4.

4
The musical language
Elements of Persian musical language: modes, rhythms and
syntax

DARIUSH TALAI

Dastgh as the macro-system

Intervals in theory and practice
Rhythm
Melody
The anatomy of gushe
The dastgh in performance

In treating the subject of musical language, a Persian musician would be instinctively

drawn to the structural similarities between the two elements of the subject. Indeed,
Persian music and language are extremely related in their metrics, intonations and
structural phrases (syntax). Although we will draw upon this relationship, our aim
in this article is to present music as a language, consisting of acoustic, melodic
and rhythmic elements, which together create a musical expression or a musical
language.

Persian music is a monodic (one-voice) and melodic music. It applies a multi-modal

system called the dastgh to present a macro form for a performance. This form
refers to melodic models, each called a gushe, along with rhythmic compositions,
including pishdarmad, charmezrb, tasnif and reng. Basically, Persian music has
been preserved and transmitted through a collection of melodies. These canonical
melodies, which serve as models for all compositions and improvisations, are
organized into a body of music referred to as the radif, including seven dastghs
and their derivatives.

Dastgh as the macro-system

Dastgh is a multi-modal system. This system is complete in a sense that it utilizes

the whole vocal range of the singer1, which in Persian music is two octaves. It
consists in a modal achievement of several levels (tabaqat) beginning from the
lowest register and rising to the highest. Each level corresponds to a mode (or shh-
gushe or maqm), which uses about two dngs (tetrachords) and has a central
note (shhed). In addition to the scale and the shhed note, certain other elements
such as the stop note (ist) and the variable note (moteghaiier) to create other
modes than those, which share the same scale and shhed (for example: Dashti
with Bayt-e Kord or Segh with ). In addition to these theoretical and structural
elements there are other elements that may occur to characterize a specific shh-
410 THE MUSICAL LANGUAGE

gushe from another having the same theoretical elements. These are the melodico-
rhythmic elements.

In the following discussion we give a description of these elements, which find

their place in the complex structure of the dastgh as a system. In the subsequent
section we will discuss the realization of this system in performance of the
dastgh.

A. Theoretical elements

The creation of Persian music is from minimal to maximal. A few notes make
up a figure and several figures form a phrase. The phrase is the most significant
movement in the achievement of modes in Persian music. Several phrases
combined together make up a gushe and several gushes make up a dastgh.
The notes in the phrase are meticulously ornamented and the figures ascend and
descend in a stepwise manner within a closed framework, which often has a
condensed range. In rare instances a wide range of notes can appear in a phrase,
which most often occurs in the case of descent to the basic mode (foroud). This
takes place after the gradual and stepwise modal achievement of a large scale
through smaller scales in various sections, or modal levels. Small scales have
a predominant role in the basic repertory of modes. Therefore, we should have
a solid grasp of the small scales in order to have a better understanding of the
sense and function of large scales2.

Fourth and tetrachord: In Persian music the fourth is a particularly important

interval. Due to the fact that it is a fixed interval it acts as a frame. The melodic
strings of a Persian instrument are generally tuned on the fourth. A tetrachord
is generated by the placement of two variable notes within this fixed frame.
Variations in the placement of these two notes lead to different genres of the
tetrachords. Tetrachords are units that are identified by their proportional
intervals, which can be placed in different locations. What is relevant to the
creation of Persian modes is the interval between notes and the hierarchy of
sounds. In the course of the dastgh, large and complex scales are constructed
by varying the location of similar or different tetrachords.

Based on my analysis of the Persian music repertory, I have come to the

conclusion that even the most complex modal structures in the radif are
generated from four fundamental tetrachords (or dngs). I have designated
each of these tetrachords in relation to their most relevant mode and labelled
them accordingly: S for Shur, C for Chahrgh, M for Mhur and N for Nav.
The following are examples of the fundamental tetrachords located between
G and C.

G Ap3 Bb C Shur (S)

G Ap B C Chahrgh (C)
G A B C Mhur (M)
G A Bb C Nav (N)

Although these are the fundamental tetrachords, we can designate more genres
of tetrachords such as: Bb, C, Dp, Mb (same as C, D, Ep, F) in the mode of
Segh. This tetrachord is not considered to be fundamental because it is a
derived section of two sequential tetrachords of Shur: G, Ap, Bb, C, Dp, Mb,
F.
ELEMENTS OF PERSIAN MUSICAL LANGUAGE 411
Two adjacent tetrachords (do-dngi): Although the voice has a predominant
role in the repertory of Persian music it is evident that the formation of modes
is related to the physical characteristics of string instruments. In fact the
reason for this may be historical in that musicians were above all poets and
singers. They would often accompany the singing of their poetry with a string
instrument4. The instrument serves as a fixed modal framework upon which
the singer lets fly his or her skilful singing. The first open string serves as the
central (shhed) note. This is the simplest and most natural way of treating
modes. Since the most common tuning of two melodic strings is in the fourth,
the basic modes are those that are made up of two adjacent tetrachords
having one tetrachord in each string. In such instances the first open string
serves as the central (shhed), the last note of the second string tetrachord and
the first note of the first string tetrachord. In the following example C is the
shhed:

