Micromachining of Engineering Materials

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Preface
The present need for smallness of parts stems mainly from

two requirements: greater compactness in the utilization of
space and portability. The mechanical and electrical devices
that make up these items need to be produced in ever-decreas-
ing sizes, with tightly specified dimensions and accuracies. Al-
though these miniature devices may be manufactured by vari-
ous procedures, their shaping through removal of material
constitutes a major means of production. Established and re-
cently developed methods of machining continue to be investi-
gated for the shaping of such parts to specified small dimen-
sions. The term micromachining has thus emerged and is
generally used to define the practice of material removal for
the production of parts having dimensions that lie between 1
and 999 m, although an upper limit of 500 m has recently
iii
iv Preface
been considered to set the border between micro- and macro-

machining. This book is concerned with the technology of
micromachining of materials utilized in engineering practice.
The advances in material removal that have led to micro-
machining are the subject of the first chapter. The smallness
of micromachined parts can place strict limits on variations
or errors in the dimensions. Precise measurement of the parts
produced in micromachining is central to the progress of this
technology. Methods of measurement available for micro-
machining are therefore discussed in Chapter 2. Further ad-
vancements in the technology can be aided through a theoreti-
cal understanding of micromachining. Such considerations
are embodied within the treatments of many of the micro-
machining processes discussed in this book. The diversity of
these processes renders difficult a generalized theoretical
analysis of micromachining; however, the methods of molec-
ular dynamics are becoming increasingly attractive for stud-
ies of micromachining, especially as the technology advances
toward the shaping of parts in the nanometric range. The
foundations of molecular dynamics that are needed for theo-
retical treatments of micromachining therefore form the basis
of Chapter 3. A series of micromachining processes are then
discussed. First, methods are presented that rely on mechani-
cal means for material removal, by grinding (Chap. 4) and dia-
mond turning (Chap. 5); growing interest in the ultrasonic
technique is reflected in Chapter 6. Limitations in these me-
chanical methods can arise, usually as a result of the shapes
or accuracies needed or the types of engineering material to
be tackled. Their drawbacks have spurred investigation of al-
ternative methods. To that end, electrodischarge and laser mi-
cromachining are studied in Chapters 7 and 8, respectively.
These two methods rely on vaporization of the workpiece ma-
terial, by, respectively, spark discharges in a liquid dielectric
and photon light energy. The well-known electrochemical ma-
chining process has also been adapted for micromachining
purposes, and in Chapter 9 its principles, which rely on both
mask-based and maskless anodic dissolution processes, are
Preface v
explained. With the inexorable transition from micro- to nano-

machining, processes that rely on the interaction of atomic or
subatomic particles with engineering materials for shaping of
components will continue to attract attention. The place of ion
beam technology, in which charged atoms, or ions, are fired
at a workpiece surface in order to remove atoms or groups of
atoms, is investigated in Chapter 10. Likewise, Chapter 11 is
devoted to machining in which a controlled fine-focused beam
of electrons causes material removal, through the vaporiza-
tion resulting from translation of kinetic to thermal energy.
Electron beam technology is the foundation of many aspects
of high-resolution lithography. This topic is studied in the final
chapter of the book.
The diversity of the subject of micromachining has re-
quired that specialists in each of its main fields should prepare
the chapters of this book. The international interest in the
subject is evident, with authors coming from six countries on
four continents. I am grateful to them all, for the benefit of
their advice and expertise, and their patience in supplying me
with their specialist chapters, and in many cases for lengthy
subsequent dialogue.
Owing to the diverse character of the subject, a single no-
tation for the book has been difficult to achieve. For ease of
working, therefore, a list of principal symbols and their mean-
ing is included in the appropriate chapters.
At Edinburgh University I am indebted to my colleagues
Dr. Yaxin Tan, Gregory Skrabalak, and Martin Schopf for
their assistance in checking many of the details of the chap-
ters, and to Dr. G. O. Goudie for his cheerful liaison with indi-
vidual authors. Avril Davies has also been most helpful in my
dialogue with the authors and in my final preparation of the
manuscript. Derek Jardine assisted with diagrams. The ad-
vice of Tim Jolly was much valued. At the publisher, Marcel
Dekker, Inc., I have been appreciative of the support of Rita
Lazazzaro and Eric Stannard, as the book has developed
from its draft outline form through various stages of its pro-
duction.
vi Preface
My greatest thanks have to be reserved for my wife,

Brenda, and Andrew, Elizabeth, and Simon McGeough for
their steadfast support and interest throughout the prepara-
tion of the book.
Joseph McGeough
Contents
Preface iii
Contributors ix
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
H. El-Hofy, A. B. M. Khairy, T. Masuzawa,
and Joseph McGeough
Chapter 2 Measurement Techniques in Micromachining 15

Mohammad A. Younes
Chapter 3 Molecular Dynamics Simulation of the Atomic

Processes in Microcutting 63
Shoichi Shimada
vii
viii Contents
Chapter 4 Abrasive Micromachining and Microgrinding 85

Kai Cheng
Chapter 5 Diamond Micromachining 125

John Corbett
Chapter 6 Ultrasonic Micromachining 147

D. Kremer and Y. Benkirane
Chapter 7 Microelectrodischarge Machining 179

David M. Allen
Chapter 8 Laser Micromachining 203

Johan Meijer
Chapter 9 Micromachining by Electrochemical

Dissolution 239
Madhav Datta
Chapter 10 Ion Beam Machining 277

Joseph McGeough
Chapter 11 Electron Beam Machining 299

Joseph McGeough
Chapter 12 High-Resolution Lithography 325

S. Thoms and D. Macintyre
Appendix Micromachining by Finishing Techniques 369

Joseph McGeough
Index 385
Contributors
David M. Allen Cranfield University, Bedford, England
Y. Benkirane Ecole Nationale Superieure dArts et Metiers, Paris,

France
Madhav Datta* IBM Corporation, Yorktown Heights, New York
Kai Cheng Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow, Scotland
John Corbett Cranfield University, Bedford, England
* Current affiliation: Intel Corp., Hillsboro, Oregon.
ix
x Contributors
H. El-Hofy Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
A. B. M. Khairy Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
D. Kremer Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Lausanne, Swit-

zerland
D. Macintyre University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland
T. Masuzawa Tokyo University, Tokyo, Japan
Joseph McGeough The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scot-

land
Johan Meijer University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
Shoichi Shimada Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
S. Thoms University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland
Mohammad A. Younes Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt

1
Introduction
H. El-Hofy and A. B. M. Khairy
Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
T. Masuzawa
Tokyo University, Tokyo, Japan
Joseph McGeough
The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland
1.1 ADVANCES IN MACHINING

TECHNOLOGY
The shaping of materials for practical needs has been part of

human activity since prehistoric days. Fragments of stone,
bone, and wood were first used as tools by humans. In due
time they learned to assemble several pieces into a device
which could then be used more effectively for shaping materi-
als than was feasible with a single-piece tool.
Progress in machining technology stems from those early
days. Tools for drilling and cutting of metals are known to
1
2 El-Hofy et al.
have been used in Ancient Egypt about 4000 BC. From the
eras of the early civilizations up to the Middle Ages hand tools
continued to be developed, in the production of basic utensils
for everyday use and in the construction of major artifacts
such as ships and carriages. Elementary mechanically driven
devices were duly devised, and by the 17th century instru-
ments for machining were widespread. More sophisticated
tools for machining powered by water, steam, and electricity
arose over the 18th and 19th centuries [1]. These and other
advances continued into the 20th century, and gave rise to
more adequate definitions of the practice of machining: the
removal of a specified amount of material from a workpiece in
order to produce a required space economically and accu-
rately. In this practice, the operator was given a drawing of
the finished part. The operator determined the machining
strategy, arranged the machine, selected tooling, feeds, and
speeds, and manipulated the machine controls to produce the
given part, which then had to be inspected. Under these proce-
dures, the accuracy and surface quality of products were not
always satisfactory. Further developments of machine tools
were necessary to improve accuracy and productivity. Tem-
plates, copying techniques, cam mechanisms, and indexing de-
vices were introduced as a result of which the amount of labor
needed in machining was also reduced.
The application of numerical control (NC) to machine
tools in the 1950s opened the way for computer (CNC) and
direct (DNC) numerically controlled machining. With the ad-
vent of robotics (1980s) enhanced accuracy in machining, uni-
formity in the items produced, and flexibility in manufactur-
ing practices was achieved [2]. Machining processes and their
associated machine tools have continued to benefit from the
major strides made in the electronics and computer industries
(1980s to 1990s). Ingenious machine designs and instruments
have enabled the highly accurate machining of complex
shapes and their measurement. Notable achievements in ma-
chining include techniques such as precision jig boring and
grinding, and superfinishing. The 1990s witnessed further
Introduction 3
trends with increasing demands for components of dimensions

on the order of micrometers (m). Much of this interest has
stemmed from the microelectronics and optical industries in
which components have to be produced to ever-decreasing size
or to finer accuracies. Requirements for microengineered prod-
ucts are also recognized for other applications. For instance,
a small bearing in a watch supports a tiny spindle of micro-
gear, and the size of the bearing hole must be smaller than
the size of the microspindle. The stylus of the scanning trans-
mission microscope provides a further example: it must gather
geometrical information concerning the individual surfaces
of atoms. Thus the manufacture of parts capable of dealing
with atomic and molecular dimensions is becoming increas-
ingly significant. Taniguchi [3] and then McKeown [4] and
their coworkers have considered how equipment to achieve
very fine shapes to high accuracy improved over the 20th cen-
tury (Fig. 1). They classified machining in three divisions:
Figure 1 Machining accuracies. (After Refs. 3 and 4.)

4 El-Hofy et al.
normal, precision, and ultraprecision. The term microma-

chining is now associated with the qualities of precision and
ultraprecision.
1.2 CHARACTERIZATION OF
MICROMACHINING
Through the 1990s, Masuzawa drew attention to the need for

characterization of micromachining, and in particular to
means for direct determination of the shape of its products.
(See, for example, [5].) He defines some basic groups of micro-
machining processes. The first set utilizes fixed and controlled
tools, which can specify the profiles of three-dimensional
shapes by a well-defined tool surface and path. These methods
remove material in amounts as small as tens of nm, which is
acceptable for many applications of micromachining. For finer
precision and especially to atomic levels, the second set of mi-
cromachining processes employs masks to specify the shape
of the product. Two-dimensional shapes are the main outcome;
severe limitations occur when three-dimensional products are
attempted.
A further characteristic of micromachining is the volume
or size of the part removed from the workpiece, termed the
small unit removal (UR). For example, in mechanical opera-
tions, the UR consists of the feed pitch, and cut depth and
length corresponding to one chip of material removed; in elec-
trodischarge machining (see Chapter 7) the UR is defined as
the crater produced by one pulse of discharge. In tool-based
micromachining, the UR can be as small as tens of nm. Micro-
machining with masks can yield unit removal as small as the
size of atoms.
These concepts for micromachining have led to deeper
consideration of the elements that specify finally the dimen-
sions of its products, which Masuzawa terms the shape speci-
fication elements (SSE) [6]. The cutting tools used in mechani-
cal turning, and the light beam in laser machining are
Introduction 5
examples of SSE. Indeed, most conventional machining pro-

cesses are employed with tools as the SSE, and they can be
readily applied to micromachining by miniaturization of their
tools. Thus, turning, drilling, and milling have proved to be
applicable to micromachining of shapes in the range of m.
The key lies in the production of microtools and in the mainte-
nance of coordinate accuracy through tool-making, chuck-
ing, and machining. The development of wire electrod-
ischarge grinding has advanced significantly the technology
of microtool production. Tool-making on-the-machine has
proved to be a major benefit in the maintenance of accuracy.
This aspect is considered further below.
1.3 TOOL-MAKING ON-THE-MACHINE
Since the tools for micromachining are often very small, the
transfer of coordinate information from the stages of tool-mak-
ing to actual machining must receive careful attention.
Three typical system configurations are shown in Figure
2. In system A, the tool coordinates are common for both tool-
making and micromachining. Consequently, the highest accu-
racy should be expected. As tool-making and micromachining
Figure 2 Tool system configurations for micromachining. (After

Ref. 5.)
6 El-Hofy et al.
cannot be performed simultaneously this system leads to low

productivity.
System B is most conventionally used in established ma-
chining processes. However, it is often difficult to place refer-
ence planes on the microtool. The result may be off-center-
ing, and/or tilting, as shown, respectively, in Figures 2 B-I,
and B-II. Tool storage is possible between the stages of tool-
making and micromachining, which is beneficial to produc-
tivity.
The tool and spindle are handled as a set in System C.
Since sets can be stored in the same manner as the tools in
System B, the productivity is again higher than that of system
A. However, positioning error and the cost of extra spindles
are the drawbacks of this system.
When a microproduct is removed from the machine, and
placed in a parts container for subsequent assembly, it loses
most of its coordinate information. Assembly is then made dif-
ficult. This difficulty can be overcome by assembly on-the-ma-
chine. Since the space required for micromachining per se is
usually small, the table can be divided into several parts for
the modules on which tool-making, machining, product stor-
age, and assembly take place. As the coordinates are common
for these modules, a microproduct may then be more readily
assembled.
Finally shape specification elements for processes in
which masks are used have to be considered. Since the mask
is specified in only two dimensions, these fabrication methods
are usually applied to the production of thin or shallow shapes.
Photofabrication of this type has advanced considerably re-
duced pattern sizes in semiconductor devices, with dimensions
below the m range already achieved and nanometric sizes
becoming attainable. In most methods that rely on masks as
the SSE, material removal is based on chemical or physical
reactions on the atomic scale. Therefore the unit of removal
can be on the order of atomic quantities; c.f., the unit of re-
moval in processes that use tools: in the latter the UR is much
Introduction 7
higher, owing to the different mechanisms of material re-

moval.
Mask-based processes offer certain main advantages:
1. Since the UR can be very small, production from the

m to nm range is possible.
2. Batch processes are possible enabling high produc-
tion rates.
Mass production is a major issue in micromachining tech-

nology, as a large number of small parts are a common re-
quirement. As noted above, mask-based processes such as
photofabrication are capable of mass production. Most other
processes have not yet been developed sufficiently to produce
thousands of parts needed for microproducts. Modification of
existing micromachining methods and new concepts for mass
production based on them are major targets for future re-
search and development.
1.4 MICROMACHINEABILITY OF
MATERIALS
Until recently the main materials considered in micromachin-

ing have been metals and silicon for, respectively, tool- and
mask-based processes. As industrial requirements for micro-
machining continue to grow, other substances such as ceram-
ics, plastic, glass, and biological materials have been receiving
attention. To that end, the micromachineability of engineering
materials needs to be considered.
Established methods of micromachining by turning, dril-
ling, milling, and grinding have already been applied to mate-
rials including copper and aluminum alloys, gold, silver,
nickel, and polymethylmetacrylate (PMMA) plastics. The tra-
ditional measures of machineability, surface integrity, tool
service life, and power consumption, remain valid for micro-
8 El-Hofy et al.
machining, as do qualitative indicators such as type of chip

produced. Conditions of chip production for conventional ma-
terial removal processes are highly affected by molecular scale
phenomena. The forces arising are very small, and the ratio
of normal to tangential component forces is high, especially at
very small depths of cut. Simulation of such nanometric levels
of chip removal may be undertaken by the methods of molecu-
lar dynamics, which are explained in Chapter 3, an example
being given in Figure 3. These nanometric effects cause a con-
siderable rise in specific cutting energy (or force), as may be
noted from Figure 4. The length of the shear plane as an indi-
cation of material machineability also needs careful consider-
ation; eventually there are three shear zones expected: pri-
mary, secondary, and an apparent shear region that is likely
to form the clearance pocket between the bottom of the tool
and the machined surface. The apparent shear zone is brought
Figure 3 Molecular dynamic simulation of nanometric chip re-

moval. (After Ref. 14.)
Introduction 9
Figure 4 Dependence of specific cutting energy on depth of cut.

(After Ref. 14.)
about by elastic recovery of work material and/or tool flank

wear. Experimental evidence shows that pronounced dissipa-
tion of mechanical energy occurs due to plastic deformation of
monolayers of the work part accompanied by skidding of the
tool cutting edge. In effect, a new measure of micromachine-
ability for conventional methods may be needed.
A micromachineability rating for unconventional pro-
cesses may be less difficult to establish. These all rely on re-
moval of micro amounts of materials either by mechanical
means (e.g., ultrasonics), thermal erosion (electrodischarge,
laser, electron beam), anodic dissolution (ECM), or ion impact
(ion beam machining; see, e.g., [7]). Their principles of machin-
ing are reasonably well understood, and little significant dif-
ference occurs between material removal on the micro- and
macro-scales. Many studies have been reported on ma-
10 El-Hofy et al.
chineability rating systems for ECM [810], EDM [10, 11],

and laser processes [11, 12]. For example, Khairy drew on
techniques for rating of conventional machining processes in
establishing those for ECM [8]. He proposed that ECM ma-
chineability has to include dimensional and surface quality
and power consumption, dependent, respectively, on the equi-
librium machining gap and specific metal removal rate.
1.5 APPLICATION OF ARTIFICIAL

INTELLIGENCE TECHNIQUES
IN MICROMACHINING
It is evident therefore that micromachining often demands

configurations of tool and workpiece and selection of process
conditions that can be difficult to achieve. Those concerned
with the design and operation of micromachining processes
have limited proficiency in handling all the different proce-
dures necessary and have to seek advice from experts and/or
refer to a limited amount of literature. Such information is
seldom available, as the bulk of expertise, based on practice,
is not readily obtainable in technical documents or databanks.
The use of computerized fuzzy logic, artificial neural net-
works, and knowledge-based systems to increase the produc-
tivity and quality of micromachined components is a promis-
ing approach to overcoming difficulties. Fuzzy controllers,
which use qualitative rules of discrete fuzzy classes, instead
of continuous variables, to optimize micromachining perfor-
mance have already been applied to electrodischarge machin-
ing albeit with limited success. As reported by Kruth [13], hy-
brid fuzzy control systems have been developed that can
accommodate a large band of critical variables in electro-
discharge micromachining, including those discussed above:
1. Effects of undesirable relative motion between tool

tip and workpiece caused by vibration and/or wear;
2. Imperfect fit between mating parts in assembly, such
Introduction 11
as machine spindle, part fixture, motion-drive unit,

misalignment of tool;
3. Thermal deformation of the entire machining system
over prolonged times of machining;
4. Deterioration of the condition of the machining zone
due to pollution by debris and short-circuits.
Such approaches for unconventional processes were like-

wise anticipated for ultraprecision traditional methods by
Ikawa and colleagues who emphasized the need for a machin-
ing strategy based on computer software to control the perfor-
mances of all subsystems [14]. These requirements for micro-
machining were stressed more recently by Fujino et al. in their
development of a multipurpose microprocessing machine [15].
Knowledge-based systems (KBS) have not yet been fully
utilized in micromachining, although some work has been re-
ported for electrodischarge (EDM) and electrochemical micro-
machining (ECM). Khairys findings on ECM can be applied
to the more general case of micromachining [16]. He shows
that for the latter, optimization of tool design and operating
conditions often requires complex computations and judg-
ments, and that decisions reached are not necessarily unique;
that is, different tool geometries and operating choices could
be viable. He points out that any KBS for nonconventional mi-
cromachining depends greatly on the expertise of the person-
nel involved. A proper methodology for tool design becomes
difficult to establish, owing to the complexity of the hydrody-
namics of the flowing electrolyte and the variation in the pro-
cess variables during machining. Khairy explains that the key
outcome of tool design linked to selection of machining vari-
ables has to be the tool geometry that provides the required
shape of the workpiece. A KBS has to recognize the following
problems. First, the entire process of selecting the machining
parameters, determination of the tool shape, finding the inter-
dependences between process variables, and formulation of an
appropriate plan can be difficult. Second, knowledge of micro-
machining technology is scarce and is restricted frequently to
12 El-Hofy et al.
in-house use. Third, the multiplicity of boundary limits in ana-

lytical tool design and finding, for example, a realistic mode
of material removal may lead to a number of alternative
choices, if only an algorithmic strategy is adopted.
Such aspects make the selection of micromachining op-
erating parameters a prime candidate for a KBS approach.
Limited KBS have already been developed for highly special-
ized micromachining operations [17,18].
For micromachining in general the procedures for a
knowledge base therefore become clear. The KBS should then
be developed to contain as much expertise as possible that is
relevant to the process. Most of this expertise will be available
in technical reports, reference books, and case studies [19]. A
protocol analysis, however, can be used to gather information
on a specific micromachining process in readily formatted rec-
ords of information which can thereafter be expressed as facts
about concepts, practices, and rules for handling the facts.
KBS of this type can embody a number of working mod-
ules: information input, machining procedure, tool design, and
economics; each module requires certain types of knowledge.
Thus the KBS should be able to provide the necessary support
required to guide successfully the micromachining of the part
required.
REFERENCES
[1] W.L. Sims, The contribution of the machine tool industry to

pioneering in new technologies, MA dissertation, University
of Leicester (1988).
[2] L.T.C. Rolt, Tools for the Job, Her Majestys Stationery Office,
London (1986).
[3] N. Taniguchi, Current status in and future trends of ultrapre-
cision machining and ultrafine materials processing, Annals
of the CIRP, (32) 2, 18 (1983).
[4] P.A. McKeown, High precision engineering and the British
economy. In Proc. I. Mech. E., 200 (76), 18 (1986).
Introduction 13
[5] T. Masuzawa and H.K. Toenshoff, Three-dimensional micro-

machining by machine tools. Annals of the CIRP, (46) 2, 621
628 (1997).
[6] T. Masuzawa, What will micromachining be? Private commu-
nication (1998).
[7] J.A. McGeough, W.J. McCarthy, C.B. Wilson, Electrical meth-
ods of machining. In Machine Tools, Encyclopaedia Britannica
Vol. 28 712736 (1987).
[8] A.B. Khairy, Towards a machinability system for ECM. In
Proc. CAPE-3 Conf. (Editor J.A. McGeough), Edinburgh, UK,
pp. 343350 (1989).
[9] G. Bellows, ECM machinability and data rating. ASTME Pa-
per MR 67, pp. 110 (1967).
[10] S. Ebeid, Computerised machinability data-base system as ap-
plied to ECM and EDM processes. In Proc. 2nd AME Conf.,
MTC, Cairo, 130143 (1986).
[11] R. Snoeys, F. Staelens, and W. Dekeyser, Current trends in
nonconventional metal removal processes. Annals of the CIRP,
(35)2/1, 467480 (1986).
[12] P. Hoffmann et al., Recent developments in laser system tech-
nology for cutting and welding applications. In Proc. ISEM-
XI, 785800 (1995).
[13] J.P. Kruth, Advances in physical and chemical machining. Ad-
vancement in Intelligent Production, E. Usui (Editor), Sept.
123138 (1994).
[14] N. Ikawa et al., Ultraprecision metal cutting, the past, the
present and the future. Annals of the CIRP, (42)2, 587594
(1991).
[15] M. Fujino et al., Development of multi-purpose microprocess-
ing machine. In Proc. ISEM-XI, April 613620 (1995).
[16] A.B. Khairy, A knowledge-based system for electrochemical
machining procedure. J. Materials Processing Technology, (58)
121130 (1996).
[17] A. De Silva and J.A. McGeough, The production of full die
14 El-Hofy et al.
shapes by electrochemical arc/electrochemical machining. In

Proc. ISEM-X, 107110 (1989).
[18] F. Olsen, Investigations on optimising the laser cutting pro-
cess. In Proc. ASME Conf. on Lasers in Materials Processing,
Los Angeles, 6480 (1983).
[19] T. Moriwaki and E. Shamoto, Ultraprecision diamond turning
of stainless steel by applying ultrasonic vibration. Annals of
the CIRP, (40)1, 559562 (1991).
2
Measurement Techniques in
Micromachining
Mohammad A. Younes
Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
INTRODUCTION
The last two decades have shown an ever-increasing interest

in higher precision and miniaturization in a wide range of
manufacturing activities. These growing trends have led to
new requirements in machining, positioning control, and me-
trology down to nanometer tolerances. Recent developments
in silicon micromachining have made possible the fabrication
of micromechanical elements of sizes typically ranging from
0.1 to 100 m [14]. Slots and apertures for some applications
such as color TV, electron gun masks, and jet-engine turbines
are made as small as 5 m. Microcircuit elements of 0.5 to 1
m are commonly manufactured using X-ray or electron-beam
15
16 Younes
lithography [5]. In order to assess and control the quality of

micromachined parts it has been necessary to develop new
measuring techniques, capable of effectively and accurately
measuring the dimensions, geometry, profile, and surface
roughness of microholes, slots, very thin films, microspheres,
steps, and grooves of different configurations in micromach-
ined parts. These parts and features can be either checked for
configuration and completeness, or measured to determine ac-
tual sizes. Inspection and measurement of these features raise
the demand for special equipment some of which depends on
entirely new principles.
2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF MEASURING

SYSTEMS
In addition to high-resolution calipers and coordinate measur-

ing machines, equipment used for measurement of micro-
machined parts includes high resolution microscopes, laser-
based surface followers, scanning electron microscopes (SEM),
interferometers, profilometers and scanning probes (e.g., scan-
ning tunneling microscopes STM), and scanning force micro-
scopes (SFM). The practical use of almost all these methods
depends on the development of high-precision scanning tables
as well as high-resolution linear transducers. Measurements
are carried out offline, in a metrology laboratory, as well as
online, or in-process while the parts are being fabricated. In
most measuring applications, noncontact methods are eventu-
ally used. Measuring systems rely, in their function, upon dif-
ferent principles and apply several technological methods. The
systems used for dimensional measurement and topographic
inspection can, however, be classified into two categories.
2.1.1 Category 1
In this category the size of an inspected feature is determined
by measuring the distance between its edges (Fig. 1a). Accord-
ingly, the system consists of three main parts: a sensor, a pre-
Measurement Techniques in Micromachining 17
Figure 1 Different configurations of measuring instruments.
cision table, and a displacement transducer. By such an ar-

rangement, the sensor determines the exact position of the
feature edges while the precision table moves the object or the
sensor for edge location. The displacement transducer can
then measure the distance moved between edges and indicate
the size of the feature in the specific direction.
Sensors can be mechanical, magnetic, capacitive, . . . and
in many instances optical. Tables of stable and precise move-
ment have recently been developed (e.g., [6]). For short travels
of submicrometer and nanometer resolution levels, piezoelec-
tric-driven stages are recommended [7,8].
In optical sensors, the position of the measured edge is
realized by the change in the reflected pattern as a light beam
crosses an edge. In optical microscopes, the edge position is
18 Younes
determined by a stationary index line placed inside the eye-

piece unit. For capacitive and magnetic sensors the position
of the edge is determined by the change in output signal noted
as the sensor crosses the edge. Mechanical sensors (e.g., in
coordinate measuring machines (CMM)) touch the inside (or
outside) walls of the part with a preset pressure. The transla-
tion of the sensor is determined with account being taken of
the size of the sensor tip. When mechanical sensors are used,
which are not stationary in the case of CMM, the minimum
internal dimension to be measured is limited by the size of the
sensor (stylus) tip.
Displacement transducers of different resolutions can be
used depending on the accuracy required. Linear variable dif-
ferential transducers (LVDT), optical grating encoders [9,10],
and displacement interferometers [11,12] are widely used in
many applications. These transducers have a major advan-
tage of being readily integrated in a computer-controlled mea-
surement system. Consequently, electric output signals from
these transducers are fed to the computer for direct measure-
ment and/or control. The above-mentioned category of mea-
suring instruments is used to measure sizes of object features
other than the height except for the case of CMM.
2.1.2 Category 2
In order to measure height, profile, or surface topography an-
other category is used. This can be classified into two main
types, whole field contouring and single profile methods.
Whole field contouring includes interferometric and holo-
graphic techniques. Single profile (SP) methods include me-
chanical stylus instruments, optical profile followers (OPF),
scanning tunneling microscopy, scanning electron microscopy,
and atomic force microscopy (AFM).
Single Profile and Height

Measuring Methods
Here the sensor is forced to follow the profile of the inspected
surface based on specific criteria (Fig. 1b). Height variations
can be recorded provided they are small enough to maintain

the validity of the working principle. The sensor can be of the
contact-type as in most CMM machines and stylus-type
roughness meters or it may be noncontact utilizing several
principles. CMM machines can accurately measure step
height provided there is sufficient room for the insertion of the
sensor tip (Fig. 1c). The resolution depends on the operating
principle, and values as small as 1 A are characteristic of some
of these instruments (e.g., SEM, STM, AFM). The working
principles of some of these systems that have potential use in
the measurement of micromachined parts are illustrated in
the following sections. The range of their application, accu-
racy, and resolution limits are also examined.
Whole Field Contouring

In whole field contouring (WFC), a contour image (interfero-
gram) of the inspected object surface is recorded (Fig. 2) by
use of several interferometric or holographic arrangements.
The contour images are analyzed by means of appropriate
computer algorithms, and surface height ordinates are accord-
ingly determined. In this case, the resolution depends on both
the arrangement used as well as the algorithm adopted. Some
interference microscopes [13] have vertical resolution on the
order of 0.1 nm, with maximum vertical step height of 100
m. Besides roughness such methods can also measure and
evaluate height of microsteps and grooves.
2.2 MICROSCOPES
Microscopes are widely used for the inspection and measure-

ment of tiny object features. Basically, a microscope produces
a magnified virtual image of the inspected object. Three types
of microscopes, namely, optical, electron, and interference are
used. The principle and application of the first two types are
discussed in the following section, while that for the third type
is presented in Section 2.4.2.
20 Younes
Figure 2 Typical interferograms.
2.2.1 Optical Microscopes

An optical microscope consists basically of two lenses (Fig. 3),
a high-power short focal length objective, and a low-power,
longer focal length, eyepiece. In practice the objective and the
eyepiece are not single lenses. To reduce the effects of aberra-
tions, each is assembled from two or more lenses. Generally
a microscope is equipped with several objectives to provide dif-
ferent magnifications, which can be as high as 1000x [14]. Op-
tical microscopes can be used as stand-alone inspection instru-
Figure 3 The principle of the optical microscope.
ments that are commonly employed for the visual inspection

of printed circuit boards. Modern microscopes are equipped
with video or CCD cameras where the field of view is observed
on a cathode ray tube (CRT) monitor. Such advanced systems
are presently fitted on production lines to monitor the quality
of microfeatures of manufactured parts.
The resolving power of an optical microscope a is given
by the Abbe equation [14]
1.22
a (1)
2n sin(i)
where
a: distance between two points on the surface of an object

that can be seen separated in the image plane
: effective wavelength of illumination used
22 Younes
n: refractive index of objective medium

i: suspended angle of lens which depends on its diameter
and focal length
(n sin(i)) is the numerical aperture (NA) of the objective lens,

which is higher for a high-power lens having short focal
length. For white light illumination, 5.6 104 mm and,
assuming NA 1, then, a 0.27 m. An optical microscope
with NA 0.6 can effectively detect two points less than 0.5
m apart.
Many commercially available measuring machines inte-
grate the high resolving power of an optical microscope with
a high-resolution xy stage to measure different dimensional
features of a product. Examples of these machines are the tool
makers microscopes (TMM), and the universal measuring
machines (UMM) (Fig. 4). The microscope helps to form a mag-
nified image of the inspected workpiece. An appropriate reticle
with cross-lines fixed inside the eyepiece is used to mark the
ends of the dimensions to be measured. The dimension size is
Figure 4 The principle of the tool makers microscope (TMM).

determined by the distance moved with the xy stage between

the two ends. An accuracy level of 1 m is commonly available
with Abbes metroscopes. Better resolutions are achieved from
interferometric displacement measurement [11]. Indeed, di-
mensions of holes, slots, and other features of an object less
than 200 m can easily be measured with accuracy better than
1 m. TMMs are used for dimensional measurement of both
internal and external part features.
2.2.2 Electron Microscopes

In electron microscopes the inspected surface is interrogated
by a focused beam of electrons. The beam is collimated and
then focused by means of coils that generate a radial magnetic
field to control the shape of the electron beam. Focusing is
achieved by varying the focal length of the objective lens coil
through the control of the coil current. The effective resolution
is almost 105 that of an optical microscope [15]. In this case
the wave length is given by the De Broglie formula [16],
h
(2)
mv
where
h: Planks constant
m: mass of electron
: electron velocity
As an electron of mass m and charge e pass through a potential

difference V, its kinetic energy is
1 2
m eV (3)
2
and
h
(4)
(2meV)1/2
It is obvious that the wavelength depends on the potential
difference V. For V 60 kV, is about 0.05 A. From Abbes
24 Younes
equation (1), the resolving power a for the electron microscope

can be on the order of 2.4 A for 0.05 A.
Two main types of electron microscopes are available,
namely, transmission electron (TEM) and scanning electron
(SEM) types. In most engineering applications SEM is used.
Figure 5(a) shows a schematic diagram of the main compo-
nents of an SEM microscope. The electron gun generates a
stream of electrons (electron beam) that is collimated by a coil
(lens). The objective (lens) focuses the electron beam onto the
surface of the specimen. In order to scan the specimen surface
with the focused electron beam (electron probe), a beam de-
flecting unit is used.
When an electron beam impinges on the surface of the
specimen different phenomena are observed [17]. Some elec-
Figure 5 Schematic of the electron microscope (a), emissions re-

sulting from electron bombardment (b), and typical micrographs (c)
and (d).
(c)
(d)
Figure 5 Continued.
trons are absorbed (losing their energy on collision). Others

are back-scattered (reflected) either elastically or inelastically
and these are called primary electrons. In elastic reflection,
electrons do not lose any of their energy but change their direc-
tion. For inelastic reflection, electrons interact with specimen
atoms and lose some of their energy before deflecting back out
of the specimen surface. Electrons that penetrate inside the
specimen interact with the material atoms resulting in the
ejection of secondary electrons. Secondary electrons formed
26 Younes
near the surface may escape producing secondary electron em-

its. In addition to primary scattered electrons and secondary
emitted ones, X-ray and even light photons are also produced
as a result of electron bombardment (Fig. 5b). The amount and
ratio of back-scattered electrons, secondary emission, and
other radiation depend on the beam energy, specimen geome-
try, and substrate atomic number. Since the atomic number
and beam energy are practically constant, specimen geometry
is therefore the main controlling factor.
A detector is used to collect the emission from the speci-
men surface (Fig. 5a). Several types of detectors are available
for the different phenomena resulting from electron bombard-
ment. The detector signal is amplified by the electronic unit
and used to modulate the brightness of a cathode ray tube.
The CRT is adjusted to scan synchronously with the electron
probe. Variations in the recorded brightness produce the
highly magnified image of the scanned object. Figure 5(c, d)
shows typical SEM micrographs that reveal surface details in
the submicrometer range.
SEM are used in two modes. In the conventional raster-
scanning mode the deflection coils (Fig. 5a) move the electron
beam across the stationary object to produce a two-dimen-
sional image of the surface. In the second mode the specimen
is fixed to a precision table which scans the specimen under a
stationary focused electron beam to produce a trace of the sur-
face relief. This intensity-profile mode provides quantitative
linear measurement of an object feature. Swyte and Jensen
[5] used SEM for the calibration of linear dimensions in the
range 0.1 to 100 m. The table translation is measured by a
laser interferometer with measurement precision of 0.01 m.
Electron detector and interferometer signals are fed to a com-
puter that analyzes the electron intensity with respect to posi-
tion profile to obtain the linear dimension for a specific feature.
A typical example of inspected objects is a microscopic chro-
mium metal line deposited on a glass substrate by means of
a photolithography technique [5]. In such an application, the
line is 0.5-m wide, and 1-m thick, with an edge slope of 70.
Asai et al. [18] used raster-scanning to obtain a sectional

curve of diamond tool edges. A newly developed SEM featuring
two secondary electron detectors was used to measure the cut-
ting edge radius which is on the order of 45 nm [19,20]. The
image created by the difference signal of the two detectors em-
phasizes the convexity and concavity of the sample surface.
As well as profile recording, SEM is used for roughness
measurement. Based on the principle that the back-scattered
electron signal is proportional to the slope of the surface in
the direction of scanning, the surface profile can be obtained.
By integrating the signal, Sato and Ohmori [19] detected a
roughness profile of surfaces having slope in a specific direc-
tion. Three-dimensional surface topography of the specimen
can be obtained by integrating scans covering the entire im-
age, at resolutions on the order of 0.001 m. To measure the
roughness of surfaces having slope in an arbitrary direction,
Sato and Ohmori [20] proposed a method to detect the normal
of the object surface by comparing the intensity of the back-
scattered electron signal of the specimen with that of a stan-
dard ball. The surface topography is processed from the mea-
sured data of the normal.
2.3 LASER-BASED SYSTEMS
In laser-based systems optical phenomena, observed as laser

light scans across an engineering surface, are applied for on-
line and in-process inspection of surface features. These phe-
nomena include diffraction, reflection, refraction, scattering,
and others. Some methods that depend on such phenomena
are explained below.
2.3.1 Diffraction Method

In micromachining, slots of dimensions on the order of few na-
nometers up to 200 m are produced. In the range of 50 m
or higher, these dimensions can readily be measured, in the
28 Younes
laboratory with high magnification microscopes; however, for

online measurement other techniques are adopted.
Younes [21] used a focused laser beam for online mea-
surement of fine surface grooves having different cross-sec-
tions (Fig. 6). The principle of his technique depends on the
condition that the reflected pattern from a flat surface will be
modulated by the presence of a microsurface groove. A flat
smooth surface reflects the beam into a single spot (Fig. 6b);
however, as the focused beam crosses the edge of a groove, the
reflected pattern is divided into two parts (Fig. 6c). Scanning
of this field, therefore, produces a double-peaked signal (Fig.
6d), the relative amplitudes of which change as the surface
moves against the focused spot. The slot width can be evalu-
ated from the recorded signal of a photosensitive device (PSD)
as the sample scans beneath the stationary laser spot. More-
over, the recorded signal also represents an approximation of
the slot profile (cross-section). Figure 6(a) shows the arrange-
ment used, while the PSD signals recorded as the focused spot
scanned three different grooves are shown in Figure 6(e). In-
spected surfaces should be smooth, since a speckle pattern
limits the measurement accuracy.
The double-peaked pattern can be explained by the Pek-
rinck and Kennedy model [22]. Levy et al. [23] observed a simi-
lar pattern when inspecting the height of a submicrometer
step. The method described above is noncontact and can be
used online provided the specimen travel is precisely con-
trolled. The proposed system is sensitive to changes in groove
width; however, variations in depth are less detectable espe-
cially for high depth-to-width ratios, or steep sides. Although
different incidence angles can be used, normal incidence re-
sults in more accurate slot description. The resolution of mea-
surement is directly proportional to the sampling rate of the
data acquisition unit R and inversely proportional to the table
speed v. For v 300 mm/min, and R 10 kHz, the resolution
can be on the order of 0.5 m. A linear photodetector array can
be used to indicate the start and finish of the double-peaked
pattern, while a linear transducer measures the distance cov-
ered during this event.
(b)
(c)
Figure 6 The principle of online dimensional measurement using

diffraction method: (a) setup; (b) reflection from a flat surface; (c)
diffraction by a microgroove; (d) intensity distribution of the diffrac-
tion pattern in (c); (e) PSD signal when scanning typical grooves.
30 Younes
Figure 7 The principle of the triangulation method.
2.3.2 Optical Triangulation Method

In this method (Fig. 7), the geometric principle of triangula-
tion is applied to perform distance measurements. The sample
surface is illuminated with a laser beam, through a projection
lens. The spot image formed by the imaging lens is received
on the position sensor. Variations in surface height z cause
the image on the PSD to be displaced from its reference posi-
tion by a distance S which is directly proportional to z. A
position sensor produces an electrical signal proportional to
the distance S that can be calibrated to give the height varia-
tion z. For the configuration shown in Figure (7), the dis-
placement S, corresponding to a height variation z is:
z sin( )
SM (5)
cos()
where
M: magnification in the image receiver system

: illumination angle
: imaging angle
z: height deviation from a reference level
Some applications use normal illumination ( 0), for which

Equation (5) reduces to
S M z sin() (6)
where is the angle between the illumination and imaging
directions.
The height resolution and range of this method depend
on the wavelength of the illumination , the numerical aper-
ture (NA) of the imaging lens, and the geometrical configura-
tion. Using inclined illumination and normal imaging, Costa
[24] achieved height resolution of 0.49 m ( 0.6328 m, NA
0.6, inclination angle 65); however, it can be as high as
a few microns. The range of height variation detected can be
as small as few micrometers or as large as several millimeters.
The application ranges from the measurement of surface to-
pography [24,25], in-process measurement and control [26],
range-finding [27], and as noncontact probes on coordinate
measuring machines [28]. A critical analysis of errors evolved
in triangulation-based systems is given by Kilgus and Svetkoff
[29].
2.3.3 Optical Followers

The optical follower is a measuring instrument that scans an
object surface with a focused laser beam. If the beam is ini-
tially focused on a specific surface point, height variations as
the object moves set the beam out of focus. The out-of-focus
condition is detected by a sensory unit that activates a servo-
mechanism to bring the beam back in focus. The vertical dis-
placement required to bring the beam back in focus is recorded
against the linear displacement of the object. This record rep-
resents the profile of the surface along the scanned line. Figure
8 shows the main components of an optical follower. The laser
beam is filtered using the lens-pinhole spatial filter, then colli-
mated and focused on the sample surface. The focused spot is
imaged on the surface of the position sensor by use of the beam
splitter and the imaging lens. The detector signal is fed to the
32 Younes
Figure 8 The main components of an optical follower.
personal computer, where the focusing condition is deter-

mined. As the table moves, height variations in the sample
surface set the beam out of focus. Accordingly, the servomech-
anism is activated to bring the spot back in focus by moving
the focusing lens vertically. Two linear transducers are used:
the first measures the horizontal displacement of the table,
while the other measures the vertical displacement of the lens.
A record of the vertical lens displacement against the horizon-
tal table displacement produces a profile trace of the sample
surface along the scanned line. By use of an xy table multiple
traces, and consequently, three-dimensional maps of surface
profiles can be constructed. The accuracy of height measure-
ment depends on two main factors, the resolution of the dis-
placement transducer, and the precision of the sensory unit.
On the other hand, spatial resolution depends on the precision
of the stage moving the object. Several techniques are used
to detect the focusing condition in optical followers [4,3032].

