the meek, the sorrowful, etc. The beatitudes (the word means
happiness) promise religious happiness for those who lack material goods and are in need
of the spiritual blessings of God. The sermon as a whole outlines rules for behavior
according to Gods law. The speech is usually interpreted as the fulfillment of the law of
the Old Testament.
94. Sisyphus: In Greek mythology, Sisyphus cheated death by telling his wife to forgo the
usual burial rites when he died, thus giving him permission to return from the underworld
to punish her. This angered Zeus, and when Sisyphus died a second time, many years later,
he was condemned to eternally roll a huge rock up a hill, only to have it roll back down as
he was about to reach the top. Albert Camus used Sisyphus as the metaphor for modern
mans situation in The Myth of Sisyphus. He serves as a constant metaphor for the never-
ending struggle to complete ones task, only to be thwarted by still more hurdles.
95. Sodom and Gomorrah: The two major cities, according to Genesis, which were destroyed
by heaven with fire and brimstone (traditional elements of hell) because of their
wickedness. They stand as symbols of debauchery.
96. Solomon: Traditionally the wisest and grandest of the kings of Israel, Solomon was the son
of David and Bathsheba. When asked by Jehovah what gift he wanted, he responded an
understanding heart, and ever after he was renowned for his wisdom. The story of the two
women who both claimed to be the mother of the same baby remains as the model of the
Solomon-like decision. Solomon decreed the baby be cut in half to give each woman her
just due. The false mother agreed, but the true mother was willing to give up her claim
so the baby would live. Solomon returned the baby to the true mother, of course. He also
directed the construction of the great temple that bore his name.
97. Sphinx: In Greek mythology, the sphinx was a monster with the face of a woman, the body
of a lion, and the wings of a bird. She posed a riddle to the citizens of Thebes and
devoured young men who could not answer it. When Oedipus, en route to Thebes,
correctly answered the riddle, the sphinx killed herself in chagrin. The riddle is usually
given as, What walks on four legs in the morning, on two at midday, and on three in the
evening? (Answer: Man, who crawls on all fours as a baby, walks upright as an adult, and
uses a cane in old age.) In Egypt the sphinx was usually seen as a huge statue with the body
of a lion and the head of a man, representing the sun god Ra. The largest remaining sphinx
is two-thirds the length of a football field. The sphinx also represents monumental silence
in literary references.
98. stealing apples of the Hesperides: In Greek mythology, the Hesperides were the daughters
of Hesperus whose golden apples were guarded by a dragon. One of Hercules labors was to
 slay the dragon and steal the apples. (Compare to the serpent and the tree in the Garden
of Eden).
99. Styx: In Greek mythology, the Styx was one of the five rivers of hell. Charon ferried the
dead across the river Styx to the underworld. The Styx figures heavily in Dantes Inferno.
Lethe turns up frequently in literature as an allusion to forgetfulness.
100. swords into ploughshares: Although the sword appears as a weapon of war or a
symbol of wrath more than 400 times in the Bible, this use in Isaiah refers to the hope that
a peaceful age will eventually eliminate the need for weapons of war. Beating swords into
farm implements is comparable to the practice of converting munitions factories into home
appliance factories after times of war in the twentieth century. The phrase is often used by
speakers advocating peace.
101. Tantalus: In Greek mythology, Tantalus was a progenitor of the House of Atreus
(source of many of the extended Greek tragedies from Agamemnon to Orestes) who is best
known for his punishment in Hades. He suffers eternal hunger and thirst while standing in
the middle of a body of clear, cold water that dries up as he reaches for it. The fruit of a
heavily laden bough hangs about his head, but remains just out of reach. His name gives us
the word tantalize.
102. thirty pieces of silver: This is the amount paid to Judas Iscariot for betraying Jesus by
identifying him with a kiss, leading to Jesus arrest and Crucifixion. Legend has it that he
threw it back at the Jewish priests just before he hanged himself. The phrases thirty
pieces of silver and Judas kiss refer to betrayal and treachery.
103. through a glass darkly: Writing to the Corinthians on the gift of Christs perfect love,
Paul prophesied a time of perfect love and clarity of knowledge of God, in contrast to the
time when people saw God indistinctly or through a glass darkly. This passage is used
frequently in wedding ceremonies and, conversely, by writers who wish to convey the
opposite of perfect love and clear knowledge through irony.
104. Tower of Babel: In Genesis, after the flood, the descendants of Noah built a tower
that was meant to reach to heaven. But Jehovah, unhappy with their arrogance and hubris,
confounded their speech so they could not understand each other; and then he scattered
them over the Earth. This is the biblical explanation for the diversity of languages in the
world. The Tower of Babel has come to represent a madly visionary scheme, and the word
babel now means a senseless uproar in which nothing can be understood. It is also related
to the word babble. Once again, this is a cautionary tale warning humankind should not
aspire to the heights of gods.
105. Trojan horse: A large wooden horse designed and built by Greeks, supposedly as a gift
to Athena. Because the Greeks had been unable to take the walled city of Troy during
their ten-year siege, they instead tried deception. Placing a troop of soldiers inside the
hollow wooden horse, the Greeks pretended that they were sailing homeward. The
unsuspecting Trojans brought the horse inside the walls. Late that night, the Greeks crept
out of the horse and opened the gates of the city, letting in their comrades, and they took
Troy at last. The phrase beware of Greeks bearing gifts has its origins in this tale.
106. Utopia: In literature, the title of the 1516 book by Sir Thomas More, who gave the
name, meaning nowhere in Greek, to his imaginary island. More describes the ideal society
according to the ideals of the English humanists, who dreamt of a land where ignorance,
crime, poverty, and injustice dont exist. Since then the name has been applied to all
attempts to describe or establish a society in which these ideals would prevail.
Interestingly, many twentieth century writers have focused on the anti-utopian, or
dystopian, world. Examples of this kind of work include Aldous Huxleys Brave New World,
George Orwells 1984, and Ray Bradburys Fahrenheit 451.
107. Waterloo: The town in Belgium where Napoleon was resoundingly defeated in 1815. In
current usage, the term refers to a crushing and final defeat.