Second string: G A B C
First string: C D E F

These two strings together offer a variety of two adjacent tetrachords (do-
dngi) by using one type of tetrachord on each string and combining them
together. The two tetrachords may be of similar or different types. This method
of utilizing two adjacent tetrachords on the first position of the neck of string
instruments is the most practical way of making basic modes, especially for
a singer who is accompanying himself. Prior to the use of musical notation a
musician or theorist would refer to each note by the name of the finger used in
playing that note, and motlagh (absolute) was the name for the open string.

The following do-dngis may be identified as basic scales:

G Ap Bb C Dp Eb F Shur+Shur (S+S)

G Ap Bb C D Eb F Shur+Nav (S+N)
G A Bb C D Eb F Nav+Nav
(N+N)
G Ap B C D Eb F Chahrgh+Nav
(C+N)
G Ap Bb C Dp E F Shur+Chahrgh
(S+C)
G Ap B C Dp E F Chahrgh+Chahrgh
(C+C)
G A B C D E F Mhur+Mhur
(M+M)
G A B C D Eb F Mhur+Nav
(M+N)
G A B C Dp Eb F Mhur+Mhur
(M+M)
G A B C Dp E F Mhur+Chargh
(M+C)

Fifth and pentachord: The fifth is the next fixed interval following the fourth.
Therefore, it has a significant function in the modal structure of Persian music.
In practice a pentachord is in fact a tetrachord augmented with a preceding or
succeeding note. This augmentation could offer a fifth range to some limited
gushes5 and also to a larger extent could help do-dngis to reach an octave.
412 THE MUSICAL LANGUAGE

In certain tunings of tr and setr the third string is tuned a tone lower than the
second string (as a result in three open strings we have a fifth and a fourth).
This method is used in Shur, Bayt Tork, Afshri, and is particularly important
in Segh. However, in many cases the fifth as a dominant interval appears
especially in secondary modes, in which the shhed is the second note of
the second dng (index finger on the first string). Therefore, the open second
string (G) with the shhed on the index finger (D) make a fifth.

It is important to note that in Persian music when the melody is played in the
melodic string the neighbouring string is touched constantly and this open
string works as a pedal note. So, in the above case the emphasis on D (shhed)
consistently makes a fifth accord with the open string G. These fixed intervals
of the fourth, the fifth and the octave, which are harmonic intervals, serve as
references for musicians to adjust the moveable frets of tr and setr.

Octave: The octave is prominent as a fixed interval but not as a scale. It

is common to play a melody in different octaves, considered as a type of
dialogue or question and answer phrasing (soal o Javb). In a melodic line
an octave is considered almost as a unison and it seems that it is perceived
as the same sound with a different timber (zir o bam). This is the reason why
sometimes a melody within a phrase is switched to another octave. This is
commonly practised in playing ney and santur, where the range or tuning does
not allow playing a phrase in the same octave. As a result, octaves appear to
have a circular pattern. However, for a singer the process is not as simple, so
the singer does not change the octave in the middle of a phrase.

Unlike the Western scales where two tetrachords are separated by a whole
tone, in Persian music the two tetrachords are joined (do-dngi). To reach the
octave a tone is added preceding or succeeding two joined-tetrachords.

Third: In the formation of modes the third is the most characteristic interval.
There are three types of third: minor, major, and neutral. We find the minor
and major third in Western music theory, and the neutral third falls in between.
Since the intervals are not tempered in Persian music each of the three types
of third may be found variably in different modes. Since at least the twentieth
century every variation of third has been theoretically recognized as belonging
to one of the following types.

minor = 1 and 1/2 tone

neutral = 1 and 3/4 tone
major = 2 tones

In the medieval theories there were many discussions about the third or more
exactly about the placement of the related fret vosta (middle finger), which
makes a third with the open string motlagh.

Second: Since the music moves as a continuum the second is by far the most
common interval. In a pure interpretation of modes (maqm) the movement
of sound to the neighbouring note is very often in the second interval. In this
sense the note either moves away from a pole of gravity or is attracted to
a place of stability (shhed or ist note). Theoretically, all variations of the
second are conceptualized as belonging to one of the following types:

minor = 1/2 tone

neutral = 3/4 tone
ELEMENTS OF PERSIAN MUSICAL LANGUAGE 413
major = 1 tone
augmented = 5/4 tone

Sixth and Seventh: These intervals are present as parallel sounds either in
relation to a pedal note or as counterpoint notes, but they are not used as an
interval in a melodic line. For example, traditionally, a singer never sings in
such intervals, however in modern styles the tendency is otherwise.