They include defect-of-focus and astigmatic methods, some ba-
sic principles of which are discussed below.
Defect-of-Focus Principle
That the position of the focus image along the beam axis is
strongly dependent on the distance between the sample sur-
face and the objective lens (Fig. 9a) is the basic criterion used
for focusing detection. For a small variation in sample height
z, and for an objective magnification M, the change in the posi-
tion of focus image along the beam axis is given by [4]:
S 2M 2z (7)
For a magnification, M 40x, a height change of 1 m re-
sults in a change in focus position along the beam, S 3.2
Figure 9 The principle of the defect-of-focus detection method.

34 Younes
mm. If Po is the plane where the image of the in-focus spot is

formed, two planes, P1, and P2, at equal distances from Po, are
determined and two equal aperture detectors are placed, one
at each plane. The signal of the second detector P2 , is sub-
tracted from that of the first one. If the difference between the
two detector signals (P2 P1) 0, the laser beam is focused
on the sample surface; however, if (P2 P1) 0, then the beam
is out of focus. In this case the servomechanism is activated
to bring the beam back in focus. The distance moved by the
objective lens to bring the beam back in focus is measured by
use of a displacement transducer. A record of this displace-
ment against the sample movement represents the surface
profile along the scanline. For practical reasons two beam
splitters BS1, and BS2, are used as shown in Figure 9(b).
If the height variation reaches a certain limit, the focus
image goes to infinity and beyond that the beam becomes di-
vergent leading to (P2 P1) 0, for z 0 causing runaway.
Therefore, the measuring range depends on the optical con-
figuration and the magnification of the objective lens. For a
microscope having a magnification 64x, the range is 31 m [4];
however, using an additional small lens of a focal length of
150 mm, the range increases to 440 m, with a resolution of
1 m. Kleinknecht and Meier [4] employed this method to
measure grooves (30- to 100-m deep) etched into the surface
of Si wafers used in power transistors and thyristors. As the
grooves had rough surfaces, interferometric techniques were
not applicable.
Astigmatic Principle
In astigmatic focusing [30], a cylindrical lens is used to con-
verge the image of the measuring spot on a quadrant detector
which is placed in the focal plane of the imaging lens (Fig. 10).
If the measuring spot is focused on the sample surface, the
image on the detector is circular, and the signal from the four
detector parts is equal (position P0, Fig. 10). The out-of-focus
Figure 10 The principle of astigmatic focus detection.
condition caused by surface height variations changes the cir-

cular shape of the image into elliptical form (positions P1 and
P2, Fig. 10). The direction of the major axis of that ellipse de-
pends on the position of the surface point relative to the refer-
ence position corresponding to Po. A difference signal can be
calibrated to produce a surface profile record as the surface
scans beneath the illumination spot.
The difference signal is linear in a short range around
the focus and depends on the power and numerical aperture
of the objective lens [30]. For an objective (60x, NA 0.8), the
range is 0.5 m; however for (40x, NA 0.65), it becomes
1.5 m. The resolution can be as small as 2 nm. Results ob-
tained by this method showed good agreement with stylus in-
struments; however, optical diffraction at the edges of a step
on the surface resulted in small crests in the record.
Two-Beam Method
Shimokohbe et al. [31] used a two-beam system to detect sur-
face relief and inclination. The arrangement shown in Figure
11 applies two focused laser beams, B1, and B2 , fired sequen-
tially one after the other to intersect at the sample surface.
The objective lens forms an image of the spots on the surface
36 Younes
Figure 11 The principle of the two-beam method.
of a position sensor. At the reference position P0, the two spots

coincide. Height deviation from the reference position results
in two intersection points between the laser beams and the
sample surface. The distances between the spot images P1, and
P2 on the detector, and the reference image P0 , depend on the
value of surface deviation z. The direction of surface deviation
is easily determined by the relative positions of beams on the
detector. This method produces good results in the case of
smooth surfaces. For relatively rough surfaces, the presence
of speckle pattern caused by diffraction limits the accuracy.
For smooth surfaces, measurement uncertainty is on the order
of 0.2 m.
2.4 INTERFERENCE METHODS
Interferometry is the field in which light interference phenom-

ena are exploited for the purposes of measurement and inspec-
tion. An interference fringe pattern results when two wave-
fronts of monochromatic coherent light having a phase
relationship combine. In most cases the two wavefronts origi-
nate from a single source. Several techniques are used to pro-
duce two waves from a single source [33]. One of the two waves
is considered as a reference wave, while the other is the object

wave which is modulated in phase by the object surface. As
the two waves recombine a fringe pattern is produced that de-
pends directly on the phase modulation of the object wave.
To produce two wavefronts from a single source the wave-
front or the amplitude can be divided. In some interference
microscopes, a birefringent material is used to split the elec-
tric and the magnetic components of the electromagnetic light
wave thus generating the reference and object wavefronts.
2.4.1 Interference Comparators

Interference comparators are used for two major applications:
to produce contour interferograms of inspected surfaces or as
displacement transducers. Evaluation of contour interference
patterns renders valuable information regarding surface to-
pography, surface roughness, as well as dimensions of micro-
surface features [34,35]. Interferometric transducers are also
used to measure the translation of highly precise tables down
to the nanometer resolution [11,36].
Many widely used interferometers are based on the Mi-
chelson principle (Fig. 12a). Coherent light from the mono-
chromatic source 1, is collimated by lens 2, then divided into
two waves by the beam splitter 3. The reference wave is re-
flected back by the reference plane 4, while the object type is
reflected after being modulated by the object surface 5. The
two waves recombine to form a fringe pattern by using im-
aging unit 6. The fringe pattern (Fig. 12b) is determined ac-
cording to the phase relationship between the object and the
reference waves, which in turn depends on the shape and ori-
entation of the object surface with respect to that of the refer-
ence.
If the object and reference surfaces are normal to each
other, the pattern produced represents contour fringes; how-
ever, for inclined surfaces, the fringes are rows of profiles. Par-
allel equidistant straight fringes indicate a plane surface in-
38 Younes
(b)
Figure 12 The principle of the Michelson interferometer (a) and

a typical interferogram (fringe pattern) (b).
clined to the reference plane. Any out-of-flatness in the sample

surface alters the obtained fringe pattern. In effect, the fringe
pattern represents contour lines of equidistant points from the
reference plane. The contour step in this case equals /2,
where is the wavelength of the light used.
Personal computers (PCs) have recently been used for the
analysis of interferograms. CCD and video cameras are used
to capture the fringe pattern, which is then analyzed, by
means of dedicated software. Different surface topography pa-
rameters are evaluated from the interference pattern. The im-
age of the fringe pattern is transferred electronically to digital
values representing the grey levels or intensity that are
treated mathematically to produce contour maps and surface
profiles as well as surface parameters. Dimensions of micro-
surface grooves or steps can also be evaluated from the inter-
ferograms.
2.4.2 Interference Microscopes

Interference microscopes provide higher resolution than their
optical counterparts. They form magnified images of the in-
spected part surface modulated by interference contour
fringes. These represent the microtopography of the inspected
part surface and provide invaluable information about micro-
surface features such as form, profile, and roughness as well
as dimensions of grooves, slots, and scratches. In many appli-
cations, calibrated reticles can be placed inside the eyepiece
unit to measure dimensions of surface features. Several ar-
rangements are adopted to produce the interferograms of ex-
amined parts. In all cases light is split into two wavefronts,
one going to a reference plane and the other to the inspected
surface. After reflection, wavefronts recombine undergoing
constructive and destructive interference, producing the inter-
ferograms with dark and bright fringe pattern.
Figure 13(a) shows Tolanskys arrangement for interfer-
ence microscopy [37]. By this arrangement, it is possible to
measure microsteps of 500-m height with an accuracy on the
40 Younes
Figure 13 The principle of interference microscopy.
order of 3 m. In the Tolansky interferometer the wavefront

is divided into two types, the reference and the object waves.
In other types of interferometers, the two waves are formed
by separating the electric and the magnetic components of the
electromagnetic wave of light [38]. In the interference micro-
scope (Fig. 13b) a Wollastone birefringence prism 5 is placed

in the space between the objective 2 and eyepiece 7. A polar-
izer plate 4 is placed in front of the Wollastone prism while
an analyzer 6 is in the back. The semireflecting plate 1 directs
the light onto the surface of the inspected object 3. With this
arrangement the reflected wavefront imaged by the objective
2 is divided into two wavefronts representing the electric and
the magnetic fields. These wavefronts interfere with each
other after passing through the analyzer 6. The resulting in-
terferogram shows minute variations in the inspected sur-
face. This procedure is useful for examining fine surface struc-
tures (e.g., grooves, slots, and scratches) as well as surface
roughness. Commercially available interference microscopes
can measure height variations as small as 0.1 nm (see, e.g.,
[13]). Moreover, roughness values in the sub-Angstrom range
can also be evaluated. Like optical microscopes, interference
microscopes are now equipped with CCD cameras that are in-
terfaced to PCs (Fig. 13c).
A major limitation of interferometry is the need for fairly
reflective surfaces. Apart from this limitation, it provides a
powerful tool that produces a whole field image revealing mi-
crofeatures of inspected surfaces. The resulting interferogram
can be used for direct visual inspection, or numerical evalua-
tion of dimensions and surface roughness.
2.5 SURFACE PROFILERS
Surface profilers are instruments that use a fine stylus or tip

to trace the fine details of an engineering surface. Height vari-
ations along the traced line modulate the force interacting be-
tween tip and surface or the tunnel current passing between
them when they are very close to each other. By monitoring
the deflection of the tip caused by the tip-surface force or the
tunnel current, it is possible to produce a profile record of the
traced line. Multiple line traces generate three-dimensional
records of the inspect surfaces.
42 Younes
2.5.1 Stylus Instruments

Mechanical stylus instruments are most widely used for sur-
face topography assessment. They have a wide range of height
resolutions; however, their spatial resolution is limited by the
size of the stylus tip used. As shown in Figure 14(a), an arm
(lever) carrying a microtip (stylus) represents the sensor that
scans across the inspected surface. Height variations along
the scanned line change the force between the stylus tip and
the surface points, and consequently lever deflection. An ap-
propriate transducer transforms the lever deflection into an
electrical signal proportional to height variations. The signal
is then amplified, digitized, and analyzed to evaluate surface
parameters.
The stylus movement is measured relative to a datum
that should conform with the nominal shape of the measured
Figure 14 The principle of the stylus instrument (a) and typical

profile traces (b).
surface [39]. While a straight-line datum has been used, a sim-

ple skid arrangement (Fig. 14a) is most common. Generally
the stylus is a conical or pyramid diamond with a flat or
rounded tip. The pyramid is normally 90 with a 2- to 2.5-m
flat, while the cone is 60 with 12.5-m radius. Tips of 2.5 m
are also in use [40]. Figure 14(b) shows typical stylus traces
of engineering surfaces.
The tip radius should be smaller than the radius of curva-
ture of the bottom of surface valleys, otherwise the profile is
commonly modulated by the stylus tip. A measuring force
must be applied to ensure contact between stylus tip and sur-
face points. Typical force levels are about 70 mg giving a pres-
sure of 2500 Nmm2 [40]. Such pressure is less than the yield
strength of most materials. However, for soft materials or
coatings this pressure may exceed the yield strength and
cause surface damage.
The large development of computer science and technol-
ogy has greatly increased the capability and spatial resolution
of stylus instruments. Very accurate and precise linear trans-
ducers have been developed for scanning the inspected sam-
ples. Despite noise limitations, high resolutions of more than
0.1 nm have been achieved [41]. A reproducibility of 1.5 nm
rms over a 40-mm traverse range was reported by Lindsey et
al. [42]. Song and Vorberger [43] showed experimentally that
lateral resolution on the order of 0.05 to 0.15 m can also be
obtained. A fine stylus, of small loading and high magnifica-
tion, in the lateral direction has been used to measure fine
surface structures. Razor blade styli with tip width 0.05 to
0.15 m and stylus load of 0.6 to 1.2 106 N were used, a
piezostage providing very slow and stable stylus motion in
which horizontal magnification up to 50,000x or greater was
obtainable.
Stylus instruments provide profile records of traced lines.
Three-dimensional surface profile maps can also be plotted by
use of scanning tables. Since profile signals can be digitized,
surface geometry is analyzed and different surface parameters
44 Younes
valuated using PCs interfaced with the measuring instru-

ment. In addition to the assessment of surface roughness, sty-
lus instruments can be used to measure microsurface grooves
with depth values on the order of several microns. A major
disadvantage of stylus instruments is that they rely on con-
tact-type methods. They are relatively slow and the measuring
pressure may, in some cases, damage the inspected surface.
2.5.2 Scanning Tunnelling Microscopes

Scanning tunnelling microscopes (STM) are another family of
stylus-type instruments where the stylus does not contact the
inspected surface. STM instruments are capable of lateral res-
olution sufficient to resolve protruding atoms on reconstructed
surfaces. The vertical resolution is as small as 0.02 m.
These instruments operate in vacuum, air, oil, liquid ni-
trogen, and water, giving images which are direct topographs
of inspected surfaces [7]. In addition to the promising advan-
tages of STMs in microtopographic mapping of highly finished
surfaces, other applications such as microlithography, micro-
machining, polymer science, and biotechnology are also being
studied. The usefulness of STMs for the analysis of diamond-
turned surfaces, ruled grating replicas, X-ray reflecting optics,
and optical discs has recently been demonstrated [2].
Although the concept of tunnelling in solid-state physics
first appeared in the late 1920s [45], the first successful tun-
nelling experiment with an externally and reproducibly ad-
justable vacuum gap was reported by G. Binnig et al. of the
IBM Zurich Research Laboratory in 1982 [46]. The principle
of scanning tunnelling microscopy is demonstrated in Figure
15(a), in which a stylus of very sharp tip (ultimately one atom)
is brought very close to the inspected surface (1 nm apart).
At such closely adjacent distances, free electrons from the con-
ductive sample surface atoms tunnel to the conductive stylus
tip, producing a very weak current. In the one-dimensional
case, the tunnel resistance and, consequently, the tunnelling
Figure 15 Scanning tunneling microscopy basic principle (a), con-

stant current mode (b), and constant height mode (c).
current at low voltage and temperature is exponentially de-

pendent on the tip-sample separation d [46,47]:
I exp(2kd) (8)
where
I: tunnelling current
d: distance between tip and surface
k: constant
For vacuum tunnelling, k h1 2m where h is Plancks

constant, m is electron mass, and is effective local work func-
tion, for a work function of 4 eV, k 1.0 A1. The current de-
creases by an order of magnitude when the distance d is in-
creased by 1.0 m. If the current is kept constant within 2%,
46 Younes
the gap remains unchanged to within 0.01 m. This condition

represents the basis for interpreting the image as simply a
contour of constant height above the measured surface.
To record a topographic map of a surface, the tip scans
in a raster pattern. It is stepped in the positive x-direction; at
each step the tunnel current is read, and tip height adjusted
to get the desired value. When the first scan is finished, the
tip is returned to the starting position of this scan, then moved
one step in the y-direction until it covers the required area.
Surface roughness complicates the scanning process. In this
regard, the rougher the surface, the more difficult it is to ob-
tain a proper image [7]. Therefore, STMs are limited to con-
ductive materials having fine surface structures.
Two modes of operation can be used with STM, constant
current and constant height modes. In the first case, Figure
15(b), the tunnel current is kept constant by adjusting the tip
height to keep a constant separation between the tip and the
surface. The displacement of the servomechanism required to
bring the tip to the constant current (separation) position is
then recorded as the z-ordinate. In this case, the scanning
speed is determined by the response of the feedback circuit,
which maintains the average current constant. The constant
current mode can be used for surfaces that are not atomically
flat (i.e., 10-nm peak-to-valley height).
In the constant height mode (Fig. 15c) the tip scans the
surface while its vertical position, relative to a mean reference
plane, and the current are kept constant, the voltage variation
being monitored. Under such circumstances, the scanning
speed depends on how fast the feedback circuit responds to
achieve constant current by adjusting the voltage. Scanning
is faster; however, the tip may be damaged unless the surface
is tolerably smooth.
Special attention should be paid to vibration conditions,
since the performance of an STM microscope can be enhanced
by use of proper isolation [7]. Fine resolutions, required for
scanning the tip and measuring height variations, are realized
by using piezoelectric elements for x, y, and z translations.
Controlled voltage is applied to the piezoelectric crystal in

specified directions. Consequently, the crystal contracts or
elongates according to the sign of the electric field. This effect
is linear and precisely controlled [49]. Separate piezoelectric
elements for each axis translation have been used [46]. On the
other hand, a single piezoelectric tube that provides transla-
tion in the three axes has been described by Binnig and Smith
[50].
STM microscopes have many potential applications in
measurement and fabrication of micromachined parts. They
are successfully used for the measurement of surface topogra-
phy as low as the atomic scale. Yang and Talke [51] used STM
to investigate surface roughness of magnetic recording disks,
using line graphs and aerial images at sampling intervals of
125 and 5 nm. Fine diffraction gratings, 2000 lines/mm, were
also examined using STM to reveal detailed surface topogra-
phy [52]. Besides measurement of surface topography STMs
were used to modify surface structure and manufacture parts
bits on highly oriented pyrolytic graphite [53].
2.5.3 Atomic Force Microscope

Atomic force microscopes (AFM) are noncontact profilometers
which use a very fine stylus fixed to the end of a thin cantile-
ver. They trace actual profiles of highly smooth and flat sur-
faces (Fig. 16a). The profile is recorded by making the stylus
follow the profile of a constant force between stylus tip and
surface points. As the fine stylus tip is brought close to the
surface (30 to 150 m) attraction forces between atoms are
generated. As the tip comes closer to the surface the atomic
force increases. Such a force is balanced by the plastic force
generated by bending the cantilever. Therefore the stationary
cantilever bend is a direct measure of the atomic force [56].
Most probes use capacitive sensors to determine cantilever de-
flection, and hence the atomic force [8,54,55]. A feedback loop
is usually used to keep the force at a specified value by main-
taining a constant tip-sample spacing. The signal, from the
48 Younes
Figure 16 The principle of atomic force microscopy with capacitive

sensor (a), and with vibrating tip (b).
capacitive sensor, is fed to a servomechanism that controls the

tip-sample spacing.
Another arrangement (Fig. 16b) uses a fine tip fixed to
the end of a vibrating lever. Changing the tip-sample spacing
leads to proportional change in the attraction force, which
modifies the compliance of the lever. The vibration amplitude
is also affected by the shift in the lever resonance [56]. The
tip vibration amplitude as a function of the frequency is
given by
A0(/0)
A (9)
[1 Q (/0 0 /)2]1/2
2
where
A:amplitude of vibration
A0:amplitude at resonance
:tip frequency
0:tip resonance frequency, 0 c1 k, c1 is a function
of lever mass, and k is the spring constant
Q: quality factor (Q 1), Q is a measure of system
damping, and Q (1/c) km
where
c: damping factor
m: lever mass
The larger the value of Q, the smaller is the damping. As the

tip approaches the sample surface, interatomic attraction
forces reduce the spring constant of the lever by the atomic
force derivative f . The resonance frequency then becomes
0 c1 k f . Thus by measurement of the shift in the lever
resonance 0 , the force derivative can be found [56].
The change in the resonance frequency changes the amplitude
of vibration. This means that, as the tip approaches the sur-
face, the attraction force rises leading to a proportional change
in both lever resonance frequency and vibration amplitude. By
monitoring these values as the tip scans across the surface, it
is possible to trace the surface profile.
The amplitude of vibration can be measured optically
[39], or by use of an interferometer [56]. A signal representing
the amplitude of vibration is usually used in a feedback loop
to maintain the tip at a specific distance from the surface as
the tip scans across a determined path. This technique has
been applied to measure surface roughness of ultrafine sur-
faces. Micro- and sub-micrometer surface features can also be
measured. Line profiles and 3-D maps of surfaces can be re-
corded and presented. V-shaped grooves on silicon wafer and
steps of height 50 m have been mapped and measured [56].
Profiles of a photoresist grating (0.1-m line width and 0.09-
m thickness) have been recorded by the same technique.
2.6 MEASUREMENT OF MICROHOLES AND

SLOTS
2.6.1 Optical Methods
Small holes produced by micromachining (typically 200 m or
less) can be measured with commercially available micro-
50 Younes
scopes. Tool Makers microscopes are provided with linear

transducers to measure displacement in the x- and y-direc-
tions with resolutions on the order of 1 m [57]. These mea-
surements are digitally displayed, and in many cases, can be
interfaced with a computer. Very small patterns of semicon-
ductor devices can successfully be inspected for geometrical
characteristics. Shallow holes with large diameter-to-depth
ratio are readily measurable with microscopes. However, deep
holes of nozzles, receptacles, or dies are not suitable for micro-
scopes. By means of microscopes it is possible to measure the
size and shape of the two entrances of the hole, while the in-
side geometry is not accessible.
Coordinate measuring machines can measure the size
and geometry of holes having a minimum diameter of 1 mm
[58]. The main reason for such a limitation is related to the
size of the stylus or feeler. To maintain an adequate level of
accuracy in displacement measurement the feeler must main-
tain a certain rigidity, hence, its dimensions must not lie below
certain limits.
New techniques using very thin feelers have recently
been developed to measure holes. One method uses a very thin
vibrating feeler and senses the electrical contact between the
feeler and the internal wall of the hole [59]. Another method
takes the deflection of the feeler into consideration and com-
pensates for such deflections [60]. The principles of these two
methods are described below.
2.6.2 Vibroscanning Method

Masuzawa et al. [59] developed a new method for measure-
ment of microhole geometry which is called vibroscanning
(VS). It is a nondestructive technique based on sensing electri-
cal contact between the surface of the hole and a vibrating
feeler which has a small raised part (tip) at its end (Fig. 17a).
As the vibrating feeler gradually approaches the surface of
the hole, the tip starts to touch the surface intermittently.
Figure 17 Vibroscanning method, with single-tip probe (a), con-

cept of duty time (b), double-tip probe (c), and the relationship be-
tween duty time and tip vibration (d).
When the feeler tip touches the hole surface the sensing loop
closes and the voltage goes high to a level Hi. The voltage stays
high for a short period called the duty time D, which depends
on the distance between the hole surface and the neutral axis
of feeler vibration x (Fig. 17b). If the surface is at position o
relative to the neutral axis of the feeler, no contact occurs and
the voltage remains at the low level L0. As the feeler is moved
close to the hole surface, position a, the duty time will be Da.
As the feeler comes closer to the surface, position b, the duty
52 Younes
time increases to Db. The relationship between D and x de-

pends on the amplitude of vibration A, and can be expressed
as
D |arccos(x / A)|/( A x A) (10)
From knowing the vibration amplitude A, the distance be-

tween feeler and surface x can be obtained by measuring D
and referring to the curve (Fig. 17d).
Masuzawa et al. [59] explained the advantages of their
VS technique over AFM and STM techniques. In the AFM, the
displacement of the feeler end must be magnified by an optical
system. This requires a wide open space around the feeler end.
Although STM can be used for small holes, the speed of mea-
surement is limited since the feeler must follow minute varia-
tions of the surface at atomic scale. Moreover, the original sig-
nal from the feeler is a very low analogue current which
requires high gain amplification and noise, in such a case, can
pose a major difficulty. On the other hand, the signal from the
VS feeler is an onoff type of several volts. In the VS method
the measuring rang is limited by the vibration amplitude A,
which is typically on the order of 4 m. The nonlinear rela-
tionship between D and x (Fig. 17d) suggests that D should
be kept close to 0.5 to attain consistent sensitivity of measure-
ment.
The main drawback of the VS method is that electrically
nonconductive objects cannot be measured. In order to tackle
this problem, Masuzawa et al. [3] developed a twin probe (Fig.
17c) that can be used to measure holes in electrically noncon-
ductive objects. The probe has two elements connected to the
terminals of the scanning loop. As the front vibrating element
touches the surface of the hole it actually contacts the tip of
the back element, and the sensing loop is closed. A silicon-
based twin probe was fabricated which is 300-m long, 20-m
thick, and 15-m wide [3]. Holes having 125-m diameter
were measured with an estimated accuracy of 0.5 m. How-
ever, measurement of very deep holes requires low frequency
of feeler vibration and, consequently, a long measurement

time. Electrically nonconductive dust or inclusion inside the
hole may cause runaway and damage of the feeler.
2.6.3 Elastic Transmission Method

Zhang and Yang [60] introduced a new principle that allows
the use of a very thin stylus to measure blind holes 200 m
in diameter and 700 m in depth on a 3-D measuring machine
with an accuracy better than 1 m. The proposed elastic
transmissing principle takes into account the deflection of the
stylus due to the measuring force. The effective sensitivity of
the probe is determined accordingly and the error caused by
the deflection is compensated for automatically. The elastic
transmission principle can be explained using the widely
known parallel strip mechanism shown in Figure 18(a), where
the cantilever stylus (1) is treated as a spring with constant
k1. As the stylus tip (M) is moved a small distance M, by the
measuring force, the point N will be displaced a corresponding
distance N depending on the mechanical response of the sys-
tem. If the spring constant for the parallel strips (2) is k2 and
Figure 18 Elastic transmission probe (a) and measurement proce-

dure (b).
54 Younes
the mass of the moving parts is m, the displacement of point

M, M is related to N of point N by
mN cN (k1 k2)N k1M (11)
where c is the damping factor.
In a static process
k1
N kM M (12)
k1 k2
where k is the static transfer coefficient.
The displacement sensor 3 (Fig. 18(a)) measures the ac-
tual displacement of point N by means of an appropriate
transducer. The corresponding displacement of stylus tip M
is calculated from Equation (12), based on an assumed static
process. The read-out unit shows the displacement of the sty-
lus tip directly. The stylus is first inserted inside the hole by
use of a microscope. The measuring head is then moved in the
negative x-direction until it touches the hole surface on the
left-hand side and deflects a preset amount, position I in Fig-
ure 18(b). At this position the x-coordinate of the 3-D is re-
corded, x1. The measuring head is then moved in the positive
x-direction to touch the other side of the hole, position II, in
Figure 18(b), and deflects the same amount as in position I.
The x-coordinate is again recorded, x2; the internal dimension
will be
Dx |x2 x1| dt, (13)
where dt is the stylus tip diameter.
Zhang and Yang [60] proposed different versions of the
probe head that can either measure in three dimensions, or
overcome some drawbacks of the parallel strip mechanism.
2.7 CONCLUSIONS
New trends in manufacturing industries including miniatur-

ization and large-scale integration have enhanced the de-
velopment of measurement science and technology. Minia-
turization calls for new measuring techniques to evaluate

microfeatures of tiny parts at high resolution. In addition,
computer-integrated, high-speed, noncontact techniques are
required for applications including in-process and online in-
spection. In the future, accurate and intelligent measurement
systems will therefore be an integral part of industrial manu-
facturing lines.
Advances in the field of measurement are expected to be
integrated in manufacturing systems along four main lines:
probe and sensor performance, precision and resolution of
translation mechanisms, accuracy and response of linear and
angular transducers, together with computer interfaces and
software.
Probes and sensors are being greatly improved to achieve
higher resolutions and better accuracy. Fine details of micro-
machined parts, including features that are difficult to reach,
need to be inspected at an appropriate resolution. AFM, STM,
and electron microscopes provide high resolutions; however,
the measuring time is relatively long, which limits the applica-
tion of such systems for online inspection especially for large-
scale production.
Precision tables that can provide very accurate fine mo-
tion for both workpiece and sensor at reasonable speed are
another challenge facing the development of measuring in-
struments. Piezoelectric actuators are highly precise; how-
ever, their speed and range of travel are limited.
Linear transducers are used in measuring systems to de-
termine the displacement of axes. High-response long-range
transducers are necessary for the realization of precise mea-
surement. Research is being undertaken to improve trans-
ducer response, resolution, and range of measurement and to
reduce environmental impacts on accuracy.
Integration of accurate sensors, precision tables, and
high-resolution transducers in a measuring system is only
possible through computer control. Table movement, displace-
ment measurement, analysis of sensor signals, and activation
of feedback systems will all be controlled by computers. Great
56 Younes
improvements are therefore expected in computer hardware

and software, as well as interfacing technology.
NOTATION AND SYMBOLS
a: distance between two points on the surface of an

object that can be seen separated in the image
plan, m
: effective wavelength of illumination used, m
n: refractive index of objective medium
i: suspended angle of lens which depends on its di-
ameter and focal length
h: Plancks constant, 6.626 1034 Js
m: mass of electron, 9.110 1031 kg
v: electron velocity, 2.99 108 m/s
V: potential difference, V
e: electron charge, 1.602 1019 C
M: magnification in the image receiver system
: illumination angle, deg.
: imaging angle, deg.
: angle between illumination and imaging direc-
tions, deg.
z: height deviation from a reference level, m
df: change in the focus position along the optic axis,
m
I: tunneling current, A
d: distance between tip and surface, m
k: constant, A1
: effective work function, eV
A: amplitude of vibration, m
A0: amplitude at resonance, m
: tip frequency, Hz
0: tip resonance frequency, Hz
SEM: scanning electron microscope
STM: scanning tunneling microscope
SFM: scanning force microscope
AFM: atomic force microscope

CMM: coordinate measuring machine
LVDT: linear variable differential transducer
OPF: optical profile follower
WFC: whole field contouring
NA: numerical aperture
TMM: tool makers microscope
UMM: universal measuring machine
VS: vibroscanning
PSD: position sensitive device
CRT: cathode ray tube
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(57)8, 16881689 (1989).
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ning tunneling microscopes. Rev. Sci. Instrum. (60)10, 3119
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[53] J.A. Miller and R.J. Hocken, Scanning tunneling microscopy
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machined AFM transducer with differential capacitive read
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62 Younes
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Marcel Dekker, New York (1995).
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3
Molecular Dynamics Simulation
of the Atomic Processes
in Microcutting
Shoichi Shimada
Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In conventional metal cutting, machining accuracy is mainly

governed by the inherent performance of the machine tool,
account having to be taken of characteristics such as error
motion, its stiffness, and dynamic conditions. As a result,
machining allowances can be as high as hundreds of m.
However, in ultraprecision cutting, such as single point dia-
mond turning (SPDT) (see Chapter 5), the machining allow-
ance and chip thickness can be reduced, respectively, to less
than approximately 10s of m and 1 m. Single point diamond
turning is a well-known ultraprecision cutting method where
a fine single point diamond tool mounted on a specially de-
63
64 Shimada
signed precision machine tool is used. Metal surfaces can be

finished under precisely controlled machine and environmen-
tal conditions. Accuracies of, respectively, 10 and 1 nm have
been attained in practice and under experimental conditions
(aided by advanced control techniques) [13].
Under the highly precise motion of such a machine tool,
the primary factor affecting machining accuracy is the control-
lability or repeatability of the thickness of cut, that is, the un-
deformed chip thickness effectively removed at the cutting
edge. Experiments with a specially prepared fine diamond cut-
ting tool used on such a machine tool have confirmed that very
fine chips, of undeformed thickness as small as 1 nm, can be
Figure 1 Models for analysis of nanometric cutting process: (a)

continuum; (b) atomic.
Molecular Dynamics Simulation 65
removed in the turning of some highly machineable work ma-

terials [4].
However, the accuracy attainable, and mechanisms such
as chip formation and surface generation in microcutting are
still not well understood, owing to limitations in availability
of experimental and measurement techniques, and in analytic
methods for studying such machining conditions. Further-
more, microcutting that occurs in a small region which con-
tains only a few layers of molecules can consequently be atom-
istic, or discrete in nature, rather than continuous, as is
assumed in conventional continuum mechanics; see Figure 1.
In studies of such atomistic processes, which are difficult to
investigate experimentally, computer simulation by molecular
techniques is useful. Several such analyses of microcutting
have been developed [513].
In this chapter, the principle of molecular dynamics (MD)
simulation of micromachining and the procedures used to de-
termine the accuracies attainable are described. As noted
above, the case of diamond machining is used to illustrate the
technique, although molecular dynamics is now being increas-
ingly used in studies of other methods of micromachining.
3.2 PRINCIPLES OF MOLECULAR

DYNAMICS
The MD method provides an accurate means of analysis of de-

formation and/or fracture of an atomic lattice model of a work-
piece and its adjacent tool. Figure 2 shows schematically a
computer simulation of the deformation of a workpiece being
machined with a diamond cutting edge. Every atom shown in
Figure 2 is in motion and interacts with neighboring atoms in
a manner that may be determined from the interatomic poten-
tial function.
The resultant interatomic force Fi to a specified work-
piece atom i, at position ri from the neighboring workpiece and
tool atoms may be calculated from Equation (1) below, where
66 Shimada
Figure 2 Principle of MD simulation.
(rij) is the interatomic potential function between atoms i

and j.
The equation of motion of atom i is obtained from Equa-
tion (2), where m and vi are, respectively, its atomic mass and
velocity. Thus we write:

d(rij)
Fi (1)
j
dr
d2ri dvi F
2
i. (2)
dt dt m
In the simulation, the tool is fed in a stepwise procedure
into the workpiece, at time intervals of t, that are shorter
than the period of lattice vibration. As indicated in Figure 3,
the position ri(t t) and velocity vi(t t) of the atom i after
the tool has been fed in the period of t are calculated by
means of Equations (3) and (4), finite difference numerical
Figure 3 Schematic diagram of numerical calculation in MD simu-

lation.
methods being employed. This calculation is then repeated in

order to describe the motion of individual atoms. The behavior
of the collection of atoms that comprise the tool/workpiece
model can then be analyzed through synthesis of the move-
ment of the individual atoms.
(t)2
ri(t t) ri(t) tvi(t) Fi(t) (3)
2m
t
vi(t t) vi(t) (Fi(t t) Fi(t)). (4)
2m
3.3 MD SIMULATION OF MICROMACHINING
The {111} plane of copper and aluminum, subjected to a hypo-

thetical Morse-potential is assumed to undergo orthogonal
cutting by the {111} plane of a diamond edge, as shown in Fig-
ure 4 [8,10]. The three variables in the Morse potential func-
tion, D, a, and r0 are determined from the cohesive energy,
elastic modulus, and equilibrium interatomic distance. The
elastic modulus and equilibrium interatomic distance are as-
sumed to be derived from the average value of those for the
68 Shimada
Figure 4 Atomic model of microcutting for MD simulation.
metal workpiece and diamond tool, while the cohesive energy

is estimated from experimentally determined values for the
separation energy of the junction of metal and diamond in an
ultrahigh vacuum [14].
The model is composed of the boundary, thermostat, and
Newtonian atoms. The static boundary atoms are fixed to the
rigid bases of the workpiece and cutting edge. Those atoms
in the two adjacent layers are thermostat atoms which act to
stabilize the temperature of the model (see Fig. 4). In these
layers, as described in Equation (6), the velocities of atoms vi
are scaled to be vi for each computation time-step, so that
these layers are considered to remain on average at room tem-
perature, T (293K). In Equation (6), N and k denote, respec-
tively, the number of atoms in these layers of average constant
room temperature, and Boltzmanns constant. The Newtonian
atoms are in motion following the equation of motion de-
scribed in Equation (2).
The interatomic distance, which is given as a variable in
the Morse potential function, is assumed to be the same as the
initial spacing between atoms. The initial velocity of each
atom is considered statistically to follow a MaxwellBoltz-
mann distribution related to the initial bulk temperature (of

293 K). Computational time-steps of 1 and 10 fs are typically
employed, depending on the purpose of the analysis. Microma-
chining at cutting speeds of 20 and 200 m/s was simulated
(the latter value being used to reduce time of computation).
(rij) D[exp{2a(rij r0)} 2a exp{ a(rij r0}] (5)

NkT
vi vi . (6)
mivi2
i
2
In general, thermal conduction in metals cannot be ana-

lyzed correctly in MD simulation, as the simulation used does
not take electron behavior into account.
As thermal conduction in metals is mainly governed by
electron mobility, in practice metals exhibit considerably
higher thermal conductivities, and consequently smaller ther-
mal gradients than those estimated by MD simulation based
on lattice vibration. Thus for a more realistic simulation of
micromachining, the gradient in the thermal field should be
scaled, or adjusted, to coincide with that calculated from con-
tinuum thermal conduction theory [13], as indicated in Figure
5, since chip formation is considerably affected by the thermal
conditions in the shear zone.
Figure 5 Scaling of equivalent temperature of atoms in MD model.

70 Shimada
Figure 6 Schematic illustration of translational calculation area

method; (a) principle; (b) practical calculation.
The equivalent temperature Ti of the atom i can be con-

verted from the velocity vi of the atom, through Equation (7),
the atom in the two-dimensional model being assumed to have
a twofold degree of freedom (in Equation (7), k represents
Boltzmanns constant).
The scaled temperature T i can be obtained from Equation
(8), where Tm is the average temperature of the atoms, calcu-
lated from Equation (9). The coefficient is chosen such that
the simulated thermal conductivity coincides with the mea-
sured macroscopic value.
mvi2
Ti (7)
2k
T i Ti (Ti Tm) (8)
T .
1
Tm i (9)
N i
For analysis of the micromachining phenomena under

steady-state chip removal, the translational calculation area
method, by which the cutting distance can be infinitely ex-
tended, is used in the simulations as illustrated in Figure 6
[15].
In order to limit the area of analysis of the behavior of
individual atoms by the MD method, the boundary and ther-
mostat layer areas are considered to move at the same speed
as the cutting edge, as illustrated in Figure 6(a). The proce-
dures for calculation are shown in Figure 6(b). New atoms are
successively inserted (from the left-hand side in this figure)
into the area of calculation, in which the cutting edge is fixed.
Atoms leaving the calculation area are discarded from the
right-hand or top-side, as given in Figure 6(b).
3.4 ATOMISTIC FORCES OF CHIP

FORMATION AND SURFACE
GENERATION
Simulation of the forces on the diamond atoms at the tool sur-

face enables calculation of the cutting force as the resultant.
Figure 7 presents a comparison between experimental and
MD simulation of the force per unit width of the cutting edge
as a function of nominal undeformed chip thickness, for a cop-
per workpiece [10]. In experiments, where relatively larger
undeformed chip thicknesses of 20 to 450 nm were employed,
the force of cutting was measured by a quartz force transducer
with a resolution of 0.01 N. Cutting forces at very small unde-
formed chip thickness, less than 100 nm, may be calculated
from classical simple shear plane models on the assumption
that the shearing stress is the same as the theoretical one.
72 Shimada
Figure 7 Size effect in cutting force per unit width of cutting edge
as a function of undeformed chip thickness.
The experimental effects of magnitude of cutting force on

chip morphology can be approximately predicted in these sim-
ulation studies. This correlation suggests that MD simulation
is a useful tool for analysis of microcutting phenomena, even
to nanometric conditions.
Figure 8 shows an example of the deformation behavior
of the workpiece atoms at the leading edge of the cutting tool.
The lattice of the workpiece is noted to become deformed, or
buckled, due to the ploughing effect of the cutting edge. When
the strain energy stored in the deformed lattice exceeds a spec-
ified level, the atoms begin to rearrange, so that the lattice
strain is relaxed.
However, since the stored strain energy is usually not
sufficient to provide for complete or flawless rearrangement,
some dislocations are generated in the workpiece lattice. As
the cutting edge advances, many dislocations are successively
Figure 8 Generation of dislocations in workpiece due to ploughing

of cutting edge.
generated in the workpiece at its interface with the tool in a

fashion similar to that described above. Some dislocations
move into the shear zone, disappearing from the free sur-
face. By the disappearance of a dislocation, a chip is formed
for the length corresponding to an atomic layer. This effect
corresponds to the elemental process of morphological chip for-
mation. As a result of successive generation and disappear-
ance of the dislocations, a stable chip removal process can be
envisaged.
The other dislocations penetrate into the workpiece un-
der the cutting edge. After the cutting edge has passed, these
dislocations begin to move back, before finally disappearing
from the workpiece surface, as a consequence of the relaxation
of the lattice, as the workpiece springs back. As a result of
this relaxation, atomic-size steps are formed on the workpiece
surface (see Fig. 9). The height of these steps on the work sur-
74 Shimada
Figure 9 Roughness and deformed layer on work surface in micro-

cutting of copper (cutting speed: 20 m/s, cutting edge radius: 5 nm,
undeformed chip thickness: 0.5 nm).
face can be considered to be the ultimate surface roughness

attainable in microcutting [9].
3.5 ULTIMATE ACCURACY ATTAINABLE

IN MICROCUTTING
Surface generation due to material removal from a workpiece

by a tool is a basic outcome of metal cutting. The motion
needed between tool and workpiece is provided by a machine
tool, on which both are mounted. Efficient metal cutting there-
fore relies greatly on the accuracy with which the characteris-
tics of machine tool movement are transferred to the tool edge
as it cuts into the work surface. In addition to machine tool
performance, two primary factors affect the accuracy achiev-
able in micromachining: the minimum thickness of an unde-
formed chip (MTC), removed at the cutting edge from a work-
piece under a specified cutting condition [16,17]; and transfer
fidelity, the extent to which the profile of the cutting edge is
reproduced on the workpiece surface. The surface roughness,
achieved when the workpiece is cut under perfect machine mo-
tion, may be regarded as representative of the highest level
of transfer fidelity.
Figure 10 Chip formation in copper microcutting (cutting speed:

200 m/s, cutting edge radius: 5 nm). (a) tn 0.2 nm; (b) tn 0.3 nm.
Figure 10 illustrates chip formation for copper undergo-

ing micromachining with a cutting edge of radius 5 nm. Chip
formation cannot be observed for an undeformed thickness tn
smaller than 0.2 nm. However, the initial stage of its forma-
tion becomes apparent for undeformed chip thickness greater
than 0.3 nm. The MTC for these conditions is therefore 0.3
nm. For a variety of edge radii in the microcutting of copper
MD simulation indicates a MTC of 0.05 to 0.1 times the radius
of the cutting edge. As the edge radius of a fine diamond cut-
ting tool is typically 20 to 30 nm, the MTC in practice can be
deduced to be about 1 to 3 nm, which is consistent with experi-
mental findings [4]. The MTC varies with the material. For
example, for aluminum, a larger MTC, about 0.1 to 0.2 of the
cutting edge radius is estimated from MD simulation [9].
Figure 11 illustrates the differences in deformation be-
havior in the shear zone, when copper and aluminum are cut
with a diamond cutting edge of 10 nm. The size of the de-
formed region for aluminum is noted to be considerably larger.
76 Shimada
Figure 11 Difference in the deformation behavior of workpiece in

microcutting of: (a) copper and (b) aluminum. (Cutting speed: 200
m/s, cutting edge radius: 10 nm, undeformed chip thickness: 1 nm.)
Figure 12 Difference in the quality of work surface in microcutting

of (a) copper and (b) aluminum. (Cutting speed: 200 m/s, cutting
edge radius: 10 nm, undeformed chip thickness: 1 nm.)
Figure 12 illustrates the difference in the quality of work sur-

face expressed by potential energy distribution of atoms, when
copper and aluminum are cut at the same cutting condition
as shown in Figure 11. Atoms which are distorted or disor-
dered show relatively higher potential energy than relaxed
ones. Simulation predicts a transfer fidelity of the cutting edge
profile to the work surface of 0.5 to 1.0 nm and 1.5 to 2.0 nm,
respectively, for copper and aluminum [9,11]. No residual
strain is evident on the copper work surface. Conversely, the
aluminum exhibits vacancies and many atoms possessing
high potential energy on its surface [12]; its surface roughness
and residual strain are therefore greater than those of copper.
MTC and transfer fidelity are both influenced by the
physical relationship occurring between the tool and work-
piece at their interface, and/or the hardness of the work mate-
78 Shimada
rial. For example, aluminum is found to be more affected by

diamond as a tool material than copper, and has a lower hard-
ness than the latter. The former condition is sometimes de-
scribed as affinity. These effects of conditions arising at the
toolwork interface can be analyzed by changing the process
variables associated with the cohesive energy for the tool
work interface in the Morse potential function [4,9]. MD simu-
lations indicate that a workpiece material more affected by
the tool at the interface may tend to exhibit more ready chip
formation and a larger depth of deformed layer. However, no
significant change occurs in chip behavior and MTC. These
results suggest that smaller MTC and higher transfer fidelity
in micromachining occur on harder workpiece materials.
Grain boundary effects in micromachining may also be
analyzed through MD simulation. For example, simulation
based on a two-grain model of copper undergoing diamond
turning reveals that a distorted layer, albeit of nm dimen-
sions, remains on the work surface of polycrystalline metals,
owing to the trapping of dislocations at the grain boundaries
[12,13].
3.6 FUTURE TRENDS IN ULTRAHIGH

SPEED MACHINING
Ultrafast cutting to high precision remains a formidable task

in machine tool development for micromachining. For exam-
ple, while surface finish and cutting forces needed may be
specified for high-speed cutting, physical conditions may arise
that are difficult to anticipate, the effects of which on machin-
ing might be catastrophic. MD simulation provides a useful
analysis of the phenomena that may arise.
To that end, Figure 13 shows examples of the MD simula-
tion of material removal at high speeds [18]. In Figure 13(a),
at a cutting speed of 200 m/s, the smaller depth for the de-
formed layer on the machined surface is noted, which may be
Figure 13 Material removal under ultrahigh cutting speed (cut-

ting edge radius: 5 nm, undeformed chip thickness: 1 nm): (a) cutting
speed 200 m/s; (b) cutting speed 2000 m/s.
attributed to an effect of adiabatic shearing in chip formation.

