C Language

Computer:

It is an electronic device, It has memory and it performs

arithmetic and logical operations.

Computer full form

Commonly Operated Machine Particulary Used for
Trade Education and Research.
(or)
Commonly Operating Machine Performing Users
Technologies and Educational Research.

Input:

The data entering into computer is known as input.

Output:

The resultant information obtained by the computer is

known as output.
Program:

A sequence of instructions that can be executed by the

computer to solve the given problem is known as
program.

Software:

A set of programs to operate and controls the operation

of the computer is known as software.
these are 2 types.
1. System software.
2. Application software.

System Software:

It is used to manages system resources.

Eg: Operating System.

Operating system:

It is an interface between user and the computer. In other

words operating system is a complex set of programs
which manages the resources of a computer. Resources
include input, output, processor,memory,etc. So it is
called as Resource Manager.

Eg: Windows 98,WindowsXp,Windows7,Unix,

Linux ,etc.

Application Software:

It is Used to develop the applications.

It is again of 2 types.
1 Languages
2 Packages.
Language:
It consists a set of executable instructions. Using these
instructions we can communicate with the computer and
get the required results.

Eg: C, C++,Java, etc.

Package:

It is designed by any other languages with limited

resources.

Eg: MS -Office,Account Package, etc.

Hardware:
All the physical components or units which are
connecting to the computer circuit is known as Hardware.

ASCII character Set

ASCII - American Standard Code for
Information Interchange
There are 256 distinct ASCII characters are used
by the micro computers. These values range from 0
to 255. These can be grouped as follows.

Character Type No. of

Characters
----------------------------------------------------
--------
Capital Letters (A to Z) 26

Small Letters ( a to z) 26
 Digits ( 0 to 9) 10

Special Characters 32

Control Characters 34

Graphic Characters 128

---------------------
Total 256
---------------------
Out of 256, the first 128 are called as ASCII
character set and the next 128 are called as
extended ASCII character set. Each and every
character has unique appearance.

Eg:
A to Z 65 to 90
a to z 97 to 122
0 to 9 48 to 57
Esc 27
Backspace 8
Enter 13
 SpaceBar 32
Tab 9
etc.

Classification of programming languages:-

Programming languages are classifies into 2 types

1. Low level languages
2. High level languages

Low level languages:

It is also known as Assembly language and
was designed in the beginning. It has some
simple instructions. These instructions are not
binary codes, but the computer can understand
only the machine language, which is in binary
format. Hence a converter or translator is used
to translate the low level language instructions
into machine language. This translator is called
as assembler.
High level languages:
These are more English like languages and
hence the programmers found them very easy
to learn. To convert high level language
instructions into machine language compilers
and interpreters are used.

Translators:
These are used to convert low or high level
language instructions into machine language
with the help of ASCII character set. There are
3 types of translators for languages.

1) Assembler :
It is used to convert low level language
instructions into machine language.

2) Compiler:
It is used to convert high level language
instructions into machine language. It
checks for the errors in the entire program
 and converts the program into machine
language.

3)Interpreter:
It is also used to convert high level
language instructions into machine language,
But It checks for errors by statement wise
and converts into machine language.

Debugging :
The process of correcting errors in the
program is called as debugging.

Various Steps involved in program

development:

There are 7 steps involved in program

development.
 1) Problem definition:

Problen definition phase is a clear understading

of exactly what is needed for creating a
workable soloution.we must know exactly want
we want to do before we begin to do
it.Defining a problem is nothing but
understanding the problem. It involves 3
specifications regarding a problem solution.
1 . Input specification
2 . Output specification
3 . Processing

2)Analysis and design:

Before going to make final solution for the
problem, the problem must be analyzed.
Outline solution is prepared for the simple
problems. In case of complex problems, the
main problem is divided into sub problems
called as modules. Each module can be
handled and solved independently. When the
task is too large, it is always better to divide the
problem into number of modulus and seek
solution for individual module.

3.Algorithm:
A step by step procedure to solve the given
problem is called as algorithm. An algorithm
can be described in a natural language such as
English.

4.Flow chart:
A symbolic or graphical representation of given
algorithm is called as flow chart.

5.Coding and implementation:

Coding is a process of converting the
algorithmic solution or flow chart into computer
program. In this process each and every step of
an algorithm will be converted into instructions
of selected computer programming language.
 Before selecting a programming language we
must follow the following 3 considerations.
a) Nature of program.
b)Programming language available on
Computer system.
c) Limitations of the computer.

6.Debugging and testing:

Before loading the program into computer,
we must locate and correct all the errors. The
process of correcting errors in a program is
called as debugging.
There are 3 types of errors that generally occur
in a program.
a)Syntax errors
b)Runtime errors
c)Logical errors

It is very important to test the program

written to achieve a specific task. Testing
involves running the program with known data
of which the results are known. As the results
are known, the results produced by the
computer can be verified.

7.Documentation:

It is the most important aspect of

programming. It is a continuous process to
keep the copy of all the phases involved in a
problem definition,,debugging and testing
are parts of documentation. This phase involves
to producing a written document for the user.

Algorithms:

1)To find addition, subtraction, multiplication,

division and modulus of given 2 numbers.
Steps:
 1. start
2. Read Two Numbers A and B
3. add=A+B
4. sub=A-B
5. mul=A*B
6. div=A/B
7. mod=A%B
8. print add, sub, mul, div and mod
9. stop.

2)To find maximum value of given 2 values.

Steps:
1. start
2. Read A and B
3. max=A
4. if (max<B) then max=B
5. print max
6. stop

3)To find maximum value of given 3 values

 Steps:

1. start
2. Read A, B and C
3. max=A
4. if(max < B) then max=B
5. if(max < C) then max=C
6. print max
7. stop

4)To check whether the given number is even

or odd.

Steps:
1. start
2. Read n
3. if(n%2=0) then print "Given number is
even" else
print "Given number is odd"
4. stop

5)To display natural numbers from 1 to given

number.
Steps:
1. start
2. Read n
3. i=1
4. print i
5. i=i+1
6. if(i<=n) then goto step 4
7. stop

6)To calculate and display the sum of n

natural numbers.
Steps:
1. start
2. Read n
3. sum=0,i=1
4. sum=sum+i
5. i=i+1
6. if(i<=n) goto step 4
7. print sum
8. stop

7)To find factorial of a given number.

 Steps:
1. start
2. Read n
3. fact=1
4. fact=fact*n
5. n=n-1
6. if(n>=1) then goto step 4
7. print fact
8. stop

8)To find reverse number of a given number.

Steps:
1. start
2. Read n
3. rev=0
4. rev=(rev*10)+(n%10)
5. n=n/10
6. if(n>0) then goto step 4
7. print rev
8. stop
9)

Steps:

1. start
2. Read n
3. sum=0
4. sum=sum+(n%10)
5. n=n/10
6. if(n>0) then goto step4
7. print sum
8. stop

10)

Steps
1 .start
2. Read n
3. count=0
4. n=n/10
5. count=count+1
6. if (n>0) then goto srtp4
7. print count
8. stop
Introduction to C :

C is computer programming language. It was

designed by
Dennis Ritchie in
at AT &T(American Telephones and Telegraphs )
BELL labs in USA.

It is the most popular general purpose

programming language. We can use the 'C' lnaguage
to implement any type of applications.Mainly we are
using C language to implement system softwares.
These are compilers ,editors, drivers ,databases and
operating systems.

History of C Language:
In 1960's COBOL was being used for commercial
applications and FORTRAN is used for scientific and
engineering applications. At this stage people started
to develop a language which is suitable for all possible
applications. Therefore an international committee
was setup to develop such a language " ALGOL 60 "
was released. It was not popular , because it seemed
too general. To reduce these generality a new
language CPL(combined programming language) was
developed at Cambridge University. It has very less
features. Then some other features were added to
this language and a new language called BCPL(Basic
combined programming language) developed by
"Martin Richards" at Cambridge University. Then " B "
language was developed by Ken Thompson at
AT&T BELL labs.

Dennis Ritchie inherited the features of B and

BCPL, added his own features and developed C
language in 1972.

Features of C Language:
1. C is a structured programming language
with fundamental flow control construction.
2 . C is simple and versatile language.

3. Programs written in C are efficient and

fast.
4. C has only 32 keywords.

5. C is highly portable programming

language. The programs written for one
computer can be run on another with or
without any modifications

6. C has rich set of operators.

7. C permits all data conversions and

mixed mode operations

8. Dynamic memory allocation(DMA) is

possible in C.

9. Extensive varieties of data types such as

arrays, pointers, structures and unions are
available in C.

10. C improves by itself. It has several

predefine functions.
 11. C easily manipulates bits, bytes and
addresses.

12. Recursive function calls for algorithmic

approach is possible in C.

13. Mainly we are using C language to

implement system softwares. These are
compilers ,editors, drivers ,databases and
operating systems.

14. C compiler combines the capability of an

assembly level language with the features
of high level language. So it is called as
middle level language.

Important points:
1 . C was basically designed for Unix
 operating system. 93% of instructions,
which are written in C.
2 . C is case sensitive programming
languae. C statements are entered in
lower case letters only.
3 . C is function oriented programming
language. Any C program contains one or
more functions . Minimum One function is
compulsory by the name called main.
Without main we cant execute a C
program.
4 . Every C statement must be terminated
by semicolon ( ; ), except pre-processor
statements and function definition.
5 . A function is represented by function
name with a pair of parenthesis ( ).

Block diagram of execution of C program:

 Once the program is completed, the program is feed
into the computer u
sing the compiler to
produce equivalent machine language code. In C program
compilation there are 2 mechanisms.
1. Compiler
2. Linker.
The Compiler receives the source file as input and
converts that file into object file. Then the Linker receives
the object file as its input and linking with C libraries.
After linking it produces an executable file for the given
code. After creation of executable file, then start the
program execution and loads the information of the
program into primary memory through LOADER. After
loading the information the processor processing the
information and gives output.
 Basic structure of C program

[ Document section ]

Preprocessor section
(or)
Link section

[ Global declaration section ]

main( )
{
[ Local declaration section ]
Statements
}

[Sub program section]

(include user defined functions)

Document section:

It consists a set of comment lines giving the name of

the program, author name and some other details about
the entire program.

Preprocessor Section (or) Link section:

It provides instructions to the compiler to link the

functions from the system library.

Global declaration Section:

The Variables that are used in more than one function
are called as global variables and these are declared in
global declaration section.

Main function section:

Every C program must have one function. i.e. main

function. This section contains 2 parts.
1. Local declaration section.
2. Statements .
The Local declaration section declares all the variables
used in statements. The statements part consists a
sequence of executable statements.These 2 parts must
appear between opening and closing curly braces. The
program execution begins at the opening brace and ends
at closing brace.
Sub programming section:
It contains all the user defined functions.
This section may be placed before or after main function.

Comments:
Unexecutable lines in a program are called as
comments. These lines are skipped by the compiler.

/*---------------------
---------------------
--------------------*/ Multi line comment.

//----------- single line comment(C++ comment).

Preprocessor statements:

The preprocessor is a program that process the source

code before it passes through the compiler.

#include:

It is preprocessor file inclusion directive and is used to

include header files. It provides instructions to the
compiler to link the functions from the system library.

Syntax:

#include " file_name "

(or)
#include < file_name >

When the file name is included within the double

quotation marks, the search for the file is made first in the
current directory and then the standard directories(TC).
Otherwise when the file name is included within angular
braces, the file is search only in standard diretories(TC).

stdio.h :- standard input and output header file.

conio.h :- console input and output header file.
console units: keyboard and monitor.

These 2 headers are commonly included in all C

programs.

If you want to work with Turbo c/c++ ,first install

Turbo c/c++ software and then follow the following
steps.

Steps involved in C programming:

1)
How to open a C editor(windows xp):

1. Start Menu Run type C:\TC\Bin\TC.exe

then press Enter key
2. At the time of installation create Shortcut to C on
Desktop, then it will create an icon(TC) on desktop.
Double click on that icon.

How to open a C editor(windows 7):

1. At the time of installation it creates Shortcut to C
(turboc++)on Desktop. Double click on that icon.

2) After entering into C editor, check the path as:

goto Options menu Directories
windows xp
1. C :\TC\Include
2. C :\TC\Lib
3. -----------------
 4. -----------------
windows 7
1. C :\Turboc3\Include
2. C :\Turboc3\Lib
3. -----------------
4. -----------------

3) Type C program , goto File menu New

4) Save program , goto File menu Save

5) Compile Program ,
goto Compile menu Compile

6) Run the Program , goto Run menu Run

7) See the output ,

goto window menu -> user screen

8) Exit from C editor , goto File menu Quit

Shortcut Keys:
Open : F3
Save : F2
Close file : Alt + F3
Full Screen : F5
Compile : Alt + F9
Run : Ctrl + F9
Output : Alt + F5
Change to another file: F6
Help : Ctrl + F1
Tracing : F7
Quit : Alt + X

printf :

It is a function and is used to print data on the standard

output device(monitor).

Syntax:
format string

int printf(control string [,arg1,arg2,.argn] );

Eg: printf(Welcome to C Programming);

Program :

/* First Program */

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>

void main()
{
printf(Welcome to C Prograsmming);
}

clrscr :
It clears text mode window.

syntax:
void clrscr( );
getch:
It is a function and it gets a character from standard
input device(keyboard), but it doesnot echo(print) to the
screen.

Syntax : int getch();

Program :

/* Second Program */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>

void main( )
{
clrscr( );
printf(BDPS COMPUTER EDUCATIONS);
getch( );
}

Escape sequence characters :

C uses some backslash characters in output functions
for formating the output.These characters are called as
Escape sequence characters.
In these characters it consists of two characters
,But it is treated as a single character.

\n - new line
\t - horizontal tab(default 8 spaces)
\v - vertical tab(default 1 line)
\b - back space
\a - alert(beep sound)
\r - Carriage return
\f - form feed
\0 - null
\" - double quotes
etc.

Program :

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
 printf(Welcome\n);
printf(Good Morning);
}

Output:

Welcome
Good Morning

Program : esc_b.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
printf(Welcome\b);
printf(Good Morning);
}

Output:

WelcomGood Morning

Program : esc_r.c
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
printf(Good Morning\r);
printf(Welcome);
}

Output:

Welcomerning

C Tokens

The smallest individual elements or units in a program

are called as Tokens. C has following tokens.

1 Identifiers
2 Keywords
3 Constants
4 Operators
 5 Special characters

Identifiers :
Identifiers refer to the name of the variables,
functions, arrays,etc. created by the programmer, using
the combination of following characters.

1 Alphabets : A to Z (or) a to z
2 Digits : 0 to 9
3 Underscore : _

Note :
1 . The first character of an identifier must be an
alphabet or underscore ,we canot use digit.
2 . Default identifier length is 32 characters.

Keywords
Keywords are the words whose meaning has been
already explained by the compiler. That means at the time
of designing a language, some words are reserved to do
specific tasks. Such words are called as keywords (or)
reserved words. All C compilers support 32 keywords.
They are:
1. auto
2. break
3. case
4. char
5. const
6. continue
7. default
8. do
9. double
10. else
11. enum
12. extern
13. float
14. far
15. for
16. goto
17. if
18. int
19. long
20. register
21. return
22. short
23. signed
24. sizeof
 25. static
26. struct
27. switch
28. typedef
29. union
30. unsigned
31. void
32. while

constants:
constants define fixed values, that donot change during
the execution of a program. C supports the following
constants.
1 Integer constants
2 Character constants
3 Real or floating constants
4 String constants

Operators:
Operator is a symbol which performs particular
operation. C supports a rich set of operators. C operators
can be classified into No of categories. They include
arithmetic operators, logical operators, bitwise operators,
etc.
 Special characters:

All characters other than alphabets and digits are

treated as special characters.
Eg: * , % , $ , { ,etc.

Data types in C

Datatype:
It is a data storage format that can
contain a specific type
or range of values
(or)
It is a classification identifying one of
various typese of data,that determines the
possible values for that type.
 The kind of data that variables may hold in a
programming language are called as data
types. C data types can be classifies into 3
categories.
1 Primary data types
2 Derived data types
3 User defined data types

Primary data types:

All C compiler supports 4 fundamental
data types. Namely int, char, float and double.

int: It is positive, negative and whole values but

not a decimal number.
Eg: 10, 20, -30, 0 etc.

char: A single character can be treated as

character data type and is defined between
single quotation marks.
Eg: r, H, 5, *, etc.
 Note: String is also a character data type. A
group of characters defined between double
quotation marks is a String.

Eg: HHHH, abc985, etc.

float: The numbers which are stored in the

form of floating point representation is called as
float data type.
Eg: 10.25, 478.1234, -56.37821, etc.

double: The numbers which are stored in the

form of double precision floating point
representation is called as double data type.

Eg: 1023.56789, 12345.3672, 0.456321,

-567.4556 etc.

Derived data types:

These data types are created from the basic
integers, characters and floating data types.
Eg:
arrays, pointers, structures etc.

User defined data types:

The user defined data types enable a
program to invent his own data types and
define what values it can taken on. Thus these
data types can help a programmer to reducing
programming errors.
C supports 2 types of user defined data
types.
1 typedef (type definition)
2 enum (enumerated data type)

Type modifiers : (signed, unsigned, short, long)

A type modifier alter the meaning of the base

data type to yield a new type.

1 Each of these type modifiers can be

applied to the base type int.
 2 Type modifiers signed and unsigned can
also be applied to the base
type char.

3 In addition, long can be applied to double.

Sub classification of Primary data types, format

specifiers , memory size and their accessibility range :

Data type Format Spec Memory size

Accessbility range
------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------
unsigned char %c 1 Byte
0 to 255

char %c 1 Byte
-128 to 127
int %d 2 Bytes
-32768 to 32767

unsigned int %u 2 Bytes

0 to 65535

long (or) %ld 4 Bytes

-2147483648
long int
to

2147483647

unsigned long (or) %lu 4 Bytes

0 to 4294967295
unsigned long int

float %f 4 Bytes
3.4*(10 power -38)

to

3.4*(10 power 38)

double %lf 8 Bytes
1.7*(10 power -308)

to

1.7*(10 power 308)

long double %Lf 10 Bytes

3.4*(10 power -4932)

to

1.1*(10 power 4932)

char[ ] (string) %s ---------

---------------

%o Octal Base
%x Hexa decimal base
%p Memory address
Variable:
A quantity which may vary during the execution of a
program is called as variable.

Declaration of a Variable:
datatype identifier ;
(or)
datatype identifier-1,identifier -2,,identifier-n ;
Eg:
int n;
char ch;
float f;
double db;
int a,b,c,d;
char ch1,ch2,ch3;

Initialization of variable :

At the time of declaring a variable, we can store some

value into that variable is known as initialization.
Syntax:
 data type identifier = value;
Eg:
int n=100;
char ch=H;
float ft=10.569;
double db=1417.1418;
int a=10,b=20,c=30;
int x=100 , y , z=200;

Program :

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n=100;
clrscr();
printf(%d,n);
printf(\nvalue of n = %d,n);
getch();
}
Output

100
value of n=100

Note:
In C language, all declarations will be done before the
first executable statement.

Program:

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n=18;
char c=R;
float f=17.148;
double d=1714.1418;
clrscr();
printf(n=%d,n);
printf(\nc=%c,c);
printf(\nf=%f,f);
printf(\nd=%lf,d);
 getch();
}

Output

n=100
ch='H'
ft=10.569000
db=1417.141800

Note:

Floating(float ,double and longdouble) values displays 6

digits after the decimal point, by default.
If we want to display specified number of digits
after decimal point for floating values, use the following
technique
Example:

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
float f=12.4466;
 double d=1234.56789;
clrscr();
printf(F=%f,f);
printf(D=%lf,d);
printf(F=%.2f,f);
printf(D=%.2lf,d);
getch();
}

Output

F=12.4466
D=1234.56789
F=12.45
D=1234.57

Constants:
Constants in C refer to fixed valued that donot
change during the execution of a program.
const:
It is a keyword and is used to declare constants.
Syntax:
const datatype identifier=value;
Or
const datatype identifier-1=value,.,identifier-n=value;

Eg:
const int a=100;
const int a=10,b=20,c=30;

Example:

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
const int a=100;
clrscr();
printf(a=%d,a);
/* a=200;*/
printf(\na=%d,a);
getch();
}

Output
a=100
a=100

In the above program we give a=200, we will get an

error cant modify a constant object

Symbolic constants:

#define :
It is a preprocessor statement and is used to
define symbolic constants.
Syntax :
#define identifier value

Eg : #define pi 3.14
#define g 9.8

Example:

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#define pi 3.14
#define g 9.8
#define val 100
void main()
{
clrscr();
printf(pi = %.2f,pi);
printf(g = %.21,g);
printf(val = %d,val);
getch();
}

Output :

PI=3.14
G=9.8
VAL=100

scanf :
It is a function and is used to read data from the standard
input device(KeyBoard).
Syntax:

int scanf(format(s),address-1,address-2,..address-n);
eg :
int n;
address of n=&n
scanf(%d,&n);

Example :

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n;
clrscr();
printf(Enter any value:);
scanf(%d,&n);
printf(Given value : %d,n);
getch();
}
Example :

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n;
char c;
float f;
double d;
clrscr();
printf(Enter any character value:);
scanf(%c,&c);
printf(Enter any Int value :);
scanf(%d,&n);
printf(Enter any float value:);
scanf(%f,&f);
printf(Enter any double value:);
scanf(%lf,&d);
printf(Given Int :% d\n,n);
printf(Given char :%c\n,c);
printf(Given float :%f\n,f);
printf(Given double :%lf,d);
 getch();
}

Skipping problem :

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n;
char ch;
clrscr();
printf(Enter any int :);
scanf(%d,&n);
printf(Enter any char:);
scanf(%c,&ch);
printf(\nGiven int :%d,n);
printf(\nGiven char :%c,ch);
getch();
}
Output

Enter any int :100

Enter any char:
Given int :100
Given char :

In the above program, it cannot read a character

into the character variable, because previous integer
reading statement creates a new line character in the input
stream. That character will assign to the character
variable.

To avoid this problem we use fflush or flushall

functions.

fflush :
It flushes the specified stream.