Intervals in theory and practice

Historically, many studies have been written about intervals, some of which
appear as very rigorous treatments. Often times these studies were conducted by
Islamic scholars who took an abstract approach to the treatment of the subject.
They attempted mathematical divisions of a string to describe the exact placement
of each note. In these studies fractions of a string were used to obtain different
intervals and intervals of octave, fifth and fourth were accurately described by
ratios of 1/2, 1/3 and 1/4. Therefore, they tried to describe the exact placement of
other intervals through mathematical ratios, and as a result they proposed different
types of seconds, thirds and sixths. This mathematical method, which seemed to
be scientific, was the preferred subject of theorists. The presentation of these
works and the discussion about this approach finds its place in the history of music
theory. Here we will discuss the question of intervals in the practice of music.

A. Intervals in practice

In practice, unlike its theoretical representation, an interval is not an absolute

entity but a flexible range. This flexibility is an important feature of the musical
language that contributes to the modal treatment of music and a personal
interpretation, which is not acquired based on specific rules but, rather, is
absorbed through the musical environment.

In Persian music the melodic line appears in each mode by stepping up and
down on the scale of a mode in a broidery manner. Therefore, seconds are
the most common intervals. According to my measurements, in practice this
interval is chosen among a variety of intervals between 80 and 250 cents6. This
does not mean that the interval fluctuates within this range, but depending on
the type of tetrachord, mode and a musicians school and style, they could be
different. Of course, in practice, depending on the style, there is always a degree
of tolerance in fluctuation. Theoretically speaking, in a 1/4 tone system of scales
different intervals are 1/2, 3/4, 1 and 5/4 (1 + 1/4). We can play all Persian music
with this system originally proposed by Ali Naqi Vaziri in the early twentieth
century. This system was practised in his music school and adopted by most
radio and television musical ensembles. Although the theory of this system is
easy to understand and very practical for modern ensembles, it requires a
certain degree of compromise not tolerated by a good performer of the dastgh
system. I will discuss this issue further in my theory, where the intervals are
enclosed in a fixed frame (tetrachord) and they could have different degrees of
flexibility within that frame.

B. Functionality of notes
In any given scale, there is a certain hierarchy among the functionality of notes
leading to the composition of a mode. The following functional notes have been
defined:

Shhed: literally meaning one who bears witness. Generally speaking,

414 THE MUSICAL LANGUAGE

this is the tonic note. Shhed is the most important note in a scale because
in effect all other notes revolve around it. In the development of a dastgh
when the modal system progresses and the music goes a step (or a flat) higher
the mode is changed because the shhed is changed from one note of the
same scale to another. Here I will discuss how a note acquires the role and
characteristics of the shhed.

a) Reverberation and harmonic richness (enforced by vakhun7). In string

instruments such as tr and setr, which have the leading role in pedagogy
and practice of Persian music (similar to the role of the oud in Arabic
music), the tuning for each mode is chosen to enforce the vibration of the
shhed. In these instruments the melodic line is mostly played on the first
string and the tuning of other strings is considered to be most harmonized
with the shhed when they make a unison, an octave, a fifth or a fourth.

The fretting and tuning are exactly the same on tr and setr, the only
difference being that in tr the first and second chords are doubled. For
example, the tuning for dastgh Mhur in C is: C3, G2, C3 and C2. The
shhed of most important shh-gushe (darmad) is C3. So, we observe
that the shhed C3 has a fourth (G2) unison (C3) and an octave (C2) as
sympathetic and vakhun. When a string resonates with a melodic note,
enriching the sound of a note without being stroked, this string is considered
to be sympathetic. But when this string has the same role but it is stroked
it is considered as vakhun.

b) Emphasizing by repeating: the most tangible way of making a note into

a shhed is to repeat it more than others. This can be achieved by merely
playing it more than other notes in a phrase.

c) Length: also gives advantage to a note and adds to the proportion of a note
with respect to others. In the vocal repertory most often a very long shhed
note appears at the beginning of a shh-gushe. In general, the shhed
attracts the other notes and when they arrive at shhed they tend to stay
longer or rest.

d) Referred to by another note: most often by a neighbouring note and

sometimes by a third as in the case of Chargh and Segh. Reference to the
shhed is one of the most salient characteristic of Persian music. Often it
seems that the shhed is being attacked by another note, usually by a lower
pitch neighbour.

The shhed is always referred to by a very short (fast) note and here the rhythm
is very important. There are figures and phrases in radif just to point out the
shhed by this feature, for example: b-C, b-C, b-c-b-c-b-C, C__ (a capital
letter stands for long and capital with an under line for even longer duration).
Reference to the shhed note may be made more effective by placing the
accent on it.

Ist: literally meaning to stop. The ist note is another important modal element
of Persian music. The ist note may be the same as the shhed (e.g. Mhur, Shur,
and Chargh), or different (e.g. Homyun, Dashti, Isfahan). Sometimes there
may be two ist notes, one temporary (movaghat) and the other definitive
(kmel) (e.g. Afshri, AbuAta).