When the cutting speed is increased tenfold, to 2000 m/s, a
catastrophic dispersion of work material arises. When the cut-
ting edge engages the workpiece, the associated kinetic en-
ergy, supplied to individual atoms, is considered to exceed the
specific cohesive energy of the work material. These results
suggest that the surface finish required may be linked to opti-
mal speed of cutting.
80 Shimada
3.7 CONCLUSIONS
As micromachining approaches nanometric dimensions, the

mechanisms involve changes at atomic structure level. These
atomistic mechanisms have to be understood in order to pro-
vide information on the ultimate accuracies attainable. MD
simulation is proving to be a useful tool in such analyses. At
present, the drawbacks of MD for these kinds of analyses lie
partly with the relatively long times of computation needed
(which can be on the order of days), and limitations in the
dimensions of the model treated, restricted by the memory
size of the computer. A realistic expression for the inter-
atomic potential has to be determined especially for hetero-
genous materials. For practical cases, defects in solids can
be difficult to model in MD, as can the boundary conditions
needed. Nonetheless, MD simulation offers scope for theoreti-
cal treatments, which can shed new light on techniques of
micromachining.
Fi resultant interatomic force to atom i (N)

ri position of atom i (m)
i velocity of atom i (m/s)
i scaled velocity of atom i (m/s)
m atomic mass (kg)
t computation time-step (s)
(rij) interatomic potential function between atoms i and j
(eV)
D parameter of Morse potential function concerned with
cohesive energy (eV)
a parameter of Morse potential function concerned with
elastic modulus (A1)
r0 parameter of Morse potential function concerned with
equilibrium interatomic distance (A)
N number of atoms in model or thermostat layer
k Boltzmanns constant (J/K)

T macroscopic temperature (K)
Ti atomic temperature (K)
T scaled atomic temperature (K)
Tm average atomic temperature (K)
tn undeformed chip thickness (nm)
REFERENCES
[1] R.R. Donaldson and D.C. Thompson, Design and performance

of a small precision CNC turning machine. Annals of the CIRP,
(35) 1, 373376 (1986).
[2] Y. Kami, M. Yabuya, and T. Shimizu, Research and develop-

ment of ultra-precision positioning system. In Proc. 4th Bien-
nial Joint Warwick/Tokyo Nanotechnology Symposium, War-
wick (1994).
[3] H. Mizumoto, S. Arii, A. Yoshimoto, T. Shimizu, and N. Ikawa,

A twist-roller friction drive for nanometer positioning. Annals
of the CIRP, (44) 1, 523526 (1996).
[4] N. Ikawa, S. Shimada, H. Tanaka, and G. Ohmori, An atomis-

tic analysis of nanometric chip removal as affected by tool-
work interaction in diamond turning. Annals of the CIRP, (40)
1, 551554 (1991).
[5] J.F. Belak and I.F. Stowers, A molecular dynamics model of

the orthogonal cutting process. In Proc. ASPE (American Soci-
ety for Precision Engineering) 1990 Annual Conference, Roch-
ester, 259262 (1990).
[6] T. Inamura, H. Suzuki, and N. Takezawa, Cutting experi-

ments in a computer using atomic model of a copper crystal
and a diamond tool. J. Japan, Society for Precision Engi-
neering, (56) 8, 14801486 (in Japanese), (1990).
[7] I.F. Stowers, J.F. Belak, D.A. Lucca, R. Komanduri, R.L. Rho-
lar, T. Moriwaki, K. Okuda, N. Ikawa, S. Shimada, and H.
Tanaka, Molecular dynamics simulation of the chip forming
82 Shimada
process in single crystal copper and comparison with experi-

mental data. In Proc. 1991 ASPE Annual Meeting, Santa Fe
100103 (1991).
[8] S. Shimada, N. Ikawa, G. Ohmori, H. Tanaka, and J. Uchi-

koshi, Molecular dynamics analyses as compared with experi-
mental results of micromachining. Annals of the CIRP, (41) 1,
117120 (1992).
[9] S. Shimada, N. Ikawa, H. Tanaka, G. Ohmori, and J. Uchi-

koshi, Feasibility study on ultimate accuracy in microcutting
using molecular dynamics simulation. Annals of the CIRP,
(42) 1, 9194 (1993).
[10] S. Shimada, N. Ikawa, H. Tanaka, G. Ohmori, and J. Uchi-

koshi, Molecular dynamics analysis of cutting force and chip
formation process in microcutting. J. Japan Society for Preci-
sion Engineering, (59) 12, 20152021 (in Japanese) (1993).
[11] S. Shimada, N. Ikawa, H. Tanaka, and J. Uchikoshi, Structure

of micromachined surface simulated by molecular dynamics
analysis. Annals of the CIRP, (43) 1, 5154 (1994).
[12] S. Shimada, R. Inoue, J. Uchikoshi, and N. Ikawa, Molecular

dynamics analysis on microstructure of diamond turned sur-
face. Proc. SPIE, (2576), 396405 (1995).
[13] S. Shimada, N. Ikawa, R. Inoue, and J. Uchikoshi, Molecular

dynamics modeling of thermal conduction in microcutting of
metals. In Proc. 1995 ASPE Annual Meeting, Austin, 2124
(1995).
[14] Y. Mori, K. Sugiyama, K. Endo, and H. Gotoh, Interaction

force between solid surfaces (1st report)An atomistic esti-
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DeGroot, Molecular dynamics modeling applied to indentation
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chining. In Proc. 3rd Int. Conference On Production Engi-
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[17] N. Ikawa, S. Shimada, and H. Tanaka, Minimum thickness of
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In Proc. JSPE 1996 Spring Meeting, Tokyo 143144 (in Japa-
nese) (1996).
4
Abrasive Micromachining and
Microgrinding
Kai Cheng
Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow, Scotland
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The rising demand for high and ultrahigh accuracy products

is widening the application of abrasive machining into areas
of micron scale with depth of cut of only a few 100 or 10 nano-
meters, that is, micromachining as generally understood.
Abrasive micromachining and microgrinding (AMMG) tech-
niques are of particular interest in the optical and electronic
industries and are gaining new stature as manufacturers seek
tighter tolerances and higher quality.
Minimal subsurface damage and high removal rates con-
stitute major advantages in AMMG. These techniques are not
particular useful in fabrication and manufacturing if the two
85
86 Cheng
advantages are not met. In fabricating optics, for example,

large quantities of glass are removed and essentially all of the
figuring is accomplished with pitch polishing laps. By use of
microgrinding, however, long polishing times can be avoided,
if almost all of the optical figuring is accomplished through
the well-controlled and more suitable grinding process. As
shown in Figure 1, the introduction of microgrinding can dras-
tically reduce the optics production cycle and achieve an im-
proved fabrication quality [1]. The main advantages to micro-
grinding before polishing is indicated are that it can greatly
reduce the long and unpredictable polishing process and the
amount of subsurface damage in a finished component or prod-
uct. Furthermore, it can deterministically produce compo-
nents with high accuracy of dimension and form.
For metals, AMMG processes produce controlled surface
conditions involving size, finish, geometry, and metallurgical
structure. A microfinished surface in particular is metallurgi-
cally free of fragmented, amorphous, or smeared metal from
previous grinding operations. The processes may also partly
Figure 1 Optics production cycle time curves.

Abrasive Micromachining and Microgrinding 87
restore surface integrity by eliminating surface stresses and

grinding thermal damage.
The present chapter is therefore concerned with the prin-
ciples and process characteristics of AMMG, and their applica-
tions. Micromachining analyses and models are presented
that account for the mechanisms and modes of actual material
removal under various machining conditions. The machining
rates, optimal process parameters, and tool characteristics are
discussed for typical engineering materials such as silicon,
glass, ceramics, germanium, and metals. Applications are de-
scribed that illustrate how AMMG techniques can be utilized
in the production of products particularly in the optical and
electronic industries.
4.2 PRINCIPLES
In abrasive machining hard abrasive particles are used as the

cutting medium. Although AMMG techniques have been being
practiced for more than a decade, there are still no clear defi-
nitions of the relevant terminology used and well-defined
boundaries on their types of applications. Nevertheless it is
clear that both of the processes involve micrometer-sized abra-
sive grains interacting with the workpiece surface at that level
of scale. The term abrasive micromachining is often associ-
ated with loose abrasive machining techniques such as lap-
ping, polishing, and honing, while microgrinding is associated
more with deterministic grinding processes.
4.2.1 Abrasive Micromachining Mechanisms

Material removal is a fracture process in which abrasive
grains interact with the workpiece surface. An effectively sin-
gle layer of abrasive grits, usually block-shaped, tumble on the
workpiece surface under the effects of a downward force. The
force is transferred into multiple microloads on grits that chip
the workpiece substrate and cause material removal. The un-
88 Cheng
Figure 2 Penetration depth of an abrasive grit.
derlying removal mechanisms are complex as machining pro-

ceeds at such a micrometer scale; many physical and possible
chemical factors are involved. However, an understanding of
the underlying principles and relevant processing conditions
is needed, especially as fresh potential industrial applications
arise.
The depth of penetration of the grit tips into the material
depends on the topography of the abrasive grits, and also the
geometry and kinematic motion of the grits and workpiece.
The penetration of an abrasive grit onto the workpiece surface
can be envisaged as an indentation process as shown in Figure
2. The penetration depth (d) of the grit can be calculated from
the following geometrical relationship [2].
di L(1 cosa), (1)
where
L: Grit size,
: Tumbling angle.
The tumbling angle a can be determined from measurement

of the nominal coefficient (g) of friction between the grit and
workpiece material, defined as the ratio of drag-to-normal
force; that is,
ln(cosa)
. (2)
a
The penetration depth (di) represents the machining in-
teraction between an abrasive grit and the workpiece surface
and directly affects the surface roughness of the micromach-
ined surface. The depth also greatly depends on the hardness
of the abrasive grits and the workpiece material, the grit size,
uniformity of size of grits, and downward force of machining.
The penetration results in three types of micromachining ac-
tion on the workpiece surface, namely, brittle, ductile, and
smeared mode as shown in Figure 3 [3].
Brittle Mode
A brittle mode micromachined surface consists of a disrupted
uppermost layer and a subsurface compacted layer lying be-
tween the former layer and the bulk material. Brittle fracture
occurs owing to the microindentations produced in the micro-
machining process. The fracture involves two principal crack
systems: lateral cracks, which are responsible for material re-
moval, and median cracks, for strength degradation. Subsur-
face damage extends into the bulk material with a magnitude
nearly equal to the grit size. The magnitude and depth of per-
manent deformation accompanying the brittle process depend
on the grit size, with smaller grits producing a higher overall
percentage deformation caused by plastic flow. Brittle mode
micromachining as described is solely a mechanical process.
Ductile Mode
A ductile mode micromachined surface consists of an upper
compacted layer that sits above the bulk material. Little sub-
surface damage occurs. The ductile surface is the result of ma-
terial removal due to shearing, where the material is planed
off at a microscale level. The efficiency of ductile removal is
strongly influenced by environmental effects such as lubrica-
tion and heat generated during the machining, which may al-
90 Cheng
Figure 3 Three types of micromachining modes in abrasive micro-

machining: (a) brittle; (b) ductile (insufficient force for producing
chips); (c) smeared (insufficient force for producing chips).
ter the fracture toughness of the workpiece surface. A higher

degree of permanent deformation arises in this process. The
magnitude and depth of the deformation are dependent on the
grit size. Ductile mode micromachining is also a mechanical
process but with extremely high surface stresses. Weighing
measurement and acid etching confirm that the material is
actually removed in the ductile mode and the surface stresses
are concentrated in a thin layer. In the ductile mode, the en-
ergy is transferred into a permanent deformation of the work-
piece material; in contrast, in the brittle mode, more machin-
ing energy is transferred to a fracture process.
Smeared Mode
A third mode of abrasive micromachining can be observed, in
which little material is actually removed, but instead is
smeared. As shown in Figure 3(c), the peaks of the fractured
layer are plastically deformed and simply cover the disrupted
layer. Etching or X-ray scanning such a surface can expose the
damage that was produced in the previous abrasive machining
process. This damage seems to occur when either very small
abrasive grits (under 0.5 1 m) are used, or the machining
process is inhibited by the type of slurry employed. The phe-
nomena are commonly seen in bonded abrasive machining
when a tool dulls and sparks out [3].
4.2.2 Microgrinding Mechanisms

In microgrinding small size chips are usually involved. A ma-
jor consequence of their smallness is that the normally ductile
material in micromachining exhibits toughlike properties,
similar to brittle substances such as glass and ceramics when
the volume deformed is limited to a very small size [4]. Very
small whiskers produced when a normally ductile metal was
deposited electrolytically at a very small rate were found to
be essentially defect-free. When these whiskers were tested
in bending they were found to be completely brittle, to have
unusually high elastic fracture strain, with the fracture stress
92 Cheng
approaching the theoretical strength of the material. This ob-

servation demonstrates that when the size of the deformation
zone (resulting from the small size of abrasive grits) ap-
proaches the mean defect structure spacing, normally ductile
materials behave as tough and very brittle. An understanding
of this phenomenon is useful in studying the mechanisms of
microgrinding processes.
The small undeformed chip thickness involved in micro-
grinding has a further consequence: the chip-forming model
shifts from one involving concentrated shear to microextru-
sion, as shown in Figure 4. When the undeformed chip thick-
Figure 4 Material cutting models: (a) concentrated shear model;

(b) microextrusion model.
ness (ap) becomes less than the radius () at the cutting tool
or grit tip, the effective rake angle of the tool or grit has such
a large negative value that the model in Figure 4(b) replaces
that in Figure 4(a).
For a sharp grit, the relationship between its tip radius
and the nominal cutting depth at the chip forming point is:
ap cos (1 cos) (3)
and as
45 45o arctan

Ff
Fn
. (4)
In metal cutting with diamond abrasive grits, the friction coef-

ficient is [5]:
Ff
0.1 0.8
Fn
so there is
arctan

Ff
Fn
5.7o 38.7o.
Thus, the minimum cutting depth with chip formation is

ap(min) (1 cos) [1 cos(6.3o 39.3o)] (5)
(0.006 0.226).
This conclusion shows that the chips can be formed even
though a grit tip radius is bigger than the nominal cutting
depth [5]. The chips are possibly smaller in size than those
of abrasive grits. However, the chip formation mechanisms in
grinding processes are much more complicated because of the
multiplicity of cutting points and their irregular geometry
varying during the machining.
The model in Figure 4(b) gives a more realistic illustra-
tion of grinding mechanisms involved within the gritwork-
piece surface interaction. Grit grinding can be divided into
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three phases including sliding, ploughing, and cutting since

the effective rake angles of abrasive grits are largely negative
[6,7]. But for a grit the phases do not necessarily occur in the
order of slidingploughingcutting during one grinding cycle.
When the grit engages with the workpiece surface in mi-
crogrinding, the grit slides without removing any material on
the surface due to the elastic deformation of the gritsurface
interface or the possible wear-flat areas of the grit. This is
termed the sliding phase. As the stress between the grit and
workpiece surface is increased beyond the elastic limit, plastic
deformation known as the ploughing phase occurs. Plough-
ing is normally associated with side flow of material from the
cutting path into ridges, but it can also include plastic defor-
mation of the material passing under the grit tip edge. A chip
is formed when the workpiece material can no longer with-
stand the shearing stress. The chip formation stage is the cut-
ting phase. From consideration of the specific energy ex-
pended, the cutting phase is the most efficient. Sliding and
ploughing are inefficient, since the energy is wasted in defor-
mation and friction with little contribution to material re-
moval. Furthermore, a high temperature may result, produc-
ing an excessive rate of grit wear, and the workpiece surface
may suffer subsurface damage.
4.3 MICROMACHINING RATES
Predominant parameters in abrasive micromachining include

the grit size, grit size uniformity, and machining downward
force or pressure [8]. The material removal rate (MRR) is given
by
MRR Cp P V d, (6)
where
CP: Denotes coefficient of proportionality (cm2 /N),

P: Total load normal to the workpiece surface (N),
Pd: Material density of the workpiece (g/cm3),

V: Machining velocity (cm/s).
The equation indicates the MRR is directly proportional to ma-

chining velocity and total load applied on the grits. But the
machining velocity and total load applied on the grits do not
affect the magnitude of abrasion, that is, the chip size. Clearly,
Equation (6) does not include the size and machining behavior
of grits, which have significant effects in micromachining ma-
terials. Whereas the behavior of smaller abrasives has not
been previously studied in detail, a comprehensive investiga-
tion is now needed for abrasive micromachining, especially in
relation to the micromachining efficiency of the grits.
The micromachining efficiency of abrasive grits is deter-
mined from the rate at which they are capable of removing
material. The MRR of the grits is also dependent on these as-
pects:
1. Grit wear
2. Micromachining cooling media
3. Disposal rate of the dull grits
4. Grit size.
The effects of the above-mentioned aspects of micromachining

efficiency are now described in detail and case studies pre-
sented in which different abrasive grits are used in the micro-
machining of various engineering materials.
4.3.1 Grit Wear

Three main modes of wear in general occur in AMMG: attri-
tious wear, grain fracture, and bond fracture [6]. Attritious
wear involves dulling of abrasive grains and the growth of
wear flats by rubbing against the workpiece. Grain fracture
refers to removal of abrasive fragments by fracture within the
grit, and bond fracture occurs on an abrasive tool by dislodging
the abrasive from the binder. Another type of wear is binder
96 Cheng
erosion, which is likely to reduce the bond strength of a grind-

ing wheel or tool and promote grit dislodgement, especially
with resin and metal bond wheel or tools. Attritious wear
amounts to a few percent of the total wear, but it is often the
most important form of wear since it controls the grinding
forces and hence also the rate of grain and bond fractures.
With increasing tool hardness, there is relatively more grain
fracture and less bond fracture, because of the greater bond
strength allied to the greater probability of the abrasive grit
undergoing fracture prior to being finally dislodged. There-
fore, it is believed the wear in AMMG is mostly due to grain
fracture.
The suitability of abrasive grits for micromachining par-
ticular materials depends to a large extent on their attritious
wear resistance. Attritious wear and the dulling of the grits
are both mechanical and chemical. Chemical effects are likely
to be more significant when the abrasive is harder than the
workpiece and any of its included phases. As an abrasive grit
interacts with the workpiece at the elevated temperatures
reached in the grinding zone, numerous chemical reactions
may occur involving the abrasive, workpiece material, binder,
atmosphere, and micromachining coolant or slurry in various
combinations.
For instance, diamond grits, despite their extreme hard-
ness, are not suitable for abrasive machining of most ferrous
metals. This anomalous behavior is attributed to excessive at-
tritious wear mainly by the degradation of diamond to graph-
ite because the degradation appears to be more rapid in the
presence of iron and other ferrous metals unsaturated in car-
bon, owing to their affinity for carbon. This phenomenon is the
basis for the use of diamond grits in grinding some cast irons
with high carbon content. Cubic boron nitride (CBN) grits, al-
though softer than diamond grits, do not have affinity for car-
bon and thus wear less in working on most ferrous metals.
Another example is silicon carbide abrasives. They are
harder than friable aluminum oxide abrasives, although they
are usually less effective for micromachining most ferrous ma-
terials. This is because of the tendency for silicon carbon to

react with, and adhere to, iron at elevated temperatures. The
main chemical reaction appears to be the dissociation of silicon
carbide, and this reaction could also promote attritious wear
when micromachining titanium and other nonferrous materi-
als [9]. Dissociation of silicon carbide at elevated machining
temperatures could be driven by the affinity of silicon or car-
bon for the workpiece. Therefore, silicon carbide abrasives
tend to work better than aluminum oxide on some ferrous met-
als with excessive carbon, but not on carbon-deficient ferrous
metals which are also unsaturated in carbon. This case is
analogous to that on applications of diamond abrasives dis-
cussed above.
4.3.2 Micromachining Cooling Media

AMMG are normally performed with the use of a fluid, which
is generally considered to have two main roles, namely, cooling
and lubrication. In microgrinding the fluids are commonly
used as coolants, although their role as lubricants is often
more important in machining metals. In AMMG, a coolant can
have great effect as a cooling, lubricating, and working me-
dium to support the processing operations.
The type of coolant has a significant effect on the effi-
ciency of the micromachining process. Coolant media affect
the process primarily by influencing the rate of wear of the
grits [10]. In the following study, the effect of four different
coolants has been investigated, namely, water, emulsified oil
(Quaker 101), ethylene glycol, and triethanolamine. The effect
of these coolants for micromachining glasses with diamond
grits was observed with the aid of an optical microscope.
As shown in Figure 5, water is unsuitable as a coolant.
After five minutes of micromachining with water, most of the
diamond grits were mechanically removed and those re-
maining were severely abraded. About three hours of machin-
ing with ethylene glycol as a coolant was achieved before the
diamond grits underwent noticeable abrasion wear. During a
98 Cheng
Figure 5 Effect of different coolants on the machining efficiency.
three-hour period of micromachining with emulsified oil, some

of the grits were mechanically removed, but no typical flat
spots developed on any working grits. The most satisfactory
results were obtained with triethanolamine as a coolant, with
which no significant wear on the grits was developed even
after six hours of machining.
These observations may be related to process efficiency,
by comparing machining rates of diamond grits on BK-7 glass
for these four evaluated coolants over an extended time of mi-
cromachining. Figure 5 shows that triethanolamine and emul-
sified oil are more effective than ethylene glycol in prevention
of tool dulling, and the results also confirm the unsuitability
of water for working as a coolant or slurry medium.
4.3.3 Disposal Rate of Dull Grits

The disposal rate of dull abrasive grits is a complex process,
and depends greatly on the bond matrix in an abrasive tool.
Hard bond matrices exhibit a slow rate of disposal of worn
grits, thus increasing the possible dulling effect on a tool or
the workpiece machined. A softer bond would be more suscep-
tible to wear, that is, disposal of dull grits. However, if a bond
is too soft, it is found to be insufficiently firm to hold suffi-
ciently exposed grits on the tool surface. Consequently only
grits with very small exposure are used in machining, re-

sulting in a low material removal rate.
A commonly used expression for performance of an abra-
sive tool in terms of grit and bonding matrix is the G ratio,
defined as the volumetric ratio of material removal to tool
wear. A high G ratio indicates low tool consumption. High G
ratio for an abrasive tool is desirable, but a more wear-resis-
tant tool may result in higher forces and energy, thereby in-
creasing the likelihood of thermal damage to the workpiece.
Disposal rate of the dull grits of a tool is closely related to the
G ratio of the tool. Low disposal rate of the dull grits on a tool
may result in inferior self-sharpening, which can cause high
machining forces and poor workpiece surface quality.
In addition to the disposal rate of the dull grits, their fria-
bility and size also play a significant part. The greater their
friability, the more grits become susceptible to grain fracture
prior to final dislodgement from the bond matrix, which has
a large bearing in restricting the size of the wear-flat areas
initially dressed onto the grits and their subsequent growth
by attrition. Without this mode of self-sharpening, the abra-
sive grits would become extremely dull. Similarly, abrasive
grits that are too tough are generally not suitable for precision
grinding operations [6].
4.3.4 Grit Size

The size of abrasive grits greatly influences tool micromachin-
ing efficiency. In loose abrasive machining, grit size is gener-
ally considered to affect directly the material removal rate and
the final surface roughness of the workpiece. However, when
optical lens surfaces are micromachined with diamond grits,
the relationship between these factors is more complex. Ma-
chining tests show that the glass removal rate does not always
rise with increasing grit size. If the diamond grits are too
large, they prevent direct contact between the peaks of the
glass surface texture and the bond matrix material. Conse-
quently, the dull grits are not discarded at the appropriate
100 Cheng
stage, and the abrasive tool loses its machining efficiency. If

the grits are too small for a given surface roughness, they are
removed together with the bond, and consequently no properly
exposed grits occupy the working surface of the abrasive tool.
The result is poor working efficiency. Figures 6(a) and (b) show
how the performance of an abrasive tool with approximately
similar bonding material hardness changes with different dia-
mond grit size. In these experiments, an initially sharp tool
with an average grit size of 12 m was used on two workpiece
surfaces of, respectively, 2.2 m rms and 1.2 m rms. In the
former, higher roughness, case some self-sharpening effect oc-
curred. In Figure 6(a) the removal rate from the workpiece
after initially rising, stabilizes, with little further appreciable
change. On micromachining workpieces with an initial surface
roughness of 1.2 m rms, with the 12-m-grit initial sharp
Figure 6 Variation in glass removal rate as function of number of

workpieces machined: (a) tool bonding material hardness, Rockwell
62 B; grit size 12m; (b) tool bonding material hardness, Rockwell
80 B; grit size 6.5 m.
tool, a pronounced dulling process occurred even although the

diamond grits exposure was about 3.7 m. The results in Fig-
ure 6(b) were obtained with an abrasive tool of 6.5-m dia-
mond grit size. The tool produced very low removal rates on
workpieces with an initial surface roughness of 2.2 m rms.
However, workpieces with an initial surface roughness of 1.2
m rms were ground at a slightly lower and constant rate, the
initial sharpness of the tool being maintained. The 6.5-m-grit
tool with a diamond exposure of 2 m was noted to microma-
chine more quickly than the smoother surfaces in comparison
with the 12-m-grit tool which had a diamond exposure of 3.7
m. Thus for an initial smooth workpiece the tool with 6.5-m
grit is a more appropriate vehicle to use than that with 12-
m grit.
4.4 ACCURACY AND DIMENSIONAL

CONTROL
Tighter tolerance, superior surface quality control, consistent

part geometry, and lower cost are increasing requirements for
machining magnetic and electronic materials such as ferrite
ceramics, silicon and quartz wafers, and germanium crystals.
The dimensional accuracy and surface quality of manufac-
tured components or products can directly determine their
performance. For instance, the frequency and quality of a reso-
nator are determined by the geometry and surface quality of
a quartz wafer: very thin wafers of uniform thickness and fine
surface finish are needed to obtain high frequency with mini-
mal frequency broadening [11]. Currently, the semiconductor
industry is exploring the production of ultrahigh density one-
GB DRAM which requires form and dimensional accuracy on
the order of 0.1 m over a substrate area of 20 mm by 20 mm.
The manufacture of a component of such high accuracy from
brittle materials like silicon and germanium is difficult to
achieve by currently available techniques [12]. The production
of the ground or lapped surface of a ferrite recording head for
102 Cheng
data storage poses similar difficulties in fabrication. The sur-

face is found to have a shallow magnetically inactive layer
which results from the residual stress produced in grinding or
lapping. The surface of a ferrite head that is free of damage
from machining is much needed for achieving better magnetic
permeability [13]. Microgrinding and abrasive micromachin-
ing can be effective techniques to meet these needs, by precise
control of the grain depth of cut, and avoidance of subsurface
damage through ductile-regime grinding. Abrasive microma-
chining is mainly used for improving the functionally signifi-
cant properties of the workpiece surface, combined with
tighter dependable size control.
4.4.1 Control of Accuracy

Although the achievement of high precision workpieces or
components requires careful attention to all aspects of ma-
chining processes, the key elements that particularly affect
the workpiece accuracy may be identified:
1. Machine tools
2. Operational factors
3. Selection of abrasive tools
4. Workpiece materials.
Figure 7 illustrates major aspects associated with each of

these four primary elements. Inadequate attention to any as-
pect can influence the workpiece machining accuracy in terms
of its dimensions, tolerances, geometrical form, and surface
quality. Their influence on the machining process through ef-
fects such as cutting, ploughing, and the frictional interaction
with the resultant process variables of machining forces and
power needs to be understood. These process interactions in
turn influence eventual characteristics such as the production
of components of required highly accurate dimensions, strin-
gent geometrical shape, and superior surface texture and in-
Figure 7 Selected features influencing microgrinding/abrasive

micromachining processes.
104 Cheng
tegrity. As shown in Figure 7, a quantitative characterization

of each factor and its interactions is exceedingly difficult.
Moreover, microgrinding and abrasive micromachining
processes have to deal with stochastic variations and changes
within control limits. However, it is possible to begin with ba-
sic information and experimental results, on most of the pro-
cess input factors [14,15]. Such information and results com-
bined with the fine-tuning of selected factors can achieve the
desired workpiece accuracy. This approach coupled with expe-
rience-based rules or guidelines has been successfully em-
ployed in achieving desired highly accurate components in a
number of precision production/fabrication cases which are
described below.
4.4.2 Surface Quality Control

The fine-scale morphology of the surfaces generated consists
mostly of overlapping scratches produced by the interaction
of abrasive cutting points with the workpiece. The quality of
the surface produced by these machining processes critically
affects the reliability of components especially for high-
strength applications. Workpiece surface quality normally in-
cludes the two aspects of texture and integrity [16]. Surface
texture refers to the microgeometry or topography, which is
usually characterized by surface roughness, although other
characteristics such as waviness, lay, and flaws may also be of
interest. Surface integrity is associated more with mechanical
and metallurgical alterations to the workpiece surface layer
induced by machining. The alterations, ranging from clearly
observable cracks in the surface to subtle transformations
such as hardness change, recrystallization, fatigue strength,
or residual stress in the underlying metallic structure, are
caused mainly by the forces and excessive temperatures in-
volved in the machining processes.
Surface Roughness
For a ground surface, arithmetic average roughness (Ra) and
peak-to-valley roughness (Rt) are used to define quantitatively
the surface profile: Ra is the average value of the vertical devi-

ations from the nominal surface over a sampled surface
length; Rt, also referred to as the total roughness, is defined
as the difference in elevation between the highest peak and
lowest valley in the sampled traversing length. The differ-
ences between Rt and Ra are considerably larger, which is the
consequence of the broad distribution of peak heights and val-
ley depths within the surface profile. For AMMG machined
surfaces, the Rt roughness is typically 3 to 10 times Ra [17,18].
It is possible theoretically to predict an ideal surface
roughness from an abrasive machining process by modeling
how the abrasive cutting points on the rotating abrasive wheel
kinematically interact with the workpiece. It is assumed that
clean cutting, whereby the cutting edges remove all material
encountered in their paths leaving behind the resulting cut-
ting traces, generates the surface. From the geometry traced
and the relationship between the cutting points and work-
piece, the surface roughness of a ground surface can be ob-
tained as [6]

2
1 VwL
Rt (7)
4 Vsd 0.5
s
and

2
1 VwL
Ra (8)
93 Vsd 0.5
s
where
Vw: Workpiece velocity,

Vs: Abrasive wheel velocity,
ds: Wheel diameter,
L: Distance between successive cutting points.
The ideal theoretical surface roughnesses based on

Equations (7) and (8) are usually found to be less than the
actual values due to other influences such as material side-
106 Cheng
flow, built-up edge phenomena, vibrations during machining,

and the random undefined topography of the wheel surface
and abrasive cutting points. However, analyses of ideal sur-
face roughness with Equations (7) and (8) provide useful in-
sight into the generation of abrasively machined surfaces and
the principal controlling factors. In real AMMG operations,
these guidelines are useful in obtaining a fine workpiece sur-
face finish, that is, lower surface roughness:
1. Selecting a small grit size and dense wheel structure,

2. Using higher wheel speeds and lower workpiece
speeds,
3. Setting smaller depths of cut and feedrate,
4. Selecting grinding wheels, preferably with larger di-
ameters,
5. Maintaining suitable dressing strategies and opera-
tions needed, and
6. Adopting appropriate coolants with favorable cooling,
lubricating, and rinsing-off effects.
Surface Integrity
Surface roughness alone does not completely describe a sur-
face profile. Metallurgical or other changes in the altered layer
beneath the surface can have a significant effect on the work-
piece performance. In AMMG, changes such as hardness, re-
sidual stress, microcracks, fatigue strength [19], structural
flaws and defects (e.g., voids, dislocations) [20], laps, folds,
seams, and the like in the subsurface layer may occur for these
reasons:
1. Plastic deformation resulting from the point work of

abrasive grits, or
2. Heat generation through cutting, changes of temper-
ature, and its nonuniform distribution in the surface
layer.
In comparison with surface roughness, surface integrity

is more difficult to control, owing to the variety of factors in-
volved, even although its attainment is a major reason for
applying microgrinding and abrasive micromachining tech-
niques. Even with the same roughness, ground and micro-
ground surfaces differ. A useful discussion on these differences
has been provided by Stauffer [21]. He suggests that the con-
siderable heat generated by grinding gives rise to a disturbed
and amorphous layer, which is very unstable. Microgrinding,
on the other hand, reaches the base layer of metal. (Stauffer
draws an analogy that just as snow on a frozen lake surface
cannot support a persons weight, although ice bears the con-
centrated pressure of ice skates, so the supporting qualities of
a ground surface differ from those of a microground surface
[21].) The following guidelines have proved useful in resolving
these complex issues for the selection of appropriate pro-
cessing conditions.
1. To minimize thermal damages and microcracks, the

abrasive tool has to be frequently dressed.
2. Smaller depths of cut and feedrate, lower wheel speed
(Vs), and faster work speed (Vw), are preferable.
3. The right coolants with favorable cooling, lubricating,
and rinsing-off effects should be adopted.
4. For brittle materials such as silicon wafers, ferrite
crystals, ceramics, and glasses, diamond abrasives
ought to be chosen.
5. For hardened tool steels and some aerospace alloys,
CBN abrasives are preferable.
6. For normal steel and most cast irons, aluminum ox-
ide abrasives are recommended.
7. For most nonferrous metals, silicon carbide abrasives
should be selected.
Many models have been developed for controlling the sur-

face integrity of a ground surface [22]. For metals, they are
mostly based on modelling on a macroscale the temperature
108 Cheng
gradients below the ground surface. It is obviously much more

difficult to model the surface integrity at a micrometer, or even
smaller, scale for nonmetallic materials such as ceramics,
glasses, and silicon crystals, even though some researchers
have been making considerable efforts in this area [23,24].
4.4.3 Dimension and Tolerance Control

Two critical features for microgrinding to required dimen-
sional and shape accuracy are low subsurface damage and
high figure accuracy [25]. Through microgrinding, it is possi-
ble to achieve economically precise, damage-free surfaces in a
wide range of shapes for which traditional lapping and pol-
ishing are unsuitable. The accurate dimensions and tight tol-
erances of microground workpieces essentially depend on the
high loop stiffness of the grinder and motion control between
the abrasive tool and the workpiece, through which the trajec-
tory of the multiple cutting points of the tool can be faithfully
copied into the shape and dimensions of the workpiece. Never-
theless, the high loop stiffness of a grinder and motion control
are also essential for maintaining critical depth of cut (dc) in
machining brittle materials, and thus ensuring that machin-
ing is taking place in the ductile rather than the brittle re-
gime. All brittle materials will undergo plastic flow rather
than fracture if the machining depth of cut is sufficiently small
(i.e., equal to, or smaller than, the critical depth of cut). This
feature determines the significance of ductile regime grinding
in the control of both dimensions and surface quality since any
fractures will affect both dimensions and mechanical strength
of the workpiece as a whole product. The critical depth of cut of
a workpiece is related to its material properties such as elastic
modulus, hardness, and fracture energy. Microgrinding trials
show that the critical depth of cut (at which the transition
from brittle to ductile regime machining occurred) for glasses
is approximately or less than 0.5 ptin [26]. Brittle materials
cannot be machined precisely without surface damage at the
brittle mode. To microgrind workpieces with accurate dimen-
Table 1 Recommendations for Achieving Accurate Dimensions

and Tight Tolerances in Micromachining
Work/wheel spindle stiffness: Larger than 200 N/m at both axial and
journal directions
Spindle error motions: Less than 0.05 m at both axial and
journal directions
Feed resolution: dc /10 or less
Slideway straightness: dc /travel range
Work/wheel vibration level: Less than dc /10
Wheel trueing accuracy: Less than dc ,
Height distribution of cutting points: Less than dc ,
The provision of a continuous dressing device and full flood cooling.
sions and tight tolerances, the conditions listed in Table 1 nor-

mally need to be maintained or controlled [8,26,27]. From Ta-
ble 1, dimensional and tolerance control are noted to rely
heavily on control of the accuracy of motion of machine tools,
the geometry of the grinding wheel, and the height distribu-
tion of the cutting points on the wheel. Control is also depen-
dent on the workpiece material, the effective grit size, and ac-
tive grit concentration of the wheel, and the undeformed chip
thickness.
Dimensions on machined workpieces are measured from
surface to surface, and the roughness of each surface is often
the main limitation on the dimensional tolerances which can
be obtained in production. For example, the roughness of a
finished surface can be considered as a measure of the uncer-
tainty in the exact specification of the surface location; that
is, the dimensional uncertainty depends upon the combined
roughnesses at the measuring points at two end surfaces. For
a component, it is therefore generally necessary to have
smoother surfaces in order to maintain tighter tolerance con-
trol. Other factors affecting tolerance control include machine
tool deflection, thermal expansion and distortion of the ma-
chine tool and workpiece, and abrasive wear. The dimensional
tolerances specified in micromachining are normally 10 to 50
times the arithmetic average roughness (Ra) required [28,29].
110 Cheng
The predominant advantage of microgrinding is combin-

ing in a single process the fine tolerance achievable in a deter-
ministic grinding process with the superfinished surfaces
obtained with nondeterministic polishing or lapping. Micro-
grinding has the capacity to replace the labor-intensive lap-
ping and polishing, as it is developed, owing to its excellent
capacity for tight tolerances and high surface quality control.
4.4.4 Geometrical Form Control

Both dimensional and form accuracy and tolerance (as shown
in Table 1) are controlled by similar factors, since the form of
a workpiece is generally specified in terms of linear, as well
as angular, dimensions. Unlike polishing or lapping, micro-
grinding is a deterministic process, permitting finely con-
trolled contour accuracy and complex shapes. Most significant
form errors in microgrinding are usually caused by abrasive
tool wear and the elastic deformation of grains or the wheel,
especially in profile or form grinding of cross-sectional shapes
with sharp radii or deep grooves. Better form control usually
requires a slower-wearing abrasive tool with high contact
stiffness such as a vitrified bonded superabrasive wheel even
though this can be expected to cause larger machining forces.
For instance, there is an increasing use of vitrified bonded
CBN wheels in microgrinding of gears and other mechanical
components. CBN microground gears are more precise in their
geometry, and thus transmit motion or torque more efficiently
with less noise [14]. Bronze-bonded diamond wheels are often
used in microgrinding nonmetallic brittle materials, primarily
owing to their superior wear resistance, which results in
highly accurate components of precise geometry, close toler-
ances, and enhanced component performance, which includes
longer fatigue life.
Loose abrasive micromachining can also be used to pro-
duce components with a highly accurate shape, although they
are usually limited to basic flat, cylindrical, and spherical
forms. Selective machining can improve the flatness and sur-
face texture of a workpiece much beyond that obtainable on

precision grinding machine tools. For instance, the technique
is extensively used in micromachining gauge blocks which
have highly accurate surface flatness, parallelism, thickness,
and stability. The stability itself requires that the thickness
change must be less than 0.02 m over two years. This condi-
tion is achieved by micromachining, close attention also being
paid to other processing phases, such as the selection of special
materials and heat treatment, throughout the entire manufac-
turing process.
4.5 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS AND

MICROMACHINING EQUIPMENT
The main requirement for precision machining has focused on

tighter tolerances, better surface quality, consistent part ge-
ometry, and lower total cost, for a variety of uses that include
new engineering materials that are difficult to machine. The
pressure on manufacturers for tight tolerances and process
consistency has drawn close attention to microgrinding and
abrasive micromachining and their capabilities. These tech-
niques continue to grow although they remain a small part
of machining technology. As shown in Figure 8, however, the
techniques are used in machining a variety of engineering ma-
terials for electronic, automotive, and optical applications, as
well as others. Besides enabling damage-free surface quality,
tighter dimensional and tolerance control, and higher geomet-
rical form accuracy, the techniques have additional advan-
tages that distinguish them from conventional grinding, lap-
ping, and polishing:
1. Provision of controlled, predictable machining for dif-

ficult, brittle materials,
2. Creation of improved bearing ratios between mating
components, either for increased load carrying or im-
proved sealing,
112 Cheng
Figure 8 Typical microgrinding and abrasive micromachining ap-

plications for a variety of engineering materials.
3. Ability to impart desirable compressive stresses in

finished surfaces,
4. Provision of predictable surface finish patterns to
meet specific design criteria for wear, sealing, or lu-
brication, and
5. Broadening the range of machineable materials.
Microgrinding and abrasive micromachining are promising

techniques for any potential engineering materials that re-
quire machining to high precision, as may be illustrated from
the applications described below.
4.5.1 Silicon Wafers

Silicon is the dominant material throughout the semiconduc-
tor industry, silicon wafers being used extensively for the mi-
crofabrication of integrated circuits (IC), microsensors, and
microactuator devices. The wafers must have a high degree of
size and flatness accuracy as well as possessing a damage-free
surface finish, critical for the manufacture of the high-quality

electronic devices listed above. Nevertheless, the larger the
diameter of the wafer, the more integrated circuit devices that
can be simultaneously produced. The semiconductor industry
is continually being moved towards increasingly larger wafer
sizes [30]. Figure 9 illustrates a typical fabrication process for
IC devices. The machining of silicon wafers is noted to be an
essential phase in the fabrication process. Microgrinding is be-
ing increasingly used in the direct production of wafers, in-
stead of the process of grindinglappingpolishing since mi-
crogrinding is economically attractive, and offers higher
dimensional accuracy (wafer thickness) and flatness control,
and can yield a damage-free surface finish of high quality. For
instance, microgrinding was successfully used to produce wa-
fers 125 mm in diameter under these conditions [31]:
Figure 9 A typical fabrication process for IC devices.