Syntax:

fflush(stream_name);

Eg: fflush(stdin);

flushall :
It flushes all open streams.
Syntax:
flushall();

Example :

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n;
char c;
clrscr();
printf(enter any number:);
scanf(%d,&n);
printf(enter any character:);
fflush(stdin); (or) flushall();
scanf(%c,&c);
printf(N=%d\n,n);
printf(C=%c\n,c);
getch();
}
String :

A group of characters defined between double quotation

marks is a string. It is a constant string. In C language, a
string variable is nothing but an array of characters and
terminated by a null character (\0).

Declaration :

char identifier[size];

Eg : char st[20];

Initialization :
At the time of declaring a string variable, we can store
a constant string into that variable is called as
initialization.

syntax:
optional

char identifier[size]=string;
Eg :
char s[10]=WELCOME;
char st[ ]=ABCD;

The compiler assigns a constant string to the string

variable. It automatically supplied a null character at the
end of string. Therefore the size should be equal to the
maximum number of characters in the string plus(+) 1.

Note: In C language, string initialization is possible, but

string assigning is not possible.

Example :

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
char st[10]=Good Morning;
char s[]=Welcome;
printf(%s,st);
printf(%s,s);
 getch();
}

Program : To accept a string from key board and to

display the string.

Example :

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
char st[50];
clrscr();
printf(Enter a string :);
scanf(%s,st)
printf(Given string is :%s,st);
getch();
}

Output :

1. Enter a string: welcome

Given string:welcome
 2. Enter a string: welcome to BDPS LTd
Given string:welcome

scanf() statement cannot read spaces into a string variable.

If we want to read a string with spaces from key board
using scanf() statement by the following way.

scanf(%[^\n]s,st)

It reads characters until we press Enter key

Example :

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
char st[50];
clrscr();
printf(Enter a string :);
scanf(%[^\n]s,st);
printf(Given string is :%s,st);
getch();
}

gets:

It is a function and is used to read a string(including

spaces) from the standard input device.

Syntax :

gets(string varibale);

Eg: gets(st);

Example :

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
char st[50];
clrscr();
printf(Enter a string :);
gets(st);
printf(Given string is :%s,st);
 getch();
}

Program :

To enter any character and display its ASCII value

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
char c;
clrscr();
printf(enter any character :);
scanf(%c,&c);
printf(ASCII value of given character :%d,c);
getch();
}

Program :

To enter any ASCII value and display its character

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n;
clrscr();
printf(enter any ASCII value from 0 to 255 :);
scanf(%d,&n);
printf(character of give ASCII value: %c,n);
getch();
}

Prgram :

To enter any date in date format and to display the given

date.

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int d,m,y;
clrscr();
printf("Enter any date in the format dd-mm-yyyy :");
scanf("%d-%d-%d",&d,&m,&y);
printf("Given date is : %.2d-%.2d-%d",d,m,y);
 getch();
}

Operators in C
Operator: It is a symbol and it performs particular
operation.

Operand : It is an entity, on which an operator acts.

Binary operator: It requires 2 operands.

Unary operator : It requires only a single operand.

C operators can be classified into number of categories.

They are

1. Arithmetic operators
2. Relational operators
3. Logical operators
4. Assignment operators
5. Increment and Decrement operators
 6. Bit-wise operators
7. Special operators
a) Ternary or Conditional operator
b) Comma operator
c) sizeof operator

Arithmetic operators:

These are the basic operators in C language. These are

used for arithmetic calculations.
+ Addition
- Subtraction
* Multiplication
/ Division
% Modulus(Remainder)

Program : arithm.c

To enter any 2 numbers and test all arithmetic

operations.

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b;
clrscr();
printf("Enter 2 numbers :");
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
printf("\nAddition of %d and %d is %d",a,b,a+b);
printf("\nSubtraction of %d and %d is %d",a,b,a-b);
printf("\nMultiplication of %d and %d is %d",a,b,a*b);
printf("\nDivision of %d and %d is %d",a,b,a/b);
printf("\nModulus of %d and %d is %d",a,b,a%b);
getch();
}

Relational operators :
These are used to test the relation between 2 values or 2
expressions. All C relational operators are binary
operators and hence it requires 2 operands.

< less than

> greater than
<= less than or equal to
>= greater than or equal to
== equal to
!= not equal to

Logical operators :

These are used to combine the result of 2 or more

expressions.

&& Logical AND

|| Logical OR

! Logical NOT

Exp1 Exp2 Exp1 && Exp2 Exp1 || Exp2

-----------------------------------------------------------------------
True True True True
True False False True
False True False True
False False False False
 1. If Exp=True !Exp=False
2. If Exp=False !Exp=True

Assignment Operators :

These are used to assign a constant value or values on an

expression to an identifier.

They are of 2 types.

1. Simple assignment : =

Eg : n=10

2. Shorthand or compound assignment

+=
-=
*=
 /=
%=
etc.

Eg :
int n=10, if we want to add 5 to n then we will
give
n=n+5
(or)
n+=5, which is compound assignment.
Increment and Decrement Operators :
These operators are used to control the loops in an
effective method.
1 Increment operator :
The symbol ++ is used for incrementing by 1.
It is of 2 types.
1) ++ identifier ; prefix increment
2) identifier++ ; postfix increment

Eg :

1) int a = 10;
++a; (or) a++;
 a = 11

2) int a = 10,b;
b = ++a;
a = 11
b = 11

3) int a = 10,b;
b = a++;
a = 11
b = 10

4) int x = 10
printf(%d \t %d,x,x++);
o/p:11 10

Decrement operator :

The symbol -- is used for decrementing by 1.

It is of 2 types.
1) --identifier; prefix decrement
2) identifier-- ; postfix decrement
 Eg :
1) int a = 10
--a; (or) a--;
a=9

2) int a = 10,b;
b = --a;
a=9
b=9

3) int a = 10,b;
b = a--;
a=9
b = 10

4)
int x = 10
printf(%d \t% d,x,x--);
output : 9 10

Bit-wise Operators :
 These operators are used for manipulation of data at bit
level.
These are classified into 2 types. Namely,
1. Bit-wise logical operators
2. Bit-wise shift operators.

Bit-wise logical operators :

These are used for bit-wise logical decision making.

& Bit-wise logical AND

| Bit-wise logical OR
^ Bit-wise logical XOR

B1 B2 B1 & B2 B1 | B2 B1 ^ B2
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 0

Eg : int a=5,b=6;
 a = 5 -> 1 0 1
b = 6 -> 1 1 0

1 0 1
1 1 0
----------------------
a&b : 1 0 0 =4
----------------------

1 0 1
1 1 0
----------------------
a|b : 1 1 1 =7
----------------------

1 0 1
1 1 0
----------------------
a^b : 0 1 1 =3
----------------------
Example :

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b;
printf(Enter values int a and b :);
scanf(%d%d,&a,&b);
printf(\n a & b = %d,a&b);
printf(\n a | b = %d,a|b);
printf(\n a ^ b = %d,a^b);
getch();
}

Bit-wise shift operartor :

The shift operations take binary patterns and shift the
bits to the left or right.
<< left shift
>> right shift
Eg :
int a=4,b,c;
a=4 1 0 0 (binary form)
b=a<<2; means a is to be left shifted by 2 bits and store it
in b.

1 0 0

Hence it became,

1 0 0 0 0

then the value of b :-

1 0 0 0 0 = 2 power 4 = 16

a=4 1 0 0 (binary form)

c=a>>1; means a is to be right shifted by 1 bit and store it
in c.

1 0 0

Hence it became,

1 0
then the value of c :-

1 0 = 2 power 1 = 2

Example :

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a=4,b,c;
clrscr();
b=a<<2;
c=a>>1;
printf(\n a=%d,a);
printf(\n b=%d,b);
printf(\n c=%d,c);
 getch();
}

Special operators :

1) Ternary (or) Conditional operator :

A ternary operator pair " ? " and " : " is available in C

language. It is used to construct a conditional expression.
The general form of ternary operator is :

Exp1 ? Exp2 : Exp3 ;

In this operator first Exp1 is evaluated, if it is true then

Exp2 is evaluated and its value becomes the value of the
Expression, otherwise Exp3 is evaluated and its value
becomes the value of the Expression.

Eg :

int a=10,b=20,c;
c = a<b ? a : b;
output will be c =10
Program : max1_ter.c

To find the maximum and minimum values of given 2

VALUES

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b,max,min;
clrscr();
printf("Enter 2 numbers : ");
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
max=a>b ? a : b;
min=a<b ? a : b;
printf("Maximim value : %d",max);
pri`ntf("\nMinimum value : %d",min);
getch();
}

Program : evod_ter.c
To check whether the given number is even or odd.

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main ()
{
int n;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
n%2==0 ? printf("Given number is even") :
printf("Given number is odd");
getch();
}

Program : max2_ter.c

To find the maximum and minimum values of given 3

numbers.

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b,c,max,min;
clrscr();
printf("Enter 3 numbers : ");
scanf("%d%d%d",&a,&b,&c);
max=a>b && a>c ? a : (b>c ? b : c);
min=a<b && a<c ? a : (b<c ? b : c);
printf("Maximim value : %d",max);
printf("\nMinimum value : %d",min);
getch();
}

2) comma operator :

It can be used to link the related expressions together.

The general form of comma operator is :

var=(var-1=value,var-2=value,...,var-n=value , expr);

Eg :
int a,b,c;
c=(a=10,b=20,a+b);

Here first assigns the value of 10 to a, then assigns 20 to b

and finally assigns 30(a+b) to c.

Example : comma.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b,c;
clrscr();
c=(a=10,b=20,2*a+b);
printf("a=%d",a);
printf("\nb=%d",b);
printf("\nc=%d",c);
getch();
}

3) sizeof operator :

It is used to get the memory size of specified variable

or expression or data type.

Syntax :
 sizeof (variable / expression / datatype);

Eg 1:
1. sizeof(int); 2
2. sizeof(float); 4

eg2:
int a,b;
sizeof(a); 2
sizeof(b); 2
sizeof(a+b); 2

Example : 1 sizeof_1.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n;
char c;
 float f;
double d;
clrscr();
printf("size of int : %d bytes",sizeof(n));
printf("\nsize of char : %d bytes",sizeof(c));
printf("\nsize of float : %d bytes",sizeof(f));
printf("\nsize of double : %d bytes",sizeof(d));
getch();
}

Example : 2 sizeof_2.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b;
clrscr();
printf("Size of a : %d bytes",sizeof(a));
printf("\nSize of b : %d bytes",sizeof(b));
printf("\nSize of a+b : %d bytes",sizeof(a+b));
getch();
}
Precedence of Operators :

S.No Category Operator What it is (or does)

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1 Highest () Function call

[] Array subscript

2 Unary ! Logical Not

+ Unary plus

- Unary minus

++ Pre or post increment

-- Pre or post decrement

& address

sizeof returns size of operand in

bytes

3 Multiplicative * Multiply

/ Divide
 % Remainder(modulus)

4 Additive + Binary plus(addition)

- Binary minus(subtraction)

5 shift << shift left

>> shift right

6 Relational < Less than

<= Less than or equal to

> Greater than

>= Greater than or equal to

7 Equality == Equal to
!= Not equal to

8 & Bit wise AND

9 ^ Bit wise XOR

10 | Bit wise OR

11 && Logical AND

12 || Logical OR

13 Conditional ?: (a?x:y means if a is true,

then x else y)

14 Assignment = Simple assignment

*= Assign product

/= Assign quotient

%= Assign remainder

+= Assign sum

-= Assign difference

15 Comma , Evaluate
Type casting (or) Type conversion :

The process of converting from one data type to

another is called as type casting or type conversion.
In C language type conversion is an arithmetic
expression will be done automatically. This is called
implicit conversion. If we want to store a value of one
type into a variable of another type, we must caste the
value to be stored by preceding it with the type name in
parenthesis.This is called explicit conversion or type
casting.

Eg :

int a,b;
float c,d;
a=5;
b=2;
c=a/b; c=2.00 Automatic (or) implicit conversion

d=(float)a/b d=2.50 Type casting (or) explicit

conversion

Example : typecast.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b;
float c,d;
clrscr();
printf("Enter 2 numbers : ");
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
c=a/b;
d=(float)a/b;
printf("c=%.2f",c);
printf("\nd=%.2f",d);
getch();
}

Program : tri_area.c

To enter base and height of a triangle and to calculate

its area.

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
float b,h,area;
clrscr();
printf("Enter base of triangle : ");
scanf("%f",&b);
printf("Enter height of triangle : ");
scanf("%f",&h);
area=(float)1/2*b*h; /* or area=0.5*b*h; */
printf("Area of triangle : %.2f square units",area);
getch();
}
Program : circl_ar.c

To enter radius of a circle and to calculate its area.

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#define pi 3.14
void main()
{
float r,area;
clrscr();
printf("Enter radius of circle : ");
scanf("%f",&r);
area=pi*r*r;
printf("Area of circle : %.2f square units",area);
getch();
}

Program : simp_int.c

To enter principle amount, time , and rate of interest

and to calculate and display simple interest and total
amount.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int y,m,t;
float p,r,si,tamt;
clrscr();
printf("Enter principal amount : ");
scanf("%f",&p);
printf("Enter rate of interest : ");
scanf("%f",&r);
printf("Enter number of years and months : ");
scanf("%d%d",&y,&m);
t=m+(y*12);
si=(p*t*r)/100;
tamt=p+si;
printf("Simple Interest :%.2f",si);
printf("\nToatal Amount :%.2f",tamt);
getch();
}

Program : swap1.c

swapping of given variables using temporary variable

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b,t;
clrscr();
printf("Enter 2 numbers : ");
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
printf("\nBefore swapping ");
printf("\na=%d",a);
printf("\nb=%d\n\n",b);
t=a;
a=b;
b=t;
printf("After swapping ");
printf("\na=%d",a);
printf("\nb=%d",b);
getch();
}

Program : swap2.c

swapping of given variable with out using temporay

variable

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b;
clrscr();
printf("Enter 2 numbers : ");
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
printf("\nBefore swapping ");
printf("\na=%d",a);
printf("\nb=%d\n\n",b);
a=a+b;
b=a-b;
a=a-b;
printf("After swapping ");
printf("\na=%d",a);
printf("\nb=%d",b);
getch();
}

Compound statement (or) block :

A group of statements enclosed within curly braces is
called as compound statement or block.

Accessibility of variables inside and outside of compound

statement :

1. A variable which is declared above (outside) the

compound statement, it is accessible both inside and
outside the compound statement.

2. A variable which is declared inside the compound

statement it is not accessible outside the compound
statement.

3. It is possible to declare a variable with the same name

both inside and outside the compound statement.

Example : compd1.c
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a=100;
clrscr();
{
int b=200;
printf("Inside Compound Statement\n");
printf("a=%d\n",a);
printf("b=%d\n",b);
}
printf("\nOutside Compound Statement\n");
printf("a=%d\n",a);
// printf("%d",b); --> not accessible outside compound
statement //
getch();
}

Example : compd2.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a=100;
clrscr();
printf("Outside Compound Statement\n");
printf("a=%d\n\n",a);
{
int a=200;
printf("Inside Compound Statement\n");
printf("a=%d\n\n",a);
}
printf("Outside Compound Statement\n");
printf("a=%d\n",a);
getch();
}

Program : cur_bill.c

program to enter consumer number,name,present

month reading,last month reading, and to calculate and
display total units and bill amount.Rate per unit is Rs
4.00

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int cno,pmr,lmr,tu;
char cname[20];
float tamt;
clrscr();
printf("Enter Consumer number : ");
scanf("%d",&cno);
printf("Enter Consumer name : ");
fflush(stdin);
gets(cname);
printf("Enter present month reading: ");
scanf("%d",&pmr);
printf("Enter last month reading : ");
scanf("%d",&lmr);
tu=pmr-lmr;
tamt=tu*4.00;
clrscr();
printf("Consumer Number : %d",cno);
printf("\nConsumer Name : %s",cname);
printf("\nPresent month reading : %d",pmr);
printf("\nLast month reading : %d",lmr);
printf("\nTotal number of units : %d",tu);
printf("\nTotal Bill Amount : %.2f",tamt);
 getch();
}

Program : student.c

program to enter student number,name,marks in

C,CPP,Java and to calculate and display total marks
and average marks.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int sno,c,cpp,java,tot;
char sname[20];
float avg;
printf("Enter student number : ");
scanf("%d",&sno);
printf("Enter student name : ");
fflush(stdin);
gets(sname);
printf("Enter marks in C : ");
scanf("%d",&c);
printf("Enter marks in CPP : ");
 scanf("%d",&cpp);
printf("Enter marks in Java : ");
scanf("%d",&java);
tot=c+cpp+java;
avg=(float)tot/3;
clrscr();
printf("Student Number : %d",sno);
printf("\nStudent Name : %s",sname);
printf("\nMarks in C : %d",c);
printf("\nMarks in CPP : %d",cpp);
printf("\nMarks in Java : %d",java);
printf("\nTotal Marks : %d",tot);
printf("\nAverage Marks : %.2f",avg);
getch();
}

Control statements (or) Control structures

C is a structured programming language. One of the

reasons for this is having various program control
statements. C process the decision making capabilities
and supports the statements known as control statements.
C supports 3 types of control statements. They are :

1. Conditional control statements.

2. Unconditional control statements.
3. Loop control statements.

Conditional control statements :

C supports 5 types of conditional control statements.

1) simple if statement
2) if-else statement
3) Nested if statement
4) else-if ladder statement
5) switch statement

simple if statement :

It is a conditional controlled statement and is used to

control the flow of execution.

Syntax :
 if( expr )
{
statements;
}

In this statement, first the expression will be

evaluated.If it is true then the statement block will be
executed and the control transfer to the next statement.
Otherwise if the expression is false, then the control
directly goes to the next statement.

flowchart

Note :
 In any control statement, the statement block contains
only a single statement, curly braces are not necessary.

Example : sim_if1.c

To find maximum value of given 2 values using simple

if

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b,max;
clrscr();
printf("Enter any two values : ");
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
max=a;
 if(max<b)
{
max=b;
}
printf("Maximum Value : %d",max);
getch();
}

Example : sim_if2.c

To find maximum of 3 numbers using simple if

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b,c,max;
clrscr();
printf("Enter 3 numbers : ");
scanf("%d%d%d",&a,&b,&c);
max=a;
if(max<b)
max=b;
 if(max<c)
max=c;
printf("Maximum Value : %d",max);
getch();
}

Example : age.c

To enter current date and date of birth. Calculate and

display present age .

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int cd,cm,cy,bd,bm,by,d,m,y;
clrscr();
printf("Enter current date (dd-mm-yyyy) : ");
scanf("%d-%d-%d",&cd,&cm,&cy);
printf("Enter birth date (dd-mm-yyyy) : ");
scanf("%d-%d-%d",&bd,&bm,&by);
 d=cd-bd;
m=cm-bm;
y=cy-by;
if(d<0)
{
d=d+30;
m--;
}
if(m<0)
{
m=m+12;
y--;
}
printf("Present age is : %d years %d months %d
days",y,m,d);
getch();
}

if-else statement :

It is an extension of simple if statement.

Syntax :
 if(expr)
{
Statements-1;
}
else
{
Statements-2;
}

In this statement, first the expression will be evaluated,

and if it is true then the if block statements are executed
and the else block statements are ignored. Otherwise if the
expression is false, then else block statements are
executed and if block statements are ignored.
Example : else_if.c

To find maximum of 2 numbers using else if

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b,max;
clrscr();
printf("Enter 2 numbers : ");
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
if(a>b)
max=a;
else
max=b;
printf("Maximum value : %d",max);
getch();
}
Example : else_if2.c

To check whether the given number is even or odd

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
if(n%2==0)
printf("Given number is Even");
else
printf("Given number is Odd");
getch();
}

Nested if statements :

Using a if statement within another if is called as nested

if. If a series of decisions are involved, we use nested if
statement.

Form : 1

if(expr-1)
{
if(expr-2)
{
.
if(expr-n)
{
statements;
}
...
}
}

Form : 2

if(expr-1)
{
if(expr-2)
{
Statement-1;
}
else
{
Statement-2;
}
}
else
{
if(expr-3)
{
Statement-3;
}
else
{
Statement-4;
}
}

Example : nest_if.c
To find maximum of 3 numbers using nested if

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b,c,max;
printf("Enter any three numbers : ");
scanf("%d%d%d",&a,&b,&c);
if(a>b)
{
if(a>c)
max=a;
else
max=c;
}
else
{
if(b>c)
max=b;
else
max=c;
}
 printf("Maximum value : %d",max);
getch();
}

else-if ladder :

This statement is also used for a series of decisions are

involved.