Moteghiir: literally meaning variable. In twentieth century theory of Persian

ELEMENTS OF PERSIAN MUSICAL LANGUAGE 415
music, which is based upon a unique scale for each dastgh, this feature
is considered as one of the basic modal elements. However in my theory,
which considers dastgh as a multimodal system and describes it as being
constructed upon different tetrachords, this case (moteghaiir) is considered as
a superimposition of two different tetrachords. In any theoretical approach the
moteghaiir is an important modal element (e.g. Dashti, Afshri).

It is not sufficient to determine a gushe by the hierarchy of the notes, such as

scale and shhed and ist and moteghaiir. There are specific melodic elements
and movements which characterize a gushe and that is what differentiates
between Dashti, Bayte Kord, Hejz, Bayte Rje. We will discuss this issue
in melodic and rhythmic elements.

Score 1: Large scales and functionality of notes in all dastghs. Here S stands
for shhed, I for ist, and M for moteghaiir. In instances where there are
416 THE MUSICAL LANGUAGE

two shheds within a mode, they are designated as S1 and S2. In this scale,
ELEMENTS OF PERSIAN MUSICAL LANGUAGE 417

different shheds refer to their corresponding shh-gushes.

C. The genesis of modes

In the repertory of Persian music the essence of a mode is born in the darmad of
vz. This part is rhythmically and melodically free and has no significant form;
however, there are restrictions on the phrasing and functionality of the notes,
similar to that of the taqsim in Arabo-Turkish maqm. Phrases are determined
by movements and rests that consist of internal iambic rhythms, which make
them characteristic of Persian music.

The most pure interpretation of vz begins with a tonic note and its neighbouring
notes. The various behaviours of the neighbouring notes determine the tonic
note, which can change throughout the course of the dastgh. This tonic note,
which has been previously discussed, is called shhed.

General literature: content and characteristics

Persian music is a monodic and melodic music. It progresses through time in the
same manner as the spoken language. It is articulated in phrases, which are made
from figures. An important part of these phrases, other than basing the prosodic
metric of poetry, is also the structural forms of Persian poetry such as: dobayti,
ghazal, charpare and masnavi. The phrases performed even by an instrumental
soloist, could be in monologue, dialogue and even more voices but the most
common form of dialogue could be between a vocalist and an instrument,
between two instruments or even one soloist playing phrases which are meant to
be the response to the other (usually in different registers zir o bam).

Persian music, as in the spoken language, progresses through time and has a
story to tell, perhaps a myth. But, even in referring to old Persian myths, histories
and personages it is mostly about a philosophical and mystical statement or about
love, from earthly to divine. It has basically a mystical support (from mystical
poetry) in which love is considered as a school (dars-e eshgh) and the lover is
a student who rises in levels step by step: sheghi gar zin saro gar zn sarast /
ghebat m r be dn sar rahbar ast [Temporal and spiritual loves will lead us
to real love at last] (Rumi).

Rhythm

Before the modern period and the supremacy of Western notation (which had the
consequence of introducing the concept of measurement) theorists and musicians
used to consider poetry and music to be metrically related and referred to them as
418 THE MUSICAL LANGUAGE

the same concept. They even used the same terms for these arts. Abd al-Qder
Marqi in his book Maqased al Alhan in 1418 wrote:
Musicians call naqqre to pronounce a syllable, to pick a string, to clap ones
hands once and, furthermore, to strike any object with another object. The rouzi
[scholars in prosody] say that the naqqre is a letter, where letters are always
mobile or fixed; and for the same reason that arkans are used to give rhythm
to poetry which is composed in bahrs, we can define the musical rhythm after
arkans, which compose rhythmic cycles; and there are 3 types of arkans: sabab,
vatad and fasele (Marqi [1488] 1966: 8).

The unity between the rhythmic concept of music and poetry is obvious because
the afail in rouz corresponds to atnin in music. For example, mafilon (u-
--) in rouz corresponds to tanantan tan (u---) and the poet may choose words
that are based on prosodic metric patterns. One hemistich presents a complete
prosodic pattern of each poetic form, whether it is a dobayti, ghazal or masnavi.
This metrical pattern in prose is called bahr. Coming from Arabic prosody, the
metrical patterns are presented by afil.

There are eight basic afils:

1 FAULON u--
2 FELON -u--
3 MAFILON u---
4 MOSTAFELON --u-
5 FELTON -u--
6 MAFELTON u-u--
7 MOTEFELON u-u--
8 MAFULTO ---u

Each bahr is made up of three or four repetitions of the afil. It can be made from
a complete form of the afil (kamel), for example:

FELTON FELTON FELTON

or a transformed form of afil. Each transformation has a name: the following

example is called mahzuf:

FELTON FELTON FELON

This is an example of a metrical pattern that was used by Jalal al-din Rumi to
compose his monumental work, the Masnavi. Since each verse is made of two
hemistiches this pattern is doubled for a verse. Since this afil is named ramal
and it appears at the mahzuf form, the bahr is called: Bahr-e Ramal-e Mosadas-e
Mahzuf (The metrical model of six ramal mahzuf).