114 Cheng
Wafer thickness: 100 to 300 m

Grinding wheel: diamond cup wheel
Wheel speed: 3000 rpm
Infeed rate: 0.05 mm/min
Spark-out time: 0 s
Coolant: water
Depth of cut: 0.1 m
Production time: approx. 30 s
The flatness and parallelism of the wafers produced were less

than 2 m, a condition which is difficult to achieve with the
conventional production technique of grindinglappingpol-
ishing. Surface damage, such as scratches and chipping, can
be completely avoided with microgrinding. Figure 10 shows
microground silicon wafers of various sizes. Microgrinding can
now be used to produce silicon substrates with a flatness of
less than 0.5 m in 200-mm diameter [32]. Semiconductor de-
vices based on silicon wafers at 300 mm in diameter will soon
be fabricated: to that end microgrinding and abrasive micro-
machining are attractive techniques.
Figure 10 Some microground silicon wafers. (Courtesy of Mo-

torola (UK) Ltd.)
4.5.2 Turbine Engine Blades

Vibratory finishing is a well-known method of surface treat-
ment, in which the abrasive micromachining effect of loose
media is maintained in motion by the oscillation of the con-
tainer which holds both the media and components. The tech-
nique has been widely employed for final surface finishing (up
to surface roughness R a 0.01 m) of products such as gas
turbine engine blades, vanes, nozzles, and automobile-door
handles, owing to its characteristic finishing consistency with
considerably lower manufacturing cost.
Figure 11 shows a CF-6 gas turbine engine blade micro-
machined in vibratory finishing equipment. The initial blade
surface with roughness of 0.2 m (Ra) exhibits grooves with
directional marks left by a previous grinding operation. After
45-min vibratory finishing, the grooves and directional ma-
chining marks were completely removed. The final surface
roughness was 0.06 m (Ra). During finishing, the blades move
Figure 11 A turbine engine blade micromachined in a vibratory

finishing machine. (Courtesy of GE Caledonian Engines Ltd.)
116 Cheng
freely, albeit at different speeds, with the vibratory media.

Both the media and blades move in a micro- and macro-orbital
motion. As the blades are much heavier than the media, the
elements of the latter accelerate faster. The resulting relative
movement of the mutually contacting particles of the load pro-
duces a finishing action by abrasive microinteractionmainly
abrasive rubbing. The blade surface finish plays a crucial part
in the engine performance. Vibratory finishing is widely em-
ployed in engine blade production and also for restoration of
surface finish during engine maintenance.
Most metals and alloys, ceramics, glass, and plastic parts
can be processed by vibratory finishing. Improvement of the
surface finish and abrasive microoperations such as debur-
ring, descaling, and radiusing are common objectives. Vibra-
tory finishing can be controlled to yield suitable workpiece
surface roughness and stock removal rates, essential for high-
precision machining [33]. Figure 12 shows a typical bowl-type
vibratory finishing machine of 1000 kg capacity.
Figure 12 A typical bowl-type vibratory finishing machine (1000-

kg capacity). (Courtesy of GE Caledonian Engines Ltd.)
Other metal parts, such as camshafts, crankshafts, bear-

ing inner and outer rings, and pinion gears, can be processed
by abrasive micromachining on commercially available spe-
cialized abrasive finishing equipment [21]. These components
usually require improved durability, relying on surfaces of low
coefficient of friction, and well-specified geometry, in the at-
tainment of which abrasive micromachining can be an effec-
tive technique. For example, abrasive micromachining can re-
sult in significant improvement in cross-track geometry and
surface quality, the roundness of the bearing inner and outer
rings playing a key role for the bearing raceways and conse-
quently in performance.
4.5.3 Glass Lenses

The production of highly aspheric glass lenses can only be per-
formed by ductile grinding, particularly. Moreover, the re-
quirements for the shape accuracy, surface quality, and ab-
sence of subsurface damage are much more stringent when
aspheric lenses are produced for shorter wavelength applica-
tions [34].
Since the early 1990s, the Center for Optics Manufactur-
ing (COM) at the University of Rochester, in collaboration
with industrial partners, has developed deterministic micro-
grinding processes and associated manufacturing facilities
that can generate high-quality optical glass surfaces with fine
surface figure accuracy [25]. COM has developed Opticam
machining centers for the fabrication of precision spherical
and prismatic optical components through deterministic mi-
crogrinding. The first prototype, Opticam SM produced by
Rank Pneumo, is a multiaxis CNC machining center with a
horizontal tool spindle and horizontal workpiece holder. Both
the tool and workpiece rotate about their axes, respectively,
at about 20,000 and 250 rpm. A spherical concave, or convex,
surface is generated in the glass workpiece by positioning the
tool spindle axis at an angle to that of the workpiece. Another
model, the Opticam SX produced by CNC Systems (USA),
118 Cheng
has been developed based on the Opticam SM design. The

Opticam SX has a vertical workpiece holder; its tool spindle
is vertical for planar surfaces, and rotated at an angle to the
vertical for manufacture of spherical surfaces. Both models op-
erate in a similar manner, and their tools can be interchanged.
On an Opticam machine, specular microground surfaces,
with less than 12-m subsurface damage and 1-wave peak-
to-valley (pv) figure, can be obtained in five minutes. This
notable optics manufacturing process cannot be achieved on
conventional processing equipment. Another commercially
available ultraprecision grinder is the ASG2500 CNC grinding
machine tool manufactured by Rank Taylor Hobson (USA),
employed in microgrinding aspheric lenses and other precision
optical components.
Texas Instruments has successfully used Opticam ma-
chines for deterministically microgrinding 10, 47-mm diame-
ter planoconvex hyperboloidal aspheric condenser lenses to a
required geometry. A diamond ring tool, bronze-bonded with
15-m diamond grits, was used to contour the asphere, step-
ping across the workpiece from its edge to center. The parts
had an aspheric deviation of 145 m from the best-fit sphere,
with a final figure requirement of approximately 1 m pv.
These lenses were tested and passed all user requirements,
demonstrating the effectiveness of microgrinding [35].
In Europe and Japan, deterministic microgrinding of op-
tical glasses on ultraprecision CNC machine tools has also
been developed [8,26,36]. These requirements for microgrind-
ing machines and processes were proposed:
1. A machine tool with high loop stiffness (static and dy-

namic) between grinding wheel and workpiece to the
order of 200 N/m.
2. The ability to control the motion of the machine tool
to ensure that the depth of cut, or undeformed chip
thickness, is maintained at the desired value based
on the high feed accuracy/resolution to the order of
10 nm. Piezoelectric actuators are normally used to

fulfill this capacity [37].
3. The use of grinding wheels, with rigid bonds with the
capability to true the cutting edges in situ to a degree
of uniformity on the order of 10 nm.
4. The use of continuous dressing techniques to main-
tain the cutting ability of the grinding wheel and
avoid the gross variations in the cutting process
which can occur in grinding.
5. The provision of full flood cooling and contained tem-
perature control.
Clearly, the machine tools and processes developed for

micromachining silicon and optical glasses can be employed
in other advanced engineering materials, such as ceramics,
germanium, ferrite, and quartz crystals, owing to the similar-
ity in their machining characteristics and material properties.
The use of these materials depends on the achievement of pre-
cise, damage-free surfaces in shapes which are difficult to
achieve by conventional lapping and polishing. An increasing
number of applications for microgrinding and abrasive micro-
machining for components such as quartz wafers for computer
and clock resonators, ferrite parts for electronic data recording
equipment, ceramic parts for engines or bearings, germanium
aspherics, and infrared windows for optics applications have
been cited [11,38,39]. Microgrinding and abrasive microma-
chining are finding increasingly more industrial applications
for machining these particular engineering and electronic ma-
terials.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author particularly thanks Anthony McAdam of GE Cale-

donian Engines Ltd. and Be Lin of Motorola (UK) Ltd. for their
assistance with writing this chapter.
120 Cheng
L: Grit size
a: Umbling angle
: Nominal coefficient of friction
ap: Undeformed chip thickness
: Radius at the cutting tool or grit tip
: Effective rake angle of the tool or grit
Ff /Fn: Friction coeffection
CR: Coefficient of proportionality (cm2 /N)
P: Total load normal to the workpiece surface (N)
d: Material density of the workpiece (g/cm3)
V: Machining velocity (cm/s)
Vw: Workpiece velocity
Vs: Abrasive wheel velocity
ds: Wheel diameter
L: Distance between successive cutting points
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5
Diamond Micromachining
John Corbett
Cranfield University, Bedford, England
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Higher accuracy and performance requirements, coupled with

demands to reduce costs, has led to significant developments
in advanced CNC diamond turning and grinding machines. A
long-term manufacturing trend in which tolerances for many
strategic products are decreasing by a factor of 3 every 10
years, on critical dimensions, was highlighted in a USA report
[1]. Figure 1 illustrates this trend and the report predicted
that between 1980 and 2000, and beyond, geometric toler-
ances for the most demanding precision applications, for ex-
ample, diamond turning and grinding, would decrease from
0.075 m to 0.01 m. The tolerances for the ultraprecision ap-
125
126 Corbett
Figure 1 Tolerance trends in manufacturing. (From Ref. 1.)
plications, typically produced by energy beam machining pro-

cesses, had reached around 0.001 m (1nm) by the year 2000.
The use of diamond cutting tools has increased in impor-
tance as tighter tolerances and greater surface integrities are
required for high-value components. Ultraprecision cutting
tools need to be hard and sharp and to have enhanced thermal
properties in order to maintain their size and shape while cut-
ting. Advantages offered by diamond include:
Crystalline structure, which enables very sharp cutting

edges to be produced,
High thermal conductivity, the highest of any materials
at room temperature,
Ability to retain high strength at high temperatures,
High elastic and shear moduli, which reduce deformation
during machining.
The earliest documented evidence of diamond machining

found to date describes the diamond turning carried out by
Jesse Ramsden, FRS in 1779 [2]. Ramsden machined a screw
from hardened and tempered steel, with a diamond pointed
tool, for use in his linear dividing engine for precision scale
Diamond Micromachining 127
making. Diamond is, however, chemically attacked by ferrous

materials at high temperatures, and is generally unsuitable
for the machining of steels and nickel alloys. This is because
of the very high wear rate of the diamond which results in
nonviable tool costs.
More recently diamond machining has been used for the
machining of nonferrous metals such as aluminum and cop-
per, which are difficult materials on which to obtain a mirror
surface by grinding, lapping, or polishing. This is because
these metals are relatively soft and the abrasive processes
scratch the finished surface and, furthermore, are unable to
produce high levels of flatness at the edges of the machined
surface [3]. However, diamond grinding has become an impor-
tant process for the machining of brittle materials, for exam-
ple, glasses and ceramics. The ability to control precisely the
cutting tool position relative to the workpiece is a significant
advantage offered by advanced CNC diamond turning and
grinding machines. This enables them to produce components
that are extremely precise and accurate. On the other hand,
the relative position of the tool and workpiece is force-con-
trolled with lapping and polishing. This makes it very difficult
to obtain precise control of the tools path for shapes other than
simple geometric forms. Diamond machining is therefore
proving to be a cost-effective process for the production of com-
plex shaped components that have high accuracy require-
ments for form and/or surface finish.
Diamond micromachining is of particular interest for the
optical and electronic industries. The processes are capable of
simultaneously achieving high-profile accuracy, good surface
finish, and low subsurface damage in brittle materials needed,
for example, for semiconductors, magnetic readwrite heads,
and optical components.
5.2 MACHINING PRINCIPLES
Single-point diamond turning and ultraprecision diamond

grinding are both capable of producing extremely fine cuts and
128 Corbett
Figure 2 Scanning electron micrograph of electroplated copper, di-

amond turned at a depth of around 1 nm. (From Ref. 4.)
small chips. Figure 2 shows a scanning electron micrograph

of electroplated copper cut by a sharp diamond on an ultrapre-
cision machine tool. The undeformed chip thickness is approx-
imately 1 nm [4]. Because of the very fine chip thickness pro-
duced by the microcutting processes, the chip-forming model
for turning [5] is different from that for grinding [6], moving
from concentrated shear to microextrusion as illustrated in
Figure 3.
Important characteristics of materials considered for dia-
mond micromachining are impurities (inclusions) in the mate-
rial, grain boundaries of polycrystalline materials, and inho-
mogeneities. These can cause small vibrations of the cutting
tool, resulting in a deterioration in surface finish. Another fac-
tor affecting the quality of surface finish as well as consistency
of form is the high coefficient of expansion coupled with low
thermal conductivity of some plastics which are diamond
turned. These thermal effects are, to some extent, minimized
when cutting with a diamond tool due to its sharp cutting
edge, low coefficient of friction, and high thermal conductivity
(a)
(b)
Figure 3 (a) Cutting concentrated shear model (from Ref. 5); (b)
fine grinding microextrusion model (from Ref. 6).
which conducts the heat away. The theoretical peak-to-valley

surface roughness which can be achieved by diamond turning
using a round-nosed cutting tool is limited to [7]:
f2
Rt (1)
8*Tr
where
Rt: Theoretical peak to surface roughness (mm),

f: Feedrate per revolution of the workspindle (mm.rev1),
Tr: Tool nose radius (mm).
However, this equation ignores any of the errors inherent in

the machine, and a more accurate equation takes account of
130 Corbett
the asynchronous error motion of the machine in the direction

normal to the component surface. The actual peak-to-valley
surface roughness now becomes:
f2
Rt f (Esyn) (2)
8*Tr
where Esyn is the asynchronous error motion (mm) in the di-
rection normal to the machined surface.
5.2.1 Brittle Materials

The need for the micromachining of hard and brittle materials
has led to significant improvements in machine tool technol-
ogy. It is now possible to produce plastically deformed chips,
when machining brittle materials, if the depth of cut is suffi-
ciently small. This process is known as ductile or shear mode
machining. It has been shown that a brittle-to-ductile transi-
tion exists when cutting brittle materials at low load and pene-
tration levels [8]. This ductile mode machining is important
for the cost-effective production of high-performance optical
and advanced ceramic components, with extremely low levels
of subsurface damage (microcracking). This enhances their
performance and strength significantly and eliminates, or
minimizes, the need for postpolishing.
The transition from ductile to brittle fracture has been
widely reported and is usually described as the critical depth
of cut. This is generally small (i.e., 0.1 to 0.3 m), as is the
associated feedrate, and this results in relatively slow mate-
rial removal rates. However it is a cost-effective technique for
producing high quality spherical and nonspherical optical sur-
faces, without the need for polishing.
Figure 4 shows the machining model for turning or fly
cutting a brittle material [9], in which the depth of cut and
critical chip thickness (dc) are illustrated. The location of the
critical chip thickness is dependent on feed. For example, it
is located towards the upper edge of the shoulder when fine
feedrates (f ) are used and the microfracture damage zone is
Figure 4 Cutting model for the brittle/ductile regime diamond

turning of brittle materials. (From Ref. 9.)
removed during machining. In this case subsurface damage

does not extend into the cut surface. However, if the feedrate
increases, the critical chip thickness moves down towards the
cut surface and this results in the microfracture damage pene-
trating into the final cut surface. In micromachining it is nor-
mally important to ensure that these cracks do not occur by
removing the material in a ductile mode.
The mechanism for ductile mode grinding of brittle mate-
rials is shown in Figure 5. The process requires careful selec-
tion of the machining parameters in order to maximize the
material removal rate while maintaining high surface and
subsurface integrity. It also demands high-precision, high
stiffness machine tools with smooth motions.
5.2.2 Grinding Wheel Conditioning

Extremely fine grit sizes, less than 4 m (#4000 mesh size), are
necessary for predominately ductile grinding. However, fixed
abrasive grinding wheels with very small grits can be ineffi-
cient through loading, in which the grinding wheel surface be-
comes filled or clogged with the swarf or chips of the workpiece
material. In the past this required frequent dressing of the
wheel to produce a new abrasive surface, by removing the
132 Corbett
Figure 5 Mechanism of ductile or shear mode grinding of brittle

materials.
clogged or loaded layer which reduced the machining effi-

ciency considerably. Loading of the grinding wheel results in
large differences in the grinding force level, from one cut to
the next, resulting in the process becoming unstable. A new
electrolytic in-process dressing (ELID) technique [10] has
now been developed to overcome this loading problem. ELID
was developed commercially following extensive research by
Nakagawa, at Tokyo University, and more recently by Ohmori
at the Japanese Physical and Chemical Research Institute, Ri-
ken, Tokyo. The technique uses normal water-based coolants
as the electrolyte. A pulsed current is generated by directing
the coolant through a negative electrode and a positive connec-
tion, which is a conducting metal bond grinding wheel. ELID
electroetches the metal bond of the grinding wheel continu-
ously, in a highly controlled manner to unclog the wheel and
enhance tool life. The continuous nature of the process, which
is shown schematically in Figure 6, ensures that a constant
fine grain is maintained. Grinding forces are thus kept con-
stant, through the prevention of wheel loading, which results
in long wheel life between wheel trueing operations.
Figure 6 The electrolytic in-process dressing techniques. (From

Ref. 10.)
5.3 RATES OF MICROMACHINING FOR

RELEVANT MATERIALS
Ductile mode machining is required when machining mirror-

like surfaces in hard and brittle materials. However, in order
to achieve this condition the actual depths of cut required, to
avoid crack generation, can be on the order of 0.1 to 0.01 of
those used for cutting mirror surfaces in metals.
5.3.1 Diamond Turning

Gerchman and McLain have published the results of early
work on the machining of germanium [11] in which they dia-
mond-turned germanium to a surface roughness of 5 to 6 nm
Ra. These were spherical surfaces, 50 mm in diameter, for
134 Corbett
which the removal rate was given in terms of 2.5 m per revo-
lution of the workpiece together with a 25-m depths of cut.
More recently Shore [12] has reported that removal rates on
the order of 2 to 4 mm3 per minute have been obtained when
diamond turning germanium optics of 100-mm diameter. The
tool life (expressed as the useful cutting distance of the tool)
when producing optical surfaces (1 nm Ra) at these removal
rates was in excess of 12 kilometers. When machining silicon
at similar removal rates, as with germanium, tool life was
found to be less than 8 kilometers. The surface finish quality
was also on the order of 1 nm Ra. Tool life was higher, when
machining zinc sulphide, being in excess of 20 kilometers, al-
though the surface quality was lower, with a roughness value
of 3.6 nm Ra.
In line with previous work, Shore found that feedrate was
the most significant parameter affecting surface morphology.
Feedrate had to be reduced to the following levels to attain
surfaces free from surface microfracture: zinc sulphide 2.5 m/
rev, silicon 1.5 m/rev, and germanium 1.2 m/rev. Shore
used 0.5-mm radius tools, with top negative rake angles of
15 for zinc sulphide and 25 for silicon and germanium.
The depth of cut was 10 m and the workholding spindle speed
1000 rpm for each material.
Some typical diamond turning parameters for other ma-
terials are given in Table 1 [7].
5.3.2 Diamond Grinding

When diamond microturning a large area of brittle material
(e.g., optical devices) the continuous use of a single point tool
can result in major problems if it is found necessary to change
the cutting tool when partway through a cut. A grinding
wheel, however, has innumerable cutting points (grits) which
yield a higher machining rate. Diamond microgrinding can
therefore be expected to improve the commercial viability for
the ductile mode machining of brittle materials.
Table 1 Typical Diamond Turning Parameters [7]

Roughing Finishing
b c b
D F D Fc
a
Material V (rpm) Coolant (mm) (mm/min) (mm) (mm/min)
Aluminum 800 Light oil 0.05 12 to 25 0.0025 2.5
Copper 800 Light oil 0.05 12 to 25 0.0025 2.5
Electroless 400 Light oil 0.007 5 0.0012 2.5
nickel
Plastics 1000 Air/Oil 0.25 15 0.012 3.5
(PMMA)d
a
V work holder spindle speed.
b
D depth of cut.
c
F feedrate.
d
PMMA Polymethylmethacrylate.
Examples of grinding parameters used for the ductile

mode grinding of a range of ceramics were [12]:
Grinding wheel speed: 30 to 60 meters per second

Workpiece speed: 0.1 to 1.0 meters per minute
Depth of cut: 0.001 to 0.01 millimeters
Specific removal rate: 0.05 to 0.2 mm3 /(mm-s)
Total power: 1 kW
While grinding is a multipoint process that relies on mechani-

cal actions, it has been shown [13] that chemical effects also
play a significant role in material removal rates when using
micron-size abrasive grits to grind glasses in a ductile mode.
A relatively soft hydrated layer is formed on the glass surface
via the chemical reaction between the coolant and the glass.
For the ductile mode grinding of optical glasses and zero-
dur, Shore [12] obtained material removal rates of 0.75 to 1.55
mm3 per minute, when normalized for a 100-mm diameter op-
tical component. This value was obtained when producing sur-
face roughnesses of 1 to 3 nm Ra, which are close to what can
136 Corbett
be achieved by the polishing process. A possible technique to

obtain higher removal rates, when ductile grinding, is to uti-
lize very high grinding wheel speeds. These should, theoreti-
cally, reduce the undeformed chip thickness, and thus the cut-
ting force per grit, resulting in more ductile flow coupled with
less strength degradation [14].

CONTROL
Diamond micromachining is used to produce either:
1. Small workpiece features, by means of tools with cut-

ting features below 100 m, or
2. Sub-m or nanometric tolerances and/or surface fin-
ishes on macrocomponents.
Very sharp-edged diamond tools have been used in the produc-

tion of ultrafine optical gratings with an accuracy of 1 nm, and
gratings with 1-nm resolution can now be obtained for use on
ultraprecision machine tools [15].
The most accurate diamond turning and grinding ma-
chines currently available are capable of achieving geometric
accuracies of size and profile on the order of 100 nm for dimen-
sions of 250 mm (see Section 5.5). Surfaces of 0.8 nm Ra have
also been diamond-machined on several materials, including
germanium. Another example of sub-m tolerances being
achieved on macro components is given by Taniguchi [3] who
indicates that on the diamond grinding of silicon wafers, as
opposed to lapping, a total flatness (TTV) of less than 0.6 m
was obtained on 150-mm diameter wafers.
Diamond micromachining demands extremely smooth
movements, particularly between the spindle and the tool. In
order to achieve this, hydrostatic oil and air bearings are gen-
erally required for the spindles and guideways. Other strin-
gent requirements required from the machine tool are:
1. Extremely high loop stiffness between the tool and

workpiece,
2. The ability to apply and maintain very small depths
of cut, as low as a few nm in some cases,
3. Low thermal drift, and
4. The ability to operate at uniform feedrates over a
wide range.
Other aspects to be considered during the design stage

include:
1. The type of coolant and its application, filtration and

temperature control,
2. Workholding methods.
5.5 DESCRIPTION OF INDUSTRIAL

The first commercial ultraprecision diamond turning and

grinding machines were developed principally for the manu-
facture of complex optical elements. The M18 AG three-axis
CNC machine, developed by the Moore Machine Tool Com-
pany in the USA was the first to be commercially successful.
The M18 AG machine incorporated an air bearing work hold-
ing spindle, and laser interferometers were used to control the
position of the linear axes, which were mounted on precise op-
posed vee type rolling element slideways. More recently
Moore Nanotechnology Systems (USA), and Precitech (USA),
have developed a wide range of ultraprecision diamond turn-
ing and grinding machines. These include the Nanotech ma-
chines from Moore Nanotechnology Systems, and the Nano-
form series of machines from Precitech. Features of these
machines include:
1. Air bearing work holding spindles,

2. Hydrostatic oil bearing or air bearing slideways,
138 Corbett
which are more precise (repeatable), and have a

smoother motion than rolling element bearing
slideways,
3. Laser interferometer or linear scales for controlling
the position of the linear axes, and
4. CNC control systems with a 1.0-nm programming
resolution.
The machines have a wide range of applications in the fields

of consumer electronics, defense, optics, medical devices, and
other precision components, as discussed in the following sec-
tion.
Edge-grinding machines, utilizing ductile grinding, have
been developed by the Landis Lund (UK) organization for the
finish machining of glass and ceramic disc substrates for
the computer magnetic disc drive industry. More recently the
company has introduced a machine for the precision edge
grinding of silicon wafers up to 300-mm diameter.
The Nanocentre (Figure 7), a three-axis ultraprecision di-
amond turning and/or grinding machine was developed by
Cranfield Precision (UK), and is thought to be the worlds most
accurate machine tool of its type, with a volumetric accuracy
of 100 nm for workpieces up to 250-mm diameter and a ma-
chined length of up to 250 mm [16]. The machine is designed
for very high loop stiffness between tool and workpiece in both
single point diamond cutting and ductile mode grinding. This
is achieved through an optimized machine configuration and
the use of high stiffness servodrives and hydrostatic bearings
throughout.
In order to maximize geometrical accuracy, the Nanocen-
tre, a research machine built under the UKs National Initia-
tive on Nanotechnology (NION), incorporates a metrology
frame (Figure 8) to optimize the in-process measurement of
the linear motions. This automatically compensates for Abbe-
offset errors for both pitch and yaw in the XZ-plane at the
height of the workspindle center line. This system also mea-
sures straightness and orthogonality errors, which are also
Figure 7 Nanocentre: CNC diamond turning and grinding ma-

chine.
software compensated. The highly stiff metrology frame struc-

ture utilizes two ultraprecision Zerodur stick mirrors for
three laser interferometer air paths which are software com-
pensated online, for refractive index changes, by a differential
refractometer. The use of these computer software error com-
pensation techniques improved the intrinsic horizontal
straightness error motion of the XZ-motions from 200 nano-
meters to 50 nanometers.
Research has continued with the aim of developing the
next generation of diamond cutting and grinding machines in
order to enter clearly the nanotechnology regime. This has re-
sulted in the review of machine systems and the proposal of
new types of structure. For example, the National Physical
Laboratory (NPL) has developed the Tetraform structure,
which includes a combination of novel concepts for the design
140 Corbett
Figure 8 Nanocentre (NION) metrology frame system.
of machine tool structures. The structure provides the high

stiffness needed to work to ultraprecision accuracies at high
speed. High static and dynamic stiffnesses are obtained
through the use of an internally damped space frame with all
loads being carried in closed loops via a fully triangulated tet-
rahedron structure as shown in Figure 9 [17]. Furthermore,
the symmetrical form of the structure results in the minimiza-
tion of thermal effects on the machine performance. Samples
of crown glass, fused silica, and single crystal quartz were ma-
chined on Tetraform to an extremely high surface quality. The
subsurface damage produced in the specimens was on the or-
der of only 1 m, when taking a 10-m cut on quartz, which
Figure 9 Tetraform ultrastiff diamond grinding machine.
is less than that obtained with the great majority of polished

optics. Even with these 10-m cuts, surface finishes down to
5 nm Ra were produced with very little roll off at the edges
of the specimens.
5.6 APPLICATIONS
Over the last 30 years the number of applications for diamond

turning of a wide range of materials, and the diamond grind-
ing of brittle materials (e.g., glasses and ceramics) has in-
creased significantly following the technological breakthrough
142 Corbett
in direct CNC machining in the so-called ductile regime, that

is free from retained brittle fracture damage. Diamonds are
used in either single crystal or compacted polycrystalline form
to machine a wide range of essentially nonferrous materials.
5.6.1 Diamond Turning

Table 2 indicates a range of workpiece materials that are cur-
rently diamond turned for commercial applications. Single
crystal diamond turning has been used to machine micro-
grooves 2.5-m wide by 1.6-m deep in OFHC copper [18]. The
slopes of the grooves were produced with a surface finish to
10 nm Rmax, and the application was the fabrication of lens
master discs for the molding of high efficiency grating lenses.
Diamond turning is being used increasingly as a high-preci-
sion, high-production rate process for a wide range of products
including:
1. Spherical and aspherical molds for plastic opthalmic

lenses, and for medical instrumentation and micro-
laser optical disc/CD players.
2. A wide range of reflecting optics components. For ex-
ample, aluminum scanner mirrors, space communi-
cation and high-power machining laser optics, and
aluminum substrates for glancing incidence mirrors
for X-ray telescopes.
Table 2 Materials That May Be Diamond Turned

Semiconductors Metals Plastics
Cadmium telluride Aluminium and alloys Acrylic

Gallium arsenide Copper and alloys Fluoroplastics
Germanium Electroless nickel Nylon
Lithium niobate Gold Polycarbonate
Silicon Magnesium Polymethylmethacrylate
Zinc selenide Silver Propylene
Zinc sulphide Zinc Styrene
3. Infrared hybrid lenses for thermal imaging systems.

Typical materials include germanium, zinc sulphide,
zinc selenide, and silicon.
4. Aluminum alloy automotive pistons which are ma-
chined, in the cold state, to complex profiles with tol-
erances on the order of 3 to 10 m.
5. Aluminum alloy substrate drums for photocopying
machines.
5.6.2 Diamond Grinding

A range of brittle materials currently being diamond ma-
chined, by ductile or shear mode grinding are indicated in Ta-
ble 3. To date, the greatest demand for this technology has
come from the computer peripheral and semiconductor indus-
tries. There are, however, numerous new applications where
components are required to have lower mass, higher hardness
and wear resistance, improved chemical inertness, and higher
strength and fatigue life, often while working at higher tem-
peratures than before. The ceramic and intermetallic materi-
als listed in Table 3 can often satisfy these demands.
Following a great deal of worldwide research and devel-
opment, ceramic and intermetallic materials are ready to be
used in gas turbines, pumps, computer peripherals, piston en-
Table 3 Materials That May Be Processed via Ductile Mode

Diamond Grinding
Ceramics/Intermetallics Glasses
Aluminium oxide Titanium aluminide BK7a or equivalent
Nickel aluminide Titanium carbide SF10b or equivalent
Silicon carbide Tungsten carbide ULEc or equivalent
Silicon nitride Zirconia Zerodurd or equivalent
a
BK7 Borosilicate Crown Glass manufactured by Schott Glass Technologies Inc.
b
SF10 Dense Flint Glass manufactured by Schott Glass Technologies Inc.
c
ULE Ultra Low Expansion Glass manufactured by Corning Glass Inc.
d
Zerodur Ultra Low Expansion Glass Ceramic manufactured by Schott Glass Tech-
nologies Inc.
144 Corbett
gines, and many other engineering products on a much wider

scale. For many of these applications grinding, in the ductile
mode, is necessary in order to retain material integrity
through the minimization of subsurface damage and micro-
cracking, which reduce the strength and fatigue life of ceramic
components.
Diamond micromachining technology for the efficient
manufacture of optoelectronics devices is clearly of critical im-
portance in ensuring its progress covering broadband
lightwave communication, high-density optical memories, and
optical parallel signal processing. Although process develop-
ment has concentrated on VSLI technologies such as lithogra-
phy, there is clearly scope for applying ductile mode grinding,
slitting, and trenching techniques for the efficient manufac-
ture of monolithic integrated optics components. These tech-
niques are analogous to the ultraprecision grinding of mag-
netic memory disk file sliders (or flying heads), but now in the
ductile regime. The introduction of free abrasives into fixed
abrasive processing can be shown to improve surface finish
and productivity. Several hundred components can be ma-
chined at one set-up to submicron tolerances, producing low-
energy-loss contacting optical surfaces (2 nm Ra and zero
surface microcracks) lending themselves to kinematic design
for submicron assembly, with large consequent savings in as-
sembly and test labor costs[19].
Esyn Asynchronous error motion (mm) in the direction

normal to the machined surface
f Feedrate per revolution of the workspindle (mm
rev1)
Ra Surface roughness (m)
Rmax Surface finish (nm)
Rt Theoretical peak to surface roughness (mm)
Tr The tool nose radius (mm)
REFERENCES
[1] D.A. Swyte, Challenges to NIST in dimensional metrology:

The impact of tightening tolerances in the U.S. discrete manu-
facturing industry. National Institute of Standards of Tech-
nology, Report NISTIR 4757, January, Gaithersberg, MD
(1992).
[2] C. Evans, Precision Engineering: An Evolutionary View. Cran-
field, Cranfield, UK (1989).
[3] N. Taniguchi, Nanotechnology: Integrated Processing Systems
for ultra-Precision and Ultra-Fine Products. Oxford Univer-
sity Press (1996).
[4] N. Ikawa, R.R. Donaldson, R. Komanduri, W. Konig, P.A.
McKeown, T. Moriwaki, and I.F. Stowers, Ultraprecision
metal cutting: The past, the present and the future. Annals of
CIRP, (40) 2, 587594 (1991).
[5] M.E. Merchant, Mechanics of the cutting process. J. Applied
Physics, (216), 267275, 318324 (1945).
[6] M.C. Shaw, A new theory of grinding. Mechanical and Chemi-
cal Engineering Transactions. Inst. Engineers (Australia),
(MC8), 7378 (1972).
[7] P. Hannah and D. Roaer, Basics of diamond turning. In Proc.
of One Day Workshop, Cranfield University, 10th October
(1988).
[8] T.G. Bifano, T.A. Dow, and R.O. Scattergood, Ductile-regime
grinding: A new technology for machining brittle materials. J.
Engineering for Industry. Transactions of ASME, (113) May,
184189 (1991).
[9] W.S. Blackley and R.O. Scattergood, Ductile-regime machin-
ing model for diamond turning of brittle materials. Precision
Engineering (12) 2, April, 95103 (1991).
[10] H. Ohmori and T. Nakagawa, Analysis of mirror surface gen-
eration of hard and brittle materials by ELID (electrolytic in-
process dressing) grinding with superfine grain metallic bond
wheels. Annals of CIRP, (44) 1, 287290, (1995).
146 Corbett
[11] M.C. Gerchman and B.E. McLain, Investigation of the effects

of diamond machining germanium for optical applications.
SPIE (929), 9496 (1988).
[12] P. Shore, Machining of optical surfaces in brittle materials us-
ing an ultra-precision machine tool. PhD Thesis, Cranfield
University, March (1995).
[13] M.J. Ball, N.A. Murphy, and P. Shore, Electrolytically assisted
ductile mode diamond grinding of BK7 and SF10 optical
glasses. SPIE (1573), 3038 (1991).
[14] S. Malkin and T.W. Hwang, Grinding mechanisms for ceram-
ics. Annals of CIRP, (45) 2, 569580 (1996).
[15] N. Taniguchi, The state-of-the-art of nanotechnology for pro-
cessing of ultraprecision and ultrafine products. Precision En-
gineering (16)1, January, 524 (1994).
[16] P.A. McKeown, ManufacturingHow small can we go? The
challenges and opportunities of the nanometre age. British
Association Lecture. Royal Academy of Engineering, London
(1996).
[17] K. Lindsey, Tetraform grinding. Commercial applications of
precision manufacturing at the sub-micron level. SPIE (1573),
129135 (1991).
[18] K. Goto, K. Mori, G. Hatagoshi, and S. Takahashi, Spherical
grating objective lenses for optical disk pick-ups. Japanese J.
Applied Physics, (26) Suppl. 264, 135.
[19] P.A. McKeown, Cranfield University, private communication,
March (1997).
6
Ultrasonic Micromachining
D. Kremer
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Lausanne,
Switzerland
Y. Benkirane
Ecole Nationale Superieure dArts et Metiers, Paris, France
6.1 PRINCIPLES
6.1.1 Introduction to Power Ultrasound
Ultrasonic vibrations are used in many fields of industry for
applications such as cleaning, welding, and machining, includ-
ing assistance to cutting or grinding, nondestructive control,
mixing, and separation.
Applications involving ultrasonic waves can be placed in
two groups:
The transmitted power is small (mW to W); it is mainly
used for nondestructive applications, in which ultra-
sonic waves must not damage either the item or a
live body part that is to be treated;
147
148 Kremer and Benkirane
The transmitted power is an important factor (W to kW),

and the waves are used to cause modifications to the
part.
Waves can have a very strong effect. Assuming the law

of displacement is u a sin (t) (with a, half amplitude of
vibrations; , pulsation; t, time), we can find velocity and ac-
celeration to be respectively:
V a cosine (t) and a 2 sin (t)
Maximum velocity and acceleration are: Vmax a and max

a 2. For a 20-m half amplitude of vibration at a 20 kHz
frequency, which is common for ultrasonic machining, weld-
ing, or cleaning, we obtain Vmax 2.5 ms1 and max 312 000
ms2. These very high values are the bases for the effects that
these vibrations can have on parts to which they are exposed:
for example, shocks, friction, cavitation, and erosion.
6.1.2 Principle of Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

The ultrasonic machining process relies on the projection of
very hard abrasive particles on the part to be machined, by
use of a tool (sonotrode) vibrating at an ultrasonic frequency
(20 kHz or more). These particles are conveyed by means of a
fluid, water in most cases (Figure 1).
Two different mechanisms can be observed [15]:
The mechanical action of particles on the surface of the

workpiece, which is effective for the machining of
hard and brittle materials such as glass, ceramics,
composites, quartz, precious stones, and semicon-
ductors; and
Cavitation erosion caused by rapid changes in pressure
inside the fluid carrying the particles, which has a
significant effect when machining fragile and porous
materials such as graphite and porous ceramics.
Ultrasonic Micromachining 149
Figure 1 Principle of ultrasonic machining.
Particles affect both part and sonotrode: material removal

takes place at the workpiece; wear occurs on both the sono-
trode and particles. The process is therefore characterized by
removal rate on the workpiece, sonotrode wear, and abrasive
wear.
Ultrasonic machining can deal efficiently with brittle ma-
terials. The sonotrodes should be made from materials that
can resist wear: they should be either ductile (aluminum
alloys, steel, titanium alloys, nickel alloys) or extremely hard
(diamond). The abrasive particles have to be harder than the
workpiece material: aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, boron
carbide, and diamond are used.
6.2 MATERIALS FOR WORKPIECE,

SONOTRODE, AND ABRASIVE GRAINS
6.2.1 Workpiece Materials
The USM process is able to machine any material, but is more
efficient on brittle materials. Materials respond differently to
Figure 2 Ultrasonic machinability. (From Refs. 6 and 7.)
the process, as shown in Figure 2 [6,7]. By inspection of this

figure, which relates removal rate to sonotrode wear, we can
divide materials into several categories:
1. Materials that are machined very easily, due to their

high fragility and porosity, for example, glass, germa-
nium, and silicon. High removal rates can be ob-
tained, up to hundreds of mm3 /min. The correspond-
ing wear of a steel tool is very small (1%), and steel
sonotrodes can be used. USM should be used for ma-
chining these materials.
2. Materials that are more difficult to machine, since
they are less fragile or porous, for instance, ceramic
oxides or carbides and precious stones. Removal rate
can be as much as dozens of mm3 /min; tool wear var-
ies from 2% when machining silicon oxide up to 10%
for ruby (steel tool). It is preferable to use other mate-
rials for sonotrodes (titanium or nickel alloys, tung-
sten carbide, or diamond). USM could be used for ma-
chining such materials, and could compete well with

other processes.
3. Materials that are well resistant to the process, since
they are either very hard (hard ceramics) or very duc-
tile (metal alloys). Poor removal rates are obtained (a
few mm3 /min), and high tool wear is observed (30 to
100% for a steel tool). These materials should be ma-
chined with USM only when no other process is effec-
tive (e.g., silicon nitride or diamond).
6.2.2 Abrasive Materials

The actual cutting tools are the abrasive particles. Their char-
acteristics and dimensions have to be adapted to the material
to be machined and to the specific application intended.
The hardness of the abrasive particles has to be higher
than that of the workpiece material. For example, silicon car-
bide can machine glass, graphite, silicon, aluminium oxide, or
precious stones; boron carbide has to be used for harder mate-
rials such as silicon carbide and silicon nitride. Diamond is
the only abrasive able to machine even harder materials like
diamond. The hardness of different materials is shown in Fig-
ure 3. For ease of use, and owing to cost, boron carbide is often
chosen for machining every material except diamond, and dia-
mond is used only when boron carbide is insufficiently hard.
Wear of particles is a crucial factor, since removal rate
depends on particle diameter [6]. Grains can be worn rapidly,
as shown in Figure 4 which gives mean diameter distribution
for particles, before and after machining glass [8].
6.2.3 Sonotrode Materials

Two main considerations arise in the selection of the sonotrode
material: fabrication and cost. Sonotrode wear during ultra-
sonic machining also has to be taken into account. Usually,
the sonotrode (or its working end) has to be produced for every
specific application. In order to facilitate this condition, mate-
rials selected are often taken from those that can be machined
Figure 3 Abrasive hardness.
Figure 4 Wear of abrasive particles when machining glass. (From

Ref. 8.)
by conventional cutting such as steel, titanium alloy, and

nickel alloy. They will encounter some wear during ultrasonic
machining.
In some cases, when the working end of the tool has a
very simple shape, diamond can be used as tool material: it
will resist wear very well and thus have a long life. It can be
machined by either diamond grinding or EDM.
Wear is a significant feature of ultrasonic machining,
since it directly affects machining accuracy. In the machining
of ceramics, the relative amount of wear requires more than
one sonotrode to be used if it is made from metal alloys (for
roughing and finishing operations).
Metal alloys are used for machining small series of parts
by the sinking method (complex shapes, holes, slots); diamond
is used for producing very accurate shapes, by means of either
the sinking or the contouring technique, for small or key series
of parts.
6.3 EFFECTS OF PROCESS VARIABLES

ON REMOVAL RATE
6.3.1 Abrasive Parameters
The effect of abrasive particles also depends on their shape
and dimension. It is difficult to adopt shape as a parameter,
and main diameter is often taken as the particle dimension
parameter. The influence of sharpness of edges on grains is
not discussed here.
In general, it has been found that increasing the main
diameter d of the impinging particles leads to a rise in the
amount of eroded material. Sometimes there is a major effect:
material removal rate can be proportional to d4 [9]. Often in
ultrasonic machining, a behavior is observed that is composed
of first a very significant increase for small diameters, then
no further increase, and eventually a decrease, as shown in
Figure 5 [10]. This behavior can be explained by the close rela-
tionship between this parameter and amplitude of vibrations,
Figure 5 Removal rate variation with grain dimension. (From Ref.