Syntax :

if(expr-1)
{
Statements-1;
}
else if(expr-2)
{
Statement-2;
}
..
..
else if(expr-n)
{
 Statement-n;
}
else
{
else block statements;
}

In this statement, the expressions are evaluated

from top to bottom, if the condition is true then the
statements associated that block is executed and the
control transfers to the next statement. Otherwise when all
expressions are false then the final else block statements
will be executed.
Example : elif_lad.c

To find maximum of 3 numbers using else if ladder

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b,c,max;
printf("Enter any three numbers : ");
scanf("%d%d%d",&a,&b,&c);
if(a>b && a>c)
max=a;
else if(b>c)
max=b;
 else
max=c;
printf("Maximum value : %d",max);
getch();
}

Example : ck_char.c

To check whether the given number is alphabet or

number or special character

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
char ch;
clrscr();
printf("Enter any character : ");
scanf("%c",&ch);

if((ch>=65 && ch<=90) || (ch>=97 && ch<=122))

//if((ch>='A' && ch<='Z') || (ch>='a' && ch<='z'))
printf("Given character is a alphabet");
 else if(ch>=48 && ch<=57)
// else if(ch>='0' && ch<='9')
printf("Given character is a digit");
else
printf("Given character is a special character");
getch();
}

Example : vow_cons.c

To check whether the given character is vowel or

consonant

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
char ch;
clrscr();
printf("Enter any character : ");
scanf("%c",&ch);
if((ch>='a' && ch<='z') || (ch>='A' && ch<='Z'))
{
if(ch=='a' || ch=='A' || ch=='e' || ch=='E' || ch=='i'||
ch=='I' || ch=='o' ||
ch=='O' || ch=='u' ||
ch=='U')
printf("Given character is a vowel");
else
printf("Given character is a consonant");
}
else
printf("Given character is not an Alphabet");
getch();
}

Example : st_det.c

To enter student number, name, marks in C,CPP,java

and to calculate and display total marks, average, result
and division
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int sno,c,cpp,java,tot;
char sname[20],res[5],div[10];
float avg;
clrscr();
printf("Enter student number : ");
scanf("%d",&sno);
printf("Enter student name : ");
fflush(stdin);
gets(sname);
printf("Enter marks in C : ");
scanf("%d",&c);
printf("Enter marks in CPP : ");
scanf("%d",&cpp);
printf("Enter marks in Java : ");
scanf("%d",&java);
tot=c+cpp+java;
avg=(float)tot/3;
clrscr();
printf("Student Number : %d",sno);
printf("\nStudent Name : %s",sname);
printf("\nMarks in C : %d",c);
printf("\nMarks in CPP : %d",cpp);
printf("\nMarks in Java : %d",java);
printf("\nTotal Marks : %d",tot);
printf("\nAverage Marks : %.2f",avg);

if(c>=50 && cpp>=50 && java>=50)

 {
printf("\nResult : PASS ");
if(avg>=60)
printf("\nDivision : FIRST");
else
printf("\nDivision : SECOND");
}
else
{
printf("\nResult : FAIL");
printf("\nDivision : NO DIVISION");
}
getch();
}

Example : ndays.c

To enter month and year and to calculate and display

number of days in the given month
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int d,m,y;
clrscr();
printf("Enter month and year (mm-yyyy) : ");
scanf("%d%d",&m,&y);
if(m==2)
{
if((y%4==0 && y%100!=0) || (y%400==0))
d=29;
else
d=28;
}
else if(m==2 || m==4 || m==6 || m==9 || m==11)
d=30;
else
d=31;
printf("Number of days : %d",d);
getch();
}

exit : <process.h>
It terminates the program.

Syntax: void exit(int status)

Status : Typically value of zero , indicates a normal exit,

and a non zero indicates some error.

Example : cbill.c

To enter consumer number, name, present month

reading, last month reading. calculate and display total
units and bill amount by the following table.

Units rate/unit

0 50 1.45(min)
51-100 2.80
101-200 3.05
201-300 4.75
>300 5.50
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int cno,pmr,lmr,tu;
char cname[20];
float bamt;
clrscr();
printf("Enter consumer number : ");
scanf("%d",&cno);
printf("Enter consumer name :");
fflush(stdin);
gets(cname);
printf("Enter present month reading :");
scanf("%d",&pmr);
printf("Enter last month reading :");
scanf("%d",&lmr);
if(pmr<lmr)
{
printf("Invalid reading");
getch();
exit(0);
}
tu=pmr-lmr;
 if(tu<=50)
bamt=50*1.45;
else if(tu<=100)
bamt=50*1.45+(tu-50)*2.80;
else if(tu<=200)
bamt=(50*1.45)+(50*2.80)+(tu-100)*3.05;
else if(tu<=300)
bamt=(50*1.45)+(50*2.80)+(100*3.05)+(tu-200)*4.75;
else
bamt=(50*1.45)+(50*2.80)+(100*3.05)+(100*4.75)+
(tu-300)*5.50;
clrscr();
printf("\nConsumer Number : %d",cno);
printf("\nConsumer Name : %s",cname);
printf("\nPresent month reading : %d",pmr);
printf("\nLast month reading : %d",lmr);
printf("\nTotal units : %d",tu);
printf("\nTotal Bill Amount : %.2f",bamt);
getch();
}

Example : emp_sal.c
To enter emp number, name, grade, basic salary.
Calculate and display HRA,DA,TA,IT,PF,gross
salary,deductions and net salary by the following table.

Grade Basic HRA DA TA

IT PF

A <=2000 10% 15% 3%

0 5%

A >2000 & <=5000 15 20 5

3 8

A >5000 20 25 8
5 12

B <=3000 8 10 12
0 4

B >3000 & <=5000 10 12 4

2 8

B >5000 15 18 5
4 10

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int eno;
char ename[20],gr;
float basic,hra,da,ta,it,pf,gs,ded,ns;
clrscr();
printf("Enter Employee Number : ");
scanf("%d",&eno);
printf("Enter Employee Name : ");
fflush(stdin);
gets(ename);
printf("Enter Employee Grade : ");
scanf("%c",&gr);
if(gr=='A' && gr=='B' && gr=='a' && gr=='b')
{
printf("Invalid Grade");
getch();
 exit(0);
}
printf("Enter Basic Salary : ");
scanf("%f",&basic);
if(gr=='a' || gr=='A')
{
if(basic<=2000)
{
hra=basic*10/100;
da=basic*15/100;
ta=basic*3/100;
it=0;
pf=basic*5/100;
}
else if(basic<=5000)
{
hra=basic*15/100;
da=basic*20/100;
ta=basic*5/100;
it=basic*3/100;
pf=basic*8/100;
}
else
{
 hra=basic*20/100;
da=basic*25/100;
ta=basic*8/100;
it=basic*5/100;
pf=basic*12/100;
}
}
else
{
if(basic<=3000)
{
hra=basic*8/100;
da=basic*10/100;
ta=basic*2/100;
it=0;
pf=basic*4/100;
}
else if(basic<=5000)
{
hra=basic*10/100;
da=basic*12/100;
ta=basic*4/100;
it=basic*2/100;
pf=basic*8/100;
 }
else
{
hra=basic*15/100;
da=basic*18/100;
ta=basic*5/100;
it=basic*4/100;
pf=basic*10/100;
}
}
gs=basic+hra+da+ta;
ded=it+pf;
ns=gs-ded;
clrscr();
printf("\t\t\t EMPLOYEE DETAILS \n\n");
printf("\nEmployee Number : %d",eno);
printf("\nEmployee Name : %s",ename);
printf("\nEmployee Grade : %c",gr);
printf("\nBasic Salary : %.2f",basic);
printf("\nHouse Rent Allowance : %.2f",hra);
printf("\nDearness Allowance : %.2f",da);
printf("\nTravelling Allowance : %.2f",ta);
printf("\nIncome tax : %.2f",it);
printf("\nProvident Fund : %.2f",pf);
 printf("\nGross Salary : %.2f",gs);
printf("\nDeductions : %.2f",ded);
printf("\nNet Salary : %.2f",ns);
getch();
}
Program : dealer.c

To enter dealer number, name, number of litres petrol

sold, no of lit diesel sold, no of lit kerosene sold and
dealer regions are north-N,west-W,east-E,south-
S.Calculate and display total amount by the following
table.

Region Petrol Diesel

Kerosene
(rate/litre) (rate/lit)
(rate/lit)

N 50.75 31.85
22.15

S 49.85 30.25
21.50

W 52.35 33.75
24.65

E 51.45 32.15
23.75

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int dno,np,nd,nk;
char dname[20],reg;
float pa,da,ka,ta;
clrscr();
printf("Enter dealer number : ");
scanf("%d",&dno);
printf("Enter dealer name : ");
fflush(stdin);
gets(dname);
printf("Enter dealer region : ");
 fflush(stdin);
scanf("%c",&reg);
if(reg>=97 && reg<=122)
reg=reg-32; // this is to convert lower case letters to
upper case letters //
if(reg!='N' && reg!='W' && reg!='S' && reg!='E')
{
printf("Invalid Region");
getch();
exit(0);
}
printf("Enter number of litres of petrol sold : ");
scanf("%d",&np);
printf("Enter number of litres of diesel sold : ");
scanf("%d",&nd);
printf("Enter number of litres of kerosene sold : ");
scanf("%d",&nk);
if(reg=='N')
{
pa=np*50.75;
da=nd*31.85;
ka=nk*22.15;
}
else if(reg=='S')
{
pa=np*49.85;
da=nd*30.25;
ka=nk*21.50;
}
else if(reg=='W')
{
pa=np*52.35;
da=nd*33.75;
ka=nk*24.65;
}
else
{
pa=np*51.45;
da=nd*32.15;
ka=nk*23.75;
}
clrscr();
ta=pa+da+ka;
printf("Dealer Number : %d",dno);
printf("\nDealer Name : %s",dname);
printf("\nDealer Region : %c",reg);
printf("\nLitres of petrol sold : %d",np);
printf("\nLitres of deesel sold : %d",nd);
 printf("\nLitres of keroene sold : %d",nk);
printf("\nPetrol Amount :%.2f",pa);
printf("\nDeesel Amount :%.2f",da);
printf("\nKerosene Amount :%.2f",ka);
printf("\nTota l Amount :%.2f",ta);
getch();
}

Switch statement :

It is a multiway conditional control statement used in C

language. It is mainly used in situations where there is
need to pick one alternative among many alternatives.
Syntax :

switch(variable / expression)
{
case value-1 :
statements 1;
break;

case value-2 :
statements 2;
 break;

..
.

case value-n :
statements n;
break;

default :
default statements;
}

The switch statement tests the value of given

variable or expression against a list of case values.
When a match is found, the statement associated to
that case is executed and the control transfer to the
next statement, otherwise the default statements
will be executed.

break :

It is an unconditional control statement and used to

terminate a switch statement or a loop statement.

Syntax : break;

Note :

1.In switch statement the variable or expression is an

integral value(integer or character), we cannot use
floating and string values.

2.In switch statement, the default case is optional.

Program : switch_1.c

To test all arithmetic operations using switch statement

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b,opt;
clrscr();
printf("Enter two numbers : ");
 scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
printf("1-Addition\n2-Subtraction\n3-Multiplication\n4-
Division
\n5-Modulus\nEnter your
option : ");
scanf("%d",&opt);
switch(opt)
{
case 1:
printf("Addition of %d and %d is %d",a,b,a+b);
break;

case 2:
printf("Subtraction of %d and %d is %d",a,b,a-b);
break;

case 3:
printf("Multiplication of %d and %d is
%d",a,b,a*b);
break;

case 4:
printf("Division of %d and %d is %.2f",a,b,
(float)a/b);
 break;
case 5:
printf("Modulus of %d and %d is %d",a,b,a%b);
break;

default:
printf("Invalid Option");
}
getch();
}

Program : switch_2.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b;
char opt;
clrscr();
printf("Enter 2 numbers : ");
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
 printf("A-Addition\nS-Subtraction\nM-
Multiplication\nD-Division
\nR-Modulus\nEnter your option : ");
fflush(stdin);
scanf("%c",&opt);
switch(opt)
{
case 'A':
case 'a':

printf("Addition of %d and %d is %d",a,b,a+b);

break;

case 'S':
case 's':
printf( "Subtraction of %d and %d is %d",a,b,a-b);
break;

case 'M':
case 'm':
printf("Multiplication of %d and %d is
%d",a,b,a*b);
break;
 case 'D':
case 'd':
printf("Division of %d and %d is %d",a,b,a/b);
break;

case 'R':
case 'r':
printf("Modulus of %d and %d is %d",a,b,a%b);
break;

default:
printf("Invalid Option");
}
getch();
}

Program : ele_bill.c

Write a menu driven program(mdp) to compute the

electricity bill for the following purpose

Commercial Purpose

Units Rate/Unit
 0 - 50 3.95(min)

>50 6.20

Extras :

Rs.0.06 per unit power tax

service chrge:

Rs.10 - single phase

Rs.20 - three phase

Domestic Purpose

Units Rate/Unit

0 - 50 1.45(min)

51 - 100 2.80

101 - 200 3.05

 201 - 300 4.75

>300 5.50

Extras :

Rs.0.06 per unit power tax

service charge:

Rs.20 - single phase

Rs.50 - three phase

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int cno,pmr,lmr,tu,opt,ph;
char cname[20];
float pt,sc,bamt,tamt;
clrscr();
printf("\t\tMENU\n\n");
printf("---------------------");
printf("\n1-Domestic Prupose\n");
printf("\n2-Commerical Purpose\n");
printf("\nEnter your option(1 or 2) : ");
scanf("%d",&opt);
if(opt!=1 && opt!=2)
{
printf("\n\t\tInvalid Option");
getch();
exit(0);
}
printf("\nEnter Phase Type(1 or 3)");
scanf("%d",&ph);
if(ph!=1 && ph!=3)
{
printf("\n\t\tInvalid Phase");
getch();
exit(0);
}
clrscr();
printf("\nEnter Consumer Number : ");
scanf("%d",&cno);
printf("\nEnter Consumer Name : ");
fflush(stdin);
 gets(cname);
printf("\nEnter Present Month Reading : ");
scanf("%d",&pmr);
printf("\nEnter Last Month Reading : ");
scanf("%d",&lmr);
if(lmr>pmr)
{
printf("\n\t\tInvalid Reading");
getch();
exit(0);
}
tu=pmr-lmr;
switch(opt)
{
case 1:
if(tu<=50)
bamt=50*1.45;
else if(tu<=100)
bamt=(50*1.45)+(tu-50)*2.80;
else if(tu<=200)
bamt=(50*1.45)+(50*2.80)+(tu-100)*3.05;
else if(tu<=300)
bamt=(50*1.45)+(50*2.80)+(100*3.05)+(tu-
200)*4.75;
 else
bamt=(50*1.45)+(50*2.80)+(100*3.05)+(100*4.75)+
(tu-300)*5.50;
pt=0.06*tu;

if(ph==1)
sc=10.00;
else
sc=20.00;
break;

case 2:
if(tu<=50)
bamt=50*3.95;
else
bamt=(50*3.95)+(tu-50)*6.20;
pt=0.06*tu;
if(ph==1)
sc=20.00;
else
sc=50.00;
break;
}
tamt=bamt+pt+sc;
 clrscr();
printf("\t\t\t Consumer Details\n ");
printf("-------------------------------------------------\n");
printf("\nConsumer Number : %d",cno);
printf("\nConumer Name : %s",cname);
printf("\nPresent Month Reading : %d",pmr);
printf("\nLast Month Reading : %d",lmr);
printf("\nTotal Units : %d",tu);
printf("\nPower Tax : %.2f",pt);
printf("\nService Charge : %.2f",sc);
printf("\nBill Amount : %.2f",bamt);
printf("\nTotal Amount : %.2f",tamt);
getch();
}

Uncondition control statements :

C supports 3 types of unconditional control statements.

They are
1) break
2) continue
3) goto
break :

It is an unconditional control statement and is

used to terminate a switch statement or a loop statement.

Syntax :
break;

continue :
It passed the control

Syntax :
continue;

Causes the control to pass to the end of the innermost

enclosing while, do or for statement, at which point the
loop continuation condition is revaluated.

goto :

It is an uncondition control statement, which is used

to alter the execution of the program sequence by transfer
of control to some other part of the program.
Syntax :
goto label;

Where label is valid C identifier used to the label of

the destination such that the control could transferred.

Syntax of label :
identifier :

Program : nat_goto.c

To display natural numbers from 1 to given number

using goto statement

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n,i=1;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a number :");
 scanf("%d",&n);
printf("Natural Numbers from 1 to %d :",n);
lb:
printf("\t%d",i);
i++;
if(i<=n)
goto lb;
getch();
}

Program : goto1.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n;
clrscr();
printf("Enter value of n :");
scanf("%d",&n);
if(n==1)
goto lb1;
 if(n==2)
goto lb2;
printf("\nWelcome");
lb1:
printf("\nLabel 1");
lb2:
printf("\nLabel 2");
getch();
}

Program : goto2.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n;
clrscr();
printf("Enter value of n : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
if(n==1)
goto lb1;
if(n==2)
goto lb2;
 printf("\nWelcome");
goto lb;
lb1:
printf("\nLabel 1");
goto lb;
lb2:
printf("\nLabel 2");
lb:
getch();
}

gotoxy :

It moves the cursor to the given position in the current

text window.

Syntax : void gotoxy(int x,int y);

x - cols
y - rows

default Columns (80) and Rows(25)

Note : If the coordinates are invalid, the call to gotoxy is
ignored.
Program : gotoxy.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
clrscr();
gotoxy(35,12);
printf("WELCOME");
getch();
}

Program : st_formt.c

To calculate and display student result by the following

format

-----------------------------------------------------------------
BDPS SOFTWARE LIMITED
VIJAYAWADA
-----------------------------------------------------------------
SID : SNAME :
 MARKS IN C :
MARKS IN CPP :
MARKS IN JAVA :

TOTAL MARKS : AVERAGE :

RESULT : DIVISION :
-----------------------------------------------------------------

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int sid,c,cpp,java,tot;
char sname[20];
float avg;
clrscr();
gotoxy(15,3);
printf("------------------------------------------------");
gotoxy(28,5);
printf("BDPS SOFTWARE LIMITED");
gotoxy(33,7);
printf("VIJAYAWADA");
gotoxy(15,9);
printf("------------------------------------------------");
gotoxy(15,11);
printf("SID : ");
gotoxy(40,11);
printf("SNAME : ");
gotoxy(15,14);
printf("MARKS IN C : ");
gotoxy(15,16);
printf("MARKS IN CPP : ");
gotoxy(15,18);
printf("MARKS IN JAVA : ");
gotoxy(15,21);
printf("TOTAL MARKS : ");
gotoxy(40,21);
printf("AVERAGE : ");
gotoxy(15,23);
printf("RESULT : ");
gotoxy(40,23);
printf("DIVISION : ");
gotoxy(15,25);
printf("------------------------------------------------");
gotoxy(21,11);
scanf("%d",&sid);
gotoxy(51,11);
fflush(stdin);
gets(sname);

lb1:
gotoxy(31,14);
scanf("%d",&c);
if(c>100)
{
gotoxy(30,30);
printf("Invalid Marks of C");
getch();
gotoxy(30,30);
printf(" ");
gotoxy(31,14);
printf(" ");
goto lb1;
}
lb2:
gotoxy(31,16);
scanf("%d",&cpp);
if(cpp>100)
{
gotoxy(30,30);
 printf("Invalid Marks of CPP");
getch();
gotoxy(30,30);
printf(" ");
gotoxy(31,16);
printf(" ");
goto lb2;
}
lb3:
gotoxy(31,18);
scanf("%d",&java);
if(java>100)
{
gotoxy(30,30);
printf("Invalid Marks of Java");
getch();
gotoxy(30,30);
printf(" ");
gotoxy(31,18);
printf(" ");
goto lb3;
}
tot=c+cpp+java;
avg=(float)tot/3;
 gotoxy(31,21);
printf("%d",tot);
gotoxy(51,21);
printf("%.2f",avg);
if(c>=50 && cpp>=50 && java>=50)
{
gotoxy(31,23);
printf("PASS");
gotoxy(51,23);
if(avg>=60)
printf("FIRST");
else
printf("SECOND");
}
else
{
gotoxy(31,23);
printf("FAIL");
gotoxy(51,23);
printf("NO DIVISION");
}
getch();
}
Loop control statements :

loop:
The process of repeatedly executing a block of
statement up to specified number of times is called as
loop.

C supports 3 types of looping statements. They are :

1) while loop
2) do-while loop
3) for loop

While loop (Entry control loop statement) :

It is a conditional controlled loop statement in C

language.

Syntax :

while(test condition)
{
 Statements;
}

In this loop first the test condition will be evaluated.

If it is true, then the statement block will be executed.
After the execution of statements, the test condition will
be evaluated once again, if it is true then the statement
block will be executed once again. This process of
repeated execution continued until the test condition
becomes false.

Program : nnos_w.c
To print natural numbers from 1 to given number

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n,i=1;
printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("Natural number from 1 to %d\n\n",n);
while(i<=n)
{
printf("\t%d",i);
i++;
}
getch();
}

Program : ev_od_w.c

To display even and odd numbers for 1 to given number

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n,i;
printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("\n\nEven numbers from 1 to %d\n\n",n);
i=1;
while(i<=n)
{
if(i%2==0)
printf("\t%d",i);
i++;
}
printf("\n\n\nOdd numbers from 1 to %d\n\n",n);
i=1;
while(i<=n)
{
if(i%2==1) // if(i%2!=0)
printf("\t%d",i);
i++;
}
getch();
}
Program : nsum_w.c

To print sum of natural numbers for 1 to given number

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n,i=1,sum=0;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
while(i<=n)
{
sum=sum+i;
i++;
}
printf("Sum of %d natural numbers is %d",n,sum);
getch();
}

Note :
We can also find the sum of n digits by the following
formula :
Sum = n * (n+1)/2

Program : facts_w.c

To display factors of given number

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n,i=1;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("\n\nFactors of given number : \n\n");
while(i<=n)
{
if(n%i==0)
printf("\t%d",i);
i++;
}
 getch();
}

Program : facto_w.c

To find factorial of given number

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n;
unsigned long fact=1;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
while(n>=1)
{
fact=fact*n;
n--;
}
printf("\n\nFactorial of %d is %lu ",n,fact);
getch();
}
Program : ndig_w.c

To find number of digits in the given number

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int count=0;
unsigned long n;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%lu",&n);
while(n>0)
{
n=n/10;
count++;
}
printf("\n\nNumber of digits of given number : %d
",count);
getch();
}
Program : sumdig_w.c

To find sum of digits in the given number

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int sum=0;
unsigned long n;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%lu",&n);
while(n>0)
{
sum=sum+(n%10);
n=n/10;
}
printf("\n\nSum of digits of given number : %d ",sum);
getch();
}
Program : rev_w.c

To find reverse number of a given number using while

loop

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n;
unsigned long rev=0;
printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
while(n>0)
{
rev=(rev*10)+(n%10);
n=n/10;
}
printf("Reverse number of given number : %lu",rev);
getch();
}
Program : sum_dig1.c

To find sum of digits of given number (final sum)

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
unsigned long n;
int sum=0;
printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
while(n>0)
{
sum=sum+(n%10);
n=n/10;
}
printf("Sum of digits : %d",sum);
getch();
}

Program : sum_dig2.c
To find sum of digits of given number
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
unsigned long n;
int sum=0;
printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%lu",&n);
while(n>0)
{
sum=sum+(n%10);
n=n/10;
if(n==0 && sum>9)
{
printf("\n%d\n",sum);
n=sum;
sum=0;
}
}
printf("Sum of digits : %d",sum);
getch();
}
Note :

If any number exactly divides with 9, then sum of digits =

9, otherwise its remainder value will be sum of its digits.
The above program depends on this technique.