An important gushe called the masnavi has its most important characteristic in this
metrical model. This is a Sufi gushe which was originally sung with the poems
from the Masnavi of Jalal al-din Rumihence the name of the gushe is masnavi-
and it is sung in every Sufi poem that had the same metrical model.

For example, the first verse of masnavi of Rumi runs:

Besh no az ney chon hekayt mikonad (hear the ney for it tells stories)

ELEMENTS OF PERSIAN MUSICAL LANGUAGE 419
Az jod ey ha shekayat mikonad (as it complains of separations)

The afil are made up of smaller units called arkn. There are six types of
arkns:

1- sabab Khafif tan

2- sabab Saqil tata
3- vatad Maqrun tatan
4- vatad Mafruq tanta
5- fasele Soghra tatatan
6- fasele Kobra tatatatan

The substance of prose metrics consists of two syllables. The short syllable is
musically pronounced (phoneme) as ta and the long syllable as tan. These
syllables can be shown in musical symbols as for short and for long. In the
following example we will present all of these components of the metrical model.
The designated syllables of ta and tan are ultimately destined to be replaced by
their equivalents in words and notes.

In the Persian language, in addition to the short (kutah) and long syllable (boland),
there is a syllable known as keshide, which occupies a short and long value
depending upon the prosodic pattern. Interestingly, in Persian traditional rhythmic
pieces, the music follows the prosodic pattern. However, the keshide syllable in
the poetry is pronounced as two syllables of the prosodic pattern. The following
is an example of a metrical pattern that is the main characteristic of the gushe
Kereshme. Here we observe that in the second hemistich of this given poem, the
keshide syllable, which is normally pronounced mid is pronounced mid-o in
song. The purpose of this is to fit the prosodic pattern that would naturally flow
with the rhythm.

Mafelon faelton Mafelon faelton

(prosodic metrical pattern)
Tanan tanan tananan tan Tanan tanan tananan tan
(musical metrical pattern)

(notational representation of the pattern)

dar n nafas ke bemiram dar rezoo ye to bsham

(appropriate poetry which occur in this pattern)
be dan omi-do deham jn ke kh ke ku yeto bsham
(second hemistish)
420 THE MUSICAL LANGUAGE

Score 2: An example of gushe of Charpare, one of the most common prosodic

patterns of the repertory.

a) Rhythm of the vz8

The Persian vz is a sophisticated form of art. The masters of this art believed
that when the rhythm is ostensibly oriented toward display, the music becomes
popular but lacks the ability to reflect the ethos of Persian poetry in depth. The
primary role of the vz is to convey Persian classical poetry. Hence the masters
of this music always tended to reflect the rhythm of the poetry in a suggestive
manner. Most often, the poems chosen for the vz were written by the greatest
literary figures such as Hfez, Sadi and Rumi whose works represent a mystical
philosophy of life.

The most simple and popular interpretation of the long and short syllables in
Persian music is found in the ratio of 2:1. This ratio gives an obvious sense of
rhythm to the metrical patterns based upon the poetry. The second option (which
is more common in classical Persian music) is to interpret the short syllables in
the shortest duration while giving freedom and flexibility to the long syllables.
Consequently, short syllables never represent more than one note while long
syllables could cover numerous notes and also have the capability to utilize the
melismas (tahrir).

When the musicians started to learn Western notation in the beginning of

ELEMENTS OF PERSIAN MUSICAL LANGUAGE 421
the twentieth century, the main part of Persian music (vz) could not be
accommodated by the measurement system of the imported notation system.
As a result, it was only with difficulty that this vast and most important part of
the repertory passed into the modern period9. Quite mistakenly, the vz was
considered to be without rhythm. Contrary to this idea, the vz repertory has a
rhythm with specific characteristics, which makes it very difficult to teach the
concept with any other method than the traditional oral system.

There are two important aspects to be considered regarding this type of rhythm.
First, they are based on syllabic models. Secondly, these syllabic patterns are
respected in a very flexible manner. As previously described, each model is
made of a specific arrangement of short and long syllables, while any musical
phrase related to one of these syllabic models must respect the number and order
of syllables.

Patterns are displayed by contrasting these two elements (short and long) in
a vast range of duration. Short syllables are represented by a short duration
signified by one note, and long syllable are represented by a long duration
signified by one or a multitude of notes.
422 THE MUSICAL LANGUAGE

Score 3: The following is an example of different representations upon a segment

(such as motefelon) of a pattern.

During my extensive experience of teaching this repertory to students of different

backgrounds, I came to realize an inevitable process for teaching and studying
this repertory. In order to understand this repertory outside of the traditional
system, I have developed four symbols to present the repertory in notational
form. These symbols are compromised between syllabic values and notational
symbols. With reference to the syllabic value, I understand that this concept is a
flexible duration, with regard to other immediate durational values.