10.)
and for conditions where amplitude is either not sufficiently

high to project grains with adequate efficiency, or too great.
In micromachining, the grain main diameter has to be
very small, which means that its size has to be adapted to the
surface frontal area to be machined. A few studies have been
made that give some data on the relationship between frontal
area and grain size: in order for grains to move and not be
blocked, they should be at least 10 times smaller than the
smallest passage [11]. In ultrasonic microdrilling, particles of
2 m or smaller are used for 0.2-mm diameter tools [12]. They
lead to a relatively small removal rate, due to the small work-
ing surface, although a reasonable penetration feed (around
0.1 mm/min) is obtained. It is possible to work with even finer
grains. In a recent study [13], 0.2-m particles have been used
to drill holes as small as 9 m in glass or silicon, by use of a
5-m diameter tool.
Grain concentration has an effect on removal rate: raising
the grain concentration leads to an increase in removal rate,
Figure 6 Removal rate as a function of concentration for machin-

ing of glass. (From Refs. 4 and 7.)
as shown in Figure 6 [4,7]. However, too high a concentration

has an adverse effect: the movement of particles and debris
from the part inside the working gap becomes impeded. In
general, volumetric concentration is kept between 20 and 30%.
The actual concentration in the working gap can be quite
different from that in the tank. For example, when drilling
deep holes, inadequate renewal of the flushing fluid can lead
to an increased concentration which makes machining less ef-
ficient. A decrease in penetration feed is observed with the
increase in depth, as shown in Figure 7 [4]. A blockage can
even be encountered for very deep holes.
6.3.2 Ultrasonic Process Variables

Amplitude and frequency of vibrations are significant vari-
ables.
Frequency greatly influences the efficiency of the process.
Removal rate increases with frequency, as shown in Figure 8
Figure 7 Dependence of penetration on time for machining of

graphite. (From Ref. 4.)
Figure 8 Relationship between penetration and frequency. (From

Ref. 7.)
[7]. But it is noted that increasing frequency leads to higher

demands on the acoustic system, giving rise to greater heating
and thus smaller fatigue life of components; increasing fre-
quency requires smaller amplitude, which does not benefit re-
moval rate. At 20 kHz, an amplitude of 20 to 50 m can be
obtained; at 40 kHz, it is limited to 5 to 20 m for the same
mechanical resistance.
The second effect of increasing frequency is a decrease in
the maximum dimensions of the acoustic system that can be
used: at 20 kHz, the sonotrode length is around 125 mm (half
wavelength in steel); at 40 kHz, it is 62.5 mm. The lateral di-
mensions are also dependent on frequency. A 20-kHz fre-
quency allows working up to 1 dm2 cross-section, which is un-
attainable at 40 kHz. Nonetheless this limitation is not a main
concern for micromachining, where the dimensions of the ma-
chined shapes are small. For micromachining, higher frequen-
cies could thus be used [14].
Amplitude is a key variable for the process. Too little an
amplitude gives the grains a smaller energy, which can be in-
sufficient to cause material removal; if the amplitude is too
great, a larger working gap arises, the grains then have to run
through a higher distance, and thus the process operates at
lower efficiency.
The relationship observed between removal rate and ve-
locity of particles is Q Vn, where n depends on material,
angle of impact, grain shape, and grain dimension (n 2 to
3 for ductile materials, 5 to 6 for brittle materials) [9]. As veloc-
ity is directly proportional to amplitude, increasing amplitude
should lead to an increase in removal rate. This condition
arises with other abrasive processes where velocity can be con-
trolled, such as high-pressure water jet cutting. However, it is
not observed in ultrasonic machining, as particles are moved
between sonotrode and part in a confined environment, and
do interact.
Furthermore, it is known that amplitude of vibrations
and particle dimensions are strongly interdependent. It is gen-
erally observed that a maximum removal rate is obtained
when amplitude is equal to grain diameter, as shown in Figure

9 [7].
6.3.3 Machine Conditions

The machine conditions have to be carefully selected in order
for the working gap to provide for effective action by the abra-
sive particles. These conditions in turn depend on the other
variables and on the material to be machined. In sinking, the
gap between sonotrode and part is adjusted by static force; in
contouring, there is no adjustment of gap, which depends on
the choice of the variables used. In sinking, there is an opti-
mum value of static force, as shown in Figure 9 [7]. A smaller
static force gives rise to a larger gap, particles are not ade-
quately efficient, a higher static force is associated with a
smaller gap, and particles have a restricted motion. In con-
touring, the main variables are depth of cut and lateral feed
speed. An increase in these two variables causes more mate-
rial to be removed per unit of time and thus decreases the
Figure 9 Removal rate as a function of static force. (From Ref. 7.)

working gap. In this case also, an optimum has to be found

for selecting all variables that are interdependent.
6.4 ACCURACY AND TOLERANCE IN USMM

6.4.1 Relationship Between Quality and
Abrasive Characteristics
The most significant condition is grain diameter which has a
major effect on quality. The smaller the grain, the lighter is
the impact, and the better the quality. A relationship can be
found between grain diameter and crater dimensions: crater
diameter is about d/3; crater depth is approximately d/10 [9].
For the achievement of higher quality, very fine grains should
be used, and of course values of other variables have to be
appropriately adapted: smaller amplitude, smaller static force
(sinking), smaller depth of cut, and larger lateral feed speed
(contouring).
In general, needed accuracy entails both roughing and
finishing, since quality can seldom be obtained in a single op-
eration. Roughing is performed with large grains (20 to 120
m) to give sufficient removal rate; finishing is achieved
through grains fine enough (0.2 to 10 m) to obtain the desired
quality. Drilling of very small holes is performed in a single
operation.
Tool wear is of major consideration for accuracy, since it
affects both tool geometry and dimension. The use of metal
alloys leads to noticeable wear, for example, from less than
1% up to 50% when machining, respectively, graphite and
glass, and silicon nitride. Carbide provides greater resistance,
but still gives some wear. The solution to tool wear rests with
using diamond, which has been proved to give a wear so small
that it could be considered nonexistent. Microdrilling with dia-
mond as abrasive gives a 1% maximum wear ratio, whereas
carbide and steel can lead to a 75% ratio when machining hard
ceramics [13].
6.4.2 Accuracy
Accuracy strongly depends on the machining mode (Fig. 10).
In sinking, it is the result of sonotrode initial accuracy, sono-
trode wear, abrasive dimensions and working parameters.
The lateral gap between sonotrode and part is found between
one and two times more than the abrasive main diameter. The
frontal gap is a little larger, due to amplitude of vibrations.
Fluctuations of gap are smaller for smaller grains. In general,
when drilling, the use of roughing (40 m) and finishing (5 m)
can provide /10-m accuracy. When finer grains, about 1
m or less, are used, accuracy can be better than /5 m.
This includes the sonotrode accuracy. It is difficult to provide
estimates of accuracy for very small holes (10 to 200 m), be-
cause of difficulties with tool accuracy. In contouring, accuracy
can even be better, since tool imperfections can be compen-
sated by 3-D movements.
In ultrasonic micromachining, since very fine grains are
used, a /5 m (or better) accuracy can be obtained when
Figure 10 Ultrasonic machining techniques.

tools are conventionally made. A higher accuracy can be

achieved by using specially manufactured tools (e.g., the tool
form is produced on the USM machine, by use of wire EDM).
6.4.3 Surface Roughness

As it does not impart significant heat, ultrasonic machining
produces virtually stress-free surfaces. The quality of the sur-
face produced exhibits fewer stress effects and less surface
damage than encountered with other processes, either me-
chanical (diamond grinding) or thermal (CO2 and YAG lasers)
material removal techniques.
As discussed above, surface roughness depends on parti-
cle size. However, it also depends on the material of the part
being treated. Very brittle materials will propagate micro-
cracks more readily than less brittle materials, resulting in
large craters and poor surface roughness: graphite and glass,
for example, yield a roughness of approximately 1.5 to 2 m
Ra when 40-m grains are used; silicon carbide, boron carbide,
and silicon nitride produce a roughness of about 0.4 m Ra
[4].
Reduction in roughness always requires the use of finer
grains. In a recent study on small hole drilling, a roughness
of 0.3 m Ra has been obtained on glass when 0.2-m particles
have been used [13].
Ultrasonic machining can also be used for polishing sur-
faces [15,16]. In this case, the energy given to the active parti-
cles has to be decreased so they only affect the surface peaks
without removing much material from the part. Sinking and
contouring can be used. Superior results are obtained with the
contouring method in which an injection of particles into the
gap through the sonotrode is used; this procedure imparts a
complementary lateral motion to these particles during their
passage along the workpiece surface. The method has been
applied to fragile, as well as ductile, materials. An improve-
ment in surface quality has been observed when polishing alu-
minum alloys or steels, from 2 m Ra to 0.2 m Ra, enabling

application of the ultrasonic flow polishing process to molds
and dies.
6.4.4 Contour Machining with Diamond Tools

There are two main methods that can be used, sinking and
contouring:
Sinking is a reproduction process using a form sonotrode

which reproduces its shape in negative into the
workpiece: machining motion is done on one axis
only, parallel to the longitudinal axis of the sono-
trode, and is obtained by means of either static force
or pressure;
Contouring is a generating process using a simple shape
sonotrode working end; machining motion is 3-D NC
axes [5,17,18].
In sinking, the gap between sonotrode and part is ad-

justed by static force, which is the main machine parameter.
There is an optimum value of static force. A smaller static
force gives a larger gap, and particles are not efficient enough;
a higher static force gives a smaller gap, and particles have a
restricted motion.
In contouring, there is no adjustment of gap, which de-
pends on parameter choice. The machine parameters will be
depth of cut and lateral feed speed. Increasing these two pa-
rameters gives more material to remove per unit of time and
thus decreases the working gap. Here also, an optimum has
to be found for selecting all parameters, which are interdepen-
dent.
Increasing lateral feed speed leads to an increase in mate-
rial removal rate, as shown in Figure 11 [5,17].
The use of diamond (polycrystalline or monocrystalline)
allows working with almost no wear, diamond being harder
than boron carbide, the most often used abrasive. Three-
Figure 11 Removal rate as a function of traverse speed in contour

machining of glass. (From Refs. 5 and 17.)
Figure 12 Surface roughness as a function of traverse speed in

contour machining of glass. (From Refs. 5, 17.)
dimensional contour machining with diamond tools is thus a

very accurate method of machining. It allows producing parts
that could not be obtained by conventional ultrasonic machin-
ing. A complete study has been made of this technique, show-
ing the effect of parameters on material removal rate and
quality, as shown in Figure 12 [5,17]. Shapes that are usually
milled in metals can be produced in ceramics.
6.4.5 Microhole Drilling

It is not possible to drill holes smaller than 20 m in diameter
because of the difficulties encountered when vibrating tools as
(a)
(b)
Figure 13 Microultrasonic machining of holes and slots in glass:

(a) microhole machined in quartz glass (tool: 4 m WC-alloy; depth:
10 m; (b) trench machined in glass (tool: WC-alloy; depth: 18 m;
abrasive: silica). (From Ref. 13.)
small as 15 m in diameter [12]. In a recent study, it has been

proposed to vibrate the part and rotate the tool [13]. This
allows handling the tool with a high-quality spindle and a very
precise attachment, since they do not need to be vibrated. The
rotation eccentricity is said to be smaller than 0.5 m.
This study has shown that ultrasonic machining can pro-
duce holes as small as 5 m in diameter, in glass and silicon.
For example, Figure 13(a) shows a hole drilled in quartz glass
with a 4-m diameter WC-alloy tool, to a 10-m depth, and
Figure 13(b) shows a trench machined in glass with a WC-
alloy tool, to a 18-m depth. Very fine grains have to be used:
0.2-m diameter diamond abrasive particles. In this case, am-
plitude has to be decreased in order to be adapted to particle
diameter. Drilling 20-m holes with 0.2-m grains requires
amplitude to be smaller than or equal to 1 m. Machining rate
is dependent on amplitude (Fig. 14). Machining penetration
feed ranges from 1 up to 25 m/min (hole diameter 9 to 40
m). Micromachining requires very small static forces to be
applied, from 10 mN down to less than 0.1 mN (Fig. 15).
Figure 14 Removal rate as a function of amplitude: Tool diameter

10.5 m; static force 0.20.4 mN. (From Ref. 13.)
Figure 15 Variation of removal rate with static force: tool diame-

ter 10.5 m; amplitude 1 m. (From Ref. 13.)
Holes as small as 5 m in diameter and 37-m depth have

been drilled in glass and silicon; 21-m diameter holes have
been drilled in a part 150-m thick, giving a length-to-diame-
ter ratio of nearly 7.
In this study on drilling of 10- to 40-m diameter holes,
accuracy is not discussed. However, photos shown in the chap-
ter indicate very good circularity, from which accuracy is de-
duced to be about 1 m or better. Additional work needs to be
undertaken.
6.5 INDUSTRIAL MACHINES AND

APPLICATIONS
6.5.1 Modern Machines
For many years, basic machine tools have been used for ultra-
sonic machining that incorporated:
Standard generators, with a fixed frequency, which did

not readily permit identification of resonance,
One-axis displacements, obtained by either counter-

weight or air pressure.
The last 10 years have seen more advanced machines pro-

posed by machine tool builders, employing resonance-follow-
ing generators and 3-D-axis NC movements with force sensors
and adaptive control.
6.5.2 Resonance Following

In ultrasonic machining, to obtain sufficient amplitude at the
end of the sonotrode requires exciting the entire acoustic head
at one of its natural vibration modes, usually a longitudinal
mode. At resonance, efficiency is maximum and no significant
difficulty in operation is observed (no excessive heating).
When the system operates away from its resonance frequency,
efficiency is low and heating occurs. With the standard genera-
tors, operators had to make adjustments of sonotrodes so that
the entire head could vibrate in a narrow range of frequencies
(/200 Hz), which was a time-consuming task, and they had
to adjust the operating frequency by means of a potentiometer.
This method does not yield an optimum, and sonotrodes are
not correctly vibrated.
Modern machines use microprocessor-based generators
that are able to search the correct resonance frequency and
maintain it during the entire machining operation. If fre-
quency changes (because of either heating or wear), the gener-
ator automatically makes the necessary adjustment [19]. This
gives specific advantages:
The preciseness of vibrating the acoustic head at its reso-

nance, in real-time, which brings high efficiency and
very small heating,
The possibility of increasing the frequency range, which
gives more flexibility when designing and producing
sonotrodes: /1000 Hz, for example,
The assurance of maximum security, the microprocessor-

based technology being able to detect any anomaly
or malfunction and instantly stop the operation.
The use of such a generator has greatly improved the opera-

tion of machines.
6.5.3 Adaptive Control Movements

The second major improvement in machines concerns motion.
The early machines worked with solely a one-axis motion, and
feed movement was obtained by counterweights. This system
permitted only sinking operations, with a reproduction of the
sonotrode shape in the workpiece.
Modern machines incorporate three-axis motions with
numerical control. Feed movement is obtained by adaptive
control through use of force sensors. Material is removed by
a succession of cuts. The advantages are:
The prospect of working with tools of simple shape and

small dimensions; they can then be made from very
hard materials, such as diamond, tool wear being
controlled;
A very high accuracy, dependent on machine quality and
not on tool reproduction, tool wear, and gap fluctua-
tion; and
The capacity to work with very small static forces, the
working end of the tool acting locally: very fragile
parts can be produced and fine details can be ob-
tained with very small tools.
However, since the tool is working locally, a consequence of

this condition is a relatively small removal rate (a few mm3 /
min).
6.5.4 Applications
Ultrasonic machining has always been used for producing
small details in very hard materials such as glass, precious
stones, ceramics, and composites. Owing to the relative slow-
ness of the process, it has been used only when items could
not be manufactured by the other techniques. Thus most ap-
plications lie in the aerospace and electronics industries.
The process has therefore been focused on machining
small details (small diameter holes, slots) and sometimes
more complex shapes, obtained with the sinking method.
Many applications concern the production of several details in
a single operation, for example:
Simultaneous drilling of 750 holes (diameter 1.2 mm

/0.05 mm) in glass wafers (thickness 3 mm);
Simultaneous machining of washers (silica glass): exter-
nal diameter 6 mm, internal diameter 2.5 mm, thick-
ness 0.12 mm, accuracy /0.02 mm (series are pro-
duced in one operation);
Simultaneous machining of slots (0.6-mm wide) in optical
glass, accuracy /0.25 mm; and
Simultaneous machining of rectangular slots (0.88 0.75
mm) in a graphite plate: thickness 1 mm, dimension
of ribs between slots 0.2 mm.
Other applications involve the production of one detail for

each operation:
Drilling of monocrystalline and polycrystalline diamond

dies ranging in diameter from 0.1 to 8 mm, by use
of diamond powder;
Preparation of specimens for transmission electron mi-
croscopy, from materials such as refractory metals,
ceramics, and composites: disks are produced from
wafers as thin as 50 m;
Machining of an aluminum oxide component for measure-
ment purposes: 6 cylinders (diameter 0.6 mm, height
Figure 16 Aluminum oxide component. (Courtesy LPMO-CTM,

Besancon, France.)
Figure 17 Hollow cube in silicon oxide. (Courtesy ONERA,

France.)
Figure 18 Aluminum oxide parts. (Courtesy ONERA, France.)
2 mm) attached to a membrane of thickness 85 m

(Fig. 16).
The use of the 3-D contour machining method with dia-

mond tools allows the production of parts that cannot be ob-
tained by conventional ultrasonic machining. This method has
been used to produce parts from quartz and aluminium oxide
used for measuring acceleration forces [18]:
Hollow cube in silicon oxide: used as a component of an

electrostatic accelerometer (Fig. 17);
Aluminium oxide parts: components of a capacitance sen-
sor for roundness measurements (Fig. 18), diameter
67.5 mm, thickness 0.4 mm, accuracy better than 10
m, machining time 2 hours.
6.6 ULTRASONIC ASSISTANCE TO

MACHINING PROCESSES
6.6.1 Background
The main practical relevance of using ultrasonic vibrations is
to obtain a decrease in machining forces. This condition is ob-
tained mainly by the reduction in friction coefficient observed

when one of the two surfaces in contact is vibrated. Other ad-
vantages are observed: ultrasonic vibrations facilitate evacua-
tion of chips and provide cleaning of the tool. This procedure
is used in either grinding or cutting, for producing parts from
metal alloys or ceramics, and also for medical applications
(dentistry, surgery).
6.6.2 Rotary Ultrasonic Machining (RUM)

This technique involves the vibration of a small grinding tool,
and is used for machining brittle materials (glass, ceramics,
stone). A large reduction in machining forces is obtained (two
to four times), which permits either an increase in machining
speed or a decrease in machining force, a useful condition for
machining with very fragile tools.
Removal rate can be two to four times higher depending
on the material of the component [20]. It is possible to drill 1-
mm diameter holes to a 75-mm depth in glass and to machine
narrow slots in ceramics. Ultrasonic vibrations give a reduc-
tion in drill wear, by evacuating chips blocked between abra-
sive grains, and also worn grains. Productivity is drastically
increased by ultrasonic assistance, as shown in Figure 19 [20].
6.6.3 Ultrasonic Cutting Assistance

In cutting, the main required effect of ultrasonic assistance is
the reduction in friction among tool, chips, and part. The first
effect is a large reduction in cutting forces, in turning as well
as in drilling, which has been observed for metal and ceramic
materials. The second benefit is a significant improvement in
surface quality, the machined surface showing less tearing
when ultrasound conditions are applied. This effect is particu-
larly relevant in the treatment of materials that are difficult
to machine which have an inherent tendency to adhere to the
tool edge (the so-called built-up edge phenomenon): alumi-
num copper, stainless steel, nickel and titanium alloys. A re-
cent study [21] has been conducted on the machining of stain-
Figure 19 Effect of ultrasonic assistance on productivity. Grinding

of ceramics. (From Ref. 18.)
less steel with diamond tools, which is known to be a very

difficult operation owing to the chemical activity between tool
and part. Encouraging results have been obtained: surface
roughness can be as small as 0.1 m Rmax (Fig. 20).
6.6.4 Ultrasonic Assistance for Medical

Applications
By applying ultrasonic vibrations to a surgical tool, the same
advantages of smaller forces and better evacuation of chips
can be obtained. Several applications in medicine involve ul-
trasonic cutting tools.
In dentistry, ultrasonic vibrations impart to the cutting
edge of the tool small movements that are less likely to harm
and are more acceptable to a patient in comparison with the
conventional rotary tools previously used. The tip of the tool
is also cooled with water or special fluids. The high tool oscilla-
tion frequency and very small amplitude (in the m range)
allow plaque to be removed without damage to the tooth.
Figure 20 Effect of ultrasonic assistance on surface quality. (From

Ref. 19.)
In surgery there is growing interest in the high-fre-

quency, small amplitude action of the cutting edge of scalpels
for cutting tissue (e.g., in eye surgery), and also for coagulating
blood.
New applications of ultrasonic systems are being pro-
posed such as removal of cement during hip replacement pros-
thesis and removal of brain tumors. Research is proceeding on
an ultrasonic apparatus to clear blocked passages in arteries.
The tool is a titanium wire (diameter 0.8 to 0.4 mm, length
1.2 m) which is inserted into the body along the femoral artery
to the heart or to the leg. Its distal working end is a 1.4- to
2.5-mm diameter titanium ball: when vibrated, this ball can
penetrate the occlusion and recalibrate the artery to a satis-
factory diameter whereby required operations can then be un-
dertaken, avoiding open thorax surgery. Results on tests made
on coronary and leg arteries have shown the possibility of
clearing 70% of blockage [22,23].
Another example is the use of a scalpel which is vibrated
at ultrasonic frequency (55,000 Hertz, 100-m amplitude): the
rapid movement causes separation of the tissue ahead of the

blade, and aids dissection [24]. There is minimal tissue char-
ring and thermal injury.
Furthermore, ultrasonic assistance is used with phaco-
emulsification hand pieces and in systems for the surgical
removal of cataracts. This method is based on a cataract ex-
traction that uses ultrasound waves to break the cataract-
obstructed lens of the eye into small fragments that can then
be removed through a hollow needle. It requires only a 3- to
4-mm incision compared to incisions of up to 12 mm for other
techniques [25].
6.7 SYNTHESIS
As noted earlier, in most applications ultrasonic machining

has been mainly used for producing small details on parts. Its
physical principles make the process useful for machining
brittle and hard materials, and disadvantageous for ductile
materials. It has thus been used for graphite, glass, quartz,
ceramics, precious stones, semiconductors, and diamond.
The need to work at very high frequencies (at least 20
kHz) restricts the dimensions of the working end of the tool to
25 to 50 mm in general. This restriction means that ultrasonic
machining can be applied to micromachining. To this end,
since the result to be obtained on the part depends on tool
dimensions and working variables, it is necessary to be able
to use tools of size from as small as a few micrometers to one
millimeter, and adjust the process variables: grains from 0.2
m to 20 m in diameter; amplitudes from 0.1 m to 20 m;
and forces from 0.1 mN to 1 N.
Under these conditions, holes from 1 mm to as small as
5 m have been obtained, with a depth-to-diameter ratio up
to 7. Corresponding accuracy can be / 10 m for larger
holes of 1 mm in diameter, and even greater for smaller holes
of 9 m in diameter.
Applications of ultrasonic micromachining can be found

in electronics, aerospace, biomedicine, and surgery.
A Amplitude of vibration (m)

V Velocity of vibration (m/s)
Acceleration of vibration (m/s2)
f Frequency of vibrations (Hz)
F Static force (N)
Main grain diameter (m)
C Grain concentration (%)
Ra Rugosity (m)
Rmax Rugosity (m)
d Crater main diameter (m)
Q Removal rate (mm3 /min)
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7
Microelectrodischarge Machining
David M. Allen
Cranfield University, Bedford, England
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Microelectrodischarge machining (also known as micro-EDM,

-EDM, and electrodischarge micromachining) has been de-
veloped in the past 30 years from the nonconventional manu-
facturing technique of electrodischarge machining (EDM)
commonly known as spark erosion (see Section 7.2).
While EDM has been used as a production tool for over
50 years, true -EDM only commenced in 1967 [1] when Kura-
fuji and Masuzawa succeeded in machining 6-m diameter cir-
cular holes through GTi 10 cemented carbide 50-m thick,
thus demonstrating the rapid production of high aspect-ratio
holes [2]. Since that time, there has been a concerted effort to
improve the micromachining rates of various materials, with-
179
180 Allen
out loss of accuracy, and to improve the excellent surface finish

and dimensional control already associated with the EDM
technique (see Sections 7.3 and 7.4).
As might be expected, commercial -EDM equipment has
been produced by companies in Switzerland and Japan, ac-
knowledged centers of excellence in microtechnology and pre-
cision engineering (see Section 7.5). -EDM is now being used
to machine a wide variety of miniature and microparts from
electrically conductive materials such as metals, alloys, sin-
tered metals, cemented carbides, ceramics, and silicon (see
Sections 7.3 and 7.6). -EDM may also be used to produce
molds and dies that can themselves be utilized to manufacture
other microparts from both conductive and nonconductive ma-
terials such as plastics (see Section 7.6).
7.2 PRINCIPLES OF EDM AND -EDM

7.2.1 EDM Principles and Methods of
Machining
In essence, the principle of EDM is simple.
1. Two electrodes are separated from each other by a

dielectric fluid.
2. A voltage difference is applied between the two elec-
trodes, a cathode (negatively charged) and an anode
(positively charged).
3. If the two electrodes are moved close enough together
and the voltage is high enough, the dielectric fluid
will break down and conduct an electrical current,
causing an electrical discharge (a spark) between
them.
4. The sparks will produce an extremely high tempera-
ture (of the order of 10,000 K) at localized spots on
the electrodes such that the electrode materials (es-
pecially the anode) will be vaporized, leaving craters
Microelectrodischarge Machining 181
behind on the surfaces as evidence of material re-

moval.
5. By careful choice of the dielectric, voltage generator,
and electrodes this material removal process can be
used as a manufacturing tool in the following ways.
7.2.2 EDM Die-Sinking

By fabricating a cathode (tool) in a conductive material such
as copper or graphite and feeding the tool under servocontrol
towards a planar (workpiece) anode immersed in kerosene, the
shape of the tool can be impressed into the workpiece. Thus a
(male) tool can be used to form a (female) workpiece of inverse
shape, of great use in the production of a mold which can be
used to replicate many male parts economically. The concept
is illustrated in Figure 1.
7.2.3 Wire EDM (WEDM)

By using a continuous wire as the cathode guiding it under
NC, and keeping it flooded with a dielectric such as deionized
Figure 1 EDM by die-sinking connected to a relaxation (RC) cir-

cuit.
182 Allen
Figure 2 Wire EDM.
water, shapes may be machined into conductive materials,

such as flat sheets and plates as illustrated in Figure 2.
Typically wires comprise copper, brass, or tungsten with
diameters ranging from 50 to 250 m. The technique may
therefore be described as a type of noncontact jigsaw for pro-
duction of both simple and complex shapes.
7.2.4 Electrodischarge Grinding (EDG)

This technique has been given its title due to its similarity in
some respects to the grinding process. However, EDG is still a
noncontact machining process and usually employs a spinning
flat cathode and a dielectric fluid to form a smooth surface on
a workpiece.
Further details of the above processes can be found in
texts on nonconventional machining such as that of McGeough
[3]. Having described the main types of EDM, it is now possi-
ble to examine the micro-EDM techniques that have developed
from them.
7.2.5 The Origins of -EDM

As microelectronics are essential to the national economy of
Japan, it is not surprising that microengineering has attracted
great attention in its universities and research institutes. -
EDM as we know it today can be traced back to 1967 when
Kurafuji and Masuzawa used EDM to machine high aspect-
ratio holes through cemented carbides [2]. An English lan-
guage account of these experiments appeared in 1968 and de-
scribed the equipment used and the importance of controlling
the energy of the discharges to less than 108 J [4]. The equip-
ment comprised a copper wire electrode of 160-m diameter,
mounted on an optical microscope frame in close proximity to
a workpiece of STi 20 cemented carbide alloy immersed in a
bath of kerosene dielectric fluid. The electrode was hand-fed
by the microscope focus control.
An RC circuit (see Fig. 1) was used to generate the dis-
charges of a form shown in Figure 3, with capacitances (C)
ranging from 2 pF to 5 F. It was shown that the electrode
wear ratio (cathode wear/anode wear in terms of length) de-
creased to less than 10% if C was smaller than 100 to 1000
pF. If the polarity was reversed such that the tool-electrode
formed the anode, then the wear ratio was as large as 250 to
1700%.
Figure 3 Variation of voltage with time using an RC circuit.

184 Allen
The discharge energy (E) can be calculated from the for-

mula E CV 2 /2, where C capacitance and V voltage.
These initial investigations were to pave the way for the
first -EDM by die-sinking. Using a copper-plated tungsten
wire, microholes were machined into 50-m thick GTi 10 ce-
mented carbide alloy. They had an entrance diameter of 9 m
and an exit diameter of 6m. Similarly, rectangular micro-
holes 40 m 45 m were also machined through the same
material in only 10 to 15 s. using a 400-m long rectangular
copper strip. Steel, brass, and other materials could also be
machined. This research was used as the basis for a commer-
cial -EDM machine developed at the Matsushita Research
Institute, Tokyo in 1983 [1]. These machines are also mar-
keted under the Panasonic and Charmilles brand names.
It is important for the production of holes by -EDM that
the tool-electrode is accurately made. Thus work was started
on a method of producing such tools, replacing EDG by WEDG
(wire electrodischarge grinding).
Prior to 1984, EDG had been used to fabricate thin rods
by spinning a rod (the anode) on its axis using a block electrode
as a cathode in an EDM cell. However, block wear, debris
build-up, and dimensional control of the gap between rod and
block proved problematic. Masuzawa et al. [5] replaced the
block with a continuous wire of constant diameter, thus ensur-
ing a fresh cathode surface for each discharge and also intro-
duced z-axis movement of the wire electrode. Thus, as can be
seen in Figure 4, a method of producing cylinders with parallel
sides, stepped features, or tapers was developed that relied
heavily on NC to provide the required dimensions and toler-
ances. This work was also commercialized by Matsushita in
1988 [1] as it allowed fabrication of rods with diameters less
than 10 m to be made routinely and thus complement the
production of 10-m diameter holes by -EDM die-sinking.
7.2.6 Other Forms of Miniaturized EDM

By reducing the size of the diameter of electrode wires in
WEDM down to say 30 m, small devices (see Section 7.6.3)
Figure 4 Principle of WEDG. (Courtesy of T. Masuzawa.)
can be manufactured provided that internal radii exceed half

the diameter of the wire (in this case, 15 m). Such machines
have been developed by Agie of Switzerland. The technique is
now becoming known as -WEDM.
By reducing the size of a cathode in an EDG system, min-
iature features such as precision slots can be machined. Appli-
cations of -EDG are discussed in Section 7.6.4.

RELEVANT MATERIALS
The rate of machining is dependent on the discharge energy,

which for the attainment of fine surface finish is kept low
(107 J per pulse) in -EDM. Table 1 shows rates of machin-
ing for sulphur-killed (SK) steels, stainless steels, and silicon
calculated from published information.
Various techniques have been utilized to try to increase
the material removal rate such as
Switching a larger capacitance into the RC circuit, thus

producing a large discharge energy [7],
186
Table 1 Rates of Micromachining by EDM
Feature size Thickness Machining Metal removal
-EDM Feature (m) Dielectric Material (m) time (s) rate (mm3 /min) Ref.
Die-sinking Circular hole 100 D. I. water SK steel 1000 120260 1.83.9 10 3

6
Die-sinking Circular hole 55 D. I. water SK steel 500 2125 2.93.4 103 6
Die-sinking Circular hole 100 D. I. water AISI 304 stain- 1000 600 0.79 103 7
less steel
Die-sinking Circular hole 38 Kerosene 17-7PH stain- 80 182 0.03 103 8
less steel
Die-sinking Circular hole 85 AISI 304 stain- 1000 40 8.5 103 9
less steel
-WEDM Slot Width 150 D. I. water 50 m.cm sil- 350 Wire cutting at 550 10 3
10
icon 0.175mm/s
Allen
Dielectric flushing,
Jump action and vibrofeeding of the tool,
Premachining holes to allow debris to flow away from the
electrode [8], and
Use of controlled pulse generators in WEDM as discussed
in Section 7.5.2.

CONTROL
The accuracy and dimensional control of parts made by -

EDM varies with the types of machines used.
In general terms, the data in Tables 2 and 3 have been
abstracted from manufacturers literature for parts made by
-EDM.