Program : rev1_w.c

To find reverse number of a given number

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n,count=0;
unsigned long rev=0;
printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
while(n>0)
{
rev=(rev*10)+(n%10);
n=n/10;
count++;
 }
printf("Reverse number of given number :
%*lu",count,rev);
getch();
}

If n=1000, then we will get the reverse number as 1, i.e.

zeros are not displayed, if we use the above format, the
compiler will format it and gives the output as 0001, this
is because the number of digits in the given number, i.e.
count = 4 and the value of this count is assigned to *, and
hence the output have 4 digits. i.e. 0001 in case of n=1000

Program : pal_w.c

To check whether the given number is palindrome or

not

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n,m,rev=0;
printf("Enter a number : ");
 scanf("%d",&n);
m=n;
while(m>0)
{
rev=(rev*10)+(m%10);
m=m/10;
}
if(n==rev)
printf("Given number is a Palindrome");
else
printf("Given number is not Palindrome");
getch();
}

Program : prime_w.c

To check whether the given number is prime or not

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n,i=1,count=0;
clrscr();
 printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
while(i<=n)
{
if(n%i==0)
count++;
i++;
}
if(count==2)
printf("Given number is Prime");
else
printf("Given numbr is not Prime");
getch();
}

Program : fibo_w.c

To generate fibonacci series upto n terms

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int m,n,a=1,b=0,c=0;
 clrscr();
printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("Fibonacci series :");
while(n>=1)
{
printf("\t%d",c);
c=a+b;
a=b;
b=c;
n--;
}
getch();
}

Program : ev_od1_w.c

To check whether the given number is even or odd

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n,i=2,k=1;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
while(k<=2)
{
if(i==2)
printf("Even numbers from 1 to %d",n);
if(i==1)
printf("Odd numbers from 1 to %d",n);
printf("%d\t",i);
i=i+2;
if(i>n)
{
i=1;
k++;
}
}
}

do-while loop : (exit control loop statement)

 It is an alternative form of while loop. The only
difference between while and do-while is the minimum
number of execution of while is zero and the minimum
number of execution of do-while is one.

Syntax :

do
{
Statements;
}
while(test condition) ;

In this loop first the statement block will be executed,

after the execution of statements, the test condition will be
evaluated. If it is true, then the statement block will be
executed once again, this process of repeated execution
continuous until the test condition becomes false.

Program : nat_dw.c
Programs to display natural number from 1 to given
number is using do-while loop

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n,i=1;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("\nNatural numbers from 1 to %d :",n);
do
{
printf("\t%d",i);
i++;
} while(i<=n);

getch();
}

for loop :
 It is the most commonly used loop statement in C
language. It is consisting of 3 expressions.

Syntax :

for(exp1 ; exp2 ; exp3)

{
Statements;
}

In this loop first expression is used to initialize the

index, second expression is used to test whether the loop
is to be continued or not (test condition) and the third
expression is used to change the index for further
iteration.
Program : nat_for.c

Programs to display natural number from 1 to given

number is using for loop

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n,i;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("\nNatural numbers from 1 to %d\n\n",n);
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
{
printf("\t%d",i);
}
getch();
}
Program : rev_for.c

To find reverse number of a given number using for

loop

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n;
unsigned long rev;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(rev=0;n>0;n=n/10)
{
rev=(rev*10)+(n%10);
}
printf("Reverse number of given number : %lu",rev);
getch();
}

Program : perfect.c
To check whether the given number is perfect number
or not

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n,i,sum=0;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=1;i<=n/2;i++)
{
if(n%i==0)
sum=sum+i;
}
if(n==sum)
printf("Given number is Perfect number");
else
printf("Given number is not Perfect number");
getch();
}
Perfect number :

If a given number = sum of its divisibles except that

number, is called as perfect number.

Eg : 6, 28, 496 etc

Program : armst.c

To check whether the given number is armstrong

number of not

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n,sum=0,m,r;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
m=n;
while(m>0)
{
r=m%10;
 sum=sum+(r*r*r);
m=m/10;
}
if(n==sum)
printf("Given number is Armstrong number");
else
printf("Given number is not Armstrong number");
getch();
}

Program : table.c

To display multiplication table of given number from 1

to 20

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n,i;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=1;i<=20;i++)
 {
printf("\n%d * %d = %d",n,i,n*i);
}
getch();
}

Program : continue.c

To display natural numbers from 1 to 100 except 40,50

and 60

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i=0;
clrscr();
while(i<100)
{
i++;
if(i==40 || i==50 || i==60)
continue;
printf("%d\t",i);
}
 getch();

Program : gcd.c

To find GCD of given 2 numbers

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b,g,i;
clrscr();
printf("Enter 2 numbers : ");
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
for(i=1;i<=a && i<=b;i++)
{
if(a%i==0 && b%i==0)
g=i;
}
printf("GCD of given numbers : %d",g);
 getch();
}

Eg :

GCD of 10 and 20 = 10
10%10 = 0 and 20%10 = 0 also (10,20)%2 = 0 and
(10,20)%5 = 0, but the greatest of 2, 5 and 10 is 10.
Hence GCD = 10.

Program : lcm.c

Write a program To find LCM of given 2 numbers

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b,lcm;
clrscr();
printf("Enter 2 numbers : ");
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
if(a>b)
lcm=a;
 else
lcm=b;
while(1)
{
if(lcm%a==0 && lcm%b==0)
break;
lcm++;
}
printf("LCD of given numbers : %d",l);
getch();
}

Eg :

LCM of 10 and 15 is 30
30%10 = 0 and 30%10 = 0

2 nd Method
------------------

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b,lcm;
clrscr();
printf("Enter any two numbers :");
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
if(a>b)
lcm=a;
else
lcm=b;

while( lcm%a!=0 || lcm%b!=0)

{
lcm++;
}
printf("Lcm of %d and %d is %d",a,b,lcm);
getch();
}

Nested loops :

Using a loop statement, within another loop is called as

nested loop.
Program : prime_nl.c

To display prime numbers from 1 to given number

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n,i,j,count;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("Prime Numbers for 1 to %d\n",n);
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
{
count=0;
for(j=1;j<=i;j++)
{
if(i%j==0)
count++;
}
if(count==2)
printf("\t%d",i);
 }
getch();
}

Program : prm2_nl.c

To display prime numbers between given 2 numbers

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n1,n2,i,j,count;
clrscr();
printf("Enter starting number : ");
scanf("%d",&n1);
printf("Enter ending number : ");
scanf("%d",&n2);
for(i=n1;i<=n2;i++)
{
count=0;
for(j=1;j<=i;j++)
{
if(i%j==0)
 count++;
}
if(count==2)
printf("\t%d",i);
}
getch();
}

Program : pal_nl.c

To display Palindrome numbers from 1 to n

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n,rev,m,i;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
{
rev=0;
m=i;
 while(m>0)
{
rev=(rev*10)+(m%10);
m=m/10;
}
if(rev==i)
printf("\t%d",i);
}
getch();
}

Program : perf_nl.c

To display perfect numbers from 1 to given number

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n,i,j,sum=0;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("Perfect Numbers between 1 and %d : ",n);
 for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
{
sum=0;
for(j=1;j<=i/2;j++)
{
if(i%j==0)
sum=sum+j;
}
if(sum==i)
printf("\t%d",i);
}
getch();
}

Program : armst_nl.c

To display Armstrong numbers from 1 to given number

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n,m,r,arm,i;
clrscr();
 printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("Armstrong numbers from 1 to %d : \n",n);
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
{
arm=0;
m=i;
while(m>0)
{
r=m%10;
arm=arm+(r*r*r);
m=m/10;
}
if(arm==i)
printf("\t%d",i);
}
getch();
}

Program : prm_fact.c

To calculate and display Prime Factors of given number

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n,i;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("Prime Factor of %d : \n",n);
while(n>1)
{
i=2;
while(1)
{
if(n%i==0)
{
printf("\t%d",i);
n=n/i;
break;
}
else
i++;
}
}
getch();
}

Formatting the output :

Integer :

1. int n=100
printf(%d,n);

Output : 100

2. int n=100
printf(%5d,n);

Output : 100

2 spaces

3. int n=100
printf(%-5d,n);

Output : 100
 2 spaces

4. int n=5
printf(%.2d,n);

Output : 05

5. int n=5
printf(%.3d,n);

Output : 005

Character :

1. char c=R
printf(%c,c);
Output : R

2. char c=R
printf(%4c,c);
 Output : R

3 spaces

3. char c=R
printf(%-4c,c);

Output : R

3 spaces

Float :

1. float f=14.1718
printf(%f,f);

Output : 14.171800

2. float f=14.1718
printf(%12f,f);

Output : 14.171800
 3 spaces

3. float f=14.1718
printf(%-12f,f);

Output : 14.171800

3 spaces
4. float f=14.1718
printf(%.2f,f);

Output : 14.17

5. float f=14.1718
printf(%7.2f,f);

Output : 14.17

2 spaces
In 7.2, 7 indicates total number of digits including
decimal point, 2 represents number of digits after decimal
point.

String :

1. char st[10]=welcome
printf(%s,s);

Output : welcome

2. char st[10]=welcome
printf(%9s,s);

Output : welcome

2 spaces

3. char st[10]=welcome
printf(%-9s,s);

Output : welcome
 2 spaces

4. char st[10]=welcome
printf(%.3s,s);

Output : wel

Other important formats :

1. int n=100, x=5;

printf(%xd,x,n); printf(%5d,n);

Output : 100

2 spaces

2. char st[10] = welcome;

int x=3;
printf(%.*s,x,st); printf(%.3s,st);
 Output : wel

Program : patrn1.c

To generate the given pattern

w
we
wel
welc
welco
welcom
welcome

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int x;
char st[10]="welcome";
clrscr();
for(x=1;x<=7;x++)
 {
printf("\n%.*s",x,st);
}
getch();
}

textmode() :

It changes screen mode (in text mode).

Syntax : void textmode(int newmode);

Constant Value Text mode

LASTMODE -1 Previous text mode

BW40 0 Black and White

40 columns

C40 1 Color
40 columns

BW80 2 Black and White

80 columns

C80 3 Color
80 columns

MONO 7 Monochrome
80 columns

C4350 64 EGA (Enhanced

43 line
graphic adapter)

VGA (Video
50 line
graphic adapter)

Program : txtmode1.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
clrscr();
textmode(1); // or textmode(C40);
gotoxy(17,12);
printf("RAJI");
getch();
}

Program : txtmode2.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i;
clrscr();
textmode(64); // or textmode(C4350);
for(i=1;i<=45;i++)
{
printf("\nRAJI");
}
getch();
}
textcolor() :

It selects a new character color in text mode.

Syntax : void textcolor(int newcolor);

teextbackground() :

It selects a new text background color

Syntax : void textbackground(int new color);

color (textmode) :

Constant Value Background

Foreground

BLACK 0 Yes
Yes

BLUE 1 Y
Y
GREEN 2 Y
Y

CYAN 3 Y
Y

RED 4 Y
Y

MAGENTA 5 Y
Y

BROWN 6 Y
Y

LIGHT GREY 7 Y
Y

DARK GREY 8 N
Y

LIGHT BLUE 9 N
Y
LIGHT GREEN 10 N
Y

LIGHT CYAN 11 N
Y

LIGHT RED 12 N
Y

LIGHT MAGENTA 13 N
Y

YELLOW 14 N
Y

WHITE 15 N
Y

cprintf() :

It is same as printf(). If we want to display colors in text

mode, we use cprintf().
Program : txtmode3.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
clrscr();
textmode(1);
textcolor(RED+BLINK);
textbackground(WHITE);
gotoxy(17,12);
cprintf("RAJI");
getch();
}

Program : patrn2.c

To generate the following pattern

*****
*****
*****
*****
 *****

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,j,n;
clrscr();
printf("Enter value of n : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
{
for(j=1;j<=n;j++)
{
printf("%2c",'*');
}
printf("\n");
}
getch();

}
Program : patrn3.c

To generate the following pattern

*
**
***
****
*****

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,j,n;
clrscr();
printf("Enter value of n : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
{
for(j=1;j<=i;j++)
{
printf("%2c",'*');
}
 printf("\n");
}
getch();
}

Program : patrn4.c

To generate the following pattern

1
22
333
4444
55555

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,j,n;
clrscr();
printf("Enter value of n : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
 for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
{
for(j=1;j<=i;j++)
{
printf("%3d",i);
}
printf("\n");
}
getch();
}

Program : patrn5.c

To generate the following pattern

1
12
123
1234
12345

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,j,n;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
{
for(j=1;j<=i;j++)
{
printf("%3d",j);
}
printf("\n");
}
getch();
}

Program : patrn6.c

To generate the following pattern

*
* *
* * *
* * * *
 * * * * *

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,j,k,n,s;
clrscr();
printf("Enter value of n : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
s=n*2;
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
{
/*
for(k=1;k<=s;k++)
{
printf(" ");
}

or */

printf("%*c",s,32);
for(j=1;j<=i;j++)
 {
printf("%4c",'*');
}
printf("\n");
s=s-2;
}
getch();
}

Program : patrn7.c

To generate the following pattern

1
2 2
3 3 3
4 4 4 4
5 5 5 5 5

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
 int i,j,k,n,s;
clrscr();
printf("Enter value of n : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
s=n*2;
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
{
for(k=1;k<=s;k++)
{
printf(" ");
}
for(j=1;j<=i;j++)
{
printf("%4d",i);
}
printf("\n\n");
s=s-2;
}
getch();
}

Program : patrn8.c

To generate the following pattern

 *
* *
* * *
* * * *
* * * * *
* * * *
* * *
* *
*

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,j,k=1,n,s;
clrscr();
printf("Enter value of n : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
s=n*2;
for(i=1;i<=n*2;i++)
{
 printf("%*c",s,32);
for(j=1;j<=k;j++)
{
printf("%4c",'*');
}
if(i<n)
{
s=s-2;
k++;
}
else
{
s=s+2;
k--;
}
printf("\n");
}
getch();
}

Program : patrn9.c

To generate the following pattern

 1 2 3 4 5
10 9 8 7 6
11 12 13 14 15
20 19 18 17 16
21 22 23 24 25

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,j,n,k=1;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
{
for(j=1;j<=n;j++)
{
printf("%4d",k);
if(j<n)
{
if(i%2==0)
 k--;
else
k++;
}
}
printf("\n");
k=k+n;
}
getch();
}

Program : patrn10.c

To generate the following pattern

1 2 3 4 5
5 1 2 3 4
5 4 1 2 3
5 4 3 1 2
5 4 3 2 1

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,j,k,n,m;
clrscr();
printf("Enter value of n : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
m=n;
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
{
for(j=n;j>m;j--)
{
printf("%3d",j);
}
for(k=1;k<=m;k++)
{
printf("%3d",k);
}
printf("\n");
m--;
}
getch();
}

Program : patrn11.c
To generate the following pattern

ABCDEFGFEDCBA
ABCDEF FEDCBA
ABCDE EDCBA
ABCD DCBA
ABC CBA
AB BA
A A

*/

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,j,p,x=7,y=7;
clrscr();
for(i=1;i<=7;i++)
{
p=65;
for(j=1;j<=13;j++)
 {
if(i>1 && (j>=x && j<=y))
printf("%2c",32);
else
printf("%2c",p);
if(j<7)
p++;
else
p--;
}
printf("\n");
if(i>1)
{
x--;
y++;
}
}
getch();
}

Program : patrn12.c

To generate the following pattern

 ABCDEFGFEDCBA
ABCDEF FEDCBA
ABCDE EDCBA
ABCD DCBA
ABC CBA
AB BA
A A
AB BA
ABC CBA
ABCD DCBA
ABCDE EDCBA
ABCDEF FEDCBA
ABCDEF G FEDCBA

*/

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,j,p,x=7,y=7;
clrscr();
for(i=1;i<=7;i++)
{
p=65;
for(j=1;j<=13;j++)
{
if(i>1 && (j>=x && j<=y))
printf("%2c",32);
else
printf("%2c",p);
if(j<7)
p++;
else
p--;
}
printf("\n");
if(i>1)
{
if(i<7)
{
x--;
y++;
}
else
{
 x++;
y--;
}
}
}
getch();
}

delay() : <dos.h>

It suspends execution for specified interval (milli

seconds)

Syntax : void delay(unsigned milliseconds);

kbhit() :

It checks for currently available key strokes.

Syntax : int kbhit()

_setcursortype() :
It selects cursor appearance.

Syntax : void _setcursortype(int cur_t);

cur_t : set the cursor type to one of the following

1._NOCURSOR : turn of the cursor

2._SOLIDCURSOR : solid block cursor
3._NORMALCURSOR : normal underscore
cursor

Program : rajiram.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<dos.h>
void main()
{
int c=1,c1=36,r=1;
textmode(1);
_setcursortype(_NOCURSOR);
while(!kbhit())
{
 textbackground(WHITE);
clrscr();
textcolor(BLUE);
gotoxy(c,12);
cprintf("raji);
textcolor(RED);
gotoxy(c1,12);
cprintf("ram");
textcolor(MAGENTA);
gotoxy(18,r);
cprintf("WEDS");
c++;
c1--;
r++;
if(c>36)
{
c=1;
c1=36;
}
if(r>25)
r=1;
delay(150);
}
getch();
}

Functions in C
Function :
Function is a self contained block of statements and it
performs a particular task . It can be used at several times
in a program, but defined only once.

They are of 2 types.

1. Library functions (or) pre-define functions
2. User defined functions.

Library functions:

The functions which are In-built with the compiler are

known as Library functions (or) Pre-defined functions.
Eg:
1 printf
2 scanf
3 getch
4 clrscr, etc.
Userdefined functions:

User can define functions to do a task relavant to their

programs.Such functions are called as userdefined
functions.

- Any function( either pre-defined (or) user defined) has 3

things.

1. Function declaration
2. Function definition
3. Function calling

In case of Library functions(pre-defined), the function

declaration is in header files, function definition is in C
libraries and function calling is in source program. But
in case of user defined functions all three things are in
source program.

Function declaration:

Syntax:
 returntype function_name ( [argument_list] ) ;

Function definition:

Syntax:

returntype function_name ( [argument_list] )

{
statements;
}

Function calling :

Syntax:

function_name ( [parameter_list] );

Note:
The arguments which are given at the time of function
declaration or function definition are called as arguments
or formal arguments. The arguments which are given at
the time of function calling are called as parameters or
actual arguments.

Eg:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
void func(); // declaration
clrscr();
func(); // calling
getch();
}

void func() // definition

{
printf(Welcome to C Functions);
}

Rules for Creating and accessing functions:

1. A function can be called by any number of

times.
2. A function may or maynot receive arguments.
3. A function may or may not return a value
4. If a function doesnot return any value, the
function return data type will be specified as void.
5. If A function returns a value ,only one value it
can be returned.
6. If a function returnrs a value, the returning value
must be returned with statement "return".
7. If a function returns a value ,the execution of the
statement should be last.
8. If we cannot specify any returntype, the function
returns an int by default.
9. A function returns a value, the returning value
should match with the function return data type.

10. A function is defined after or before the main

function.

11. Before calling a function, the function

declaration or definition is must and should.
12. if a function definition is specified before the
function call, then the function declaration is not
necessary.
 13. A function is executed when the function is call
by its name.
14. If a function returns a value,the return value is
replaced by function calling statement.
15. The function definition should not be terminated
with a semicolon(;)

return(keyword):

Exits immediately from the currently executing

function to the calling routine, optionally returning a
value.

Syntax:

return [expr] ;

Example : ret_max.c
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int maxval(int,int);
int a,b,m;
clrscr();
printf("Enter any two numbrs : ");
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
m=maxval(a,b);
printf("Maximum Value : %d",m);
getch();
}
int maxval(int x,int y)
{
if(x>y)
return x;
else
return y;
}

Function categories or Function prototypes:

 A function ,depending on whether arguments are
present or not and whether a value is returning or
not,may belongs to one of the following categories.
1. Function with no arguments and return no value.
2. Function with arguments and no return value.
3. Function with arguments and return value.
4. Function with no arguments and return value.

Category-1:Function with no arguments and no return

value:

In this type the function has no arguments, it doesnot

receive any data from the calling function. Similarly it
doesnot return any value, the calling function doesnot
receive any data from called function. So there is no data
communication between calling function and called
function.

Example : cat1.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
void sum();
clrscr();
sum();
getch();
}
void sum()
{
int a,b;
printf(Enter any two numbers:);
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
printf(sum= %d,a+b);
}

category-2 Function with arguments and no return

value:

In this type the function has some arguments, it

receives data from the calling function. But it doesnot
return any value, the calling function doesnot receive any
data from the called function. So there is one way data
communication between calling function and called
function.
Example : cat2.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
void sum(int,int);
int a,b,s;
clrscr();
printf(Enter any two numbers :);
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
sum(a,b);
getch();
}
void sum(int x,int y)
{
printf(sum= %d,x+y);
}

category-3:Function with arguments and return

value:
 In this type the function has some arguments, it receives
data from the calling function. Similarly it returns a value,
the calling function receives data from the called
function. So there is two way data communication
between calling function and called function.

Example : cat3.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int sum(int,int);
int a,b,s;
clrscr();
printf(Enter any two numbers :);
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
s=sum(a,b);
printf(sum= %d,s);
getch();
}
int sum(int x,int y)
{
return x+y;
}

category-4: Function with no arguments and return

value:

In this type the function has no arguments, it doesnot

receive any data from the calling function. But it returns a
value, the calling function receives data from the called
function. So there is one way data communication
between called function and calling function.