These four signs () are used as a concept of unity of time in the same
regard as prosody considers the short and long durations. Keshide is a syllable
existing in the Persian language, which occupies the place of one short and one
long value. I have added tavil, which is generally used for the very long notes
or the grand pauses10.

Short Long Keshide Tavil

In this article we will refer to the numerous examples written by this method.

b) Rhythm of the zarbi

The other major rhythmic category is zarbi. Zarbis are pieces in which the units
(beats) of rhythm are interpreted in exact proportions. By the same fact, they
can be accompanied by percussion (for example the zarb), interpreted by an
ensemble and written in Western notation.

c) The 6-beat rhythms

These are the most common rhythms, where their large variations cover the
range of the very slow pishdarmads and tasnifs to the very fast tasnifs, rengs
and chahrmezrbs.

Each of these rhythms have their own different characteristics and are based on
their cyclic accentuation. For example, the slow pishdarmads are based on the
cyclic accentuated pattern given by the zarb:

(= 56) each beat is shown by a

example of pattern for reng:

( = 92) each beat is shown by a

example of pattern for chahrmezrb:

ELEMENTS OF PERSIAN MUSICAL LANGUAGE 423

( = 120) each beat is shown by a

d) The 3-beat rhythms

The 3-beat rhythm is rarely used in a 3-beat cycle such as but in a new
tendency, when the complicated, slow 6-beat accentuation is not fully understood,
they are simplified by being written and interpreted in 3 beats.

e) The 4-beat rhythms

Some pishdarmads, zarbis and old gushes such as Saqinmeh are in 4 beats.
The basic accentuation cycle given by percussion is:

f) The 2-beat rhythms

This rhythm is a light (khafif) rhythm. It is mostly used for instrumental pieces.

This rhythm has also a very specific version (it is typically the rhythm played by
zarb for many old tasnifs such as ey tir) which is when the most important accent
is put on the last beat. This beat comes also with a little delay.

g) The rhythm on 5 beats

Since all rhythms are made from combination of 2 or 3 beats, this rhythm is
considered to be a composed or lang rhythm because it is the combination of 2
and 3 beats.

( + )

This rhythm is most common in folk music rather than classical, but in the
modern musical tendency it is abundantly used and very popular today.

h) The rhythm on 7 beats

This rhythm is also composed of 2 and 3 beats. This sort of lang rhythm is
counted in cycles of:

1-2, 1-2, 1-2-3, or, 1-2-3, 1-2, 1-2,

( + + ) or, ( + + )

This rhythm was also not common in classical music from the period of mid-
nineteenth century, but it has become one of the most popular rhythms in new
musical trends.

i) Other rhythms
Many rhythms could be composed of a combination of 2 and 3 beats. Medieval
treaties reveal their use in the past, but rhythms in use since the nineteenth century
are what we have mentioned above. Since this period the artistic challenge in
rhythm was mostly a search for the refinement within these frames rather than a
pursuit of long rhythmic cycles.
424 THE MUSICAL LANGUAGE

Melody

The melody is the whole substance of Persian music. Melodies are recognized
within general categories, which would be the dastghs and their subdivisions.
Because of the importance of poetry in Persian culture, the vocal repertory plays a
primary role but in certain regards the instrument (saz) would take the lead. Not
only because there are specific instrumental melodies, but also the instrumental
reprise of the originally vocal melodies has given a vaster dimension to these
melodies. The main repertory of melodies in Persian music is the collection of
melody-models gathered together by the greatest masters of the mid-nineteenth
century. These masters, who were from a family of tr players, made a musical
corpus with these melodies and called it radif (order, row, or sequence). The radif,
which served also as pedagogical material, has made a very influential impact
on Persian music since that time by providing a musical education to the next
generations of masters of this music11.

The melodies in radif are articulated by phrases. The phrases in vocal repertory
belong to one of three categories: vz, sher or tahrir.

vz is a sort of melody that is not sung to poetry and is not related to any poetic
metre. It is made up by long notes vocalized on vowels such as , y, h. It comes
often at the beginning of the vocal gushes. For this reason this part in vocal gushes
is called also darmad for that gushe.

Sher, the most important part of the vocal phrase, is sung to poetry (sher). The
choice of the poem is very important. The prosodic pattern (bahr) that gives the
metre and length of the phrase, the subject matter (literary content) that conveys
the general climate and each word that refers to an image or a symbol are all the
important elements to be taken in consideration in order to acquire compatibility
with the substance (ethos) of the gushe.

The tahrir is primarily defined as a technical vocal capacity. This technique

consists of fast and short repetitive notes by alternately cutting the air in the throat
to produce melismatic phrases. It is believed that the bolbol (nightingale) is the
master of the tahrir. Since the tahrir is a difficult technique, famous and prominent
singers in Iran and Azerbaijan were referred to the title of bolbol or bulbul.