7.5.1 Micro-EDM by Die-Sinking and WEDG
The Charmilles Micro-EDM EL-10 and HO-10 machines have
been developed from Masuzawas research as described in Sec-
tion 7.2.4. The two machines are often used for sequential fab-
rication. The EL-10 is a WEDG machine and can be used to
Table 2 Accuracy of Holes Made from -EDM Die Sinking and -

WEDG
Charmilles Panasonic MG-ED
HO-10/EL-10 72 W
Machine (m) (m)
Maximum hole diameter 300 300
Minimum hole diameter 10 5
Machined surface R max 0.1 0.1
Positioning resolution 0.1
Repeatability of positioning Not Specified Not Specified
188 Allen
Table 3 Accuracy of Parts Made by -WEDM

Machine Agiecut 250SF F HSS Agiecut 150 HSS
Wire material Tungsten Tungsten
Wire diameter 30 m 30 m
Part Injection die Spray nozzle
Part material Inox Sintered carbide 0.2 m
Surface finish (R a ) 0.15 m 0.2 m
Max. dimensional 1
variation (m)
Machining time 47 min 2 min 36 s
make microelectrodes, as well as microshafts, pin gauges, and

micropunches. The HO-10 is a -EDM die-sinking machine
and can be used to make microholes, microcavities, and mi-
croslots.
The EL-10 comprises the -EDM machine connected to a
programmable NC system. Machining of wires or rods is
achieved by WEDG. Cylindrical, conical, stepped, or semicy-
lindrical forms can be produced with diameters between 10 to
300 m. Typically tungsten wires can be machined to produce
microelectrodes suitable for transferring directly into the HO-
10 machine to manufacture high aspect-ratio holes (see Sec-
tion 7.6). The machining of a tungsten rod or wire is achieved
as shown in Figure 4. The rod is spun at 3000 rpm, the end
levelled by moving the continuous wire in the x-axis, and the
correct diameter of the rod achieved by several passes of the
rod in the z-axis while moving the continuous wire in the x-
axis. In this operation the rod is the anode in the cell.
When the tungsten electrode is transferred into the HO-
10 machine, it is connected as the cathode, with the material
to be machined as the anode. While rotating, the electrode is
lowered in the z-axis to effect machining of a hole. The HO-
10 comprises the -EDM machine connected to a programma-
ble NC system and an optional external PC if simple con-
touring (e.g., slots) is required.
The NC system controls the z-axis motion of the micro-

electrode and the x- and y-axes motions for positioning of the
holes. The specifications of the two machines are as shown in
Table 4. The machines are equipped with low impedance mi-
crodischarge generators giving very fine surface finishes of
Rmax 0.1 m and electrode positioning is controlled by d.c.
stepping motors.
Although the HO-10 and EL-10 are fitted with X20 in-
spection microscopes, a X100 positioning microscope is fitted
only to the HO-10.
7.5.2 Micro-WEDM
One of the essentials for production of precise microparts is a
microdischarge generator. Agie has developed the Agiepuls
HSS generator for -WEDM. This pulse generator draws only
4.5 kW and has a metal removal rate of over 300 mm2 /min for
steel. The pulse generator differs from an RC circuit compris-
ing only a d.c. source which is fed via a resistor and an elec-
tronic switch to the machining gap.
The voltage/time characteristic shown in Figure 5 is very
different from that of the RC circuit (Fig. 3). With a duty cycle
Table 4 Specification of HO-10 and EL-10

Machine HO-10 EL-10
Size (1 w h) mm 750 500 420 500 500 420

Weight kg 200 70
Travel (x-axis) mm 200 5
(y-axis) mm 50
(z-axis) mm 3 3
Speed of electrode rpm 3000 3000
rotation
Work tank (1 w h) mm 300 140 45
Stepping resolution
(x-axis) m 1 0.1
( y-axis) m 1
(z-axis) m 1 1
190 Allen
Figure 5 Variation of voltage with time using a controlled pulse

generator.
(ratio of pulse on to pulse off ) that can be as high as 2000,

it can be seen that metal removal rates can far exceed those
attained using an RC circuit where considerable machining
time is lost during capacitor charging.
As water is used as the dielectric, an anodic workpiece
can be subject to electrolytic attack. The HSS generator is de-
signed so that a negative voltage is applied to the positively
charged workpiece during the intervals between the pulses
lasting at most 3 s. This gives the workpiece a high degree
of cathodic protection and it is the continuous wire electrode
that suffers any electrochemical attack.
A true micropart such as the injection die for precision
gears mentioned in Section 7.6 was fabricated with an Agiecut
250SF FHSS system utilizing a 30-m diameter tungsten
wire as the continuous cathode. The same wire was also used
to cut paint spray nozzle orifices in sintered carbide using an
Agiecut 150 HSS system. It should be remembered that the
process of -WEDM requires wire-threading for each aperture
cut.
7.6 APPLICATIONS
The applications of -EDM are many and various. They are

described below according to the method used for fabrication.
7.6.1 Application of WEDG

Microelectrodes for -EDM Die-Sinking
Typically a WEDG machine is used to make cylindrical elec-
trodes with diameters down to 5 m. If these electrodes are
to be used for -EDM die-sinking precision holes, then the -
electrodes need to be straight and have a high length-to-diam-
eter (L/D) ratio so that many holes can be fabricated from the
same electrode before it wears away. The L/D ratio obtained
varies according to the electrode material and the diameter
required. Laboratory investigations by Masuzawa et al. [11]
indicate that tungsten carbide performs better than tungsten,
which outperforms AISI 304 stainless steel. If straightness
values 0.2 m are required, L/D ratios of 10 can be obtained
in all three materials for 10, 20, and 30 m; L/D ratios of
30 can only be obtained in tungsten and tungsten carbide; and
L/D ratios of 50 can only be obtained in all three diameters
using tungsten carbide.
Electrode geometries other than cylindrical can also be
made by WEDG. Segments can be removed from the cylindri-
cal geometry on the stationary electrode such that half-moon,
barrel, and square geometries can be fabricated. Half-moon
and barrel electrodes were reputed to machine cylindrical
holes faster than cylindrical electrodes, as dielectric turbu-
lence in the machining gap was enhanced, leading to faster
removal of debris and more efficient machining [6] but further
investigations showed little advantage to be gained if any [7].
Electrodes having a square cross-section (50 50 m) are
now being used to fabricate sharp-cornered cavities and slots
with widths greater than the electrode width. (see Section
7.6.2) [12].
192 Allen
Microshafts and Pins

These parts are especially important in the assembly of minia-
ture devices. The problem of alignment has been solved by
combining -EDM processes with modular machining assem-
bly (MMA) units. For instance, a pin can be machined by
WEDG and then its polarity reversed so that it can machine
a hole in the MMA. The pin, containing a suitable tapered fea-
ture, can then be inserted with the help of ultrasonic vibration
into the hole that it has machined and fixed in position. The
pin is then separated from its supporting fixture by twisting
and may then be further machined by -EDM as a second pro-
cess or be used itself as an electrode to machine a second com-
ponent dependent on the polarity given to the pin.
A description of these techniques is given in the fabrica-
tion of a micropipe assembled into a macrocylinder and the
fabrication of cavities into the ends of cylinders [13,14].
Micropipes
A novel process has been developed for the manufacture of mi-
cropipes, combining WEDG and electroforming, as shown in
Figure 6. The core of such a pipe is prepared by WEDG in
exactly the same way as one would prepare a microelectrode.
The surface of the core is then treated with a release coating
and electroplated with a suitable metal such as nickel or cop-
per. Further WEDG after metal deposition produces the cylin-
drical outer diameter of the pipe. The core is now extracted
from the pipe, taking care not to fracture it. Best results are
obtained from using austenitic stainless steel as the core and
polishing it to a mirrorlike finish by wire electrochemical
grinding (WECG) after WEDG [15]. (WECG relies on the use
of deionized water with a specific resistance of 0.6 Mcm as
an electrolyte to replace a dielectric fluid such as kerosene as
normally used for WEDG.)
As the core of the pipe is produced by WEDG, the core
need not necessarily be cylindrical. The core can be tapered
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f )
Figure 6 Micropipe fabrication: (a) Core preparation by WEDG;

(b) parting film formation; (c) deposition (electroforming); (d) form-
ing outside by WEDG; (e) parting; (f ) finished nozzle. (Courtesy of
T. Masuzawa.)
provided that there are no reentrant features that will prevent

extraction of the core from the electroform. A single constric-
tion may be machined into the core but this means the core
must be broken at the constriction and extracted in two pieces
from opposite ends of the electroform.
194 Allen
Other Products Made by WEDG

Various references have been found to the fabrication of micro-
punches with a diameter of 70 m used for the mass produc-
tion of inkjet printer heads [5], sharply pointed emitter elec-
trodes with a diameter of 50 m used in ion beam equipment
[5], and needles and square electrodes (150 150 m) used
for the electrochemical micromachining of glass 120-m thick
[16].
7.6.2 Applications of -EDM by Die-Sinking

Using a thin rod or wire as an electrode allows fine holes to
be machined into conductive materials. Furthermore, these
precision holes can attain high aspect-ratios, a limiting factor
of some rival manufacturing processes such as photochemical
machining (photoetching) [17].
Inkjet Nozzles
Charmilles Technologies states in its literature that the orig-
inal application of its -EDM machines was in the manufac-
ture of parts for inkjet printers, especially injection nozzles
for bubble jet color printers. Examples are depicted of 50-m
diameter holes with a pitch of 60 m machined through 50-
m stainless steel [18]. Allen and Lecheheb [19] also describe
inkjet nozzle fabrication results with aspect-ratios greater
than two. Such a hole is shown in Figure 7. The internal sur-
face finish has been examined by atomic force microscopy. Al-
though R a can be 54 to 75 nm in selected areas, the Ra over
a 24 24-m area was found to be between 0.2 and 0.4 m
[20].
High Aspect-Ratio Holes

Charmilles Technologies also depicts 15-m diameter holes in
100-m stainless steel, giving an aspect-ratio of 6.67, with a
smooth internal surface finish (R max 0.1 m) [18].
Figure 7 Inkjet nozzle.
High Aspect-Ratio Slots

Movement of a cylindrical electrode along one axis under PC
control, enables the fabrication of a slot. Charmilles [18] de-
picts two slots 40-m wide and 300-m long and each 100-m
deep intersecting each other at right angles. These slots have
been machined into the surface of a pen ballpoint.
Square-Cornered Cavities
As mentioned in Section 7.6.1, a square cross-section tungsten
carbide electrode (50 50 m) has been utilized to machine
a 300 300-m cavity with a flat bottom and vertical sides
into AISI 304 stainless steel. To maintain the required geome-
try in the cavity the electrode must be used in such a way
that the wear on the electrode is uniform over its surfaces.
The scanning paths used to machine the steel in the x- and y-
196 Allen
axes are therefore strictly controlled and designed to ensure

uniform electrode wear and minimize surface roughness of the
machined surface.
By careful programming of the feed conditions in all three
axes, cavities may also be machined where the sidewalls are
no longer vertical but inclined to the surface at any angle re-
quired [12].
Other Products Made by -EDM Die-Sinking

The following products containing holes have also been fabri-
cated by -EDM die-sinking.
Gasoline injector spray nozzles,

Dies for extrusion,
Spinnerettes for artificial fiber production,
Liquid and gas microfilters, and
Medical implants.
Holes may be machined through tubular as well as flat

materials. Charmilles [18] has machined a 20-m hole
through a stainless steel hypodermic needle, and 200-m di-
ameter holes and slits (made by WEDM) have been machined
successfully through nickeltitanium shape memory alloy
tube walls 340-m thick [21].
Micro-EDM die-sinking has also been carried out using
complex microelectrodes fabricated by LIGA. For instance,
Ehrfeld et al. [22] describe the formation of a gear wheel im-
pression (mold) in stainless steel using a copper gear wheel
electrode manufactured by the LIGA process, and a series of
dies for hot embossing microreactor elements [23]. This same
process has also been used in the fabrication of devices in a
thermoplastic polymer that allows the precise alignment of op-
tical fibers. The polymer ribbon ferrules are mass-produced
from a mold containing precision grooves and inserts made by
-EDM and LIGA [22].
7.6.3 Applications of -WEDM

Dies
WEDM has been used extensively in the past to make dies.
Similarly -WEDM can be used for the manufacture of preci-
sion blanking, drawing, and injection dies. Details of an injec-
tion die are given in Table 3.
Microgear Wheels
The development of miniature electromagnetic motors has led
to a demand for miniature gearboxes less than 2 mm in diame-
ter with microgear wheels. Micro-WEDM using 20 to 30-m
wire has been employed to cut the complex tooth profiles re-
quired in the gearwheels. Ehrfeld [22] shows a ring gearwheel
for a planetary gearbox with an outer diameter of 1.9 mm.
Special Orifices
Details of an orifice for a paint spray nozzle are given in Table
3. Micro-WEDM can be used to make angled cuts through con-
ductive materials as the wire can be manipulated indepen-
dently both above and below the metal being cut. Thus an ori-
fice resulting in a fan-shaped spray can be produced.
Miniature Neurosurgical Instruments

Microforceps have been fabricated from 0.63- and 0.39-mm di-
ameter nickeltitanium shape memory wires by bisecting the
wire in a sawtooth pattern using -WEDM with a 30-m diam-
eter tungsten wire as the cathode. Microscissors were also
made from the 0.63-mm diameter wire by a similar technique
[24].
7.6.4 Applications of -EDG

Micro-EDG appears to be the least common form of -EDM.
However, it has been reported that 60-mm long channels, 900-
m deep and 60-m wide with closed ends have been machined
198 Allen
Figure 8 Micro-EDG.
into both sides of a stainless steel plate to form part of a mi-

croreactor [22]. Such microreactor structures are also used in
mixing chambers, heat exchangers, and pumping systems,
and in such materials as titanium diboride [23].
The electrode used to form the grooves comprises a round
flat disc which is rotated as the workpiece is moved along its
circumference in the opposite direction to the peripheral
movement (see Fig. 8). A cylindrical electrode has been used
to machine microgrippers for high-precision assembly of RF
circuits by pick-and-place units [23].
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Prof. Allen would like to thank Takahisa Masuzawa for his

help in writing this chapter. The technique of -EDM is inex-
tricably linked to his name as its inventor and a collection of
his early papers on the topic was much appreciated.
REFERENCES
[1] T. Masuzawa, Personal communication, July 9th (1997).

[2] H. Kurafuji and T. Masuzawa, Micro-EDM of cemented car-
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Methods of Machining, Chapter 6, Chapman and Hall, Lon-
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[24] A. E. Guber, O. Baldinus, N. Giordano, M. Loser, R. Moryson,
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8
Laser Micromachining
Johan Meijer
University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Laser micromachining is based on the interaction of laser light

with solid matter. As a result of a complex process, small
amounts of material can be removed from the surface of the
solid. Two different phenomena may be identified: pyrolithic
(thermal) and photolithic processes. In both cases short to ul-
trashort laser pulses are applied in order to remove small
amounts of material in a controlled way.
Pyrolithic processes are based on a rapid thermal cycle,
heating, melting, and (partly) evaporation of the heated vol-
ume. In the case of photolithic processes the photon energy is
sufficient for direct breaking of the chemical bonds in a wide
variety of materials. It is applied mostly on polymers by use
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of ultraviolet lasers in wavelengths of 157 to 351 nm. Because

the photon energy is converted directly in breaking chemical
bonds there is almost no thermal interaction with the product
itself. The reaction products escape as gas or small particles.
An overview of application areas is given in Figure 1. In
this diagram the absorbed power density I is related to the
time that the laser beam is in contact with the material. A
presentation of laser processes is given in Table 1.
Laser micromachining includes a wide range of processes
where material is removed accurately but the term is also used
to describe processes such as microjoining and microadjust-
Figure 1 Application areas in the It diagram.

Laser Micromachining 205
Table 1 Laser Micromachining Processes

Ablation Wire stripping Soldering
Cutting Marking Trimming
Drilling Welding Hardening
Decoration Structuring Texturing
ment by laser beam. Most applications are found in the elec-

tronics industry in high-volume production. The earliest in-
dustrial applications occurred in the 1960s in the cutting of
trim grooves on conventional resistors and drilling small holes
in diamonds. In the 1970s laser spot welding was applied to
the production of lamps and parts of television monitors. The
1980s saw the beginning of laser micromilling and laser abla-
tion with excimer lasers, while in the 1990s laser microadjust-
ment was developed for use in industry. With the development
of new lasers such as ultrashort pulsed lasers and passively Q-
switched microlasers, new applications continue to arise. The
development of smaller features is still proceeding. From the
beginning of laser technology in the 20th century a reduction
in size by a factor of two every seven years has been observed.
The cost of production equipment is growing much faster: the
complicated optics of a step-and-repeat camera for semicon-
ductor production is now over a million dollars. Nevertheless
the cost of products is being reduced, owing to the higher pro-
duction volume.
Lasers used for micromachining are characterized by
short pulse lengths from the millisecond range for applications
like microwelding to the pico- and even femtosecond area for
ablation of metals. Wavelengths vary from 10.6 m for
the CO2 laser to 157 nm for a fluorine excimer laser. The beam
is further characterized by the (half ) divergence angle and
the radius w of the beam waist. For the ideal beam the follow-
ing equation applies: w /. This quantity is invariant
which means that with ideal optics this relation is valid over
the whole beam trajectory. A significant expression for the
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beam quality is the M 2 number, which is the ratio between

the w product for the real beam, compared to an ideal
Gaussian beam. For a real beam the product becomes w
M2/ where M2 1. With focusing optics (Fig. 2) the diver-
gence angle after passing the lens becomes f D/2f re-
sulting in a minimum spot diameter :
4 f
M2 . (1)
D
For micromachining a small spot is usually required. This can

be obtained with a high beam quality M2 1, with a short
wavelength and a short focal length lens. Some examples are
given in Table 2.
Special low power Nd:YAG lasers can be provided in
nearly monomode which improves the beam quality consider-
ably thereby enabling the smallest spot dimensions of about
6 m to be obtained. Further improvement is possible by fre-
quency doubling (530 and 265 nm). The copper vapor laser can
also be frequency doubled ( 255 nm). Other properties, im-
portant for the machining process, are given in Table 3.
The introduction of passively Q-switched micro lasers, de-
scribed by Guillot [1], has opened up new avenues for micro-
machining. A continuous wave diode laser of about 1 W is used
to pump a laser material with a saturable absorber on the out-
put window. When this solid-state Q-switch reaches the
Figure 2 The product of beam waist (w) and divergence angle is

invariant.
Table 2 Examples of Beam Properties
Spot diameter
Wavelength Power w Beam quality with f/4 lens
Laser (m) P (W) (mmmrad) M 2 () (m)
HeNe 0.63 0.002 0.2 0.98 3

Nd :YAG a 1.06 100 6 10 50
Nd :YAG b 1000 25 80 500
Q-Switched 10 2 3 15
Nd :YAG 1.06 100 6 10 50
1000 25 80 500
CO2 10.6 1000 10 1.5 80
Copper vapor 0.51 20 0.5 3 8
Ti :Sapphire 0.78 1
Excimer 0.1930.351 100 20 200
a
Fine drilling or cutting mode.
b
Normal industrial laser.
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Table 3 Pulse Duration and Repetition Rate for

Micromachining
Frequency
Laser Pulse duration (kHz)
CO2 200 s 5
Nd :YAG 100 s 100
Q-Switched Nd :YAG 100 ns 1
Excimer 20 ns 0.5
Copper vapor 30 ns 420
Ti :Sapphire 200 fs 1
threshold it becomes transparent within a nanosecond and a

short pulse (0.3 to 1.5 ns) is delivered. Repetition rates are
between 2 and 50 kHz.
8.2 PRINCIPLES OF LASER MATERIAL

REMOVAL
The mechanism of laser beam interaction and material re-

moval is shown in Figure 3(a). Laser energy is focused on the
material surface and partly absorbed. The absorptivity de-
pends on the material, the surface structure, the power den-
sity, and the wavelength. With a CO2 laser about 20% is
absorbed with laser micromachining while with shorter wave-
lengths (Nd:YAG and excimer lasers) 40 to 80% is absorbed.
The remaining part is reflected. Absorption occurs in a very
thin surface layer, where the optical energy is converted into
heat. The optical penetration depth is defined as the depth for
which the power density is reduced to 1/e of the initial density.
For steel this depth is on the order of 15 nm for CO2 radiation
or 5 nm for Nd:YAG radiation. The absorbed energy diffuses
into the bulk material by conduction. For short pulses the heat
flow is approximately one-dimensional. The temperature at
Figure 3 Penetration depth of heat for short laser pulses: (a) laser
beam interaction and material removal; (b) micron and submicron
penetration levels.
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Figure 3 Continued.
the center of the spot follows with an absorbed power density

I a from:
T z,t
Ia

ierfc

z

(2)
in which 4at is a measure for the thermal penetration

depth during the pulse time t. At this depth the temperature
is 9% of the surface temperature. Figure 3(b) shows that for
short pulses the penetration depth is at micron or submicron
level. The heat penetration in micromachining can therefore
be considered as one-dimensional. At the surface Equation (2)
reduces to

Ia 4at
T . (3)

With, for example, I a 109 W/cm2 on steel the melting point

is reached in 300 ns. However, the time to melt is reduced by
a factor of 100 to only 3 ns if the power density is increased
tenfold. The high vaporization rate (vapor speeds have been
reported in the range of 3 to 10 km/s) causes a shock wave
and a high vapor pressure at the liquid surface considerably
increases the boiling temperature. Finally the material is re-
moved as a vapor by the expulsion of melt, as result of the
high pressure and by an explosivelike boiling of the super-
heated liquid after the end of the laser pulse. In metals a rim of
resolidified material caused by laser micromachining is clearly
evident (Figs. 4 and 5). In plastics, however, the process is
quite different; here the material is removed by breaking the
chemical bonds of the macromolecules, and is dispersed as gas
or small particles. No melt is found (Fig. 6).
Figure 4 Rim of resolidified material after micromachining of

stainless steel. Also some redeposition is evident (right): excimer la-
ser, KrF 248 nm, 20 ns, 12 J/cm2, 90 Hz. The ablation depth is 15
m; rim height is 10 m.
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Figure 5 Rim of resolidified material after micromachining of cop-

per: 5000 pulses, 3.5 J/cm2, 248 nm, 20 ns, 50 Hz. Ablation depth
50 m, rim width 20 m, height 40 m.
Figure 6 Fine hole drilling in polyamide: diameter 5 m, depth

25 m. No significant liquid phase could be observed. (Courtesy of
Photonics Spectra.)
8.2.1 Plume Development

A plume takes some time to develop. If a detectable plume is
assumed to form at a time t p when the surface has reached
the temperature T v , then it follows from Equation (3) that
E
tp (4)
4 I a2
in which E is the erosion resistance of the material (E
cT v2), a material constant. Plume initiation times, measured
by Wisselink [2], for the machining of different steels, are
given in Table 4.
The measurement of t p can be used to monitor the micro-
machining process. This time is a measure of the most signifi-
cant process variable, the absorbed power density. The inci-
dent power density is mainly determined by the focus-surface
position (Fig. 7). The optimal power density I mach is identified
experimentally resulting in a corresponding plume initiation
time which in turn can be used in a closed loop control to main-
tain the distance z in the optimal processing area. Other engi-
neers such as Van Krieken et al. [3] have developed a process
based on the existence of a machining threshold. Material is
removed with a constant focal position, and the removal stops
when the depth z thresh is obtained. This procedure is known as
a self-regulating process.
8.2.2 Propagation of the Melt Front and

Ablation by Evaporation
Even during short (nanosecond) laser pulses there is a heat
flow into the material, which in general generates a melt pool.
Table 4 Plume Initiation Time

Laser tp
CO2 laser 6 kW, 150 s 40100 s
Nd :YAG, 500 W, 100 s 225 s
Nd :YAG, Q-switched, 100 ns 4080 ns
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Figure 7 Machining areas. In the focal area the process is mainly

drilling. Smooth micromachining is obtained at a distance z opt. The
machining rate decreases at lower intensities.
Only in the case of ultrashort (femtosecond) pulses is no melt

generated. In the calculation of temperature profiles in the
material several conditions have to be taken into account:
first, the surface is moving due to evaporation of material, sec-
ond, the heat of fusion creates a moving boundary, (the Stefan
problem), and third, the liquid material loses its metallic prop-
erties above the critical temperature. Then the liquid metal
exhibits dielectric behavior and becomes transparent.
The temperature distribution in the material is described
by the Fourier equation:
T(z,t) T(z,t) 2 T(z,t)

cp cp I a ez (5)
t z z 2
in which the first term represents the temperature rise and

the second describes convection, taking into account the mov-
ing surface (with velocity v). The third term accounts for the
diffusion of heat into the bulk material and the final expres-
sion gives the heat input from the laser; I a is the absorbed
laser power on the surface while the absorption in depth is
given by ez. Under normal conditions the heat is absorbed
in a very thin surface layer of about 10 nm ( 10 8 m1 ). At
the critical temperature, however, 0 which implies that
there cannot be any laser absorption in the superheated layer;
all the absorption is concentrated in a small region where the
temperature is just below the critical temperature (Fig. 8).
Material is removed at the top of the dielectric layer by evapo-
ration. At the sidewalls material is forced away by the plasma
pressure on the liquid while at the end of the pulse, when the
pressure suddenly drops, material is removed by the boiling
of superheated liquid. Both effects result in redeposition
around the processing area.
The origin (z 0) is taken at the surface of the dielectric
liquid which moves downward with a velocity v. The latter
quantity can be calculated from Langmuirs method of vapor-
ization from a free surface, by means of a solution of the
ClausiusClapeyron equation of the equilibrium pressure,
discussed by von Allmen [4].
Figure 8 Ablation process (schematic). The heat input is on the

boundary between the dielectric layer and the melt.
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(T)
1c

m
2RT
pn exp
Lm
RTn
T
1 n
T . (6)
In this equation the quantity c is a recondensation factor

which is usually taken as 0.18 [see von Allmen [4] and Tokarev
et al. [5]. Equations (5) and (6) can be solved analytically by
calculating T for a given velocity and using this temperature
to determine the corresponding v by iteration. An analytical
solution to Equation (5) is given by Meijer et al. [6,7] although
it is not possible to implement analytically the absorption
as a function of the temperature and the heat of melting at
the moving melt front. This situation results in surface tem-
peratures above the critical temperature, which is not real-
istic.
Better results are obtained with a numerical solution in
which the enthalpy H is used as the explicit variable instead
of the temperature T. Then the increase in H at the melt front
can be properly taken into account. The drop in absorptivity
at the critical temperature is implemented by a smooth reduc-
tion of from a constant value (about 100 m1) to zero. The
specific heat for evaporation L v decreases with temperature
according to

2
L L0 1 T . (7)
Tc
This means that at the critical temperature no extra heat is

required for evaporation. The result is that above a certain
fluence, which is the energy per unit of area, the critical tem-
perature (about 1.4 times the boiling temperature) is reached
in a short time and then remains constant. Consequently also
the evaporation velocity becomes nearly constant. The results
for micromachining of steel are given in Table 5.
From the table ablation still occurs at the end of the pulse
owing to the presence of a relatively thick superheated layer,
which continues to evaporate while the surface is already cool-
Table 5 Numerical Results for Laser Micromachining of Steel a
Fluence 1 J/cm 2 2.5 J/cm 2 5 J/cm 2
Time (ns) 5 10 20 5 10 20 5 10 20
Surface temperature (K) 2000 2500 3200 4000 4300 4300 4300 4300 4300
Ablation velocity (m/s) 0 0 0.8 5 12 12 12 12 12
Melt layer (m) 0.03 0.15 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.65 0.35 0.8 1.4
Dielectric layer (m) 0 0 0 0 0.1 0.4 0.3 0.6 1.3
Ablation depth at end of pulse (m) 0 0.18 0.24
Total ablation depth (m) 0 0.22 0.40
a
Pulse Length 20 ns.
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ing down but still remaining above the normal boiling temper-
ature. From the model it was found that with a given (total)
fluence the ablation depth has an optimum (maximum) for a
given pulse length. For 2.5 J/cm 2 this optimum is obtained
with 15 ns pulses, for 5 J/cm 2 with 50 ns, and for 10 J/cm 2 with
150 ns pulses. The ablation depth given in Table 5 is based on
material removal only by evaporation. It could be expected
that melt is pushed away by the vapor pressure and that
boiling of the superheated melt after the laser pulse will also
remove droplets of material. On the other hand the phenome-
non of redeposition ensures that the melt is not removed, fi-
nally reducing the ablation rate. Nevertheless the experimen-
tal results are close to the quantities given in Table 5. In
special applications such as directly focused high-quality exci-
mer laser beams considerably higher ablation rates have been
achieved, up to 20 m per pulse with energies and pulse
lengths greater than, respectively, 100 J/cm 2 and 200 ns.
8.2.3 Ablation of Metals with Ultrashort

Laser Pulses
The lasermaterial interaction consists of a set of physical
steps each characterized by its typical time constant. The laser
energy is first transferred to the electrons, especially in the
case of metals. The electrons will transfer the energy to the
lattice and finally, within the lattice the heat is distributed
further by atomic lattice collisions.
The first step, the absorption of a photon by an electron,
requires about 1015 s (1 femtosecond). The relaxation time of
a high-energy electron, that is, the time to transfer the energy
to the lattice, is about 1012 s (1 picosecond). The time to diffuse
the heat in the lattice by thermal conduction, over a distance
equal to the optical penetration depth, is also on the order of
1 picosecond.
Three different processes may be identified, based on
these characteristic times.
Femtosecond Ablation
In this case there is no energy transfer to the lattice during
the pulse; all energy is stored in a thin surface layer. If this
energy is more than the specific heat of evaporation there will
be vigorous evaporation after the pulse. The ablation depth
per pulse is given by Chichkov et al. [8] as
z a 1 ln

Fa
F th
(8)
in which F a is the absorbed and F th the threshold fluence. Here

the threshold fluence is the energy required to evaporate the
irradiated volume of material (F th L1 ) in which L repre-
sents the heat needed for evaporation. With 1 10 nm a
threshold fluence of 0.1 J/cm2 is obtained for ultrashort abla-
tion of metals. From Equation (8) it is clear that at the thresh-
old fluence there is no ablation. The fluence should be about
three times the threshold to remove the irradiated layer with
thickness 1. The ablation process has to be considered as
a direct solidvapor transition of a thin layer. The energy is
transferred from electrons to the lattice (after the laser pulse)
in a picosecond. This transfer converts the layer in a dense
vapor or plasma, which expands rapidly. No time is available
for heat transfer to the lattice during this series of processes.
The outcome is a very precise and pure laser ablation of met-
als; this result has been demonstrated experimentally but has
not yet been well established in production.
Picosecond Ablation
With picosecond pulses the pulse length is on the same order
as the time to transfer the energy from electrons to the lattice.
The lattice temperature at the end of the pulse is approxi-
mately equal to the femtosecond ablation. In this case there
is also considerable evaporation and the ablation depth per
pulse as given by Equation (8) can be applied. Although the
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heat conduction into the lattice may be neglected there will

be a considerable heat flow by the free electrons during the
pulse. This results in the formation of a melted zone inside
the material. At the surface there is a direct solidvapor or
solidplasma transition but deeper in the material a liquid
phase is present. This condition reduces the precision of the
ablation of metals compared to femtosecond pulses.
Computer simulation by molecular dynamics, discussed
earlier in Chapter 3 and also by Ohmura and Fukumoto [9],
has been applied in a detailed study of the evaporation pro-
cess. At power densities of 109 to 10 10 W/cm 2 metal is vaporized
by particles, which are composed of clusters of atoms. The
study is useful only for short pico- and femtosecond pulses as
thermal conductivity is not considered. The absorption of laser
energy in the lattice generates shock waves resulting in many
small voids, which then combine into larger groupings. Finally
the surface region bounds out and clusters of material are
erupted. Slip planes arise in the solid phase due to the tensile
effect of the erupted material. The speed of the ejected parti-
cles has been calculated to be as much as 6 km/s. Fragments
of particles scatter forming finer particles at higher power
densities. In particular, when explosion of the surface vapors
occurs, a large compression field arises. The propagation ve-
locity of the thermal shock wave is equal to the elastic wave
velocity and independent of laser power density.
Nanosecond Ablation
In terms of the thermal processes during lasermaterial inter-
action the nanosecond pulses have to be considered as long
pulses. The absorbed laser energy first heats the work speci-
men to its melting point and then to the vaporization tempera-
ture. During the interaction the main energy loss is by heat
conduction into the solid. The threshold fluence for long pulses
can be estimated in the same way as for ultrashort pulses. The
layer thickness 1, the absorption depth in Equation (8), now
has to be replaced by the thermal diffusion depth at, which
is about 0.5 m for 20-ns pulses on metal. This condition re-

sults in a typical threshold fluence of 4 J/cm 2 for strong evapo-
ration. Generally droplets or crater walls are observed around
the machined area in the nanosecond domain.
8.2.4 Ablation of Organic Polymers

The mechanism of material removal for plastics is based on
photochemical reactions with photons. The typical bonding en-
ergy for many macromolecules is in the 3 to 15 eV range, which
corresponds approximately with the photon energy in the ul-
traviolet. The process consists of three steps: the UV photons
are absorbed in the top layer typically of 0.2-m thickness, the
long chain molecules in this layer are broken into parts, and
finally they are removed from the processing area in the form
of vapor and small particles.
The photon energy obtained from different lasers is listed
in Table 6. Only photons with higher energies can release the
chemical bonds. Machining of Teflon, for instance, requires at
least the photon energy as produced by the fluorine laser.
Higher photon energies, however, require more expensive
coatings on the applied lenses or mirrors while for short wave-
lengths from about 200 nm the absorption in air becomes sig-
Table 6 Photon Energies from Different Laser Sources and

Required Dissociation Energies for Several Chemical Bonds
Wavelength Photon energy Chemical Bond energy
Laser (nm) E (eV) bond E (eV)
CO2 10600 0.12
Nd :YAG 1064 1.16
XeF 351 3.53 SiSi, ClCl 1.83
XeCl 308 4.03 CN, CC 33.5
Nd :YAG 4th harm. 266 4.65
KrF 248 5.00 CH, OH 4.54.9
KrCl 222 5.50
ArF 193 6.42
F2 157 7.43 CCC 7
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Table 7 Ablation Parameters for Drilling 100-m Holes

Ablation rate
Wavelength Fluence per pulse
Type of material (nm) (J/cm 2) (m)
Polycarbonate 248 4 0.4
Polyester 248 4 0.8
Polyethylene 248 3.7 1.0
193 6 0.4
Silicone rubber 308 10 1.5
248 30 0.2
Kapton foil 308 10 1.2
Plexiglass 193 1 0.3
Hostaform 248 2.8 0.6
nificant. Photons with more than 5.1 eV have sufficient energy

to break apart oxygen molecules in their path. This aspect is
illustrated by a 193-nm ArF beam passing through air and
producing the characteristic ozone smell.
The threshold fluence for a wide variety of plastics is
about 120 mJ/cm 2. At low fluence the walls become tapered
from about 2 at 500 mJ/cm 2 to 20 at 150 mJ/cm 2. Useful
fluences are given in Table 7.
Ultrashort Chirped Pulse Amplification

(CPA)
In terms of basic material removal principles ultrashort laser
pulses are more suitable for micromachining. A currently
available type is the Ti :Sapphire laser. The optical layout of a
chirped pulse amplification laser system consists of oscillator,
grating stretcher, regenerative amplifier, and grating pulse
compressor. The optical energy is pumped in the Ti :Sapphire
crystal by argon or frequency-doubled Nd:YAG lasers. The
alignment tolerances are stringent, and therefore specialized
laser technical knowledge and competence are needed to oper-
ate and maintain such lasers. For this reason, CPA ultrafast
lasers at present are used exclusively in scientific laboratories;

see Liu et al. [10].
The rapid developments in diode-pumped all solid-state
laser systems will bring ultrafast laser technology into indus-
try. It has been demonstrated that low-cost, compact, turnkey,
ultrafast laser systems can be designed for industrial applica-
tions. Laser materials suitable for direct diode pumping in-
clude Nd:glass and Yb:YAG. The Yb-doped laser materials
such as Yb:YAG and Yb: glass are ideal candidates for high-
and average-power ultrafast lasers. They can be efficiently di-
ode pumped in the 900- to 980-nm band, where inexpensive
diodes are available. Other components such as compact-to-
align pulse stretchers and compressors also need to be devel-
oped.
8.3 INDUSTRIAL MACHINING EQUIPMENT
Currently used industrial lasers are mainly CO2, Nd: YAG, ex-
cimer, argon ion, and copper vapor types. An overview of the
pulse duration and peak power for the different lasers is given
in Figure 9. General-purpose machining equipment consists
of a stationary laser beam with a product holder on a horizon-
tal xy-stage and a lens capable of moving in the vertical direc-
tion. The solid state Nd:YAG laser is the main vehicle for mi-
cromachining applications (Fig. 10). The energy is pumped by
flash lamps into the Nd:YAG rod. The laser beam with about
6-mm diameter can be focused by lenses directly on the surface
to spots of diameter 50 m for fine drilling or cutting, to about
0.5 mm for spot welding.
For Nd:YAG laser welding a large number of glass fibers
are used to transport the laser energy to the workpiece. Up to
12 fibers can be connected to one laser allowing 12 semisimul-
taneous welds over a single period. Alternatively fibers can be
coupled to different welding stations with the same laser used
on a time-sharing basis. Such machining equipment is highly
Figure 9 Overview of peak power, pulse length, and wavelength
range for Nd :YAG, excimer, and titanium:sapphire lasers. (Cour-
tesy of LZH.)
Figure 10 General purpose Nd: YAG laser machine for cutting and
welding operations.
224
automated. The parts are supplied by vibration feeders,

clamped on a rotating product holder, and then removed in
short cycle times.
8.4 APPLICATIONS
8.4.1 Laser Microdrilling
Laser drilling of small holes is a widespread application. Holes
are drilled in hard materials such as metals, ceramics, or dia-
mond, in softer materials for microelectronics or medical pur-
poses, and also in plastics to perforate foils or for ventilation.
Two different techniques are used: direct focusing of the beam
to the desired (small) diameter of the hole and alternatively
by imaging a mask.
Direct focusing is the easier procedure as only a lens is
needed. The focal length should be chosen so that the focal
diameter (Eq. (1)) corresponds to the required hole diameter.
This condition requires a well-defined and stable laser beam,
because the beam quality M 2 directly affects the focal and hole
diameter. The laser fluency should be in accordance with its
required amount, about one J/cm 2 for plastics to tens of Joules
per cm 2 for metals. Laser energy may be applied effectively by
using an array of microlenses to obtain simultaneously tens
or hundreds of holes. Several lasers are used for drilling by
direct focusing. CO 2 lasers are used for high numbers of holes
in thin materials (production rates over 10,000 per second).
Nd:YAG lasers are employed for drilling precision holes in
hard materials such as metals and diamond, while excimer
lasers are used mainly for composites and ceramics.
A special application of micromachining on large-scale
products is drilling holes for boundary layer suction on air-
planes, pioneered by British Aerospace. Holes of 20- to 80-m
diameter are drilled in aluminium by a 1-kW excimer laser
with 200-ns long pulses of high quality, M 2 1.5. About 100
holes are drilled simultaneously by means of an array of mi-
crolenses. Up to 20 pulses are required to penetrate a 1-mm
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thick aluminum plate. The diameter of the holes is controlled

by the fluence, 20-m holes requiring 250 J/cm 2 and 80-m
holes being drilled at 80 J/cm 2.
The other excimer laser technique, the mask projecting
method (Fig. 11), images the laser beam through a mask on
the substrate. This procedure enables the manufacture of
shapes from simple round, square, or rectangular holes to
more complex configurations. The mask is produced at a scale
of about 3 times the product geometry for plastics, to over 10
Figure 11 (a) Ablation by mask projection technique. A condenser

lens might be applied to concentrate the beam in the aperture of the
projection lens; (b) mask set-up for drilling small holes. Mask 1 se-
lects the homogeneous part of the laser beam; mask 2 is imaged to
the product; (c) hole, diameter 0.5 m, drilled in molybdenum. The
expelled liquid is clearly seen on the front side (right).
times for metals. Masks for holes are drilled or lasercut from
sheet metal (Fig. 11), whereas masks for complex holes are
produced by metal films on quartz. The demagnification rate
follows primarily from the optimum laser fluence on the sub-
strate. In particular, with high demagnification rates only
small areas can be processed at one time. Larger products are
processed by moving the product simultaneously with the
mask, an electronic gearbox being used between the axes.
By this technique masks of about 25 25 cm2 are applied in
practice (Fig. 12).
8.4.2 Laser Machining of Diamond

Diamond is difficult to machine as the material is optically
transparent over a wide range of wavelengths. At high-power
densities, however, the diamond is transformed into graphite,
which absorbs the laser power and is subsequently removed
Figure 12 Computer-controlled excimer laser ablation station

with flying mask.
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by ablation. Diamond machining is currently undertaken by

microsecond pulse Nd:YAG and nanosecond pulse excimer la-
sers, as discussed by Windholz and Molian [11] and Shirk and
Molian [12].
Examples of applications are drilling holes in wire draw-
ing dies (Fig. 13) and cutting knife blades for eye surgery by
Figure 13 Diamond wire drawing die drilled by a Q-switched

Nd:YAG laser. Wire opening 50 m. (Courtesy of Diamond Tools
Group, Netherlands.)
Q-switched Nd:YAG lasers. Such lasers deliver high-quality

150-ns pulses of about 1 mJ at a frequency of 1 to 8 kHz and
are focused to 15-m spots. Thin layers of graphite or amor-
phous carbon are found on the surface after laser machining
which requires an extra polishing operation to remove the
graphite. A new technique is the use of ultrashort femtosecond
lasers. According to Shirk and Molian [13], no evidence of
graphite is found as the thermal diffusion depth is only 50 nm.
Some processing data are given in Table 8.
8.4.3 Laser Microwelding

Although the technique differs from micromachining a brief
discussion of laser microwelding is appropriate as it is proba-
bly the most common application. It is employed in the mass-
production of electronic products such as television sets,
quartz lamps, and other consumer products. An example is
given in Figure 14. Wires with a diameter of 0.1 mm and even
the connector feet of surface-mounted devices are welded di-
rectly on the printed wiring (Fig. 15). The welding time is 2
ms per weld whereas with a moving laser beam 50 welds/s are
Table 8 Laser Ablation of Diamond

Q-switched
Laser Nd :YAG Excimer Femtosecond laser
Wavelength 1.06 m 248 nm 248 nm
Pulse length 150 ns 20 ns 500 fs
Thermal diffusion depth 30 m 10 m 50 nm
Fluence (J/cm 2) Ablation per pulse
(m) (nm) (nm)
0.8 5 5
2 10 15
4 20 35
6 30 50
10 0.5 45
20 1.0 60
50 2.5
150 4.0
230 Meijer
Figure 14 Laser-welded grids of a television monitor.
Figure 15 Detail of a laser-welded connector pin of a surface-

mounted device at a 30-m thick copper track on a print plate.
obtained. Almost all microwelds are made by pulsed Nd:YAG

lasers. The microstructure of the weld mostly shows a fine
dendrite structure. Warm cracking is induced by shrinkage,
which is not compensated for by freedom in the geometry. Ele-
ments such as phosphor and sulphur, particularly in combina-
tion with nickel, increase the cracking sensitivity.
8.4.4 Laser Microadjustment

The basis of laser adjustment is the generation of thermal
mechanical stresses in metal structures. An example is the
fine adjustment of an audio head enabling precision adjust-
ment in a short time, as discussed by Van der Meer [14]. The
accuracy after (laser) welding of the head on the support is
about 6 m. The misalignment is measured and corrected in
real-time by laser pulses on the positions given in Figure 16.
A final accuracy of 0.3 m is reached within three seconds by
this method.
Figure 16 Laser fine adjustment of an audio head. The support

frame is irradiated by laser pulses at the positions M, L, and R. The
response is a downward movement, a cw rotation, or a ccw rotation,
respectively. Pulses on L R give an upward movement.
232 Meijer
8.4.5 Laser Cleaning

Laser cleaning is very fine excimer laser machining applied
to remove particle contamination and single-layer residuals
from microelectronics and other particle-sensitive surfaces.
Particles below 1-m size become strongly adherent to engi-
neering surfaces owing to Van der Waals and static forces.
They are easily ablated by 248-nm excimer laser pulses of 350
mJ/cm2, as discussed by Elliot [15]. A stream of reactive gas-
like oxygen over the surface is used to remove the ablation
products. A few pulses are sufficient to remove aluminum par-
ticles from a contaminated mask. Processes such as photore-
sist stripping may require less energy.
8.4.6 Laser Microstructuring

Microstructuring by excimer lasers is used effectively for pro-
ducing fine surface structures on parts. The shape is produced
by modulating the laser intensity across the sample, as is done
frequently in cornea shaping for myopia correction, or alterna-
tively by stepping a small beam across the surface thereby
controlling the fluence and the number of pulses applied. Man-
ufacturing of individual parts is slow and can be costly. Alter-
natively the laser is applied to produce a master product from
which replicas are repeatedly made.
First a polymer substrate is structured by laser ablation.
Then the surface is coated by a vacuum deposition technique
with a thin metal layer, which is subsequently grown by elec-
troplating to form a mold. After machining the rear side of the
mold, it is ready to be applied to produce replicas (Fig. 17).
8.3.7 Laser Surface Structuring

Laser surface structuring and texturing are applied to obtain
special surface effects on molds and dies, for instance, to ob-
tain cosmetically attractive surfaces on plastic (consumer)
products. Q-switched Nd:YAG and excimer lasers are used.
Products can also directly be textured, marked, or colored by
Figure 17 Above: laser-ablated structure in PMMA. Middle: in-

verse nickel replica. Below: injection molded product. (Courtesy of
Lambda Physik.)
234 Meijer
Figure 18 Laser surface modification: laser power 9 W, pulse

length 120 ns. (Courtesy of Philips Lighting, Terneuzen.)
lasers. An example is given in Figure 18. A controlled carbon-

ization causes the required grey color. The text is written with
a speed of 1000 mm/s.
8.3.8 Laser Microcutting

Laser microcutting of metals and ceramics is a widespread ap-
plication. The most commonly used laser is a low-power pulsed
Nd:YAG type. Typical parameters for the cutting of 0.2-mm
thick stainless steel are: pulse power 0.1 J, pulse length 0.1
ms, frequency 150 Hz, and cutting speed 5 mm/s. The cut
Figure 19 Laser fine cutting. (Courtesy of ILT, Enschede.)
width is less than the order of 100 m, the roughness 2 m,

and an accuracy of about 5 m dependent on the xy-table. An
example is given by Figure 19.
a Thermal diffusivity (a /c p) (m2 /s)

cp Specific heat capacity (at constant pressure) J/
(kgK)
c Recondensation factor
D Beam diameter (m)
E Energy (photon) 1 eV 1.6 1019 J (eV)
E Erosion resistance (kg/(ms5))
f Focal length (m)
F Fluence (energy density) (J/m2)
I Intensity (power density) (W/m2)
Ia Absorbed power density (W/m2)
Lv Latent heat of vaporization (J/kg)
m Mass (kg)
236 Meijer
M2 Quality number of the laser beam

Pn Pressure (N/m2)
P Power (W)
R Gas constant 8.314 J/(Kmol)
t Time (s)
tp Time until plume formation (s)
T Temperature (K)
Tc Critical temperature (K)
Tn Temperature of the normal boiling point (K)
Tv Temperature of vaporization (K)
v Velocity (of moving surface) (m/s)
w Radius of the beam waist (m)
z Coordinate (in direction of laser beam, depth) (m)
Penetration (or absorption) depth (m1)
Spot diameter in (focus) (m)
Wavelength (m)
Thermal conductivity (W/(mK))
Divergence angle (half cone) (rad)
Density (kg/m3)
REFERENCES
[1] D. Guillot, Microlasers. Photonics Spectra February, 143146

(1998).
[2] F. W. A. Wisselink, Use of the plume initiation time in laser
milling. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Twente (1996).
[3] A. H. Van Krieken et al., Laser micro-machining of material
surfaces. SPIE-The Int. Society for Optical Engineering (1022),
34 (1988).
[4] M. von Allmen, Laser Beam Interactions with Materials, Phys-
ical Principles and Applications. Springer, Berlin (1987).
[5] V. N. Tokarev et al., Analytical thermal model of ultraviolet
laser ablation with single photon analytical thermal model ab-
sorption in the plume. J. Appl. Phys. (78)2, 12411246 (1995).
[6] J. Meijer, F. W. A. Wisselink, and R. R. van Kessel, Process
control by plume registration in laser materials processing. In

Proc. ICALEO-Int. Congress on Applications of Lasers and
Electro-Optics, San Diego, November, 404411 (1995).
[7] C. Z. Meijer and J. Meijer, Laser ablation rates of metals for
248 nm, experimental verification of an evaporation model. In
Proc. ICALEO-Int. Congress on Applications of Lasers and
Electro-Optics, San Diego, 130139 (1997).
[8] B. N. Chichkov et al., Femtosecond, picosecond and nanosec-
ond laser ablation of solids. Appl. Phys. A (63), 109115 (1996).
[9] E. Ohmura and I. Fukumoto, Molecular simulation of laser
ablation of fcc metal. Int. J. Japan Soc. Prec. Eng. (30)2, 128
133 (1996).
[10] X. Liu, D. Du, and G. Mourou, Laser ablation and micro-ma-
chining with ultrashort laser pulses. IEEE J. Quantum Elec-
tronics (33), 17071716 (1997).
[11] R. Windholz and P. Molian, Nanosecond pulsed excimer laser
machining of CVD diamond and HOPG graphite. J. Mater. Sci.
(32), 42954301 (1997).
[12] M. D. Shirk and P. A. Molian, Ultrashort laser ablation of dia-
mond. J. Laser Applications (10)2, 6470 (1998).
[13] M. D. Shirk and P. A. Molian. A review of ultrashort pulsed
laser ablation of materials. J. Laser Applications (10)1, 1828
(1998).
[14] G. Van der Meer, Micromachining with lasers in the electron-
ics industry. De Constructeur (4), 2630 (in Dutch) (1998).
[15] D. J. Elliot, Ultraviolet Laser Technology and Applications. Ac-
ademic, San Diego (1995).
[16] E. K. Illy and J. A. Piper, Micromachining cuts costs for copper
vapour lasers. Photonics Spectra March, 106111 (1998).
[17] B. Lassiger, Kontrollierter Formabtrag durch Sublimation
mittels Laserstrahlung. Verlag Shaker (in German) (1995).
9
Micromachining by
Electrochemical Dissolution
Madhav Datta*
IBM Corporation, Yorktown Heights, New York
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Several nonconventional machining processes such as electro-

chemical machining and electropolishing are based on the
principle of electrochemical metal removal [1,2]. These pro-
cesses involve controlled metal dissolution from a workpiece
that constitutes the anode in an electrolytic cell. Some of the
unique features of these methods include their ability to ma-
chine complex features and complicated contours without ma-
chining marks, burrs, or surface stresses.
In electrochemical machining (ECM), a cathode tool is
slowly advanced towards the workpiece anode but is separated
* Current affiliation: Intel Corp., Hillsboro, Oregon

239
240 Datta
from it by a small gap through which an electrolyte flows.