Example : cat4.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int sum();
int s;
clrscr();
s=sum();
printf("sum = %d",s);
 getch();
}
int sum()
{
int a,b;
printf(Enter any two numbers:);
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
return a+b;
}

Program : fn_max.c

To find maximum value of given 2 numbers

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int maxval(int,int);
int a,b,c,m;
 clrscr();
printf("Enter 3 numbrs : ");
scanf("%d%d%d",&a,&b,&c);
m=maxval(a,b);
m=maxval(m,c);
printf("Maximum Value : %d",m);
getch();
}
int maxval(int x,int y)
{
if(x>y)
return x;
else
return y;
}

Program : nnos_fn.c

To display natural numbers from 1 to n

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
void disp(int);
 int n;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
disp(n);
getch();
}
void disp(int x)
{
int i;
for(i=1;i<=x;i++)
{
printf("%d\t",i);
}
}

Program : fact_fn.c

To calculate factorial of given number

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
 unsigned long fact(int);
int n;
unsigned long f;
clrscr();
printf("Entr a number : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
f=fact(n);
printf("Factorial of %d : %lu",n,f);
getch();
}
unsigned long fact(int x)
{
unsigned long f=1;
while(x>=1)
{
f=f*x;
x--;
}
return f;
}

Program : rev_fn.c

To display reverse number of given number

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
unsigned long rev(int);
int n;
unsigned long r;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
r=rev(n);
printf("Reverse number of %d : %lu",n,r);
getch();
}
unsigned long rev(int x)
{
unsigned long r=0;
while(x>0)
{
r=r*10+(x%10);
x=x/10;
}
return r;
}

Program : fibo_fn.c

To generate fibonacci series

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
void fibo(int);
int n;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("Fibonacci series \n");
fibo(n);
getch();
}
void fibo(int x)
{
int i,a=0,b=1,c;
printf("%d\t%d",a,b);
 for(i=1;i<=x-2;i++)
{
c=a+b;
printf("\t%d",c);
a=b;
b=c;
}
}

Program : lcm_gcd.c

To find LCM and GCD of given numbers

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int lcm(int,int);
int gcd(int,int);
int l,g,a,b;
clrscr();
printf("Enter 2 numbers : ");
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
l=lcm(a,b);
 g=gcd(a,b);
printf("LCM of %d and %d : %d\n",a,b,l);
printf("GCD of %d and %d : %d",a,b,g);
getch();
}
int lcm(int x,int y)
{
int lm;
if(x>y)
lm=x;
else
lm=y;
while(1)
{
if(lm%x==0 && lm%y==0)
break;
lm++;
}
return lm;
}
int gcd(int x,int y)
{
int gd,i;
for(i=1;i<=x && i<=y;i++)
 {
if(x%i==0 && y%i==0)
gd=i;
}
return gd;
}

1
( n=0,r=0)
n values
1 1
(n=1,r=0) (n=1,r=1)

1 2 1
(n=2,r=0) (n=2,r=1) (n=2,r=2)

1 3 3
1
(n=3,r=0) (n=3,r=1) (n=3,r=2)
(n=3,r=3)

1 4 6 4
1
(n=4,r=0) (n=4,r=1) (n=4,r=2) (n=4,r=3)
(n=4,r=4)

r values

Storage classes

By the declaration statement the memory is allocated

temporarily for all the variables. The size of memory
varies with respect to the type of the variable. The
availability of the variables for access depends on its
declaration type.

The storage class specifiers are used to specify the

life and scope of the variables with in blocks, functions
and the entire program.

There are 4 types of storage classes supported by C

language Namely
1) automatic variables
2) static variables
3) external or global variables
4) register variables
automatic variables :

These variables are declared inside a function

block.If there is no storage class specifier before the
declaration of any variable inside a function block, by
default it takes auto storage class.

Storage : main memory

Default value : garbage value
Scope : Local to the block in which it is defined
Life : Till the control remains within the
block in which it is defined
Keyword : auto

Program : auto1.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
auto int a,b;
clrscr();
 printf("\na = %d",a);
printf("\nb = %d",b);
getch();
}

static variables :
The memory of static variables remains unchanged
until the end of the program.

Storage : main memory

Default value : zero

Scope :Local to the block in which it is defined

Life : The value of static variable persists

between
different function calls , that means
it cannot reinitialize between the
different function calls

Keyword : static
Program : static1.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
static int a,b;
clrscr();
printf("\na = %d",a);
printf("\nb = %d",b);
getch();
}

Program : static2.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
void disp();
int i;
clrscr();
 for(i=1;i<=10;i++)
{
disp();
}
getch();
}
void disp()
{
static int n=1;
printf("%d\t",n);
n++;
}
Output
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Here n is static, it cannot reinitializes between function

calls,.

Also if we declare n as automatic variable, we will get

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
external (or) global variables :

The variables that are both alive and active throughout

the entire program are known as global variables.

Storage : main memory

Default value : zero
Scope : global
Life : As long as the program execution doesnot
come to end
Keyword : extern

Program : extern1.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
int a,b;
void main()
{

clrscr();
printf("\na = %d",a);
 printf("\nb = %d",b);
getch();
}

Program : extern2.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
extern int a;
clrscr();
printf("a = %d",a);
getch();
}
int a=100;

Note :

Without the keyword extern in main() block, we will get

garbage values of a. This is because a becomes local to
main().
Register variables :

We can use register variables for frequently used

variables to improve the faster execution of program.
These variables are also declared inside a function block.

Storage : CPU register

Default value : Garbage value
Scope : Local to the block in which it is defined
Life : Till the control within the block in which
it is
defined
Keyword : register

Note :
It supports only integral data types (int and char)

Program : register.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
register int a,b;
clrscr();
printf("\na = %d",a);
printf("\nb = %d",b);
getch();
}

Recursive Function :

Calling a function within the same function definition is

called as recursive function.
If we want to work with recursive function, we must
follow the following 2 aspects.
1) Calling by itself
2) Termination condition

Program : nnos_rfn.c

To display natural numbers from 1 to n using recursive

function
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
void disp(int);
int n;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("Natural numbers from 1 to %d : \n\n",n);
disp(n);
getch();
}
void disp(int x)
{
if(x>1)
disp(x-1);
printf("%d\t",x);
}

Note :

If we want to display number from 100 to 1, write the

printf(%d\t,x) statement as the first statement in
recursive method.

Program : fact_rfn.c

To find factorial of given number using recursive

function

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
unsigned long fact(int);
int n;
unsigned long f;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
f=fact(n);
printf("Factorial of %d is %lu",n,f);
getch();
}
unsigned long fact(int x)
{
if(x<=1)
 return 1;
else
return x*fact(x-1);
}

Program : ncr_rfn.c

To find ncr value using recursive function

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
unsigned long fact(int);
int n,r,ncr;
printf("Enter n and r values : ");
scanf("%d%d",&n,&r);
ncr=fact(n)/(fact(n-r)*fact(r));
printf("ncr value : %d",ncr);
getch();

nsigned long fact(int x)

{
if(x<=1)
 return 1;
else
return x*fact(x-1);
}

Calculating ncr values :

4c2 = 6 ( 4 * 5 ) / ( 1 * 2)

8c3 = 56 ( 8 * 7 * 6 ) / ( 1 * 2 * 3 )

Program : pascal.c

To display Pascal Triangle

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
unsigned long fact(int);
int i,j,k,n,ncr,s;
printf("Enter n value : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
s=n*2;
 for(i=0;i<=n;i++)
{
/* for(k=1;k<=s;k++)
{
printf(" ");
} */
printf("%*c",s,32);
for(j=0;j<=i;j++)
{
ncr=fact(i)/(fact(i-j)*fact(j));
printf("%d ",ncr);
}
printf("\n\n");
s=s-2;
}
getch();
}
unsigned long fact(int x)
{
if(x<=1)
return 1;
else
return x*fact(x-1);
}
Program : rev_rfn.c

To find reverse number of given number using recursive

function

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
unsigned long rev(int);
unsigned long r;
int n;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
r=rev(n);
printf("Reverse number : %lu",r);
getch();
}
unsigned long rev(int x)
{
 static unsigned long r=0;
r=(r*10)+(x%10);
x=x/10;
if(x>0)
rev(x);
return r;
}
Note :

If we declare r as automatic variable, we will get only the

last digit of the resultant number as output. Because for
each function call r is initialized to zero and only the last
iteration value is stored in r, hence we will get the last
digit of the number as output. So we should declare r as
static.

Progra
m : fibo_rfn.c

To generate fibonacci series using recursive function

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
void fibo(int);
int n;
printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
fibo(n);
getch();
}
void fibo(int x)
{
static int a=1,b=0,c=0;
if(x>=1)
{
printf("\t%d",c);
c=a+b;
a=b;
b=c;
fibo(x-1);
}
}
Program : mn_mn.c

To display natural numbers using recursive

function(main within another main)
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
static int i=1,n;
if(i==1)
{
printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
}
printf("%d\t",i);
i++;
if(i<=n)
main();
getch();
exit(0);
}

Note :

Here we are using main() within main(), and main()

returns void data type, we have to press the enter key n
times(if n=5, 5 times) to come out from the program, to
avoid this we will use exit(0). Check this without giving
exit(0).

Math.h Functions :

sqrt :
It Calculates the square root of a given number.

Syntax :
double sqrt(double x);

Program : sqrt.c

To find square root of given number

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<math.h>
void main()
{
int n;
double s;
clrscr();
 printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
s=sqrt(n);
printf("Square root of %d = %.3lf",n,s);
getch();
}

Pow :
It Calculates exponential value of given base and
power.

Syntax :

double pow(double x,double y);

Here x is base and y is power.

Program : power.c

To find exponential value of given base and power

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<math.h>
void main()
{
int b,p;
double e;
printf("Enter base and power values : ");
scanf("%d%d",&b,&p);
e=pow(b,p);
printf("Exponential value = %.3lf",e);
getch();
}

floor : It rounds down the given value

Syntax : double floor(double x);

ceil : It rounds up the given value.

Syntax : double ceil(double x);

Program : flor_ceil.c
To find floor and ceil values of a given number

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<math.h>
void main()
{
double n,f,c;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%lf",&n);
f=floor(n);
c=ceil(n);
printf("Floor Value = %.2lf",f);
printf("\nCeil Value = %.2lf",c);
getch();
}

abs :

It is a macro that gets the absolute value of an integer

Syntax :
 int abs(int x);

Program : abs.c

To display absolute value of given number

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n,a;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
a=abs(n);
printf("Given value : %d",n);
printf("\nAbsolute value : %d",a);
getch();
}

Program : triangle.c

To find area of given triangle with 3 sides

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<math.h>
void main()
{
float a,b,c,s,area;
printf("Enter sides of a triangle : ");
scanf("%f%f%f",&a,&b,&c);
if(a+b<=c || a+c<=b || b+c<=a)
{
printf("unable to form a triangle");
getch();
exit(0);
}
s=(a+b+c)/2;
area=sqrt(s*(s-a)*(s-b)*(s-c));
printf("Area of triangle = %.2f sq units",area);
getch();
}

Program : compound.c

To enter principal amount, rate of interest and time,

then calculate total amount with compound interest
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<math.h>
void main()
{
int y,m,n;
float p,r,i,tot;
clrscr();
printf("Enter Principal Amount : ");
scanf("%f",&p);
printf("Enter Rate of Interest : ");
scanf("%f",&r);
printf("Enter time(years and months) : ");
scanf("%d%d",&y,&m);
n=y*12+m;
tot=p*pow(1+(r/100),n);
i=tot-p;
printf("Interest : %.2f",i);
printf("\nTotal Amount : %.2f",tot);
getch();
}

Program : sim_ser.c
Evaluate the following simple series
1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + 1/4 + .............

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,n;
float sum=0;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
{
sum=sum+(float)1/i;
}
printf("Sum = %.2f",sum);
getch();
}

Program : exp_ser.c

Evaluate the following exponential series

 1 + x + (x power 2 )/fact(2) + (x power 3)/fact(3)
+ ............... +
(x power n)/fact(n)

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<math.h>
void main()
{
unsigned long fact(int);
int i,x,n;
float sum=0;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a value of x and n : ");
scanf("%d%d",&x,&n);
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
{
sum=sum+pow(x,i)/fact(i);
}
printf("Sum = %.2f",sum);
getch();
}
unsigned long fact(int x)
{
 if(x<=1)
return 1;
else
return x*fact(x-1);
}

Program : sin_ser.c

Evaluate the following sinx series

x - (x power 3)/fact(3) + (x power 5)/fact(5) - (x
power 7)/fact(7) + ......
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<math.h>
void main()
{
unsigned long fact(int);
int i,n,x,p=1;
float sum=0;
clrscr();
printf("Enter value of x and n : ");
scanf("%d%d",&x,&n);
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
{
 if(i%2==0)
sum=sum-pow(x,p)/fact(p);
else
sum=sum+pow(x,p)/fact(p);
p=p+2;
}
printf("Sum = %.2f",sum);
getch();
}
unsigned long fact(int x)
{
if(x<=1)
return 1;
else
return x*fact(x-1);
}

Program : cos_ser.c

Evaluate the following cosx series

1 - (x power 2)/fact(2) + (x power 4)/fact(4) - (x
power 6)/fact(6) + ......

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<math.h>
void main()
{
unsigned long fact(int);
int i,n,x,p=0;
float sum=0;
clrscr();
printf("Enter value of x and n : ");
scanf("%d%d",&x,&n);
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
{
if(i%2==0)
sum=sum-pow(x,p)/fact(p);
else
sum=sum+pow(x,p)/fact(p);
p=p+2;
}
printf("Sum = %.2f",sum);
getch();
}
unsigned long fact(int x)
{
if(x<=1)
 return 1;
else
return x*fact(x-1);
}

int a,b,c,d,e,f;

Arrays

Array is a collection of data items ( variables) of

same datatype, stored in a continuous memory locations
and it can be referred as a common name. A particular
value in the array is indicated by using a number called
index or subscript in square braces after the array name.

Types of arrays :
C supports 3 types of arrays,they are

1) One/single dimensional arrays

2) Two /double dimensional arrays
3) Multi dimensional arrays
One/single dimensional array :

A group of data items can be given one variable name,

using only one index, such a variable is called as single
dimensional array. In single dimensional array the
elements are represented one after the other in edges of
memory bytes.

Declaration :

datatype arr_name[size];

Eg : int a[5];

Elements are : a[0],a[1],a[2],a[3],a[4];

Note :
In any array, the array index is from 0 to size - 1

Initialization :

optional
datatype arr_name[size] = {val-1,val-2,..val-n};
Eg : int a[5]={1,2,3,4,5};
(Or)
int a[]={1,2,3,4,5,6,7};

Program : arr1.c

To initialize 1D array and to display elements

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,a[5]={1,2,3,4,5};
clrscr();
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
{
printf("\n a[%d] = %d",i,a[i]);
}
getch();
}
Program : arr2.c

To accept array elements and to display the elements

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,n,a[20];
clrscr();
printf("Enter number of elements : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
if(n>20)
{
printf("Invalid size");
getch();
exit(0);
}
printf("\nEnter Elements : ");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
}
printf("\nGiven Elements : ");
 for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("\n a[%d] = %d",i,a[i]);
}
getch();
}

Program : arr3.c

To accept 1D array and to display maximum and

minimum elements

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,n,a[20],max,min;
clrscr();
printf("Enter number of Elements : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("\nEnter Elements : ");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
 }
max=min=a[0];
for(i=1;i<n;i++)
{
if(a[i]>max)
max=a[i];
if(a[i]<min)
min=a[i];
}
printf("\nMaximum Element : %d",max);
printf("\nMinimum Element : %d",min);
getch();
}

Program : arr4.c

To accept 1D array and to search specified element in

the given array

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a[20],n,i,se,ck=0;
 clrscr();
printf("Enter number of Elements : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("\nEnter Elements \n\n");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("Enter element in a[%d] : ",i);
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
}
printf("\n\nEnter Element to Search : ");
scanf("%d",&se);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
if(a[i]==se)
{
ck=1;
printf("\n%d is found at a[%d]",se,i);
}
}
if(ck==0)
printf("%d is not found",se);
getch();
}
Program : arr5.c

To accept 1D array and to sort the given elements in

ascending order/

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a[20],n,i,j,t;
clrscr();
printf("Enter number of Elements : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("\nEnter Elements : \n");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
}
printf("\n\nElements Before Sorting : ");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("\na[%d]=%d",i,a[i]);
}
// sorting //
 for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
for(j=i+1;j<n;j++)
{
if(a[i]>a[j])
{
t=a[i];
a[i]=a[j];
a[j]=t;
}
}
}
printf("\n\nElements After Sorting : ");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("\na[%d]=%d",i,a[i]);
}
getch();
}
Program : arr6.c

To accept and display 1D array using functions

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
void accept(int [],int);
void disp(int [],int);
int a[20],n;
clrscr();
printf("Enter number of elements : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("Enter Elements : ");
accept(a,n);
printf("Given Elements : ");
disp(a,n);
getch();
}
void accept(int x[],int s)
{
int i;
for(i=0;i<s;i++)
{
scanf("%d",&x[i]);
}
}
void disp(int x[],int s)
{
int i;
for(i=0;i<s;i++)
{
printf("\t%d",x[i]);
}
}

Program : arr7.c

To accept 1D array and display elements in ascending

order using functions

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
void accept(int[],int);
void disp(int[],int);
void sort(int[],int);
int a[20],n;
 printf("Enter number of elements : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("Enter elements : ");
accept(a,n);
printf("\nElements Before Sorting :");
disp(a,n);
sort(a,n);
printf("\nElements After Sorting : ");
disp(a,n);
getch();
}

void accept(int a[],int n)

{
int i;
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
}
}
void disp(int a[],int n)
{
int i;
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
 {
printf("\t%d",a[i]);
}
}
void sort(int a[],int n)
{
int i,j,t;
for(i=0;i<n-1;i++)
{
for(j=i+1;j<n;j++)
{
if(a[i]>a[j])
{
t=a[i];
a[i]=a[j];
a[j]=t;
}
}
}
}

Program : arr8.c

To accept 1D array and search specified element using

functions

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
void accept(int[],int);
void disp(int[],int);
int search(int[],int,int);
int a[20],n,se,p;
printf("Enter number of elements : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("Enter elements : ");
accept(a,n);
printf("\nGiven Elements :");
disp(a,n);
printf("\nEnter element to search : ");
scanf("%d",&se);
p=search(a,n,se);
if(p==-1)
printf("%d is not found",se);
else
printf("%d is found at position %d",se,p);
getch();
}
void accept(int a[],int n)
{
int i;
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
}
}
void disp(int a[],int n)
{
int i;
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("\t%d",a[i]);
}
}
int search(int a[],int n,int se)
{
int i;
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
if(a[i]==se)
return i;
 }
return -1;
}

Two (or) Double dimensional arrays :

A Two dimensional array can store a table of
values which contains rows and columns. In this
array we use 2 index values. The first index is for
rows and second index is for columns.

The general form of Two dimensional array is :

datatype arr_name[row size][column size];

Eg : int a[3][3];

Elements are :
a[0][0] a[0][1] a[0][2]
a[1][0] a[1][1] a[1][2]
a[2][0] a[2][1] a[2][2]
Initialization :
Form : 1
optional
datatype arr_name[row size][col size]={value-
1,........,value-n};
Eg :

1) int a[2][2] = {1,2,3,4};

2) int a[2][2] = {1,2,3,4,5}; not possible

3) int a[ ][2] = {1,2,3,4,5}; is possible

Here the rows are allocated according to the
given elements and it will assign zeros for
remaining values.
1 2
3 4
5 0

Form : 2
optional
datatype arr_name[row size][col size]={ {value-
1,...,value-n},
{value-
1,....,value-n},
-----------
--------------
-----------
--------------
{value-
1,....,value-n}};
Eg :

4) int a[3][3]={{1,2,3},
{4,5,6},
{7,8,9} };

1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9

5) int a[3][3]={{1},
{4,6},
{8,9}};
 1 0 0
4 6 0
8 9 0

If the values are missing it will assign zeros in

that element place.