Another definition of the tahrir refers to that part of the gushe, which is produced
by this technique. The same part played on an instrument is also called tahrir.
There are many different combinations and uses of tahrir, which is declared to be
the specialisation of a school or style.

The anatomy of gushe

A gushe is a complete unit. It is not easy to define a form for all gushes (we already
discussed the common characteristics by which we classify gushes), but in the
same way that one can speak of syntax for a literary text or a poetic form such as
ghazal, one can also speak of the anatomy of gushe and define the components and
their relative functions.

A gushe is like a story or text: it has words, sentences, phrases and paragraphs. A
gushe could be highly developed, or brief and simple. In a complete gushe we can
find the following parts:
ELEMENTS OF PERSIAN MUSICAL LANGUAGE 425
1-ghzin (opening)
This phrase is aimed to start the gushe. It is often a short phrase with specific
rhythm and movement, which expresses the eelan (announce) and demands
our attention.

Examples of opening phrases from radif of Mirz Abdollh:

From dastgh Shur; gushe Darmad; (example 1).

From dastgh segh; gushe Baste negr (in Zabol); (example 2).

From dastgh Homyun; gushe zange-shotor; (example 3).

Moarref (signifier)
This is the most important part of the gushe. This part includes somehow the unique
theme, sign or characteristic of each gushe. This singularity could be a metrical
pattern with a certain turning of the melody on the pattern such as in Kereshme and
Bste negr. It could be specific melodies12 like Gham Angiz or Leyli o Majnoun,
it could be a tahrir like Javd Khani or a passage like Mohiir. It belongs to each
gushe and it is like its sign of identification.

Some gushes, also called shh-gushe, do not have a Moarref because their
modal characteristics are so apparent that they do not need a typical melody to be
recognized.

Examples of signifier phrases:

426 THE MUSICAL LANGUAGE

From dastgh Shur; gushe Darmad; (example 4).

From dastgh Segh; gushe Bste negr; (example 5).
From dastgh Homyun; gushe Zang-e shotor; (example 6).
Gostreshi (expansive)
This part is the growth and development phase of the signifier. This development
is mostly achieved through a stepwise increase (bishtr) or decrease (kamtr) of
the signifier. This up and down transition of a phrase follows typical paths for
accomplishment of the gushe.

Examples of expansive parts:

ELEMENTS OF PERSIAN MUSICAL LANGUAGE 427

From dastgh Shur; gushe Darmad; (example 7).

From dastgh Segh; gushe Baste negr; (example 8).
From dastgh Homyun; gushe Zang-e shotor; (example 9).
Takmili (complementary)
This part does not exclusively belong to a gushe. It serves to complete the gushe
and could be used complementarily in various gushes. This part usually has its
own internal expansibility. Most often it consists of tahrir phrases (or non metrical
mezrbi in instrumental cases).

Examples of complementary parts:

428 THE MUSICAL LANGUAGE

From dastgh Shur; gushe Kereshme; (example 10)

From dastgh Segh; gushe Baste negr; (example 11)

From dastgh Homyun; gushe Zang-e shotor; (example 12)

Pyni (ending)
This part prepares the gushe for the ending (bringing to an end). As the order
of gushes in dastgh has an ascendant progress, this part should give a sense of
achievement to the gushe. It could be the foroud, if the gushe is not in the darmad
register, and it returns to the basic register of dastgh, which is darmad.
Examples of ending parts:

From dastgh Shur; gushe Darmad; (example 13).

ELEMENTS OF PERSIAN MUSICAL LANGUAGE 429

From dastgh Segh; gushe muye; (example 14).

From dastgh Homyun; gushe Zang-e shotor; (example 15).

Khatm (final)
Final is a short and precise, clear-cut phrase with a closing character. The khatm
itself can have a final figure containing two or three notes finishing by fourth to
tonic or fifth to tonic, called bl-e kabutar.

Examples of final phrases:

From dastgh Shur; gushe Darmad, ; (example 16).

From dastgh Segh; gushe muye, ; (example 17).

From dastgh Homyun; gushe Zang-e shotor, ; (example 18).

430 THE MUSICAL LANGUAGE

Figure 1: A diagrammatic representation of radif and dastghs

Figure 2: A diagrammatic representation of a dastgh and gushes

ELEMENTS OF PERSIAN MUSICAL LANGUAGE 431
The dastgh in performance

In a performance of the dastgh, which is similar to a suite, all musical materials

such as composition, radif and improvisation are applied to accomplish this
form.