ECM is characterized by a high current density (10 to 300
A/cm2), a high electrolyte flow velocity (5 to 50 m/s) and a
narrow interelectrode spacing (0.1 to 2 mm). A high electro-
lyte flow velocity is required to remove reaction products and
to dissipate the generated heat. A close spacing is essential to
reproduce the contours of the cathode onto the anode work-
piece. Neutral salt solutions are generally used as electro-
lytes. The highest known rate for an electrochemical process
is achieved in ECM where metal dissolution rates up to 10
mm/min are commonly attained.
Electropolishing is generally employed as a finishing op-
eration to remove surface roughness from a workpiece, and
therefore requires the removal of only small amounts of mate-
rial. Electropolishing is usually carried out in concentrated
acids with little or no electrolyte agitation, at current densities
between 0.01 and 0.5 A/cm 2. The interelectrode spacing is not
critical in electropolishing. Material removal rate in electro-
polishing is several orders of magnitude less than in ECM.
ECM and electropolishing processes are widely practiced
in aerospace, automobile, and other heavy industries for shap-
ing, milling, deburring, and finishing operations. Application
of ECM in microfabrication and in the processing of thin films
is referred to as electrochemical micromachining (EMM).
EMM is now receiving considerable attention in the electron-
ics and other high-technology industries, particularly as an
alternative, greener, method of processing advanced metal-
lic parts.
In the electronics industry, subtractive methods of thin
film processing by both dry and wet techniques are popularly
known as etching technologies. These methods are widely em-
ployed in the fabrication of advanced components such as mi-
croelectronic packages, microengineered structures, sensors,
and microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). Dry techniques
for thin film etching include ion milling, sputter etching, reac-
tive ion etching, and plasma etching [3]. These processes are
particularly employed in the semiconductor industry for ul-
tralarge scale integration (ULSI) because of their ability to
Micromachining by Electrochemical Dissolution 241
remove material with precision. Wet etching methods are pre-

dominantly used in the processing of microelectronic compo-
nents because of their selectivity, high etch rates, and rela-
tively low capital investment costs. Although metal removal
reactions in wet etching are generally electrochemical in na-
ture, processes where the energy source for the dissolution re-
action is derived from the etchant are popularly known as
chemical etching. Electrochemical etching, on the other hand,
relies on the passage of electric current for metal dissolution
reaction to take place at the workpiece. Recent advances in
the development of electrochemical metal removal technology
for microfabrication are reviewed in this chapter.
9.2 MASKLESS AND THROUGH-MASK EMM
Microfabrication by EMM may involve maskless or through-

mask material removal (Fig. 1). Microfabrication by maskless
EMM requires highly localized material removal induced by
capillary drilling or by impingement of a fine electrolytic jet
[4,5]. High aspect-ratio holes are drilled by using a fine cath-
ode tool in the form of a capillary that is advanced at a con-
stant rate towards the workpiece. Thin film jet etching, on the
other hand, uses a fine jet of electrolyte without advancement
of the jet. Investigation of jet and laser-jet EMM demonstrates
that neutral salt solutions can be effectively used for high-
speed micromachining of many metals and alloys [5]. These
studies demonstrate the feasibility of employing an electro-
lytic jet for generating complicated patterns in metallic foils
and substrates. Other examples of maskless EMM include mi-
crofinishing of components and removal of unwanted layers of
thin films by electromilling [6].
EMM in conjunction with a photoresist mask is of consid-
erable interest in microfabrication of electronic components.
Through-mask EMM involves selective metal dissolution from
unprotected areas of a one- or two-sided photoresist patterned
workpiece. Through-mask metal removal by wet etching is ac-
companied by undercutting of the photoresist and is generally
242 Datta
Figure 1 Different types of maskless (a,b) and through-mask (c,d)

EMM applicable in microfabrication.
isotropic in nature. In isotropic etching, the material is re-

moved both vertically and laterally at the same rate. This is
particularly the case in chemical etching where the etch
boundary usually recedes at a 45 degree angle relative to the
surface [3]. In EMM, however, the metal removal rate in the
lateral direction may be significantly reduced through proper
considerations of mass transport and current distribution [7].
Photoresist undercut and etch factor are the key parameters
that determine the suitability of an EMM process. Etch factor
is defined as the ratio of the amount of straight-through etch
to the amount of undercut [8]. For applications requiring high
aspect-ratio, minimized undercutting of the photoresist and a

high value of etch factor are desirable.
Production of the master artwork, surface preparation,
choice of proper photoresist, and imaging are extremely im-
portant in the successful implementation of a through-mask
etching process. Since parts produced by this process are a
direct reflection of the master artwork, it is essential that all
aspects of preparing the artwork are understood. These in-
clude a priori knowledge of the metal removal rate and etch
factor. Imaging is another important step, the objective of
which is to reproduce the artwork features as closely as possi-
ble onto the workpiece. The imaging process capability is mea-
sured by its resolution. In EMM, careful design of the walls
and height of the photoresist provide opportunities to alter
current distribution that reduce the photoresist undercutting.
9.3 BASIC PRINCIPLES
Atom-by-atom removal of metal by anodic dissolution is the

basic principle underlying electrochemical metal removal pro-
cesses. The workpiece is made an anode in an electrolytic cell
in which a salt solution is used as an electrolyte and controlled
metal removal takes place by an external current. The anodic
reaction is:
M M n ne (1)
where n is the valence of metal dissolution or the number of

electrons removed from dissolving metal atoms by anodic oxi-
dation. At the cathode, electrolytic reduction of water takes
place resulting in the formation of hydrogen gas and hydroxyl
ions:
2H2 O H2 (gas) 2OH (2)
The cathode, therefore, remains unaltered. Depending on the

nature of the material being machined and the pH of the elec-
244 Datta
trolyte, metal ions and hydroxyl ions may combine to form hy-
droxide precipitates:
M n nOH M(OH)n (s) (3)
The hydroxide precipitates remain in suspended form in solu-

tion and can be filtered.
Depending on the metalelectrolyte combination and op-
erating conditions, different anodic reactions take place at
high current densities. In the ECM literature, electrolytes are
generally categorized into two types: passivating (electrolytes
containing oxidizing anions such as nitrates and chlorates)
and nonpassivating (electrolytes containing aggressive anions
such as chlorides, bromides, iodides, and fluorides). In passiv-
ating electrolytes, the current efficiency for metal dissolution
is often lower than 100%. This condition arises as a part of
the applied current and is consumed by an oxygen evolution
reaction simultaneously occurring at the anode:
2H2O 4H O2 4e (4)
The metal removal rate, microfeature profile, surface finish,

and uniformity of metal removal are some of the performance
criteria that determine the technical feasibility of a metal re-
moval process. In EMM, these criteria are dependent on the
ability of the system to provide desired mass transport rates,
current distribution, and surface film properties at the active
surface (Fig. 2). An understanding of the metalelectrolyte in-
teraction under high-rate anodic dissolution conditions is a
prerequisite for choosing the optimum process parameters
such as electrolyte composition and voltage/current. The de-
velopment of precision tools requires an understanding of the
influence of hydrodynamics, current distribution, and process
parameters on the EMM performance. A precision tool should
provide conditions of desired current distribution and a high
rate of uniform mass transport at the dissolving surface [7].
In through-mask processes, additional issues related to lithog-
Figure 2 Dependence of EMM performance on processing and tool

parameters.
raphy processing are critical to achieving desired perfor-

mance. Careful design of the walls and height of photoresist
masks provides opportunities to alter current distribution
that reduces the photoresist undercutting. The conductivity
of the substrate material is also important in influencing the
current distribution of a dissolving thin film.
9.4 MATERIAL REMOVAL RATE
In an electrochemical dissolution process, the material re-

moval rate depends on the specific electrochemical behavior of
the metal/electrolyte system and is determined by the applied
246 Datta
current density according to Faradays Law [9]. The material

removal rate, r in cm/s, is given by
IM
r (5)
nFA
where I is the current (A), M is the molecular weight of the
dissolved material (g/mole), n is the apparent dissolution va-
lence, F is the Faraday constant, A is the surface area (cm 2 ),
and is the density (g/cm 3). The value of n can be determined
from weight loss measurements by use of Equation (6):
ItM
n (6)
WF
where t is the dissolution time (s) and W is the anodic weight
loss (g).
With proper considerations of high electrolyte flow ve-
locities and high current efficiency for metal dissolution, ex-
Table 1 Metal Dissolution Valence in Different Metal

Electrolyte Systems
Metal Electrolyte Dissolution Valence
Ni NaCl 2
Fe NaCl 2 and 3
Ni NaNO 3 2*
Fe NaNO 3 2*
Ni NaClO 3 2*
Fe NaClO 3 2*
Cr NaCl 6
Cr NaNO 3 6
Cu KCl 1 and 2
Cu KNO 3 2 and 1
Cu K 2 SO4 2 and 1
Ti NaCl 4
Ti NaBr 4
Mo KOH 6
Mo K 2 CO 3 6
* Accompanied by oxygen evolution.

tremely high metal removal rates can be obtained. A knowl-

edge of the dependence of n on the applied voltage/current
density is essential in determining the operating conditions.
The literature data on experimentally determined dissolution
valences for different metalelectrolyte systems are summa-
rized in Table 1 [9].
In ECM, the distribution of the metal dissolution rate on
the workpiece determines its final shape in relation to the tool
[10]. The machining performance is, therefore, influenced sig-
nificantly by the current density dependence of anodic reac-
tions. Passivating metalelectrolyte systems are known to
give better ECM precision because of their ability to form ox-
ide films and evolve oxygen in the stray current region [10].
Similar results have been confirmed during electrolytic jet
EMM, where passivating electrolytes have been found to yield
minimized stray cutting [5].
9.5 MASS TRANSPORT EFFECTS
Mass transport processes influence the EMM performance in

several ways. First, they influence the maximum rate of an
electrodissolution reaction, thus giving rise to a so-called lim-
iting current; second, mass transport-controlled anodic reac-
tions affect the morphology of dissolved surfaces; and finally,
mass transport processes influence the macroscopic and mi-
croscopic current distribution on the workpicce. An under-
standing of mass transport effects are, therefore, a prerequi-
site for the development of EMM processes. In the following,
a simple description of mass transport in electrochemical sys-
tems is presented with special reference to an anodic dissolu-
tion process.
During anodic dissolution, the concentration at the anode
surface can be significantly different from that of the bulk.
Since these concentrations are mainly determined by the rate
of mass transport, transport mechanisms and diffusion layer
thickness play an important role in high-rate anodic dissolu-
248 Datta
tion processes. Metal ions produced at the anode are trans-

ported into the solution by convective diffusion and migration.
To maintain electroneutrality, electrolyte anions accumulate
near the anode, causing the rate of convective diffusion away
from the anode to be compensated by the rate of migration
toward the anode. The extent of ion build-up depends on the
current density, metal dissolution efficiency, and hydrody-
namic conditions.
The Nernst diffusion layer concept has been used fre-
quently to obtain a simplified description of mass transport
effects in high-rate anodic dissolution of metals [9,11]. A stag-
nant diffusion layer of thickness is thus assumed to exist at
the anode as shown in Figure 3. Inside the diffusion layer, a
concentration gradient exists and the transport occurs exclu-
sively by diffusion. Outside the diffusion layer, transport oc-
Figure 3 Nernst diffusion layer concept describing mass transport

at the dissolving anode surface. A typical anodic polarization curve
exhibiting a limiting current is also included (inset).
curs by convection and the electrolyte concentration is as-

sumed to be constant. The thickness of the anodic diffusion
layer depends on hydrodynamic conditions and is given by
L
(7)
Sh
where L is a characteristic length and Sh is the Sherwood
number that represents the nondimensional mass transport
rate. The Sherwood number can also be regarded as the nor-
malized or nondimensionalized diffusion layer thickness. An
exhaustive list of derived expressions describing Sh f(Re,
Sc) are available in the literature for various flow situations
and geometries [12]. For an unsubmerged circular impinging
jet, the mass transport rate in the impingement region is given
by [13]
0.09
Sh 0.9 Re 1/2
Sc 1/2

h
d
(8)
while for a flow channel cell under laminar conditions [9]:

1/3
Dh
Sh 1.85 Re Sc (9a)
L
and under turbulent conditions [9]:

Sh 0.22 Re 7/8 Sc1/4 (9b)
where Re ( D h v /) is the Reynolds number that character-
izes the flow and Sc ( D /) is the Schmidt number; D h is the
hydraulic diameter, v is the flow velocity, is the kinematic
viscosity, h is the nozzle height, and d is the nozzle diameter.
The effect of fluid flow on the convective mass transport
in a photoresist patterned workpiece is expressed by the Peclet
number Pe, which is defined as follows,
L
Pe (10)
D
250 Datta
The influence of the Peclet number on the average mass trans-

fer rate in a cavity has been correlated based on experimen-
tally measured average mass transfer coefficients during etch-
ing of patterned Cu samples [14]. The following empirical
correlation was obtained,

0.83
L
Sh 0.3 Pe 0.33 (11)
H
where L and H are, respectively, the width and height of the

cavity.
Equation (11) has been found to be in agreement with the
average mass transfer rates calculated by solving the equa-
tions for Stokes flow by the finite element method and by a
combination of the boundary integral method and Lighthill
boundary layer analysis [14].
Investigation of anodic dissolution behavior of several
ECM and electropolishing systems has indicated that polar-
ization of a workpiece at anodic high potentials leads to a lim-
iting current plateau for metal dissolution reaction [9,11,15].
These studies have confirmed that the limiting current den-
sity is controlled by convective mass transport [9,11,15].
For an anodic reaction that is controlled by convective
mass transport, the anodic current density, i, is given by
Cs Cb
i nFD (12)

where D is the effective diffusion coefficient that takes into
account the contributions from transport by migration [9], C
is the surface concentration, C b is the bulk concentration, and
is the diffusion layer thickness.
An increase in current density leads to an increase in the
rate of metal ion production at the anode. When the metal ion
concentration at the surface exceeds the saturation limit, pre-
cipitation of a thin salt film occurs. This leads to an increase
in the surface resistance thereby increasing the anode poten-
tial. The polarization curve under these conditions exhibits a
limiting current plateau (Fig. 3). At the limiting current, i l ,

Equation (12) becomes:
C sat
i l nFD (13)

where C sat is the saturation concentration of the precipitating
salt at the surface. The electrolyte is assumed to contain a
negligibly small concentration of metal, hence C b is taken to
be zero.
Interestingly, in many systems the limiting current pla-
teau does not correspond to the maximum machining rate; it
merely signifies the limiting rate of a dissolution reaction for
a given oxidation state [9]. The maximum rate of machining
is limited by the ability of the system to eliminate reaction
products and Joule heating. Nevertheless, the limiting current
has a profound influence on the EMM performance since it
influences the dissolution stoichiometry, surface finish, and
current distribution as described below.
The formation of salt films on the anode influences the
surface morphology of a dissolved workpiece. Different studies
have conclusively demonstrated that two distinctly different
surface morphologies result from dissolution [9,11,15]. At low
current densities, surface etching is observed which, de-
pending on the metal electrolyte combination, reveals crystal-
lographic steps and etch pits, preferred grain boundary attack,
or finely dispersed microstructure, leading to extremely rough
surfaces. On the other hand, electropolished surfaces are ob-
tained from dissolution at, or above, the limiting current den-
sity. Under these conditions, formation of salt films at the sur-
face suppresses the influence of crystallographic orientation
and surface defects on the dissolution process, thus yielding
microfinished surfaces. The presence of salt films may in-
crease the anode potential to such high values that dissolution
reactions involving different oxidation states or the onset of
oxygen evolution may become possible [9,11,15].
Several investigations have demonstrated the impor-
tance of salt films on the current distribution during EMM of
252 Datta
photoresist masked anodes [16,17]. Below the limiting cur-

rent, widely spaced patterns were found to dissolve more rap-
idly than the closely spaced patterns because the current dis-
tribution under those conditions was dependent mainly on the
electrical field in the interelectrode gap [16]. In the presence
of salt films, the nonuniformity of the electrical field plays a
minor role, the rate of dissolution being governed by local hy-
drodynamic conditions. Therefore, at the limiting current, at
which the current distribution is dependent on the rate of
transport of dissolution products from the anode into the bulk,
uniform dissolution occurred independently of pattern spacing
[16]. The important role of surface layers of dissolution prod-
ucts in influencing the shape profiles during EMM has been
emphasized in several publications [7,8,10,14,16,17].
From the above discussion it is apparent that the op-
erating current density in EMM should be equal to, or higher
than, the limiting current density to obtain dissolution unifor-
mity and electropolished surfaces. The operating current den-
sity should also be high enough to yield desired directionality
of dissolution [7,17]. On the other hand, application of high
current density in the processing of thin films leads to an un-
controllable fast process and issues related to nonuniformi-
ties, particularly at the point of electrical contact. In order to
alleviate these problems in an EMM process, it is desirable to
choose conditions that provide a low rate of metal removal and
hence a low operating current density. These two opposing re-
quirements are best met by using pulsating current, which
permits the application of extremely high peak currents (volt-
age) and, in addition to giving directionality, permits the
metal dissolution to take place with high efficiency. Pulsed
current EMM has, indeed, been demonstrated to be extremely
effective in the patterning of thin films and foils [7,17].
9.6 PULSED EMM
The uses and advantages of pulsating current in electroplat-

ing have been well documented in the literature [18]. Several
studies have shown that a pulsating current can also be ad-

vantageously employed in EMM, ECM, and finishing opera-
tions [7,17,1921]. An important aspect of using a pulsating
current is the possibility of varying instantaneous mass trans-
port conditions at the anode by independently varying the
pulse parameters [19]. In the following section, a short discus-
sion on mass transport during pulsed anodic dissolution is pre-
sented. In principle, either current or voltage pulses of any
shape can be applied. The discussion is restricted to rectangu-
lar current pulses separated by zero currents.
For a pulsating current, the average current density ia is
given by
tp
ia ip ip (14)
t p tp
where i p is the peak current density, t p is the pulse on time,

and tp, is the pulse off-time. The ratio tp/(tp tp) is defined
as the duty cycle .
Mass transport in pulse electrolysis is a combination
of steady-state and nonsteady-state diffusion processes. In
pulsed ECM (PECM), mass transport has been characterized
by a duplex diffusion layer model [19]. According to the model,
a stagnant diffusion layer of thickness exists at the dissolv-
ing anode, the value of depending on the hydrodynamic con-
ditions that apply. The presence of a pulsating current leads
to the formation of a time-dependant diffusion layer of thick-
ness p close to the anode surface within which the dissolved
metal ion concentration is a periodic function of time. The dif-
fusion layer thickness p is predicted to be

0.5
4
p Dt p (1 ) (15)

The pulse-limiting current density is defined as the peak cur-

rent density at which the surface concentration reaches C at
the end of the pulse. Its predicted behavior is given by the
expression [19]
254 Datta
1
i pl i l p

(1 ) (16)
Thus by suitable choice of magnitude of pulse parameters, it

should be possible to achieve high instantaneous mass trans-
port rates even at low electrolyte flow rates. An analysis aimed
at predicting electrolyte heating in narrow gaps under pulsed
ECM conditions has indicated that the instantaneous and av-
erage electrolyte heating can be minimized by working with a
small pulse-on time and a low duty cycle [19]. Experimental
results obtained under well-controlled hydrodynamic condi-
tions in a flow channel cell using passivating and nonpassivat-
ing systems have indicated that a good surface finish and high
current efficiency for metal dissolution can be obtained even
at low average current densities [19]. Figure 4 compares the
current efficiency for nickel dissolution in a nitrate electrolyte
as a function of current density, obtained by direct current and
pulsed current dissolution [19]. It is interesting to note that
at a current density at which most of the current is consumed
for O2 evolution in d.c. operation, use of a pulsed current yields
nearly 100% metal dissolution. This behavior allows the disso-
Figure 4 Current efficiency for nickel dissolution in 6-M sodium

nitrate electrolyte under pulsed and direct current conditions. (From
Ref. 19.)
lution of passivating metals under transpassive conditions

with a high current efficiency without the need for a high aver-
age current density and high electrolyte flow.
The above concepts have been used to develop an electro-
chemical saw for maskless metal cutting [20]. Recently, pulsed
EMM has been used to fabricate an array of high precision,
microsmooth nozzles in metal foils for use in inkjet printers
[17]. Pulsed dissolution has been found to be particularly suit-
able for through-mask micromachining of thin films, an appli-
cation in which low dissolution rates are desirable for better
control over the machining process [17].
9.7 SHAPE EVOLUTION AND CONTROL
The prediction of shape evolution during high-rate anodic dis-

solution requires solving the current distribution at the anode
along with a moving boundary algorithm. The current distri-
bution at the anode depends on the geometry, anodic reaction
kinetics, electrolyte conductivity, and hydrodynamic condi-
tions. For simulation of shape evolution during EMM, the cur-
rent distribution is solved for an initial anode profile. The sur-
face of the anode is then moved proportionately to the current
distribution by use of Faradays law. This process is repeated
at several time-steps to predict the shape evolution at the
anode. A wide variety of numerical techniques, such as the
finite element (FEM) and boundary element methods (BEM)
are available for solving fluid flow, mass transport, and cur-
rent distribution problems. These numerical techniques have
been extensively used to investigate shape evolution during
maskless and through-mask EMM under primary and tertiary
current distribution conditions [22,24].
In a recent investigation of maskless electrolytic jet-
EMM, the finite element method was used for modeling the
system [22]. The modeling was performed by means of FIDAP,
the Fluid Dynamics Analysis Package by Fluid Dynamics In-
ternational. The influence of flow velocity and interelectrode
256 Datta
gap on the shape evolution was investigated by examining flat

and cavity impingement surfaces. The mass transport rate at
the side walls of the cavity was found to be higher than at the
bottom or a flat surface. The high machining rate at the side
walls led to lateral expansion of the machined microfeatures,
leading to tapered profiles, as shown in Figure 5 [22].
The shape evolution during through-mask EMM has
been modeled under the conditions of primary current distri-
bution through the boundary element method [23,24]. Figure
6(a) shows a schematic of a photoresist-patterned metal film
supported by an insulating film or substrate. During EMM,
the current density along the exposed metal surface is a func-
tion of the cavity geometry and hence the undercut and the
shape of the evolving surface is governed by the (i) aspect-ratio
Figure 5 Numerically modeled profiles of holes at different times

in a jet-EMM process, and an experimentally determined profile
(solid line) of a hole in tungsten foil formed by an electrolytic jet of
3 M NaOH using parameters: nozzle diameter 100 m; electrolyte
velocity 1000 cm/s; interelectrode spacing 2 mm; cell voltage 150V;
and dissolution time 4.8 s. (From Ref. 22.)
Figure 6 (a) Schematic diagram of a photoresist-patterned metal

film supported by an insulator and (b) numerically modeled shape
of metal profile during through-mask EMM. (From Ref. 23.)
(h/L), (ii) spacing-to-opening ratio (a/L), and (iii) film thick-

ness ratio (b/L).
For aspect-ratios greater than 0.5, the maximum vertical
displacement of the metal surface is at the center and the
shape of the evolving cavity can be fit by an ellipse. The etch
factor is independent of the spacing-to-opening ratio and de-
creases as the cavity evolves. For very low aspect-ratios, the
258 Datta
initial current density distribution is highly nonuniform and

the maximum in the current density distribution occurs at the
edges of the feature. This leads to the maximum vertical dis-
placement (or maximum etched depth) to be at the edges. The
shape of this evolving cavity cannot be fit by an ellipse. How-
ever, as the dissolution proceeds, the metal surface under the
photoresist draws some of the current and the maximum in
the current density distribution at the evolving surface starts
to move towards the center of the feature.
Figure 6(b) shows the evolution of the metal wall profile
during through-mask EMM. The shape of the evolving cavity
has been shown starting from the point just prior to the expo-
sure of the insulator under the metal film. The current lines
are more concentrated on the easily accessible metal on top of
the insulator. On the other hand, the shadowing effect of the
photoresist prevents easy access of current flow to the metal
under the photoresist. The metal film near to the insulator is,
therefore, removed faster than that under the photoresist.
This leads to a straight wall of the machined microfeature.
In a recent study, the influence of the photoresist wall
angle on shape evolution during through-mask EMM has been
investigated [23]. At the beginning of the EMM process, the
primary current distribution at the anode surface is very sen-
sitive to the photoresist wall angle. However, as the EMM pro-
cess continues, the evolving cavity causes significant redistri-
bution of the current along the electrode surface, the current
distribution becoming more uniform. Acute-angled masks im-
prove the directionality of through-mask EMM by reducing
the undercut for thin metal films. However, the influence of
the mask wall angle diminishes with increasing metal film
thickness [23].
9.8 EMM TOOLS
Development of an effective EMM process requires careful de-

sign and fabrication of a tool that provides desired current dis-
tribution and mass transport conditions at the dissolving

surface. The electrolyte delivery system is one of the main con-
siderations in the design of a precision tool. Different electro-
lyte delivery systems that are applicable in EMM include
channel flow, electrolytic jet, slotted jet, and multinozzle sys-
tems [5,11,13,25,26]. Sample orientation, electrical contact,
and provisions for filtration are some of the other important
design aspects that need to be taken into account.
9.8.1 Jet-EMM Tool

In jet-EMM, a stream of electrolyte flows through a nozzle and
impinges on a workpiece which is made an anode while the
nozzle acts as the cathode. This leads to an extremely localized
dissolution on the workpiece at the impingement region. Mass
transfer studies at a submerged jet as well as a free-standing
jet impinging on a barrier substrate have been reported in the
literature [13,25]. For a free-standing circular jet impinging
on a flat workpiece surface, there is a stagnation area in the
impingement region where the mass transport boundary layer
thickness is relatively independent of radial position. The di-
ameter of this region of uniform mass transfer is roughly equal
to twice the jet diameter [13].
A high-precision jet-EMM tool for maskless patterning is
shown in Figure 7 [7]. The tool consists of a movable sample
anode assembly, a jet assembly, and an electrolyte reservoir.
All of these components are assembled on a vibration-free X
Y table. The sample holder, mounted on the arm of the XY
table, moves in a plane perpendicular to the electrolyte jet.
The nozzle, which also acts as a cathode, is a metal-shanked
quartz capillary (microglass) mounted on stainless steel. The
nozzle assembly is fitted to a rail-table which can be moved
in the Z-direction thus allowing the adjustment of the inter-
electrode distance. The electrolyte is pumped through a fine
filter (mace) for corrosion product removal and the flowrate is
measured with a flowmeter. A three-way valve directs the flow
either directly in the electrolyte tank or through the nozzle.
260 Datta
Figure 7 Schematic diagram of a high-precision jet-EMM tool for

maskless patterning. (From Ref. 7.)
The temperature of the electrolyte is measured in the tank

and at the nozzle. The hydraulic pressure is measured at the
pump exit and just before the nozzle. A pH-meter is dipped in
the electrolyte tank. Pipes and connectors are made of stain-
less steel. A high-voltage (400 V) power supply provides the
required current or cell voltage and a high-speed multimeter
is used to accurately measure the current.
9.8.2 One-Sided Through-Mask EMM Tool

Figure 8(a) shows a one-sided EMM tool [26]. The tool consists
of a driving mechanism (XYZ table) for sample movement, and
an electrolyte delivery system in the form of a multinozzle as-
sembly. Other accessories (not shown in Fig. 8) include an
electrolyte reservoir and electrolyte pumping and filtration
units. The multinozzle assembly also acts as the cathode. The
sample is held in a sample holder which is attached to the XYZ
Figure 8 Schematic diagram of (a) one-sided and (b) two-sided

through-mask EMM tools. (From Refs. 26 and 27.)
table and is moved at a constant speed over the multinozzle

cathode. The interelectrode spacing is kept constant between
1 to 3 mm. A 25-mm wide multinozzle flow assembly provides
high-speed electrolyte impingement at the dissolving surface
thus permitting effective removal of the dissolved products
and of the heat generated by joule heating. The tool can be
used for EMM of samples of different sizes. The active area
at a given time during micromachining is defined by the elec-
trolyte in contact with the sample. Within the interelectrode
gap, the electrolyte emanating from the multinozzle cathode
262 Datta
flows towards the workpiece and is directed downwards flow-

ing on the sides of the cathode. This provides nonuniform cur-
rent distribution at the part of the workpiece that is in contact
with the electrolyte. The current, and hence the metal removal
rate, attains a high value in the impingement region while a
gradual drop of current as a function of the distance away from
the impingement region leads to low metal removal rates in
these regions. Scanning the cathode or the sample serves to
equalize the distribution of the metal removal rate by compen-
sating for the stray current effect since every part of the sam-
ple undergoes both high current and stray current regions in
cycle.
9.8.3 Two-Sided Through-Mask EMM Tool

Figure 8(b) shows a two-sided EMM tool that was recently de-
veloped for high-speed fabrication of molybdenum masks [27].
The tool uses a novel concept of localized dissolution induced
by scanning two cathode assemblies over a vertically held
workpiece providing movement of the electrolyte. Highly local-
ized dissolution by using a small cathode width and an ex-
tremely small interelectrode spacing provides directionality of
metal removal and uniformity of current distribution. The
electrolyte flows through the cathode body at between 0.8 and
3 gpm. It then flows across the cathode surface between the
cathode and the mask anode. Two flow types were investigated
in this study: shearing flow from top to bottom, and impinging
flow directed into the mask anode. The cathodes were scanned
back and forth across the vertically held anode mask at rates
between 0.5 and 7 cm/sec by use of an Anorad linear motion
tool. Unlike many spray systems that are pressurized and in-
volve solution spilling, the EMM tool is a nonpressurized sys-
tem with electrolyte flowing in the downward direction. The
tool is extremely flexible; it can handle different sample sizes
and it can employ different interelectrode spacings and elec-
trolyte flow.
9.9 APPLICATIONS OF EMM
Some selected examples of maskless and through-mask EMM

processes are described in the following paragraphs. These ex-
amples demonstrate the opportunities offered by EMM in the
fabrication of microcomponents, particularly as a high-speed,
environmentally friendly, and cost-effective process.
9.9.1 Maskless EMM

In maskless EMM, one of the main considerations of process
feasibility is its ability to localize the dissolution (machining)
process so that selective dissolution takes place from the de-
sired area of the workpiece. Selectivity in maskless EMM is
governed by the current density dependence of anodic reac-
tions [7,9]. In the machining area where the workpiece directly
faces the electrolytic jet, the anodic reaction rate is constant.
Away from the machining area, current density on the work-
piece decreases to zero. In a passivating metal electrolyte sys-
tem, in which oxygen evolution takes place at low current den-
sities, current efficiency for metal removal varies as a function
of the distance away from the machining area. In nonpassivat-
ing systems, on the other hand, current efficiency may remain
independent of current density. Therefore, a better selectivity
is expected in a passivating system because of its ability to
form oxide films and evolve oxygen in the stray current region.
In the following, electrochemical drilling and electrolytic jet
etching methods are described as maskless EMM processes of
microfabrication. Electrochemical drilling is generally used
for microfabrication of high aspect-ratio holes in thick plates,
which involves advancement of the tool into the workpiece
similar to that in conventional ECM. On the other hand, in
jet-EMM, the interelectrode gap does not change significantly
during machining, since the thickness of material to be re-
moved is very small, thus eliminating the need to move the
cathode towards the workpiece.
264 Datta
Capillary Drilling of Cooling Holes

The jet engine industry requires drilling of high aspect-ratio,
fine diameter holes through relatively thick blades [4]. These
fine holes provide cool air passages to turbine blades that are
vulnerable to overheating. A large number of fine holes in
tough cast alloys are required to depths between 6 and 16 mm
and their diameters between 0.25 and 0.4 mm. The process
must produce the holes to a consistent and acceptable quality,
and satisfy necessary production targets for reliability and
cost. Electrochemical capillary drilling has proved to be the
only machining method that fully meets these criteria. Elec-
tron beam (see Chapter 11) and laser drilling, as alternatives,
do not fully satisfy the stringent surface quality standards.
Electrodischarge drilling is inconsistent in performance and
is not economical above the 10:1 depth-to-diameter geometry
(see Chapter 7).
A schematic diagram of a capillary drilling process is
shown in Figure 1(b). The drill tube is a glass capillary
through which flows a dilute solution of nitric acid as the elec-
trolyte. The cathode is a platinum wire sized to suit the fine
tube bore without restricting the electrolyte flow through the
tube. The wire is positioned 2 mm back from the tube tip. The
process operates at 700 kN/m2 and 100 V. The tooling features
a multiple tube drilling assembly with a simple snap-on loca-
tion to the machine feed and acid supply. By this technique,
holes are drilled on production components within 0.05 mm
of nominal position and to a dimetral tolerance of 0.05 mm.
Electrochemical drilling is a cost-effective method capable of
drilling fine holes above a 10 :1 aspect-ratio [4].
Maskless EMM by Electrolytic Jet

Several investigations of electrolytic jet-EMM for microfabri-
cation have been reported in the literature [5,7,22,28]. A sys-
tematic study was conducted to determine the influence of ap-
plied cell voltage, nozzle diameter, and dissolution time on
metal removal rate and shape evolution of different through-
and blind-patterns [28]. A 5-M sodium nitrate solution was

used as the electrolyte. Experimental data consisted of micro-
machining arrays of holes and slots and a preprogrammed pat-
tern. Samples consisted of foils of copper, molybdenum, and
stainless steel of thickness varying between 50 and 250 m.
The interelectrode gap was kept constant at 3 mm. The nozzle
dimensions varied between 50 and 175 m, applied voltage
varied between 100 and 300V for a constant interelectrode gap
of 3 mm, and dissolution time varied between 1 and 8 s for
EMM of holes. Results are summarized in Table 2 [7,28],
which shows that an increase in cell voltage leads to an in-
creased micromachining rate but has little influence on the
patterned diameter/width. The pattern diameter/width is ap-
proximately twice the nozzle diameter indicating that machin-
ing is mainly concentrated in the stagnation area of the im-
pingement region.
An investigation of jet and laser-jet EMM in which so-
dium chloride and sodium nitrate solutions were used indi-
cated that a laser beam helped in focusing the applied current
into the machining area thereby increasing the effective ma-
chining rate and precision in a chloride solution [5]. An elec-
trolytic jet of nitrate solution gave high current efficiency for
metal dissolution and minimized stray cutting at high current
Table 2 Rate and Precision of Jet EMM

Nozzle dia. Voltage Rate Hole dia.
Material (m) (V) (m/s) (m)
50 300 12.5 100
100 100 173
302 SS 100 200 12.5 195
100 300 16.7 200
175 300 16.7 304
Copper 100 100 08.3 200
100 200 16.7 210
100 100 04.5 194
Moly 100 200 08.3 204
100 300 11.0 205
266 Datta
densities. However, the incorporation of a laser beam in a jet of

nitrate solution was found to be undesirable since it promoted
oxygen evolution.
Figure 9 shows a photograph of a micromachined pattern
in a stainless foil produced with a high-speed maskless jet-
EMM tool. The jet-EMM technique has also been extended to
many other materials including conducting ceramic films. It
is expected that jet-EMM will find applications in many spe-
cialized processes such as circuit repair and micromachining
of hard to machine materials. In these applications jet-EMM
is particularly attractive since it eliminates the need for ex-
pensive photolithographic steps.
9.9.2 Through-Mask EMM

Application of through-mask EMM in microfabrication re-
quires an understanding of some of the complexities and chal-
lenges associated with the process. The most important of
Figure 9 Through-slots micromachined in a 50-m thick stainless

steel sheet using a 5-M sodium nitrate electrolyte jet. The nozzle
diameter is 200 m. (From Ref. 5.)
these is the elimination of loss of electrical contact in the case

of one-sided EMM. Other challenges include the ability of
EMM to provide: uniformity of metal removal on the sample
scale and on the feature scale, straight and smooth walls, and
minimized undercutting for fine features. These factors are
primarily governed by current distribution and mass trans-
port conditions on the dissolving sample.
In the following, several different applications of
through-mask EMM are presented. Two examples show the
use of one-sided through-mask EMM to obtain patterns with
precise angular walls and conical structures. The third exam-
ple shows the application of two-sided through-mask EMM in
the fabrication of metal masks.
Inkjet Nozzle Plates