Program : arr11.c

To initialize 2D array and display elements

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
//int a[3][3]={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}; (or)
int a[3][3]={{1,2,3},
{4,5,6},
{7,8,9}};
 int i,j;
clrscr();
for(i=0;i<3;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<3;j++)
{
printf("\na[%d][%d]=%d",i,j,a[i][j]);
}
}
getch();
}

Program : arr12.c

To accept 2D array and display elements

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a[10][10],r,c,i,j;
clrscr();
printf("Enter number of rows and columns : ");
scanf("%d%d",&r,&c);
if(r>10 || c>10)
{
printf("Invalid Size");
getch();
exit(0);
}
printf("\nEnter Elements : ");
for(i=0;i<r;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<c;j++)
{
scanf("%d",&a[i][j]);
}
}
printf("\nGiven Elements : \n");
for(i=0;i<r;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<c;j++)
{
printf("%3d",a[i][j]);
}
printf("\n");
}
 getch();
}

Program : arr13.c

To accept 2 dimensional array and display elements

using functions

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
void accept(int [][10],int,int);
void disp(int [][10],int,int);
int a[10][10],r,c;
clrscr();
printf("Enter number of rows and columns : ");
scanf("%d%d",&r,&c);
printf("\nEnter Elements : ");
accept(a,r,c);
printf("\nGiven Elements : ");
disp(a,r,c);
getch();
}
void accept(int a[][10],int r,int c)
{
int i,j;
for(i=0;i<r;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<c;j++)
{
scanf("%d",&a[i][j]);
}
}
}
void disp(int a[][10],int r,int c)
{
int i,j;
for(i=0;i<r;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<c;j++)
{
printf("%3d",a[i][j]);
}
printf("\n");
}
}
Program : arr14.c

Addition of two Matrices using arrays and functions

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
void accept(int [][10],int,int);
void disp(int [][10],int,int);
void addt(int [][10],int[][10],int[][10],int,int);
int a[10][10],b[10][10],add[10][10],r,c;
clrscr();
printf("Enter number of rows and columns : ");
scanf("%d%d",&r,&c);
printf("\nEnter First Matrix Elements : ");
accept(a,r,c);
printf("\nEnter Second Matrix Elements : ");
accept(b,r,c);
printf("\nElements of Given First Matrix : \n");
disp(a,r,c);
printf("\nElements of Given Second Matrix : \n");
disp(b,r,c);
addt(a,b,add,r,c);
 printf("\n Addition of given 2 Matrices :\n");
disp(add,r,c);
getch();
}
void accept(int a[][10],int r,int c)
{
int i,j;
for(i=0;i<r;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<c;j++)
{
scanf("%d",&a[i][j]);
}
}
}
void disp(int a[][10],int r,int c)
{
int i,j;
for(i=0;i<r;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<c;j++)
{
printf("%3d",a[i][j]);
}
 printf("\n");
}
}
void addt(int a[][10],int b[][10],int add[][10],int r,int c)
{
int i,j;
for(i=0;i<r;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<c;j++)
{
add[i][j]=a[i][j]+b[i][j];
}
}
}

pogram : arr15.c

Multiplicaton of two Matrices using arrays and

functions

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
void accept(int [][10],int,int);
void disp(int [][10],int,int);
void mul(int [][10],int[][10],int[][10],int,int,int);
int a[10][10],b[10][10],c[10][10],m,n,p,q;
clrscr();
printf("Enter number of rows and columns of First
Matrix : ");
scanf("%d%d",&m,&n);
printf("Enter number of rows and columns of Second
Matrix : ");
scanf("%d%d",&p,&q);
if(n!=p)
{
printf("\nMatrix Multiplication is not Possible");
getch();
exit(0);
}
printf("\nEnter First Matrix Elements : ");
accept(a,m,n);
printf("\nEnter Second Matrix Elements : ");
accept(b,p,q);
printf("\nElements of Given First Matrix : \n");
 disp(a,m,n);
printf("\nElements of Given Second Matrix : \n");
disp(b,p,q);
mul(a,b,c,m,n,q);
printf("\nMultiplication of given Matrices :\n");
disp(c,m,q);
getch();
}
void accept(int a[][10],int r,int c)
{
int i,j;
for(i=0;i<r;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<c;j++)
{
scanf("%d",&a[i][j]);
}
}
}
void disp(int a[][10],int r,int c)
{
int i,j;
for(i=0;i<r;i++)
{
 for(j=0;j<c;j++)
{
printf("%3d",a[i][j]);
}
printf("\n");
}
}
void mul(int a[][10],int b[][10],int c[][10],int m,int n,int
q)
{
int i,j,k;
for(i=0;i<m;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<q;j++)
{
c[i][j]=0;
for(k=0;k<n;k++)
{
c[i][j]=c[i][j]+(a[i][k]*b[k][j]);
}
}
}
}
Program : arr16.c

To check whether the given matrix is identity matrix or

not

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
void accept(int [][10],int,int);
void disp(int [][10],int,int);
int checkmat(int [][10],int,int);
int a[10][10],r,c,k;
printf("Enter number of rows and columns : ");
scanf("%d%d",&r,&c);
printf("\nEnter Elements : ");
accept(a,r,c);
printf("\nGiven Elements : ");
disp(a,r,c);
k=checkmat(a,r,c);
if(k==1)
printf("Given Matrix is Indentity Matrix");
else
 printf("Given Matrix is not Indentity Matrix");
getch();
}
void accept(int a[][10],int r,int c)
{
int i,j;
for(i=0;i<r;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<c;j++)
{
scanf("%d",&a[i][j]);
}
}
}
void disp(int a[][10],int r,int c)
{
int i,j;
for(i=0;i<r;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<c;j++)
{
printf("%3d",a[i][j]);
}
printf("\n");
 }
}
int checkmat(int a[][10],int r,int c)
{
int i,j;
for(i=0;i<r;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<c;j++)
{
if(i==j)
{
if(a[i][j]!=1)
return 0;
}
else
{
if(a[i][j]!=0)
return 0;
}
}
}
return 1;
}
Program : arr17.c

To find Transpose of the given matrix

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
void accept(int [][10],int,int);
void disp(int [][10],int,int);
void trans(int [][10],int[][10],int,int);
int a[10][10],at[10][10],r,c;
clrscr();
printf("Enter number of rows and columns : ");
scanf("%d%d",&r,&c);
printf("\nEnter Elements : ");
accept(a,r,c);
printf("\nGiven Elements : \n");
disp(a,r,c);
trans(a,at,r,c);
printf("Transpose Matrix : \n");
disp(at,c,r);
getch();
}
void accept(int a[][10],int r,int c)
{
int i,j;
for(i=0;i<r;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<c;j++)
{
scanf("%d",&a[i][j]);
}
}
}
void disp(int a[][10],int r,int c)
{
int i,j;
for(i=0;i<r;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<c;j++)
{
printf("%3d",a[i][j]);
}
printf("\n");
}
}
void trans(int a[][10],int at[][10],int r,int c)
{
int i,j;
/* for(i=0;i<r;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<c;j++)
{
at[j][i]=a[i][j];
}
}
*/
for(i=0;i<c;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<r;j++)
{
at[i][j]=a[j][i];
}
}
}

a[2][2][3]

a[0][0][0] a[0][1] a[0][2]

a[1][0] a[1][1] a[1][2]
a[1][0][0] a[0][1] a[0][2]
a[1][0] a[1][1] a[1][2]

Multi dimensional array :

C supports arrays of 3 or more dimensions.

In Multi dimensional arrays we use more than 2
index values.

Syntax :
Datatype arr_name [s1][s2]
[sn];

Eg : int a[2][2][3]

Elements : a[0][0][0] a[0][0][1]

a[0][0][2]
 a[0][1][0] a[0][1][1]
a[0][1][2]

a[1][0][0] a[1][0][1]
a[1][0][2]
a[1][1][0] a[1][1][1]
a[1][1][2]

Program : arr18.c

To display multi dimensional array

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
 int a[2][2][3],i,j,k;
for(i=0;i<2;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<2;j++)
{
for(k=0;k<3;k++)
{
printf("Enter Value into a[%d][%d]
[%d] : ",i,j,k);
scanf("%d",&a[i][j][k]);
}
}
}
for(i=0;i<2;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<2;j++)
{
for(k=0;k<3;k++)
{
printf("\nGiven Value in a[%d][%d][%d]
= %d",i,j,k,a[i][j][k]);
 }
}
}
getch();
}

Strings
A group of characters defined between
double quotation marks is a string. It is a
constant string ,But in C language, a string
variable is nothing but an array of characters
and terminated by a null character (\0).

Declaration :

char identifier [size] ;

 Eg : char st[20] ;

Initialization :

At the time of declaring a string variable we

can store a constant string into the variable is
called as initialization of a string.

optional
Syntax : char identifier[size] = string;

Eg : char st[10] = WELCOME;

char str[ ] = ABCD ;

Note :

1. The compiler assigns a constant

string to a string variable, it automatically
supplies a null character (\0)at the end of a
string. Therefore the size should be equal to
 number of characters in the string plus 1.
2. In C language, string initialization is
possible, but string assigning is not
possible.

Program : str1.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
char st[10]="WELCOME";
char str[]="ABCD";
clrscr();
printf("st = %s",st);
printf("\nstr = %s",str);
getch();
}

gets :
It gets a string from stdin(keyboard).

Syntax :
 char * gets(char *s);

Eg :

1) gets(st);
2) gets(welcome); -> not possible

puts :
It outputs a string to stdout (monitor)and appends
a new line character.

Syntax : char * puts(const char *s);

Eg :

1) puts(st);
2) puts(welcome); -> possible

Program : str2.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
char st[20];
clrscr();
puts("Enter a String : ");
gets(st);
puts("Given String : ");
puts(st);
getch();
}

getch:
It gets a character from the console but doesnot
echo to the screen.

Syntax : int getch();

getche :
It gets a character from the console and echoes to
the screen.

Syntax : int getche();

Program : str3.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
char ch;
char che;
clrscr();
printf("Enter first character : ");
ch=getch();
printf("Enter second character : ");
che=getche();
printf("First character : %c"ch);
printf("Second character : %c"che);
getch();
}

Note :

No need to press enter key after entering a character

because this function itself supplies a new line character
at the end of the character.
getchar :
It is a macro that gets a character from stdin.

Syntax : int getchar();

putchar :
It is a macro that outputs a character on stdout.

Syntax : int putchar(int c);

Program : str4.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
char ch;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a character : ");
ch=getchar();
printf("Given character : ");
putchar(ch);
 getch();
}

String handling functions :

These are included in the header file <string.h>

strlen :
It calculates length of given string.

Syntax :

size_t strlen(const char *s);

Program : str5.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
int len;
char s[20];
clrscr();
 printf("Enter a string : ");
gets(s);
len=strlen(s);
printf("Length of given string : %d",len);
getch();
}

strcpy :
It copies one string to another .

Syntax :
char * strcpy(char *dest, const char *src);

Program : str6.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
int len;
char s1[20],s2[20];
clrscr();
 printf("Enter a string : ");
gets(s1);
strcpy(s2,s1);
printf("\nGiven string : %s",s1);
printf("\nCopied String : %s",s2);
getch();
}
strrev :

It reverses all characters in the given string except for

the terminating null.

Syntax :
char * strrev(char *s);

Program : str7.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
char s[80];
clrscr();
 printf("Enter a string : ");
gets(s);
printf("Given string : %s",s);
strrev(s);
printf("\nReverse string : %s",s);
getch();
}

strcat :
It appends one string to another.

Syntax :
char * strcat(char *dest, const char *src);

Note :
strcat appends a copy of src to the end of dest. The length
of resulting string is :
strlen(dest) + strlen(src)

Program : str8.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
char s1[80],s2[80];
clrscr();
printf("Enter first string : ");
gets(s1);
printf("Enter second string : ");
gets(s2);
strcat(s1,s2);
printf("\nConcatenation of 2 strings : %s",s1);
getch();
}

strupr :
It converts lower case(a to z) letters in the given string
to upper case(A to Z).

Syntax : char * strupr(char *s);

strlwr :
It converts upper case(A to Z) letters in the given
string to lower case(a to z).
Syntax : char * strlwr(char *s);

Program : str9.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
char s[80];
clrscr();
printf("Enter a string : ");
gets(s);
printf("Given string : %s",s);
strlwr(s);
printf("\nGiven string in lower case: %s",s);
strupr(s);
printf("\nGiven string in upper case: %s",s);
getch();
}
strcmp : It compares 2 string with case sensitivity.

Syntax :

int strcmp(const char *s1, const char *s2);

stricmp :
It compares 2 string without case sensitivity.

syntax:
int stricmp(const char *s1, const char *s2);
strcmpi :
It is a macro which compares 2 string without case
sensitivity.
Syntax :
int strcmpi(const char * s1, const char * s2);

Return value :

These routines(functions) return an int value, that is

< 0 s1 < s2
= 0 s1 = s2
> 0 s1 > s2
Program : str10.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
char s1[80],s2[80];
int n;
clrscr();
printf("Enter first string : ");
gets(s1);
printf("Enter second string : ");
gets(s2);
// n=strcmp(s1,s2);
n=stricmp(s1,s2);
// n=strcmpi(s1,s2);
if(n==0)
 printf("\n2 strings are equal");
if(n<0)
printf("\nFirst string is less than Second string");
if(n>0)
printf("\nFirst string is greater than Second string");
getch();
}

Program : str11.c
To check weather the given string is Plindrome or Not

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
char s1[80],s2[80];
int n;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a string : ");
gets(s1);
strcpy(s2,s1);
strrev(s2);
n=strcmp(s1,s2);
 if(n==0)
printf("\nGiven string is a Palindrome");
else
printf("\nGiven string is not a Palindrome");
getch();
}

Program : str12.c

To find character frequency of given String

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
static int a[256],i;
char st[80];
clrscr();
printf("Enter a String : ");
gets(st);
for(i=0;i<strlen(st);i++)
{
a[st[i]]=a[st[i]]+1;
}
 printf("\nCharacter Frequency");
printf("\n----------------------\n");
for(i=0;i<256;i++)
{
if(a[i]!=0)
printf("\n%c %d",i,a[i]);
}
getch();
}

Program : str13.c

To enter any password and display the password string

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
char st[20],ch;
int i=0;
clrscr();
gotoxy(20,15);
printf("Enter Password : ");
while(1)
{
ch=getch();
if(ch==13)
break;
if(ch==8)
{
if(i>0)
{
printf("\b%c\b",32);
i--;
}
}
else
{
st[i]=ch;
i++;
printf("*");
}
}
st[i]='\0';
gotoxy(20,30);
printf("Given String : %s",st);
getch();
}

Program : str14.c

To enter any String and drop characters from top to

bottom

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
char st[40];
int i,j,c;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a String : ");
gets(st);
_setcursortype(_NOCURSOR);
while(1)
 {
c=(80-strlen(st))/2;
clrscr();
gotoxy(c,1);
printf("%s",st);
for(i=0;i<strlen(st);i++)
{
if(st[i]!=0)
{
for(j=2;j<=25;j++)
{
if(kbhit())
exit(0);
gotoxy(c,j);
printf("%c",st[i]);
gotoxy(c,j-1);
printf("%c",32);
delay(20);
}
}
c++;
}
}
}
Program : str15.c

To enter any String and drop characters from top to

bottom and again bottom to top

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
char st[40];
int c,i,j;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a string : ");
gets(st);
_setcursortype(_NOCURSOR);
while(!kbhit()) // while(1)
{
c=(80-strlen(st))/2;
clrscr();
gotoxy(c,1);
printf("%s",st);
for(i=0;i<strlen(st);i++)
{
 if(st[i]!=32)
{
for(j=2;j<=25;j++)
{
// if(kbhit())
// exit(0);
gotoxy(c,j);
printf("%c",st[i]);
gotoxy(c,j-1);
printf("%c",32);
delay(20);
}
}
c++;
}
for(i=strlen(st)-1;i>=0;i--)
{
c--;
if(st[i]!=32)
{
for(j=24;j>=1;j--)
{
// if(kbhit())
// exit(0);
 gotoxy(c,j);
printf("%c",st[i]);
gotoxy(c,j+1);
printf("%c",32);
delay(20);
}
}
}
}
}

Program : str16.c

Scrolling the given string on screen center

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
char st[40],ch;
int c,i;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a string : ");
gets(st);
strcat(st," ");
strupr(st);
clrscr();
textmode(1);
_setcursortype(_NOCURSOR);
textbackground(WHITE);
textcolor(RED);
c=(40-strlen(st))/2;
gotoxy(c,12);
cprintf("%s",st);
while(!kbhit())
{
ch=st[0];
for(i=0;i<strlen(st);i++)
{
st[i]=st[i+1];
}
st[i-1]=ch;
st[i]='\0';
gotoxy(c,12);
cprintf("%s",st);
delay(100);
}
getch();
}

Two dimensional character arrays (String array) :

A list of strings can be treated as a table of strings and a

two dimensional character array can be used to store the
entire list.
For example :
char st[20][20] may be used to store a list of 20 strings,
each of length not more than 20 characters.

Program : strarr1.c

To enter group of strings and to display them

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
char st[20][20];
int n,i;
clrscr();
printf("Enter number of strings : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
 printf("Enter %d strings : ",n);
fflush(stdin);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
gets(st[i]);
}
printf("\nGiven strings : ");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
puts(st[i]);
}
getch();
}

Program : strarr2.c

To enter group of strings and to display them in

alphabetical order

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
char st[20][20],t[20];
int n,i,j,k;
clrscr();
printf("Enter number of strings : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("Enter %d strings : \n",n);
fflush(stdin);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
gets(st[i]);
}
printf("\nGiven strings : \n");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
puts(st[i]);
}
// soring //
for(i=0;i<n-1;i++)
{
for(j=i+1;j<n;j++)
{
k=strcmp(st[i],st[j]);
if(k>0)
{
strcpy(t,st[i]);
 strcpy(st[i],st[j]);
strcpy(st[j],t);
}
}
}
printf("\nGiven strings in Alphabetical order : \n");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
puts(st[i]);
}
getch();
}

Preprocessor statements or Preprocessor directives

The processor is a program that process the source

code before it passes through the compiler. The
commands used to control the processor are known as
preprocessor directives.

These directives are divided into 3 categories.

1. File inclusion directives

 2. Macro substitution directives
3. Compiler control directives

File inclusion directives:

#include:

It is a pre processor file inclusion directive and is

used to include header files. It provides instructions to the
compiler to link the functions from the system library.

Syntax:

#include "file name"

(or)
#include < file name>

When the file name is included within , the

search for the file is made first the current directory and
then the standard directories. Otherwise the file name is
included within < >, the file is searched only in the
standard directories.
Macro substitution directives:
Macro is a process where an identifier in a program is
replaced by a predefined string or value.

#define :

It is a preprocessor statement and is used to define

macros.

Syntax:

Form 1 : (simple macro)

#define identifier predefined_string or value

eg:
#define pf printf
#define sf scanf

Program : sim_mac.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#define pf printf
#define sf scanf
#define vm void main()
#define cls clrscr
#define gt getch
#define val 100
vm()
{
int n;
cls();
pf("Enter a number : ");
sf("%d",&n);
pf("Given Number = "%d",n);
p("\nval = %d",val);
gt();
}
Form 2 : (complex macro or macro with arguments)

Syntax:

#define identifier(arg-1,arg-2,.arg-n) definition

Eg:
#define square(x) x*x

Program : comx_mac.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#define square(x) x*x
void main()
{
int n,s;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a number : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
s=square(n);
printf("Square of given number = %d",s);
getch();
}

Difference between function and macro :

 Function Macro

1)It is a self contained block 1)It is a preprocessor

of statements. statement.

2)It replaces its return value 2)It replaces its

definition.

3)We can use only specified 3)Data types are

data types. generic.

4)Execution speed is less. 4)Execution speed is

more

Program : macr_def.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
//#define square(x) x*x
//#define square(x) (x*x)

void main()
{
 int n;
n=100/square(5);
printf("n = %d",n);
getch();
}

In the above example, if we gives

n=100/square(5), we should get 100(according to
macros). Because it is a precpcessor statement and it
replaces its definition. i.e. according to macro definition,
100/square(5) means 100/5*5=20*5=100.
According to function definition,
100/square(5) means 100/25=4
Hence the difference between macro and a function is in
macros, the method name is replaced with its definition.
i.e. square(a) is replaced with 5*5. whereas in functions,
the method is replaced with its value. i.e. square(5) is
replaced with the value 25.

If we want to get the result of 4, we should give

n = 100/(square(5))
or
in the macro definition we should give #define square(a)
(a*a)
 then, res = 100/(25)
=4

Program : macr_max.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#define maxval(a,b) a>b ? a:b
void main()
{
int a,b,max;
clrscr();
printf("Enter any two values : ");
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
max=maxval(a,b);
printf("Maximum value = %d",max);
getch();
}

Note :

The are predefined macros namely max and min, hence

do not use these names for defining macros.
Compiler control directives:

These directives are used to control the compiler. The

following compiler control directives are used in C.
1 #if
2 #else
3 #elif
4 #endif etc.

Program : comp_dir.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#define n 10
#if n<=10
#define val 100
#else
#define val 200
#endif
void main()
{
clrscr();
printf("Val = %d",val);
getch();
}

Pointers
C provides the important feature of data
manipulations with the address of the variables. Hence the
execution time is very much reduced. Such concept is
possible with the special data type called pointers.

Definition :

A pointer is a variable which stores the address of

another variable.

Declaration :

Pointer declaration is similar to normal variable but

preceded by * symbol.
syntax:
datatype *identifier;
eg:
int *p;
char *ch1,*ch2;
 int x,y,*p,z;

Initialization :

At the time of declaring a pointer, we can store some

address into that pointer is called as initialization of
pointer.

Syntax : datatype *identifier = address;

Example :

int a;
int *p = &a;

Assigning Address to a pointer:

datatype *identifier;
identifier=Address;
eg:
int *p;
int a;
p=&a;
void * :
It is a generic pointer, it refers the address of any type of
variable and also it will convert to any type of pointer.

eg:
void *p;

NULL :

Null pointer value (empty address)

Note :

Any type of pointer, it allocates only 2 bytes of

memory ,Because it stores the address of memory
location. In C language the memory address is in
unsigned integer. (2 bytes for unsigned int, in the range of
0 to 65535)
Program : ptr1.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int *p1;
char *p2;
float *p3;
double *p4;
clrscr();
printf("size of int pointer = %d bytes",sizeof(p1));
printf("\nsize of char pointer = %d bytes",sizeof(p2));
printf("\nsize of float pointer = %d bytes",sizeof(p3));
printf("\nsize of double pointer = %d bytes",sizeof(p4));
getch();
}

Accessing pointers :

int a=100; int a=100;

int *p=&a; (or) int *p;
p = &a;

a - 100 *p - 100
&a - 5000 p - 5000
a = 200 *p=200

Program : ptr2.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a=100;
int *p=&n;
clrscr();
printf("value of a = %d",a);
printf("\naddress of a = %lu",&a);
printf("\nvalue of a using p = %d",*p);
printf("\naddress of a using p = %lu",p);
n=200;
printf("\n *p = %d",*p);
*p=300;
printf("\n a = %d",a);
getch();
}

Pointers and Functions :

Calling mechanism of argument function (or) Parameter passing

techniques

1) Call by value (or) Pass by value

2) Call by reference (or) Pass by reference.
Call by value :

The process of passing the value to the function call is

known as call by value.

Program : fn1.c

Passing constant value

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
void fun(int);
clrscr();
fun(100);
getch();
}
void fun(int x)
{
printf("%d",x);
}

Program : fn2.c

Passing a variable

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
void fun(int);
int n;
clrscr();
printf("Enter any value : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
fun(n);
getch();
}
void fun(int x)
{
printf("Given value = %d",x);
}

Program : fn3.c
Passing an expression

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
void fun(int);
int a,b;
clrscr();
printf("Enter any two numbers : ");
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
fun(a+b);
getch();
}
void fun(int x)
{
printf("Sum = %d",x);
}

Call by reference :

The process of calling a function using pointers to pass

the address of the variables is called as call by reference.

Program : ptrfn1.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
void setdata(int *);
int a;
clrscr();
setdata(&a);
printf("a=%d",a);
getch();
}
void setdata(int *p)
{
*p=100;
}
Program : ptrfn2.c

To accept a value and display it using call by reference

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
void accept(int *);
int n;
clrscr();
accept(&n);
printf("Given value = %d",n);
getch();
}
void accept(int *p)
{
printf("Enter a value : ");
scanf("%d",p);
}

Program : ptrfn3.c
Swaping of 2 values using call by reference

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
void swap(int *,int *);
int a,b;
clrscr();
printf("Enter 2 values : ");
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
printf("\nGiven values before swaping : ");
printf("\na=%d",a);
printf("\nb=%d",b);
printf("\n\nGiven values after swaping : ");
swap(&a,&b);
printf("\na=%d",a);
printf("\nb=%d",b);
getch();
}
void swap(int *x,int *y)
{
int t;
t=*x;
 *x=*y;
*y=t;
}

Pointers and Arrays :

When an array is declared, the compiler allocates a
base address and sufficient amount of storage to contain
all the elements of array in continuous memory locations.
The base address is the location of the first element (index
= 0 ) of the array. The compiler also defines the array
name as a constant pointer to the first element.