The following is a standard format for the performance of a dastgh:

Pishdarmad (rhythmic composition for the instrumental ensemble)

Chahrmezrb (solo rhythmic composition or improvisation)

Gushe 1 (darmad) (improvisation based on non-rhythmic aspects of the

radif)
vz (tonal vocal)
Javb (solo instrumental response to the previous section)
Sher (lyrical vocal)
Javb (instrumental response to the previous section)
Tahrir (melismatic vocal)
Javb (solo instrumental response to the previous section)
Sher2 (lyrical vocal, second verse)
Javb2 (solo instrumental response to the previous section)

Gushe 2 (the next succeeding major or shh-gushe)

Charmezrb (optional) (solo rhythmic improvisation or composition)
vz (tonal vocal)
Javb (solo instrumental response to the previous section)
Sher (lyrical vocal)
Javb (solo instrumental response to the previous section)
Tahrir (melismatic vocal)
Javb (solo instrumental response to the previous section)
Sher2 (lyrical vocal, second verse)
Javb2 (solo instrumental response to the previous section)

Gushe 3, 4, etc follow the same format as the first and second gushes which can be
proceeded by an optional tasnif.

Tasnif (rhythmic/lyrical composition)

At the end of the final gushe the performance of a tasnif is mandatory. The following
sections comprise the traditional arrangement of the tasnif.

Introduction (instrumental ensemble performance derived from the

first vocal section)
Vocal (lyrical opening of the tasnif which reflects the darmad
of the dastgh)
Javb (instrumental ensembles response to the previous
section)
Vocal 2 (next lyrical section which reflects the second major
gushe of the dastgh)
Javb2 (instrumental ensembles response to the previous
section)
Section 3, 4, etc follow the same format as the first and second sections of the
tasnif.
432 THE MUSICAL LANGUAGE

Reng (instrumental rhythmic composition which signifies

the ending of the performance)

1
Each dastgh can be interpreted in several tonalities by changing the fretting (pardeh)
or changing the tuning (kook). For example the female voice ranges are chap kook and
for male voice are rst kook.
2
Large scales occur in different genres. Several genres may participate in parallel in the
construction of large scales because different paths may be taken to arrive at different
poles of the large scale. In fact, the fourth, fifth and octave have a specific energy which
create a significant polarity in the hierarchy and anarchy of sounds.
3
The sign b stands for a flat and p stands for a koron. A koron is a sign that decreases
a note about a of a tone.
4
There are folk musicians in Iran such as shiq of Azerbaijan or Bakhshi of Khorsn who
continue this tradition to this day.
5
For example in darmad of Shur an open string (F) is tuned with an interval of second
with the next open string (G). Therefore, the tetrachord G, Ap, Bb, C is augmented with a
lower tone and becomes the pentachord F, G, Ap, Bb, C. In the same gusheh, starting from
a higher octave (darmad-e Khara), in descending to the lower position we observe that
in fact the tone (F-G), which has been added to the tetrachord, is the last tone of the lower
tetrachord which is D, Ep, F, G.
6
As the frets are movable on the setr, I fixed them for playing all different modes on
different occasions and I measured the placement of the frets by an electronic tuner. The
measurements in cents are based on this experience.
7
In general, it is a continuous note accompanying the melody line. In string instruments, such
as the tr and setr, two of the strings are tuned to the functional notes of a particular mode.
These strings, also called vakhun, resonate as sympathetic strings and are intermittently
stroked. However in wind or bowed instruments this note could be played by the same or
another instrument.
8
Here we are referring to vz as a part of repertory which has a very flexible and non-
measured rhythm, contrary to zarbi which has a measured rhythm and can be accompanied
by a zarb percussion instrument. vz has several meanings in Persian music. The first
meaning of vz is vocal and the other meaning is a smaller modal system which is
considered to be a derivitive of the dastgh.
9
This period signified Western notation as an emblem of musical modernization for
Iranians. Western notation came to Iran at the end of the nineteenth century. Iranian
pioneers using this notation did not realize that this method of writing was based upon
concepts that may not be suitable for Persian music. Instead of conforming music to this
structure they utilized the notation to serve the music. The invention of two signs (koron
and sori), which represent half flat and half sharp notes, were meant to enable the writing
of the scales in quarter tones.
10
In this system, the structure of melody, which cannot be transformed, is written by these
notational symbols where the ornaments are written by additional signs. Therefore a
beginner can start by playing the structure and as he/she progresses can add supplements.
Separating the structures and supplements helps to reveal what is considered to be non-
changeable from what is changeable. Traditionally the same repertory is used for beginner
and advanced students. Therefore it is important for the professor who is teaching the
repertory by heart to adapt the material to the level of the student by simplifying the lesson
simultaneously. It is important to note that this repertory is a material meant for musical
creation. Therefore it is important for the learner to grasp the idea of the fundamental
structure and distinguish it from the changeable and flexible elements.
11
The repertory of melody-models (gushes) had been collected and taught by master tar-
and setr-players by the mid-nineteenth century, but gradually other instruments such as
santur, violin, kamnche and ney followed this school and appropriated their own version
and style within this musical corpus.
12
Some gushes are independent forms based on the poetry, such as: Masnavi, Rajaz,
Charpre, Dobeyti. We can consider one part which is a complete cycle of these gushes
ELEMENTS OF PERSIAN MUSICAL LANGUAGE 433
as signifier (for example, the first four phrases in the case of charpre).