Program : ptrarr1.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a[5];
clrscr();
printf("Base address : %u",&a[0]);
printf("\nBase address : %u",a);
 getch();
}

Suppose we declare an array a as follows :-

int a[5] = {1,2,3,4,5};
Suppose the base address of a=1000 and each integer
requires 2 bytes of memory,the 5 elements will be stored
as follows :-
 The name 'a' is defined as a constant pointer pointing
to the first element a[0] and therefore the value of a is
1000, the location where a[0] is stored.
Hence a= &a[0] = 1000

If we declare p as an integer pointer, then we can make

the pointer p to point to the array a by the following
assignment.
int *p;
p = a (or) p = &a[0];
 Now we can access every element of a using p++ or
p+0, p+1, .. to move one element to another. The
relationship between p and a is shown below.

p+0 = &a[0] = 1000

p+1 = &a[1] = 1002
p+2 = &a[2] = 1004
p+3 = &a[3] = 1006
p+4 = &a[4] = 1008

When handling arrays instead of using array index we

can use pointers to access array elements. Note that
*(p+k) gives the value of a[k].

To get the values of array elements :

*( p+0) = a[0] = 1
*(p+1) = a[1] = 2
 *(p+2)= a[2] = 3
*(p+3)= a[3] = 4
*(p+4) = a[4] = 5

Note :

The pointer accessing method is much faster than array

indexing.
Program : ptrarr2.c

To accept Single dimension array and display array

elements using pointer accessing method

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a[20],n,i,*p;
p=a; //p=&a[0];
clrscr();
printf("Enter number of elements : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("Enter array elements : ");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
scanf("%d",(p+i));
//directly we can give (a+i) without declaring *p, but
it is not efficient
}
printf("\nGiven array elements : ");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
 {
printf("%d\t",*(p+i));
// here also we can give *(a+i), instead of *(p+i)
}
getch();
}

Pointers and Strings

A pointer can also point to a string .

Program : ptrstr1.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
char *st;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a String : ");
gets(st);
printf("Given String : %s",st);
getch();
}
 We need not specify the size of String, the
compiler
automatically allocates sufficient
amount of memory

String copying using Pointers :

Program : ptrstr2.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
char *st1,*st2;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a String : ");
gets(st1);
st2=st1;
printf("Given String : %s",st1);
printf("\nCopied String : %s",st2);
getch();
}
Dynamic Memory Allocation(DMA) :

C language requires the number of elements in an array

to be specified at compile time. But we may not be able to
do so always. Our initial judgement of size, if it is wrong
may cause failure of program or wastage of memory
space. At this situation we can use DMA.

Definition :

The process of allocating memory at run time is

known as Dynamic Memory Allocation (DMA).

malloc : <alloc.h>

It is used to allocate memory at runtime.

Syntax :
void * malloc(size_t size);

size_t : It is the type used for memory object size. Also it

is another name for unsigned integer.

pointer = (typecast) malloc(memory size);

Eg :

int *p;

p = (int *) malloc(sizeof(int)) ; // 1 location

p = (int *) malloc(5 * sizeof(int)) ; // 5 locations

It allocates specified number of locations in the

heap(main memory) and initialized to garbage values.

calloc : <alloc.h>

It is used to allocate memory at runtime.

Syntax :
void * calloc(size_t nitems , size_t size);

pointer = (typecast) calloc(number of locations, size of each location);

Eg :

int *p;
p = (int *) calloc(1, sizeof(int)) ; // 1 location
p = (int *) calloc(5, sizeof(int)) ; // 5 locations

It allocates specified number of locations in the

heap(main memory) and initialized to zeroes.

free : <alloc.h>

It frees the allocated blocks.

Syntax : void free(void * block);

Program : dma1.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<alloc.h>
void main()
{
int *p1,*p2,i;
p1=(int *)malloc(5*sizeof(int));
p2=(int *)calloc(5,sizeof(int));
clrscr();
printf("MALLOC : ");
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
{
printf("%d\t",*(p1+i));
}
printf("\nCALLOC : ");
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
{
printf("%d\t",*(p2+i));
}
free(p1);
free(p2);
getch();
}

Program : dma2.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<alloc.h>
void main()
{
int *p,n,i;
clrscr();
printf("Enter number of elements : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
p=(int *)malloc(n*sizeof(int));
//p=(int *)calloc(n,sizeof(int));
printf("Enter elements : ");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
scanf("%d",(p+i));
}
printf("\nGiven elements : ");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("%d\t",*(p+i));
}
free(p);
getch();
}

realloc : <alloc.h>
It reallocates main memory at run time.

Syntax : void * realloc(void * block, size_t size);

realloc adjusts the size of allocated block to size,

copying the contents to a new location.

Program : realloc1.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<alloc.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
char *str;
clrscr();
str=(char *)malloc(10);
strcpy(str,"Hellow");
printf("Given String : %s",str);
str=(char *)realloc(str,25);
strcat(str," Welcome to BDPS");
printf("\nNew String : %s",str);
 free(str);
getch();
}

Program : realloc2.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<alloc.h>
void main()
{
int *p,id=0,i,s;
char ch;
clrscr();
s=sizeof(int);
p=(int *)malloc(s);
while(1)
{
printf("Enter element : ");
scanf("%d",(p+id));
id++;
printf("Do u want to add another element (y/n) : ");
fflush(stdin);
scanf("%c",&ch);
 if(ch=='y'||ch=='Y')
{
s=s+sizeof(int);
p=(int *)realloc(p,s);
}
else
break;
}
printf("\nGiven elements : ");
for(i=0;i<id;i++)
{
printf("%d\t",*(p+i));
}
free(p);
getch();
}

Structures
We have seen that arrays can be used to represent a
group of data items that belongs to same data type. If we
want to represent a collection of data items of different
data types using a single name, then we cannot use an
array. C supports a constructed data type known as
Structure, which is a method for packing data of different
data types.
A structure is a convenient tool for handling a group
of logically related data items. Structures help to organize
complex data in a more meaningful way. It is a powerful
concept that we may often need to
use in our program design.

Definition :
A group of data items that belongs to different data
types is known as Structure.

struct : It is a keyword and is used to declare a

Structure.

Declaration :
Form : 1

Declaration of structure :

struct struct_name
{
 data item-1;
data item-2;


data item-n;
};

Eg :
struct emp
{
int eno;
char ename[20];
float sal;
};

Declaration of structure variable :

struct struct_name identifier;

(or)
struct struct_name dentifier-1,identifier-2,.......,identifier-n;

Eg:

struct emp e;
 (or)
struct emp e1,e2,..,en;

Form : 2

Declaration of structure and structure variable in a single

statement :

struct struct_name
{
data item-1;
data item-2;


data item-n;
}var_list;

Eg :
struct emp
{
int eno;
char ename[20];
float sal;
 }e;
(or)

struct emp
{
int eno;
char ename[20];
float sal;
}e1,e2...,en;

. (Access operator) :

It is used to access the data items of a structure with

the help of structure variable.

Syntax :
struct_variable . dataitem;
Eg:
e.eno;
e.ename;
e.sal;
Initialization :

Form : 1

struct struct_name
{
data item-1;
data item-2;


data item-n;
};

struct struct_name identifier={value-1,value-2,..,value-n};

Eg :

struct emp
{
int eno;
char ename[20];
float sal;
};
 struct emp e = {100,HHHH,20000.00};

Form : 2

struct struct_name
{
data item-1;
data item-2;


data item-n;
}identifier = {value-1,value-2,value-n};

Eg :

struct emp
{
int eno;
char ename[20];
float sal;
}e = {100,HHHH,20000.00};
Program : struct1.c

To initialize a structure and display its data

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
struct emp
{
int eno;
char ename[20];
float sal;
};
//} e={1,"HHHH",90000.00};

void main()
{
struct emp e={1,"HHHH",90000};
clrscr();
printf("\nEmp number : %d",e.eno);
printf("\nEmp name : %s",e.ename);
printf("\nSalary : %.2f",e.sal);
getch();
}
Program : struct2.c

To accept a structure and display the data

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
struct emp
{
int eno;
char ename[20];
float sal;
};
void main()
{
struct emp e;
clrscr();
printf("Enter emp number : ");
scanf("%d",&e.eno);
printf("Enter emp name : ");
fflush(stdin);
gets(e.ename);
printf("Enter salary : ");
scanf("%f",&e.sal);
 printf("\n\nGiven Employ data ");
printf("\n-------------------");
printf("\nEmp number : %d",e.eno);
printf("\nEmp name : %s",e.ename);
printf("\nSalary : %.2f",e.sal);
getch();
}

Program : struct3.c

To accept student details and to calculate and display

result

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>
struct student
{
int sno,c,cpp,java,tot;
float avg;
char sname[20],res[10],div[12];
}s;
void main()
{
clrscr();
printf("Enter Student number : ");
scanf("%d",&s.sno);
printf("Enter Student name : ");
fflush(stdin);
gets(s.sname);
printf("Enter marks in C : ");
scanf("%d",&s.c);
printf("Enter marks in CPP : ");
scanf("%d",&s.cpp);
printf("Enter marks in JAVA : ");
scanf("%d",&s.java);
s.tot=s.c+s.cpp+s.java;
s.avg=(float)s.tot/3;
if(s.c>=50 && s.cpp>=50 && s.java>=50)
{
strcpy(s.res,"PASS");
if(s.avg>=60)
strcpy(s.div,"FIRST");
else
strcpy(s.div,"SECOND");
}
else
{
 strcpy(s.res,"FAIL");
strcpy(s.div,"NO DIVISION");
}
clrscr();
printf("Student Details");
printf("\n-------------------------");
printf("\nStudent number : %d",s.sno);
printf("\nStudent name : %s",s.sname);
printf("\nMarks in C : %d",s.c);
printf("\nMarks in CPP : %d",s.cpp);
printf("\nMarks in JAVA : %d",s.java);
printf("\nTotal Marks : %d",s.tot);
printf("\nAverage Marks : %.2f",s.avg);
printf("\nResult : %s",s.res);
printf("\nDivision : %s",s.div);
getch();
}

Array of Structures :

Like any other data type, structure arrays can be

defined, so that each array element can be of structure
data type.
For Example,
struct student s[100];
which defines an array called s, that contains 100
elements, each element is defined to be of type struct
student.

Program : struct_ar1.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
struct item
{
int code;
char name[20];
float cost;
};
void main()
{
struct item it[100];
int n,i;
float *f,f1;
clrscr();
f=&f1;
 *f=f1;
printf("Enter numer of records : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("\n\nEnter Record : %d",i+1);
printf("\n\nEnter Item code : ");
scanf("%d",&it[i].code);
printf("Enter Item Name : ");
fflush(stdin);
gets(it[i].name);
printf("Enter Item cost : ");
scanf("%f",&it[i].cost);
}
clrscr();
printf("%-10s%-15s%s","CODE","NAME","COST");
printf("\n------------------------------");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("\n%-10d%-15s
%.2f",it[i].code,it[i].name,it[i].cost);
}
getch();
}
The allocation of variables in heap contains 2 parts. One
is for integral data types (int and char), and the other is for
float type.

Heap (main memory)

But it is different in case when we declare a structure.

When we define a structure with 3 data types, one is of

integer, other is of character and another is of float type,
the memory for all the 3 types are allocated in integral
part. When we compile this type of programs we did not
get any error but when we execute the program, the
program terminates abnormally. This is because the link
fails when connecting floating values to the structure.
To solve this problem, we have to declare 2 float
values, one is of pointer type and the other is normal float
value. The memory for float pointer is allocated in the
integral part (because pointer has 2 bytes of unsigned int
memory) and the memory for other float variable is
allocated in the float part. This normal variable points to
the float pointer (which resides in integral part), and thus
we will established a link between integral part and float
part of heap. Thus the programs executes normally.

Heap for Structure variables

Program : struct_ar2.c

To accept student details and to calculate and display

result using arrays
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>
struct student
{
int sno,c,cpp,java,tot;
float avg;
char sname[20],res[10],div[12];
};
void main()
{
struct student s[100];
int id=0,i;
clrscr();
while(1)
{
printf("\nEnter Student number : ");
scanf("%d",&s[id].sno);
printf("Enter Student name : ");
fflush(stdin);
gets(s[id].sname);
printf("Enter marks in C : ");
scanf("%d",&s[id].c);
printf("Enter marks in CPP : ");
scanf("%d",&s[id].cpp);
printf("Enter marks in JAVA : ");
scanf("%d",&s[id].java);
s[id].tot=s[id].c+s[id].cpp+s[id].java;
s[id].avg=(float)s[id].tot/3;
if(s[id].c>=50 && s[id].cpp>=50 && s[id].java>=50)
{
strcpy(s[id].res,"PASS");
if(s[id].avg>=60)
strcpy(s[id].div,"FIRST");
else
strcpy(s[id].div,"SECOND");
}
else
{
strcpy(s[id].res,"FAIL");
strcpy(s[id].div,"NO DIVISION");
}
id++;
printf("\nDo u want to add another Record(y/n) : ");
fflush(stdin);
scanf("%c",&ch);
if(ch=='n'||ch=='N')
 break;
}
for(i=0;i<id;i++)
{
clrscr();
printf("Student Details");
printf("\n-------------------------");
printf("\nStudent number : %d",s[i].sno);
printf("\nStudent name : %s",s[i].sname);
printf("\nMarks in C : %d",s[i].c);
printf("\nMarks in CPP : %d",s[i].cpp);
printf("\nMarks in JAVA : %d",s[i].java);
printf("\nTotal Marks : %d",s[i].tot);
printf("\nAverage Marks : %.2f",s[i].avg);
printf("\nResult : %s",s[i].res);
printf("\nDivision : %s",s[i].div);
printf("\n\nPress any key to continue........");
}
}

Passing structure as function argument :

Like any other data type a structure may also be used as
function argument.

Returning structure :

A function can not only receive a structure as its

argument, but also can return them.

Program : s_pasret.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
struct student
{
int sno;
char sname[20],course[20];
float fee;
};

struct student accept()

{
struct student s;
printf("Enter Student Number : ");
scanf("%d",&s.sno);
 printf("Enter Student Name : ");
fflush(stdin);
gets(s.sname);
printf("Enter Course : ");
gets(s.course);
printf("Enter Fee : ");
scanf("%f",&s.fee);
return s;
}

void disp(struct student s)

{
printf("\n\nSTUDENT DETAILS");
printf("\n-------------------\n");
printf("\nStudent Number : %d",s.sno);
printf("\nStudent Name : %s",s.sname);
printf("\nCourse : %s",s.course);
printf("\nFees : %.2f",s.fee);
}
void main()
{
struct student st;
clrscr();
st=accept(); //returning structure
 disp(st); //passing structure
getch();
}

Pointers and Structures :

A pointer can also point to a structure.

For example :

struct student
{
int sno;
char sname[20], course[20];
float fee;
};

struct student s;
struct student *p;

Here p is defined to be a pointer, pointing to student

structure,
we can write
p = &s;
After making such an assignment we can access every
data item of student structure through p .

(Arrow)
--------------
-> is the combination of - followed by > .

It is used to access the data items of a structure with

the help of structure pointer.

syntax:
Struct_pointer -> data item;

Eg:
p sno;
p sname;
p course;
p fee;

Pro

gram : stru_ptr.c
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
struct student
{
int sno;
char sname[20],course[20];
float fee;
};
void main()
{
struct student s;
struct student *p;
float *f,f1;
f=&f1;
*f=f1;
p=&s;
clrscr();
/* Indirect method
printf("Enter Student Number : ");
scanf("%d",&(*p).sno);
printf("Enter Student Name : ");
fflush(stdin);
gets((*p).sname);
printf("Enter Course : ");
gets((*p).course);
printf("Enter Fee : ");
scanf("%f",&(*p).fee);
printf("\n\nSTUDENT DETAILS");
printf("\n-------------------\n");
printf("\nStudent Number : %d",(*p).sno);
printf("\nStudent Name : %s",(*p).sname);
printf("\nCourse : %s",(*p).course);
printf("\nFees : %.2f",(*p).fee); */

/* Direct method
printf("Enter Student Number : ");
scanf("%d",&p->sno);
printf("Enter Student Name : ");
fflush(stdin);
gets(p->sname);
printf("Enter Course : ");
gets(p->course);
printf("Enter Fee : ");
scanf("%f",&p->fee);
printf("\n\nSTUDENT DETAILS");
printf("\n-------------------\n");
printf("\nStudent Number : %d",p->sno);
 printf("\nStudent Name : %s",p->sname);
printf("\nCourse : %s",p->course);
printf("\nFees : %.2f",p->fee); */
getch();
}

Pre defined structures :

1. date :

It is Pre-defined structure and is used to get current

system date. It is included in the header file <DOS.H>

Syntax :

struct date
{
int da_year; // current year
char da_day; // day of month
char da_mon; // month (Jan=1)
 };

getdate :

It gets the current system date.

Syntax : void getdate(struct date *d);

Program : sysdate.c

To get current system date

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<dos.h>
void main()
{
struct date d;
clrscr();
getdate(&d);
printf("Current System Date :
%.2d-%.2d-%d",d.da_day,d.da_mon,d.da_year);
}

2. time :
 It is a pre-defined structure and used to get current
system time. It is included in the header file <DOS.H>

Syntax :

struct time
{
unsigned char ti_min; // minutes
unsigned char ti_hour; // hours
unsigned char ti_sec; // seconds
};

gettime :

It gets the current system time.

Syntax : void gettime(struct time *t);

Program : systime.c

To get current system time

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<dos.h>
void main()
{
struct time t;
gettime(&t);
printf("Current System Time :-
%.2d:%.2d:%.2d",t.ti_hour,t.ti_min,t.ti_sec);
}

struct ffblk :

Using this structure we can get information of a file or a

directory.
It is included in the header file <dir.h>

Syntax :

struct ffblk
{
char ff_reserved[21]; //reserved by DOS
char ff_attrib; //attribute found
char ff_ftime; //file time
char ff_fdate; //file date
char ff_fsize; //file size
char ff_name; //found file name
};

findfirst() :

It searches a disk directory for file.

Syntax : int findfirst(const char *pathname,struct ffblk

*f,int attrib);

List of attributes :
These attributes are included in the header file <dos.h>

CONSTANT
DESCRIPTION

FA_RDONLY Read only

attribute
FA_HIDDEN Hidden files
FA_SYSTEM System files
FA_LABEL Volume label
FA_DIREC Directory
FA_ARCH Archive file (ie. all files except
system files
and volume lebel)

Return Value :

0 on success(match found), else returns non zero value.

findnext() :

It continues the search.

Syntax : int findnext(struct ffblk *f);

Return Value :

0 on success(match found), else returns non zero value.

Program : ffblk.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<dir.h>
#include<dos.h>
void main()
{
struct ffblk f;
int d,count=0;
char st[50];
clrscr();
printf("Enter Path : ");
gets(st);
d=findfirst(st,&f,FA_ARCH);
while(!d)
{
printf("\n%s",f.ff_name);
count++;
if(count%20==0)
 {
printf("\n\nPress any key to Continue......");
getch();
clrscr();
}
d=findnext(&f);
}
printf("\n\tTotal number of Files : %d",count);
getch();
}
Output

1) Enter path :
*.*
It will display all file in the current working directory.

2) Enter path :
*.c
It will display all .C programs in the current working
directory.

Bit fields :
 C permits us to use small bit fields to hold data. We
have been using integer field of size 16 bit to store data.
The data item requires much less than 16 bits of space, in
such case we waste memory space. In this situation we
use small bit fields in structures.

The bit fields data type is either int or unsigned int.

the maximum value that can store in unsigned int filed
is :- (2 power n ) 1 and in int filed is :- 2 power ( n 1)
. Here n is the bit length.

Note :

scanf() statement cannot read data into bit fields because

scanf() statement, scans on format data into 2 bytes
address of the filed.

Syntax :

struct struct_name
{
unsigned (or) int identifier1 : bit_length;
unsigned (or) int identifier2 : bit_length;
.
 .
unsigned (or) int identifierN : bit_length;
};
Program : bit_stru.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
struct emp
{
unsigned eno:7;
char ename[20];
unsigned age:6;
float sal;
unsigned ms:1;
};
void main()
{
struct emp e;
int n;
clrscr();
printf("Enter eno : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
e.eno=n;
printf("Enter ename : ");
 fflush(stdin);
gets(e.ename);
printf("Enter age : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
e.age=n;
printf("Enter salary : ");
scanf("%f",&e.sal);
printf("Enter Marital Status : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
e.ms=n;
clrscr();
printf("Employ number : %d",e.eno);
printf("\nEmploy name : %s",e.ename);
printf("\nEmploy age : %d",e.age);
printf("\nEmploy salary : %.2f",e.sal);
printf("\nMarital status : %d",e.ms);
getch();
}

Union:

A union is similar to struct, except it allows us to

define variables that share storage space.
Syntax :

union union_name
{
data item1;
data item2;

data item-n;
} [var_list];

Eg :

union test
{
int n;
char ch;
float ft;
} t;

Declaration of union variable in a separate statement

union union_name identifier;

 eg:
union test t;

Program : un_stru.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
struct test1
{
int n;
char c;
float f;
}t1;
union test2
{
int n;
char c;
float f;
}t2;

void main()
{
clrscr();
 printf("Memory size of struct : %d bytes",sizeof(t1));
printf("\nMemory size of union : %d bytes",sizeof(t2));
getch();
}

Output

1) Memory size of struct : 7 bytes

Memory size of union : 4 bytes

STRUCT UNION

1.A group of data items 1.It is also same as struct,

that belongs to different but the only major
data types difference is memory
allocation.
2.Allocates memory of all 2.Allocates memory of
declared data items in it biggest data items in it
3.We can access all data 3.We can access only one
items at a time data items at a time
4.Each and every data 4.All the items shared
items has its own storage common storage space.
space

Program : union.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
union emp
{
int eno;
char ename[20];
float sal;
};
void main()
{
union emp e;
printf("Enter empno : ");
scanf("%d",&e.eno);
printf("Emp number : %d",e.eno);
printf("\n\nEnter empname : ");
fflush(stdin);
gets(e.ename);
printf("Emp name : %s",e.ename);
printf("\n\nEnter empsal : ");
 scanf("%f",&e.sal);
printf("Salary : %.2f",e.sal);
}

<dir.h> functions :

1. getcwd :

It gets the current working directory

Syntax : char * getcwd(char * buf, int buflen);

Program : getcwd.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<dir.h>
void main()
{
char st[80];
clrscr();
 getcwd(st,80);
printf("Current Working Directory : %s",st);
getch();
}

2. chdir :

It changes the current working directory

Syntax : int chdir(const char *path);

Return Value :

It returns 0 if success, else non zero.

Program : chdir.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<dir.h>
void main()
{
char st[80];
int n;
 clrscr();
printf("Enter path : ");
gets(st);
n=chdir(st);
if(n==0)
printf("Directory Changed");
else
printf("Directory not Changed");
getch();
}

Output

Enter path :
E:\raji\cpp\programs
We will get the message Directory Changed
To check whether we have changed to that specific
directory or not, run the getcwd.c program in that
directory, then it will display the current working
directory as : E:\raji\cpp\programs.

3. mkdir :

It creates a directory
Syntax : int mkdir(const char *path);

Return Value :

It returns 0 if success, else non zero.

Program : mkdir.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<dir.h>
void main()
{
char st[80];
int n;
clrscr();
printf("Enter Path : ");
gets(st);
n=mkdir(st);
if(n==0)
printf("Directory Created");
else
printf("Unable to Create a Directory");
}

Output

Enter path :
rr
Directory is created in our current directory.
If we gives the same path once again, we will get
Unable to create a dir
Go to command prompt and type dir, then directory rr is
displayed at the last

4. rmdir :

It removes a dos file directory.

Syntax : int rmdir(const char *path);

Return Value :

It returns 0 if success, else non zero.

rmdir deletes the directory whose path is given by the

path. The directory named by the path ,
 1 must be
empty
2 must not be
current working directory
3 must not be
the root directory.

Program : rmdir.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<dir.h>
void main()
{
char st[50];
int n;
clrscr();
printf("Enter Path : ");
gets(st);
n=rmdir(st);
if(n==0)
printf("Directory is deleted");
else
printf("Unable to delete a Directory");
 getch();
}

Output

Goto DOS shell

E:\raji\c\programs> md raji
E:\raji\c\programs> cd raji
Directory created
E:\raji\c\programs\raji> copy con aa.txt
Good morning
Welcome
Ctrl + z
(1) file is copied

E:\raji\c\programs> type aa
Then the above data is displayed
E:\raji\c\programs> cd ram
Directory created
Now our current working directory has 2 sub directories,
called raji and ram.
We can delete the sub directory ram by using rmdir(), but
we cannot deleted the directory raji, because raji contain
one text file aa.txt, but ram is empty, hence we can
remove it.

If we want to deleted the directory raji, then again goto

DOS shell
E:\raji\c\programs\raji> del aa.txt
(1) file deleted.

Now we can delete the folder raji with the help of rmdir().

Files
C language permits the usage of limited input and
output functions to read and write data. These functions
are used for only smaller volume of data and it becomes
difficult to handle longer data volumes. Also the entire
data is lost when the program over.
To overcome these difficulties a flexible method was
developed by employing the concept of files to store, to
read and write data and to return them even when the
program over.
Definition :

A file is one, which enable the user to store, to read

and write a group of related data.
(or)
A file is a collection of records .

C supports a number of functions to have the ability to

perform the basic file operations, which include :
naming a file
opening a file
reading data from file
writing data to file
closing a file

Types of files :
Files are two types, Namely
1. Text files (or)
Sequential files
2. Binary files

Text files :
 Used for reading and writing data in the form of
characters. The memory size of each and every character
is 1 byte.

Binary files :

Used for reading and writing data in the form of data

blocks. The memory size of each and every data block
depends on its data type.

FILE :

It is a pre-defined structure and is used to declare a file

pointer. Using this pointer, we can perform all file
operations.

Declaration of FILE pointer :

Syntax :
FILE *identifier.

Eg:
FILE *fp;
File handling functions :

fopen : It opens a file .

Syntax :

FILE * fopen(const char *filename , const char *mode);

filename : file that the function opens

mode string :
There are various modes and are described in the
following table.

String Description

.
r Open for reading only.

w Create for writing.

If a file by that name already exists, it will be
overwritten
 a Append :
open for writing at end of file, or create for
writing if the file does not exist.

r+ Open an existing file for update (reading and

writing)

w+ Create a new file for update (reading and

writing).
If a file by that name already exists, it will
be overwritten.

a+ Open for append :

open for update at the end of the file, or
create if the file does not exist.

1 To specify that a
given file is being opened or created in text mode, append "t" to
the string (rt, w+t, etc.).

2 To specify
binary mode, append "b" to the string (wb, a+b, etc.).
fclose :
It closes a file .

Syntax :
int fclose(FILE *fp);

fcloseall : It closes all open files.

Syntax :
int fcloseall();

Program : file1.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
FILE *fp;
clrscr();
fp=fopen("a.txt","w");
if(fp==NULL)
printf("Unable to open a file");
 else
printf("File is opened");
getch();
}

If we specify the mode a, we will get the same output

(i.e. File is opened), if we specify the mode r, we will
get the output as Unable to open a file.

Textfiles

getc : It is a macro that gets one character from a file

stream.

Syntax :
int getc(FILE *stream);

putc : It is a macro that outputs a character to a file

stream.

Syntax :

int putc(int c,FILE *stream);

 fgetc : It is a function that gets one character from a file
stream.

Syntax :
int fgetc(FILE *stream);

fputc : It is a function that outputs a character to a file

stream.

Syntax :
int fputc(int c,FILE *stream);

EOF :
It is a constant indicating that end of file has been
reached on a File. To get this character from keyboard
press Ctrl+Z (or) F6
Program : file2.c

To create a text file and to store data into that file

through keyboard

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
char ch;
FILE *fp;
clrscr();
fp=fopen("a.txt","wt");
printf("Enter data (Ctrl+Z to stop) : ");
ch=getchar();
while(ch!=EOF)
{
putc(ch,fp);
ch=getchar();
}
fclose(fp);
printf("Data stored successfully");
 getch();
}

Program : file3.c

To open a file and to read data from the file and display
on the monitor
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
FILE *fp;
char ch;
clrscr();
fp=fopen("a.txt","rt");
printf("Reading data from the file\n\n");
ch=getc(fp);
while(ch!=EOF)
{
printf("%c",ch);
ch=getc(fp);
}
fclose(fp);
getch();
}

Program : file4.c

To enter a file and display its contents on the monitor

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
FILE *fp;
char ch,st[20];
clrscr();
printf("Enter File name : ");
gets(st);
fp=fopen(st,"rt");
if(fp==NULL)
{
printf("\nFile not found");
getch();
exit(0);
}
printf("\n\nReading data from the file\n\n");
ch=getc(fp);
 while(ch!=EOF)
{
printf("%c",ch);
ch=getc(fp);
delay(10);
}
fclose(fp);
getch();
}

Program : file5.c

To enter a file and number of lines, words and

characters in the file

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
FILE *fp;
char ch,ch1,st[20];
int nc=0,nw=0,nl=0;
clrscr();
printf("Enter File name : ");
gets(st);
fp=fopen(st,"rt");
if(fp==NULL)
{
printf("\nFile not found");
getch();
exit(0);
}
ch=getc(fp);
while(ch!=EOF)
{
if(ch==32 || ch=='\n')
{
nw++;
if(ch=='\n')
nl++;
}
else
nc++;
ch1=ch;

ch=getc(fp);
if(ch==32 && ch1==ch)
 nw--;
}
printf("\n Number of characters : %d",nc);
printf("\n Number of words : %d",nw);
printf("\n Number of lines : %d",nl);
fclose(fp);
getch();
}

If more than one space is there between 2 words, the

compiler will treats the additional space as a word. To
avoid this use the above technique.

rewind() :

It repositions file pointer to file streams beginning

Syntax : void rewind(FILE *stream);

Program : file6.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
FILE *fp;
char ch;
clrscr();
fp=fopen("a.txt","a+t");
printf("Enter data (Ctrl+Z to stop) : ");
ch=getchar();
while(ch!=EOF)
{
putc(ch,fp);
ch=getchar();
}
printf("\nData stored successfully");
rewind(fp);
printf("\n\nReading data from the file\n\n");
ch=getc(fp);
while(ch!=EOF)
{
printf("%c",ch);
ch=getc(fp);
}
fclose(fp);
getch();
}
fgets :

It gets a string from file .

Syntax : char * fgets(char *s,int n,FILE *stream);

fgets reads characters from stream into the string s. it

stops when it reads either n-1 characters or a new line
character which ever comes first.

fputs :

It outputs a string to a file stream.

Syntax : char * fputs(char *s,FILE *stream);

fgets copies the null terminated string s to the given

output stream. It doesnot append a new line character and
the terminating null character is not copied.

feof :

It is a macro that tests if end of file has been reached

on a file stream.

Syntax : int feof(FILE *stream);

Return value :

1 Returns non
zero if an end of file indicator was detected on the
last input operation on the named stream.
2 Returns 0 if
end of file has not been reached.

Program : file7.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
FILE *fp;
 char st[80];
clrscr();
fp=fopen("str.txt","a+t");
printf("Enter string data ('end' to stop) : ");
gets(st);
while(strcmp(st,"end")!=0)
{
fputs(st,fp);
fputs("\n",fp);
gets(st);
}
rewind(fp);
printf("\nReading data from the file :\n");
fgets(st,80,fp);
while(!feof(fp))
{
printf("%s",st);
fgets(st,80,fp);
}
getch();
fclose(fp);
}
Output

Enter data :
Raji
Ram
Ramraji
Rajiram
Bunny
end

fprintf:

It sends formatted output to a file stream.

Syntax :

int fprintf(FILE *stream , const char *format [,argument,...]);

fscanf :

It scans and formats input from a file stream.

Syntax :
int fscanf(FILE *stream,const char *format [,address,...]);

Note :

In fprintf and fscanf, between formats at least one space is

necessary.

Program : file8.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int eno;
char ename[20];
float sal;
FILE *fp;
clrscr();
fp=fopen("emp.txt","wt");
printf("Enter empno : ");
scanf("%d",&eno);
printf("Enter ename : ");
fflush(stdin);
 gets(ename);
printf("Enter sal : ");
scanf("%f",&sal);
fprintf(fp,"%d %s %.2f",eno,ename,sal);
fclose(fp);
printf("\nRecord saved successfully");
getch();
}
Program : file9.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int eno;
char ename[20];
float sal;
FILE *fp;
clrscr();
fp=fopen("emp.txt","rt");
fscanf(fp,"%d %s %f",&eno,ename,&sal);
fclose(fp);
printf("\nReading data from file");
printf("\n\nEnter empno : %d",eno);
 printf("\nEnter ename : %s",ename);
printf("\nEnter sal : %.2f",sal);
getch();
}

Program : file10.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int eno;
char ename[20],ch;
float sal;
FILE *fp;
clrscr();
fp=fopen("emp1.txt","a+t");
do
{
printf("Enter empno : ");
scanf("%d",&eno);
printf("Enter ename : ");
fflush(stdin);
gets(ename);
 printf("Enter sal : ");
scanf("%f",&sal);
fprintf(fp,"%d %s %.2f \n",eno,ename,sal);
printf("\n\nRecord saved successfully");
printf("\n\nDo u want to add another record (y/n) : ");
fflush(stdin);
scanf("%c",&ch);
} while(ch!='n');
rewind(fp);
printf("\nReading data from file\n\n");
printf("%-10s%-15s%s","ENO","ENAME","SAL");
printf("\n------------------------------------------------");
while(!feof(fp))
{
fscanf(fp,"%d %s %f\n",&eno,ename,&sal);
printf("\n%-10d%-15s%.2f",eno,ename,sal);
}
fclose(fp);
getch();
}

ftell :

It returns the current file pointer position

Syntax :
long ftell(FILE *stream);

fseek :

It repositions the file pointer of a filestream

Syntax :

int fseek(FILE *stream, long offset, int whence);

stream : Whose file pointer fseek sets

offset :
Difference in bytes between whence and new position.

whence :
One of three SEEK_xxx file pointer locations (0, 1, or 2)

Constant Value File location

--------------------------------------------------
SEEK_SET 0 Seeks from
beginning of file
 SEEK_CUR 1 Seeks from
current position

SEEK_END 2 Seeks from end of

file

Program : file11.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
FILE *fp;
char ch;
clrscr();
fp=fopen("z.txt","w");
printf("Current file pointer position : %lu",ftell(fp));
printf("\n\nEnter data (Ctrl+Z to stop): ");
ch=getchar();
while(ch!=EOF)
{
putc(ch,fp);
ch=getchar();
 }
printf("Present file pointer position : %lu",ftell(fp));
fseek(fp,-10,1); // fseek(fp,-10,SEEK_CUR);
printf("\nNew file pointer position : %lu",ftell(fp));
fclose(fp);
getch();
}

Binary file Operations :

getw :

It gets an integer from a file stream.

Syntax :
int getw(FILE *stream);

putw:

It outputs an integer on a file stream.

Syntax :
int putw(int w, FILE *stream);
Program : file12.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
FILE *fp;
int n;
clrscr();
fp=fopen("a.dat","a+b"); // append in binary format
printf("Enter data (0 to stop) : \n\n");
scanf("%d",&n);
while(n!=0)
{
putw(n,fp);
scanf("%d",&n);
}
fseek(fp,0,0); //rewind(fp);
printf("\n\nReading data from file : \n\n");
n=getw(fp);
while(!feof(fp))
{
printf("%d\n",n);
 n=getw(fp);
}
fclose(fp);
getch();
}

fwrite :

It appends a specified number of equal sized data blocks to an output

file.

Syntax :

size_t fwrite(void *ptr , size_t size , size_t n , FILE *stream);

fread :

It reads specified number of equal sized data blocks from an input file.

Syntax :

size_t fread(void *ptr , size_t size , size_t n , FILE *stream);

argumnet description
 ptr pointer to a block which data
is read/write

size length of each item read/write in bytes

n number of items read/write

stream points to input/output file stream

Program : file13.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
struct student
{
int sno;
char sname[20],course[10];
float fee;
};
void main()
{
struct student s;
FILE *fp;
clrscr();
fp=fopen("student.dat","wb");
printf("Enter student number : ");
scanf("%d",&s.sno);
 printf("Enter student name : ");
fflush(stdin);
gets(s.sname);
printf("Enter course : ");
gets(s.course);
printf("Enter fee : ");
scanf("%f",&s.fee);
fwrite(&s,sizeof(s),1,fp);
fclose(fp);
printf("\n\nRecord save sucessfully");
getch();
}

Program : file14.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
struct student
{
int sno;
char sname[20],course[10];
float fee;
};
void main()
{
struct student s;
FILE *fp;
clrscr();
fp=fopen("student.dat","rb");
fread(&s,sizeof(s),1,fp);
 printf("Reading data from file\n\n");
printf("Student number : %d",s.sno);
printf("\nStudent name : %s",s.sname);
printf("\nCourse : %s",s.course);
printf("\nFee : %.2f",s.fee);
fclose(fp);
getch();
}

Program : file15.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
struct student
{
int sno;
char sname[20],course[5];
float fee;
};
void main()
{
FILE *fp;
char ch;
struct student s;
clrscr();
fp=fopen("student.dat","a+b");
do
{
printf("Enter student number : ");
scanf("%d",&s.sno);
 printf("Enter student name : ");
fflush(stdin);
gets(s.sname);
printf("Enter course : ");
fflush(stdin);
gets(s.course);
printf("Enter fee : ");
scanf("%f",&s.fee);
fwrite(&s,sizeof(s),1,fp);
printf("\nRecord saved successfully");
printf("\n\nDo you want to add another record (y/n) : ");
fflush(stdin);
scanf("%c",&ch);
}
while(ch!='n');
fseek(fp,0,0);
fread(&s,sizeof(s),1,fp);
while(!feof(fp))
{
clrscr();
printf("\nStudent number : %d",s.sno);
printf("\nStudent name : %s",s.sname);
printf("\ncourse : %s",s.course);
printf("\nFee : %.2f",s.fee);
printf("\n\nPress any kee to contune.........");
getch();
fread(&s,sizeof(s),1,fp);
}
fclose(fp);
getch();
}

enum,typedef

Command line arguments :

These are the parameters supplied to aprogram,

when the program is invoked. This parameter may
represent a file name that the program should
process. Command line arguments are typed by the
user. The first argument is always the file name.
We know that, every C program should have one
main function and it can take arguments like other
functions. If we want to work with command line
arguments, the main function can take 2 arguments
called argc and argv and the information contained
in the command line is processed onto the program
through these command line arguments.
The variable argc is an argument counter that
counts No of arguments on the command line. The
argument argv is an argument vector that
represents an array of character pointers that points
to the command line arguments. The size of this
array is equal to the value of argc.

Program : cla1.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main(int argc,char *argv[])
{
int i;
clrscr();
printf("Number of argument : %d",argc);
for(i=0;i<argc;i++)
{
printf("\nargument[%d] : %s",i,argv[i]);
}
getch();
}

Program : cla2.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main(int argc,char *argv[])
{
FILE *fp;
char ch;
clrscr();
if(argc!=2)
{
printf("Invalid arguments");
exit(0);
}
fp=fopen(argv[1],"w");
ch=getchar();
while(ch!=EOF)
{
putc(ch,fp);
ch=getchar();
}
fclose(fp);
printf("File created");
getch();
}

Program : cla3.c
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main(int argc,char *argv[])
{
FILE *fp;
char ch;
clrscr();
if(argc!=2)
{
printf("Invalid arguments");
exit(0);
}
fp=fopen(argv[1],"r");
if(fp==NULL)
{
printf("File not found");
exit(0);
}
ch=getc(fp);
while(ch!=EOF)
{
printf("%c",ch);
ch=getc(fp);
 }
fclose(fp);
getch();
}

Program : cla4.c

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main(int argc,char *argv[])
{
FILE *fp1,*fp2;
char ch;
if(argc!=3)
{
printf("Invalid arguments");
exit(0);
}
fp1=fopen(argv[1],"r");
if(fp1==NULL)
{
printf("File not found");
exit(0);
}
 fp2=fopen(argv[2],"r");
if(fp2!=NULL)
{
printf("File already exists : %s",argv[2]);
printf("\nDo you want to override (y/n) : ");
scanf("%c",&ch);
if(ch=='n'||ch=='N')
{
printf("Unable to copy a file");
fcloseall();
exit(0);
}
fclose(fp2);
fp2=fopen(argv[2],"w");
ch=getc(fp1);
while(ch!=EOF)
{
putc(ch,fp2);
ch=getc(fp1);
}
fcloseall();
}
printf("File copied successfully");
}
Program : design.h

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void hline(int r,int sc,int ec)
{
int i;
for(i=sc;i<=ec;i++)
{
gotoxy(i,r);
printf("%c",196);
}
}
void vline(int c,int sr,int er)
{
int i;
for(i=sr;i<=er;i++)
{
gotoxy(c,i);
 printf("%c",179);
}
}
void box(int sc,int sr,int ec,int er)
{
gotoxy(sc,sr);
printf("%c",218);
gotoxy(ec,sr);
printf("%c",191);
gotoxy(sc,er);
printf("%c",192);
gotoxy(ec,er);
printf("%c",217);
hline(sr,sc+1,ec-1);
hline(er,sc+1,ec-1);
vline(sc,sr+1,er-1);
vline(ec,sr+1,er-1);
}

Program : shuffle.c
#include<process.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
#include"design.h"
void main()
{
void generate(int [][4]);
int a[4][4];
int i,j,r,c,count=0;
char ch;
_setcursortype(_NOCURSOR);
generate(a);
while(1)
{
clrscr();
gotoxy(35,2);
printf("SHUFFLE GAME");
box(22,3,58,19);
hline(7,23,57);
hline(11,23,57);
hline(15,23,57);
vline(30,4,18);
vline(40,4,18);
vline(50,4,18);
gotoxy(32,21);
printf("Number of key strokes : %d",count);
gotoxy(35,23);
printf("Esc to exit");
gotoxy(35,25);
printf("Alt+S to shuffle");
for(i=0;i<4;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<4;j++)
{
gotoxy(25+j*10,5+i*4);
if(a[i][j]!=0)
printf("%d",a[i][j]);
else
{
r=i;
c=j;
}
}
}
ch=getch();
if(ch==0)
ch=getch();
count++;
if(count>200)
{
clrscr();
textcolor(15+128);
gotoxy(35,12);
printf("GAME OVER");
getch();
exit(0);
}
switch(ch)
{
case 80:
if(r>0)
{
a[r][c]=a[r-1][c];
a[r-1][c]=0;
}
break;
case 72:
if(r<3)
{
a[r][c]=a[r+1][c];
a[r+1][c]=0;
}
 break;
case 77:
if(c>0)
{
a[r][c]=a[r][c-1];
a[r][c-1]=0;
}
break;
case 75:
if(r<3)
{
a[r][c]=a[r][c+1];
a[r][c+1]=0;
}
break;
case 31:
generate(a);
count=0;
break;
case 27:
exit(0);
}
if(a[0][0]==1 && a[0][1]==2 && a[0][2]==3 && a[0]
[3]==4 &&
 a[1][0]==5 && a[1][1]==6 && a[1][2]==7 && a[1]
[3]==8 &&
a[2][0]==9 && a[2][1]==10 && a[2][2]==11 &&
a[2][3]==12 &&
a[3][0]==13 && a[3][1]==14 && a[3][2]==15 &&
a[3][3]==0)
{
clrscr();
textcolor(15+128);
gotoxy(35,12);
cprintf("GAME SUCCESS");
gotoxy(32,15);
printf("Number of key strokes : %d",count);
getch();
exit(0);
}
}
}
void generate(int a[][4])
{
int x[16],n,id=0,i,j;
char ck;
randomize();
while(id<16)
{
n=random(16);
ck=0;
for(i=0;i<id;i++)
{
if(x[i]==n)
{
ck=1;
break;
}
}
if(ck==0)
{
x[id]=n;
id++;
}
}
id=0;
for(i=0;i<4;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<4;j++)
{
a[i][j]=x[id];
id++;
 }
}
}

Conversion functions:

atoi : It is a macro that converts string to int.

Syntax : int atoi(const