Inkjet printing technology relies on the basic principle of forc-
ing ink through a nozzle in the printer head. Inkjet printers
used for computer output typically have nozzle diameters in
the 40-to 100-m range [29]. The print quality is very sensitive
to small differences in nozzle shape and dimensions. Electro-
formed nozzles are currently used in inkjet products manufac-
tured by Siemens, Dataproducts, and Hewlett-Packard [29].
Electroformed nozzles are produced by plating nickel onto a
mandrel (mold) which defines the image of the nozzle, and
then removing the finished part [29,30]. A thin protective film
of gold is often used in cases where a particular ink otherwise
might corrode the nickel. The electroforming process, how-
ever, is limited to materials that can be electroplated and is
relatively expensive for low-end applications. In a recent pub-
lication, a cost-effective, high-speed process for the fabrication
of precision nozzles using through-mask EMM has been de-
scribed [17]. The process involves fabrication of a series of flat-
bottomed V-shaped nozzles in a metal foil. The process is
applicable to a variety of materials including high-strength
corrosion-resistant materials such as conducting ceramics.
268 Datta
Through-mask EMM, therefore, provides the possibility of fab-

ricating high nozzle density plates employing mechanically
stable foil materials.
The fabrication of nozzle plates by EMM involves the fol-
lowing steps [17]. A cleaned metallic foil is laminated with
photoresist on both sides of the foil. The photoresist on one
side is then exposed and developed to define the initial pat-
tern, consisting of an array of circular openings. A controlled
EMM process is employed to fabricate flat-bottomed V-shaped
(frustum of right circular cone) nozzles on the sample. The
photoresist is then stripped and the sample is inspected for
entry and exit holes. A sample typically consists of a series
of photoresist-patterned nozzle plates each containing thou-
sands of exposed vias to be micromachined. A 25-m thick
stainless steel foil is laminated with 25-m thick photoresist
on both sides. The photoresist on one side is exposed and de-
veloped for patterning while the blanket photoresist on the
back side of the foil serves as a protective insulating layer.
The photoresist pattern consists of an array of circular open-
ings, 55 m in diameter.
Direct and pulsed voltage experiments were performed
with a neutral salt solution of sodium chloride and glycerol
mixture as the electrolyte. The results demonstrated the im-
portance of the role of mass transport-controlled-limiting cur-
rent and surface films in the fabrication of precision nozzles
with smooth surfaces. By controlling the extent of microma-
chining, nozzles of desired shapes could be fabricated. An
array of nozzles fabricated by this method is shown in Figure
10 [17]. The final nozzle shape was determined by several fac-
tors that included undercutting, etch factor, dissolution time,
and dissolution conditions.
Pulsating voltage EMM was found to be effective in pro-
viding dimensional uniformity of an array of nozzles. This
was due to the possibility of applying extremely high peak
currents (voltage) which, in addition to giving directionality,
enabled breakdown and elimination of inhibiting layers thus
facilitating activation of all the openings at the same time.
Figure 10 SEM photographs of nozzles fabricated in a 25-micron

thick stainless steel foil using one-sided through-mask EMM tech-
nique: (a) part of the nozzle plate showing an array of nozzles; and
(b) details of nozzles showing precision and surface smoothness.
(From Ref. 17.)
The feasibility of fabricating an array of hundreds to thou-

sands of precision nozzles with microsmooth surfaces in cop-
per and stainless steel foils was thus demonstrated. On a 25-
m thick stainless foil patterned with a photoresist opening
of 55-m diameter, a specified exit hole dimension of 55 m
was achieved with a standard deviation below 2.0. A desired
nozzle angle of 27 was produced with an etch factor of 2
(etch factor was defined earlier in Section 9.2). The results of
these studies conclusively demonstrated the effectiveness of
270 Datta
through-mask EMM in the fabrication of precision nozzle

plates for inkjet printers [17].
Cone Connectors
Cone connectors represent a new generation of connectors
with low total load which finds application in pad-on-pad cable
connectors for flex, chip burn in pads, high performance
boards, and the like [31]. Effective cone connector structures
are characterized by small tips, tall cones, and strong material
of fabrication. At present the cones are fabricated by laser ab-
lation of polymeric films followed by metallization. This tech-
nique produces relatively good quality cones but involves sev-
eral steps thus making the process expensive. Furthermore,
the cones fabricated by this method lack the desired mechani-
cal strength. A high-speed process of fabricating cones by
through-mask EMM has been developed and patented [31].
The process is applicable to a variety of metals and alloys and
is independent of the hardness of the material.
A photoresist pattern in the form of evenly spaced dots
is generated on the metallic material that is suitably selected
for the pad-on-pad connector. During EMM, the anode mate-
rial dissolves in those areas that remain unprotected by the
photoresist. As anodic dissolution continues, the removal of
material between the dots leads to formation of cavities and
finally leads to the formation of cones as shown in Figure 11.
Preferential dissolution in the desired direction is achieved by
employing a multinozzle assembly in which extremely high
impinging electrolyte flow can be applied. Cones on copper and
hardened stainless steel (Fe13Cr) sheets have been gener-
ated by this method. Figure 11 shows SEM microphotographs
of the cones fabricated on a hardened stainless steel sheet. The
desired size and shape of cones could be obtained by proper
design of the photoresist dimensions and by properly control-
ling the amount of charge passed during EMM. By choosing
proper electrolyte and machining conditions many other met-
als and alloys can be used to fabricate such cones.
Figure 11 SEM photographs of cones fabricated by one-sided

through-mask EMM; cones with (a) flat tip, and (b) extremely fine
tip. (From Ref. 31.)
272 Datta
Metal Masks
Fabrication of metal masks involves through patterning by
etching of a foil that is coated with perfectly aligned patterned
photoresist on two sides. In a typical present-day processing,
molybdenum masks are etched in a spray etcher using heated
alkaline potassium ferricyanide solution. The solution will
lose its etching activity as a larger quantity of the ferricyanide
is reduced to ferrocyanide. Larger volume users regenerate
the etchant electrochemically or by using a chemical oxidizer
such as ozone. The spent etchant must be disposed of as haz-
ardous waste. In addition, the rinsewater from the etching op-
eration must also be segregated and treated as a hazardous
waste stream.
As a greener alternative, a novel EMM process has been
developed recently for high-speed fabrication of molybdenum
masks using a salt solution as the electrolyte [17]. A prototype
precision tool of the type shown in Figure 8(b) was employed
to fabricate molybdenum masks of different sizes (225 225
mm and 250 250 mm). Features on the sheet, as many as
120,000, were etched to a precision of 10% of the total feature
size. An SEM photograph of a molybdenum mask fabricated
by EMM is shown in Figure 12. The microfabrication data of
EMM obtained in salt solution at ambient temperature were
compared with those obtained by a conventional chemical
etching process with ferricyanide solution. Performance crite-
ria included machining rate, surface finish, aspect-ratio, and
simplicity of operation. The metal removal rate in EMM was
found to be orders of magnitude higher than that in chemi-
cal etching. Operating EMM at, or higher than, the limiting
current density provided conditions for microsmooth surface
and patterning uniformity. Ability to maintain a thin layer of
salt film at the surface was a key to obtaining uniformity of
etching and a high aspect-ratio. A higher aspect-ratio was
achieved by increasing electrolyte impingement at the surface
[17].
Figure 12 SEM photograph of a metal mask fabricated by two-

sided through-mask EMM. Note that smooth surfaces and straight
walls are obtained by EMM. (From Ref. 27.)
SYMBOLS AND NOTATION
a Half width of photoresist covered spacing (cm)

A Surface area (cm 2)
b Thickness of metallic film (cm)
Cs Concentration of metal ions at the surface (mol/
cm 3)
Csat Saturation concentration of the precipitating salt
(mol/cm3)
Cb Concentration of metal ions in the bulk solution
(mol/cm3)
d Nozzle diameter (cm)
D Effective diffusion coefficient of metal ions (cm 2 /s)
Dh Hydraulic diameter (cm)
274 Datta
F Faraday constant (96,500 C/equivalent)

h Photoresist mask height in through-mask EMM
(cm)
i Current density (A/cm 2)
ia Average current density (A/cm2)
il Limiting current density (A/cm2)
ip Peak current density (A/cm2)
ipl Pulse limiting current density (A/cm2)
I Applied current (A)
L Characteristic length or feature opening width (cm)
L Final feature width (cm)
M Molecular weight of the metal (g/mol)
n Valence of metal dissolution
Pe Peclet number
r Material removal rate (cm/s)
Re Reynolds number
Sc Schmidt number
Sh Sherwood number
t Time (s)
tp Pulse-on time (s)
tp Pulse-off time (s)
v Flow velocity (cm/s)
w Half-width of the feature (cm)
W Amount of material removed (g)
GREEK
Photoresist angle
Diffusion layer thickness (cm)
p Pulsating diffusion layer thickness (cm)
Kinematic viscosity of electrolyte (cm2 /s)
Density of material (g/cm3)
Duty cycle
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[1] J. A. McGeough, Advanced Methods of Machining. Chap-

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[3] D. P. Seraphim, R. C. Lasky, and C. Y. Li, Editors, Principles
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[4] D. A. Glew. In Proceedings of ISEM-6, Cracow, Poland, 309
(1980).
[5] M. Datta, L. T. Romankiw, D. R. Vigliotti, and R. J. von Gut-
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nickel and steel. J. Electrochem. Soc. (136) 2251 (1989).
[6] C. van Osenbruggen and C. de Reg. Phillips Tech. Rev. (42)
22 (1985).
[7] M. Datta, Electrochemical micromachining. In Electrochemi-
cal Technology: Innovations and New Developments. N. Ma-
suko, T. Osaka, and Y. Ito, Editors, Kodansha/Gordon and
Breach, Tokyo, 137 (1996).
[8] M. Datta, The Electrochem. Soc. Interface (4) 2, 32 (1995).
[9] M. Datta, IBM J. Res. Dev. (37) 2, 207 (1993).
[10] M. Datta, R. V. Shenoy, and L. T. Romankiw, J. Engineering
for Industry, Transactions of the ASME (118) 29 (1996).
[11] M. Datta and D. Landolt, Electrochim. Acta (25) 1255, 1263
(1980).
[12] J. R. Selman and C. W. Tobias, Adv. Chem. Eng. (10) 211
(1978).
[13] D. T. Chin and K.-L. Hsueh, Electrochim. Acta (31) 561 (1986).
[14] R. C. Alkire, H. Deligianni, and J.-B. Ju, J. Electrochem. Soc.
(137) 818 (1990).
[15] M. Datta and D. Vercruysse, J. Electrochem. Soc. (137) 3016
(1990).
[16] E. Rosset, M. Datta, and D. Landolt, J. Appl. Electrochem. (20)
69 (1990).
[17] M. Datta, J. Electrochem. Soc. (142) 3801 (1995).
[18] J. C. Puippe and F. Leaman, Theory and Practice of Pulse Plat-
276 Datta
ing. American Electroplaters and Surface Finishers Society,

Florida, (1986).
[19] M. Datta and D. Landolt, Electrochim. Acta (26) 899 (1981);
(27) 385 (1982).
[20] M. Datta and D. Landolt, J. Appl. Electrochem. (13) 795
(1983).
[21] E. Rosset, M. Datta and D. Landolt, Plat. Surf. Finish. (71) 60
(1985).
[22] S. J. Jaw, J. M. Fenton, and M. Datta, Electrochemical micro-
fabrication 11. In ECS Proceedings, Vol. 94-32, M. Datta, K.
Sheppard, and J. Dukovic, Editors, The Electrochemical Soci-
ety, New Jersey, 217 (1995).
[23] R. V. Shenoy and M. Datta, J. Electrochem. Soc. (143) 544
(1996).
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Soc. (143) 2306 (1996).
[25] R. C. Alkire and T.-J. Chen, J. Electrochem. Soc. (129) 2424
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[26] M. Datta and L. T. Romankiw, U.S. Patent No. 5,284,554
(1994).
[27] M. Datta and D. Harris, Electrochimica Acta (42) 3007 (1997).
[28] C. Clerc, M. Datta, and L. T. Romankiw. In Patterning Science
and Technology, R. Gleason, G. J. Haffron, and L. K. White,
Editors, Electrochemical Society, New Jersey, PV 90-1 (1990).
[29] W. J. Lloyd and H. H. Taub, Ink jet printing, in Output Hard
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Patent No 5,105,537, April 21 (1992).
10
Ion Beam Machining
Joseph McGeough
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Ion beam machining takes place in a vacuum chamber, with

charged atoms (ions) fired from an ion source towards a target
(the workpiece) by means of an accelerating voltage. Ion beam
machining (IBM) is associated with the sputtering phenome-
non first reported by Grove in 1852 (see Carter and Colligon
[1]). While investigating the electrical conductivity of gasses,
Grove discovered that metallic substances had become depos-
ited on the glass walls of the glow discharge tube that he was
using. He inferred that metal atoms had been removed from
the surfaces of the electrode, and subsequently had adhered
to the walls of the glass tube. Later the mechanism underlying
277
278 McGeough
Groves finding was established as the ejection of atoms from

a surface when it is bombarded by other ions.
10.2 ION BEAM MACHINING SYSTEM
An ion beam machine has several main components:
1. A plasma source that generates the ions;

2. Extraction grids for removing the ions from the
plasma and accelerating them towards the substrate
(or specimen); and
3. A table for holding the specimen.
10.2.1 Ion Source

For the removal of an atom from the surface by impingement
of an ion, or ions, a source of ions is required that should pro-
duce a sufficiently intense beam with an acceptable spread in
its energy. Jolly et al. [2] have reviewed suitable ion sources
for IBM equipment. They draw attention to the electron-bom-
bardment ion source, or Kaufman system. Its main charac-
teristics have been summarized by Spencer and Schmidt [3]
and are presented in Table 1.
10.2.2 Plasma Source

As indicated in Figure 1, a heated filament, usually tungsten,
acts as the cathode, from which electrons are accelerated by
means of a high voltage (above 1 kV) towards the anode. Dur-
ing the passage of the electrons from the cathode to the anode,
they interact with argon atoms in the plasma source (which
is sustained by keeping the gas pressure at about 104 torr).
The following reaction then occurs,
Ar e Ar 2e
Argon ions are thereby produced. A magnetic field, obtained
from an electromagnetic coil or a permanent magnet, is often
Ion Beam Machining
Table 1 Characteristics of Ion Beam Sources
Beam Beam current Beam voltage Beam diameter
Ion gun current (mA) density (mAcm2) (kV) (cm)
Kaufman 1050 0.85 at 1 kV 0.52.0 5.0

Duoplasmatron 10 103 025 Focus to 0.3 mm
Source: Ref. 3.
279
280 McGeough
Figure 1 Main features of ion beam machine. (From Ref. 4.)
applied between the anode and cathode to make the electrons

spiral. Spiralling increases the path length of the electrons
and hence increases ionization.
10.2.3 Extraction Grids

The ions are removed from the plasma by means of extraction
grids. The grids are normally made of two or three arrays of
perforated sheets of carbon or molybdenum; these materials
can withstand erosion by ion bombardment. The perforations
in each of the sheets are aligned above one another. The shape
of the holes and the spacings of the grids are significant ele-
ments when ion source systems are being designed to give the
best conditions of ion current and grid erosion.
The outer grid is usually kept at ground potential, which
is a more negative level than that of the anode. This grid there-
fore provides the negative field that is needed to remove the
ions from the plasma. The second grid is held at a negative
potential below the ground value. The escape of electrons from
the plasma is thereby prevented, as is their diffusion back
from the work chamber. A third grid, which is maintained at
Ion Beam Machining 281
the anode potential, is sometimes addedplaced between the

plasma and the electron suppressor gridto improve the per-
formance of the source.
Extraction voltages of 0.5 to 2 kV with associated current
densities of approximately 2 mA cm2 are used with Kaufman
ion sources.
10.2.4 Substrate Mounting

When the ions have been removed from the source, they drift
in a field-free region to the component, specimen, or substrate
which is to be machined or milled.
As shown in Figure 1, the specimen is usually mounted
on a water-cooled table that can be tilted through an angle of
0 to 90. The specimen is separate from the plasma. Machining
variables such as acceleration, flux, and angle of incidence can
all be independently controlled.
The highest currents are obtained at the lowest spacing
between the grids, and for grids carrying the largest number
of holes of the smallest size.
In Figure 2, an ion source from which is produced a 25-
mm diameter beam of argon (Ar) ions, of current 110 mA is
shown striking an alumina target (which is in the lower center
of the photograph). Surfaces mounted on a water-cooled rotat-
ing holder are coated with the sputtered alumina (top right).
Figure 2 also includes a 15-cm source (left-hand side) which
is producing up to 0.5 A of oxygen ions at 500 eV to mill the
surface of the alumina specimen.
Figure 3 shows the profile of the beam from this source.
An industrial version of an ion beam machining system is
shown in Figure 4.
10.3 COLLISION MECHANISM
The interactions of the ions with atoms are now considered.

The size of an ion is normally comparable to that of an
atom. When an ion strikes the surface of a material its colli-
282 McGeough
Figure 2 Argon ion beam striking alumina target. (Courtesy of Ox-

ford Applied Research.)
Figure 3 Profile of ion beam from 15-cm source. Source-probe dis-

tance: 10 cm; beam energy: 500 eV; beam current: 202 mA; gas flow
(STP): 2.4 ml min1. (From Ref. 2.)
Figure 4 Elements of industrial ion beam machine. Upper part

shows vacuum chamber with specimen holder on the right. Left-
hand side shows control cabinet and power system. (Courtesy of
Oxford Instruments Ltd.)
sion with an atom there often occurs in a direction that is nor-

mal to the surface. If the mass of the ion is less than that of
the atom of the surface, the former will bounce back, away
from the surface, and the atom will be driven in a direction
farther into the material. Figure 5(a) illustrates this condition.
If the mass of the incident ion is greater than that of the
surface atom, after collision, the ion and atom move from the
position of collision towards the interior of the surface of
the material, irrespective of the angle (i.e., head-on or glanc-
284 McGeough
Figure 5 Ion (shaded) bombardment at normal incidence to sur-

face. (From Ref. 5.)
ing) of the collision; see Figure 5(b). Usually both particles

move into the material at energies that are less than that of
the incident ion, yet much greater than the lattice energy. This
type of primary collision does not lead to removal of atoms
from the surface.
Alternatively, suppose that an ion strikes the atom at a
glancing angle. One condition, shown in Figure 6(a), involves
the incident ion impinging on a stationary surface atom at an
angle of 90. This atom does not obtain a velocity component
in a direction away from the surface as a direct consequence
of this primary collision. However, the primary collision will
cause at least one, and often two, further secondary binary
collisions just below, and very close to, the surface. Figure 6(b)
illustrates this case. After the collision between ion and atom
either particle should be able to leave the point of impact at
more than 45 to the original direction of velocity of the ion.
Then, a secondary collision should be possible in the same
plane of motion, to result in a lattice atom leaving the point
of secondary impact at an angle greater than 45. That is, a
total angle of more than 90 is obtained. With an angle of this
size the lattice atom has a velocity component which is in a
Figure 6 Three types of collision between ion (shaded) and atom

(mass of ion less than that of atom). (From Ref. 5.)
direction outward from the surface. Therefore the atom has

the capacity to be ejected.
However, the atom cannot be ejected in a direction paral-
lel to the normal to the surface, that is, in a direction opposite
to that of the incident ion. That movement would require two
90 deflections. At least one of these deflections would involve
the deflection of a lattice atom through 90, during which it
would acquire zero velocity. An atom with zero velocity cannot
be ejected. For the same reason the atom cannot cause ejec-
tion. The final set of conditions is illustrated in Fig. 6(c).
Although ejection might then be expected to occur most
commonly in directions away from the normal to the surface,
for ion impingement on the normal direction to the surface,
atoms have been observed to be ejected from the surface in a
cosine distribution. That is, ejection is most likely to occur in
286 McGeough
a direction that is exactly the opposite to that of the incident

ion (it should be noted that this occurs only for ion bombard-
ment at normal incidence). Apparently the energy imparted
by the incident ion is so randomly distributed by multiple colli-
sions before the atom is ejected that the incident momentum
vector is fully lost. It then has no influence on the process of
ejection.
If the incident ion strikes the surface obliquely, the ejec-
tion is very likely to result from the primary collision between
the incident ion and the surface atom with which it first col-
lides. In this case experiments show that the incident momen-
tum vector has a great influence on the ejection process. The
atoms are found to be ejected mainly in the forward direction.
The sputtering yield, that is, the number of atoms ejected
per incident ion, may be as much as an order of magnitude
greater for oblique, rather than normal, incidence.
Spencer and Schmidt [3] have also considered the mecha-
nisms at work in IBM. They explain material removal in terms
of the transfer of momentum from the incident ions to atoms
on the surface of the material. Thus in Figure 7 an atom is
removed from the surface, and the ion is also deflected away
from the material. Spencer and Schmidt propose that energies
greater than the binding energy of 5 to 10 eV are needed to
achieve removal of atoms.
As indicated also in Figure 7, at higher energies sufficient
momentum may be transferred by the impinging ions for sev-
eral atoms to be removed from the material in a cascade-type
effect near its surface. The higher the energy of the incident
ion, the more deeply this cascading effect occurs into the mate-
rial. Several atoms, or molecules, ionized or neutral, are likely
to be ejected from the material. The incident ion will become
implanted deep into the material, damaging it, by displace-
ment of atoms.
Various theoretical expressions have been reported for
the yield, that is, the number of atoms removed per incident
ion. See, for example, Spencer and Schmidt [3] and Somekh
[6]. These workers all confirm that the yield depends on the
Figure 7 Effects of low and high energies on atom removal: (a) low
energy case; (b) high energy case. (From Ref. 3.)
material being treated, the type of atoms and their energy,

the angle of incidence, and in some cases, the gas pressure.
The relationships that are presented depend often in a com-
plicated way on other fundamental quantities. Despite the
undoubted values of these expressions, the more practical as-
pects of the process can be readily assessed from experimen-
tally obtained values.
10.4 RATES OF MATERIAL REMOVAL

IN IBM
Typical experimental results in which yield increases nonlin-

early with incident ion energy, for argon ions impinging on a
range of materials, are shown in Figure 8. For higher ion ener-
gies a yield of approximately 0.1 to 10 atoms per incident ion
is representative of IBM. Spencer and Schmidt [3] discuss the
effects on yield of a wide range of process conditions, not only
288 McGeough
Figure 8 Variation of yield with ion energy. (From Ref. 3.)
incident ion energy but also the angle of incidence, ionic and
atomic periodicity, and heat of sublimation. They point out,
for example, that the rate of material removal (or etching) can
also be enhanced at grain boundaries and can be affected by
crystallographic orientation.
An alternative way of recording rates of removal is in
terms of the milling rate, which typically varies between 1 and
2 m s1 for, respectively, normal and 50 angles of incidence.
Some typical milling rates for a range of materials that have
been ion beam machined are presented in Table 2.
Useful experimental information is available on these re-
sults which supplements that given in Table 2. The results
were obtained with apparatus that included a low voltage gun,
in which a hot filament was utilized as the source of electrons
to ionize the argon gas. The hollow anode source used as the
Table 2 Typical Removal (Milling) Rates by IBM

(Hollow Anode Source) a
Removal (milling)
Material rate (m hr1)
Quartz 2
Garnet 1
Ceramic 1
Glass 1
Gold 2
Silver 3
Photo resist material (KTFR) 1
Permalloy 1
Diamond 1
GaAs (500-A current) 10
GaP (500-A current) 125
a
Data: argon ion beam 60 to 70 from normal; pressure 3
104 Torr; voltage 6 kV; current 100 A; current density
1 mA cm2 over 1-cm diameter area.
Source: Ref. 3.
ion gun was about 5 cm in diameter and 15-cm long. The anode
and cathode had matching arrays of 300 holes, each of 0.3-
mm diameter, and spaced apart such that uniform material
removal or milling, accurate to within about 3% over the ma-
chining area, could be obtained. With this anodecathode con-
figuration an area of 300-cm diameter could be treated. Each
beam was capable of 100 A with only 1 kV voltage applied;
that is, the total beam current was 30 mA.
Further experimental results for an argon ion beam at
normal incidence are presented in Tables 3 and 4.
Relevant data concerning IBM can now be summarized.
For a typical IBM operation on a material of area 1 cm2, a
depth of approximately 104 mm is removed with an ion beam
of 100-A current. At a removal rate of one atom per incident
ion, 1 mhr1 of material would be machined over that area;
that is, about 3 atoms s1 or one atomic monolayer per second
per square centimeter of area. The removal rate can be in-
creased by use of greater beam fluxes or higher energy ions,
290 McGeough
Table 3 Removal Rates by IBM a

Removal (milling)
Material rate (m hr1)
Silicon 2.0
GaAs 15.9
Silica (ceramic) 2.3
KTFR photoresist 2.3
Silver 18.0
Gold 2.6
a
Data: incident beam normal to surface; pressure 3
104 torr; voltage 1 kV; current 0.85 mA cm2;
beam diameter 5 cm.
Source: Ref. 3.
Table 4 Removal (Milling) Rates

Obtained with 500 eV Argon Ions Incident
Normally on Target a
Removal (milling)
Material rate (nms1)
Carbon 0.07
Aluminum 1.2
Silicon 0.62
Chromium 0.83
Manganese 1.5
Silver 2.5
Gold 2.4
SiC 0.52
SiO2 0.67
Fe 2O3 0.78
AZ 1350 (photoresist) 0.50
PMMA (photoresist) 0.93
a
Current density 1 mA cm2.
Source: Ref. 2.
although lower energy conditions are preferable. For most

practical circumstances, IBM can be regarded as a sequential
operation in which each ion can be considered to act alone. As
single ions impinge on the material each one can be regarded
as removing an atom.
Somekh [6] confirms that the yield depends on the mate-
rial being etched, the type of atoms and their energy, the angle
of incidence, and, in some cases, the gas pressure. He draws
attention to the dependence of yield on the binding energy of
the atoms in the material being etched. The amount of yield
can therefore be varied by the introduction of reactive gasses.
These reactive gasses can react with the surface of the
material and vary its binding energy, and hence the rate of
material removal (i.e., the etch-rate). For example, a flux of
reactive species containing fluorine is known to react with ma-
terials such as titanium or silicon to form loosely bound or
volatile compounds, which increase the etch-rate.
Jolly et al. [2] discuss further aspects of reactive IBM.
They have investigated conditions in which a flux of a reactive
species such as methane (CH4), fluorine (CF4), rather than in-
ert argon ions is directed at the specimen target.
The free radicals chosen should react with the material
at its surface, forming volatile products or those which can be
readily milled (removed) by the effect of the kinetic energy of
the bombarding ions.
10.5 ACCURACY AND SURFACE

ROUGHNESS IN ION BEAM
MACHINING
Jolly et al. [2] report that dimensions as small as 100 nm

should be possible by IBM, and that features of size less than
10 m are obtainable. The slope of the walls of the machined
surface and its surface finish are determined by the angle of
incidence of the ion beam which is fully controllable. They
claim that the process variables can be monitored to an accu-
racy of 1.0%, with a repeatability of 1.0%.
292 McGeough
Surfaces can be textured by IBM, which can produce

cone- and ridgelike configurations, on the order of 1 m in size.
Smoothing of a surface to a finish of less than 1 m can also
be achieved by IBM. Jolly and coworkers also propose that an
already smooth surface can undergo ion beam machining
without significant increase in its roughness. They report typi-
cal results, in which a depth of 100 m can be machined from
a surface; an initial surface roughness of 1.5 nm was found to
be altered by less than 1 nm.
10.6 APPLICATIONS
10.6.1 Smoothing
The use of IBM for smoothing of laser mirrors and for modi-
fying the thickness of thin films and membranes without
affecting the surface finish was also reported by Jolly et al.
[2].
10.6.2 Ion Beam Texturing

Hudson [7] has shown that an ion beam source is a controlled
method for texturing surfaces. Hudson proceeded to investi-
gate 26 materials, including stainless steel, silver, and gold.
He has also reported a number of other investigations in which
a microscopic surface texture created by sputter-etching per-
formed simultaneously with the sputter-deposition of a lower
yield material onto the surface.
Applications of ion beam texturing have been discussed
further by Jolly et al. [2]. They include enhanced bonding of
surfaces, increased surface area capacitors, and surface treat-
ment of medical implants.
10.6.3 Ion Beam Cleaning

Atomically clean surfaces can be produced by IBM. This tech-
nique can be preferable to electron beam and electrical dis-
charge methods which can damage the surface. Harper et al.
[8] discuss in detail this well-established application of ion

beam technology. For example, they report substantial im-
provements in the adhesion of gold films to silicon and alumin-
ium oxide Al 2 03 substrates by use of argon or oxygen ion beam
sputter-cleaning of the substrate, prior to evaporation. The
cleaning consisted mainly of removal of absorbed water and
hydrocarbons. When a layer surface oxide has to be removed
in order to clean a surface, higher ion energies, of several hun-
dred eV, are needed. Damage to the substrate material may
then arise: in this case a reactive gas with high selectivity of
oxide etching can be used.
10.6.4 Shaping, Polishing, and Thinning

by IBM
Thinning by use of oblique incidence argon ions has been used
to enhance polishing (see Harper et al. [8]). Macroscopic thin-
ning and shaping of materials can be applied to the fabrication
of magnetic heads and surface acoustic wave devices.
The polishing and figuring of optical surfaces has also
been reported by Harper et al. [8] and by Taniguchi [9]. The
latter gives a valuable summary of the various applications of
IBM including aspherizing of lenses, sharpening of diamond
indentors, and cutters and cutting tools.
Taniguchi [9] points out that these operations are per-
formed by the direct sputtering of preforms in glass, silica, and
diamond. Unlike conventional technology involving cutting,
grinding, lapping, and polishing, the ion beam process has no
inherent polishing surface (e.g., guideways), the reference be-
ing the preform or patterning mask.
Thinning of samples of silicon to a thickness of 10 to 15
m has been obtained by argon ions impinging at normal inci-
dence. The production of samples for transmission electron
microscopy (TEM) is another widespread practice; two oppos-
ing beams thin a circular region on a rotating sample until
the center etches through, leaving thin fringe areas suitable
for TEM.
294 McGeough
10.6.5 Ion Milling

Earlier work revealed encouraging signs for ion milling. For
example, Jolly and coworkers [2] reported that ion milling is
especially useful for the accurate production of shallow
grooves, such as that illustrated in Figure 9. Milling through
masks, to produce regular arrays of pits with widths of 5 to
200 m and depths of up to 1 mm for enhanced bonding, has
also been achieved. These authors also pointed out that pil-
larlike configurations useful in the manufacture of precision
electrical resistive and fiber-optic arrays can be produced by
ion beam methods.
Other workers have also confirmed the usefulness of the
ion milling technique as an alternative to the fabrication by
chemical etching of devices of fine geometry. IBM is limited
only by masking capabilities. For example, line widths of
0.2 m have been achieved by IBM in the fabrication of bub-
ble memory devices; depth-to-width ratios 2:1 have been
achieved. Problems associated with chemical etching, such as
Figure 9 Groove machined in refractory material: solid line-profile

obtained; dashed line-required profile. (From Ref. 2.)
lack of line delineation owing to failure of resist adhesion and

undercutting of layers, are avoided since masking is only
needed to shadow the beam (see Bollinger [10]). Typical re-
sults from Bollingers detailed account of the manufacture of
solid-state devices of fine geometry are given in Figure 10,
which shows the fine etching by IBM of near vertical walls on
a GaAs substrate. The milled gold structure accurately holds
the pattern. No undercutting occurs at the goldphotoresist
interface and the channel floor is flat right up to the wall inter-
face. Further discussion of patterned microfabrication by IBM
is given by Harper et al. [8]. They describe the fabrication of
line widths as narrow as 80 A in 200-A thick carbon mem-
branes by argon ion beam etching.
Most recent applications have been limited to milling of
multilayered structures, and require techniques that will mill
through elements such as gold [11].
Other applications for ion beam technology are known in
the IIIIV semiconductor industry, for etching facets in semi-
conductor lasers. Ion beam technology is used in the manufac-
ture of hard disk heads and for etching metallic tracks on ce-
Figure 10 Ability of ion milling to etch near-vertical walls. (From

Ref. 10.)
296 McGeough
ramic substrates. Figuring of large optical surfaces has been

reported in which a 3-cm ion source is moved above the surface
[12].
10.7 CONCLUSIONS
Much work has been published on the use of microfocused ion

beams for machining, although this technique is almost en-
tirely confined to academic research. For production applica-
tions laser ablation is usually preferred for small spots, and
plasma etching for large areas. Much of future ion beam tech-
nology is likely to deal increasingly with deposition [11]. In
this method, the material to be deposited is ionized inside the
source and then directed in the form of an ion beam to the
surface on which it will condense. The technique is used to
study growth of thin films for deposition of metals such as pure
iron and semiconductor layers of silicon. An ion beam sputter
deposition technique is also reported, the material being sput-
tered from a target by an energetic ion beam and collected onto
the substrate. Films of oxides and nitrites can be deposited by
reactive ion beam sputtering.
New developments on radio frequency or microwave ion
guns continue. Most trends are concentrated on automatic
control of the source for utilization in complex processes, neu-
tralization of the ion beam in reactive gas environments, in-
creases in ion density, and very low levels of contamination
[12].
REFERENCES
[1] G. Carter and J. S. Colligon, Ion Bombardment of Solids.

Heinemann, London, Chaps. 7 and 9 (1968).
[2] T. W. Jolly, R. Clampitt, and P. Reader, Ion beam machines

and applications. In Proc. 7th Int. Symposium on Electromach-
ining, Birmingham, April 1214, 201210 (1983).
[3] E. G. Spencer and P. H. Schmidt, Ion beam techniques for de-

vice fabrication. J. Vac. Sci. Technology (8) 5, S52S70 (1972).
[4] C. M. Melliar-Smith, Ion etching for pattern delineation. J.
Vac. Sci. Technology (13) 5, 10081022 (1976).
[5] R. V. Stuart, Vacuum Technology Thin Films and Sput-
teringAn Introduction. Academic, London, 9297 (1983).
[6] S. Somekh, Introduction to ion and plasma etching. J. Vac.
Sci. Technology (13) 5, 10031007 (1976).
[7] W. R. Hudson, Ion beam texturing. J. Vac. Sci. Technology (14)
286289 (1977).
[8] J. M. E. Harper, J. J. Cuomo, and H. R. Kaufman, Technology,
and applications of broad-beam ion sources used in sputtering.
Part II Applications. J. Vac. Sci. Technology (21) 3, 737756
(1982).
[9] N. Taniguchi, Current status in and future trends of ultrapre-
cision machining and ultrafine materials processing. Annals
of the CIRP (32) 2, 18 (1983).
[10] L. D. Bollinger, Ion milling for semiconductor production pro-
cesses. Solid State Technology (20) 11, 66 (1977).
[11] T. Jolly, Personal communication (1999).
[12] L. Wartski, C. Schwebel, and J. Aubert. Radio frequency, mi-
crowave and electron cyclotron resonance ion source for indus-
trial applications. A review (invited). Rev. Sci. Instrum. (6) 3,
March, 895900 (1996).
11
Electron Beam Machining
Joseph McGeough
11.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter deals with the phenomena arising when elec-

trons are generated within a vacuum chamber. Electron beam
machining depends for its operation upon such effects. Its
principles form the bases for the technique of electron beam
lithography discussed in the next chapter. Some of the earliest
work on the utilization of the electron beam for material re-
moval can be attributed to Steigerwald, who designed a proto-
type machine in 1947. Modern electron beam machines work
on the same principles.
299
300 McGeough
11.2 BASIC EQUIPMENT
The main components of an EBM installation are shown in

Figure 1. They are housed in a vacuum chamber, evacuated
to about 104 torr. The source of electrons is an electron gun,
which is basically a triode consisting of a cathode, a grid cup
negatively biased with respect to the cathode, and an anode
at ground potential. The cathode is usually made of a tungsten
filament, which is heated to between 2500 and 3000C in order
to emit the electrons. A measure of this effect is the emission
current, the magnitude of which varies between 25 and 100
mA. Corresponding current densities lie between 5 and 15
Acm2. This quantity, however, is determined by a range of
Figure 1 Components of electron beam machine. (From Ref. 1.)

Electron Beam Machining 301
factors, including the type of cathode material and its temper-

ature (see below). The size of the emission current is also in-
fluenced by a high voltage, usually about 150 kV, which is ap-
plied between the cathode and anode in order to accelerate the
electrons in the direction of the workpiece. Figure 2 illustrates
how the emission current increases with cathode temperature
and accelerating voltage, when that electrode is made of a
tungsten filament.
Figure 2 Variation of emission current with cathode temperature

and accelerating voltage. (From Ref. 2.)
302 McGeough
After acceleration, the electrons are focused by the field

formed by the grid cup so that they travel through an aperture
in the anode. On its exit from the anode cavity, the electron
beam is refocused by a magnetic or electrostatic lens system.
By this means, the beam has its direction towards the work-
piece kept under control. The electrons maintain the velocity
imparted by the accelerating voltage, until they strike the
workpiece specimen, over a well-defined area, typically 0.025
mm in diameter. There the kinetic energy of the electrons is
rapidly translated into heat, causing a correspondingly rapid
increase in the temperature of the workpiece, to well above its
boiling point. Material removal by evaporation then occurs.
With power densities on the order of 1.55 MWmm2 involved
in EBM, virtually all engineering materials can be machined
by this technique. Figure 3 shows details of an industrial elec-
tron beam machine. This particular unit can be used for weld-
ing as well as machining. Accurate manipulation of the work-
piece coupled with precise control of the beam can yield a
process that can be fully automated.
11.3 MECHANISMS OF EBM
A useful account of the theory underlying EBM has been pre-

sented by McGeough [1] on which the following discussion is
based. This section provides a useful background to the work
on electron beam technology for high-resolution lithography
discussed in Chapter 12.
The emission current is a significant variable in EBM.
When the voltage gradient in front of the emitter is sufficiently
high to draw off the electrons, a condition known as tempera-
ture-limited emission occurs, giving rise to a maximum emis-
sion current density. When the voltage gradient is less than
that above, the emission of electrons is hindered by a negative
space charge in the vicinity of the cathode. Mutual electron
repulsion takes place there. The emission current is then
known as space-charge limited.
Figure 3 Industrial electron beam machine.

304 McGeough
In the region where the beam of electrons meets the work-

piece, the energy is converted into heat. The way in which the
focused beam penetrates the workpiece is still not completely
understood, owing to the complexity of the mechanisms in-
volved; however, it is known that the workpiece surface is
melted by a combination of electron pressure and surface ten-
sion. The melted liquid is rapidly ejected and vaporized to
achieve material removal. The temperature of the workpiece
specimen outside the region being machined is reduced by
pulsing the electron beam. Pulse frequencies seldom exceed
10 4 Hz.
11.4 THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
The energy associated with a single pulse may be calculated

from the product of the accelerating voltage, the emission cur-
rent, and length of pulse. The corresponding power density
has a significant effect on the material removal rate, through
the rate of heating of the workpiece.
An early attraction of EBM was the comparatively large
depth-to-width ratio of material penetrated by the beam with
applications of very fine hole drilling. The depth to which the
electron beam penetrated the material received close atten-
tion. The analytic expressions produced have often been com-
plicated. Figure 4 illustrates the type of hole formed in an alloy
steel after a single pulse of EBM. The depth of eroded material
per pulse is usually simply related to the average mass re-
moved.
Kaczmarek [2] derived an expression for the average
depth of material removed by a single pulse. The derivation
is complicated, as indeed is the equation itself. Kaczmareks
analysis reveals the existence of an optimum value of the ac-
celerating voltage for which the average depth, eroded by a
single pulse, reaches a maximum value. From his work the
number of pulses required to erode a hole of depth can also be
obtained. The graphical interpretation of his results shown in
Figure 5 indicates that there is a minimum number of pulses
Figure 4 Cross-section of a cavity in chromiummolybdenum steel

formed by a single pulse. (From Ref. 2.)
associated with an optimum accelerating voltage. In practice

the number of pulses needed to produce a given hole depth
is usually found to decrease with an increase in accelerating
voltage. His analysis also reveals that, for a fixed set of process
conditions, the number of pulses required increases hyperboli-
cally as the depth increases. In practical terms this result
means that when a certain depth has been reached, any fur-
ther EBM to deepen the hole would require a very large in-
crease in the number of pulses.
11.5 RATES OF MATERIAL REMOVAL

IN EBM
Electron beam machining rates are usually evaluated in terms

of the number of pulses required to evaporate a particular
amount of material. Two types of pulse numbers are used. The
306 McGeough
Figure 5 Dependence of number of pulses required on accelerating

voltage. (From Ref. 2.)
volume number is used for evaluating slotting by EBM, that

is, cutting-off or cutting-into materials, and is given by the
ratio of the mass to be removed to that due to a single pulse.
A linear number is adopted for hole sinking, and is the ratio
of the depth of the hole required to that sunk by a single pulse.
Studies of the EBM of different metals have revealed that
their boiling point and thermal conductivity play a significant
role in determining how readily they can be machined. Proper-
ties such as electrical conductivity of the material are addi-
tional factors. The complexity of the relationship between the
material properties and machinability renders difficult any
fully quantitative analysis of removal rates in EBM.
Table 1 Removal Rates in EBM a

Volumetric removal
Material rate (mm 3s1)
Tungsten 1.5
Aluminum 3.9
a
Power 1 kW.
Source: Ref. 3.
Experiments still have to be performed to obtain repre-

sentative values of machining rates. Table 1 shows typical re-
sults for tungsten and aluminum.
Experimental results on the dependence of pulse num-
bers on accelerating voltage given in Figure 6 show that in-
creasing the hole depth requires a much greater rise in the
number of pulses at low voltage, due mainly to a relative rise
in heat losses resulting from conduction and melting of the
adjacent metal layers. For a given number of pulses little im-
Figure 6 Effect of accelerating voltage on number of pulses re-

quired. (From Ref. 2.)
308 McGeough
Figure 7 Dependence of number of pulses needed on pulse dura-

tion. (From Ref. 2.)
provement in the material removal rate is obtained from in-

creasing the accelerating voltage above 120 kV.
Figure 7 indicates that an increase in the pulse duration,
with a corresponding rise in the pulse energy made available,
reduces the number of pulses needed to obtain the required
machining result.
Following evidence that the electron beam has to be fo-
cused carefully if the best machining rates are to be obtained,
Kaczmarek [2] quotes reports of an optimum working distance
at which a minimum number of pulses is required, as illus-
trated in Figure 8. A focal point just below the upper surface
of a workpiece is often effective.
Figure 9 shows how the drilling-rate by EBM (in holes
per second) decreases with increase of both the thickness of
the workpiece and the diameter of the hole to be produced.
The relevance of these results to micromachining of thin mate-
rials is discussed below.
Figure 8 Effect of displacement of focal length of beam relative to

upper surface of workpiece on number of pulses. Thickness of speci-
men is 2 mm. (From Ref. 2.)
310 McGeough
Figure 9 Effect of material thickness and hole diameter () on dril-

ling rate. Workpiece materials: steel and nickel alloy. (From Refs. 3
and 1.)
11.6 SURFACE ROUGHNESS OF

WORKPIECE IN EBM
The quality or surface roughness of the edges produced in

EBM depends greatly on the type of material. Local pitting
of the surface is a common occurrence, the extent of which is
influenced by the thermal properties of the workpiece, and by
the pulse energy or charge. Figure 10 illustrates how surface
roughness can increase with pulse charge for a range of com-
Figure 10 Surface roughness as a function of pulse charge. (From

Ref. 2.)
mon materials such as nickel, titanium, carbon, gold, and

tungsten.
11.7 HEAT-AFFECTED ZONE
As the evidence in Figure 11 indicates, the surface layers of

materials treated by EBM are affected by the high tempera-
tures of the focused beam, illustrated by the white ring sur-
rounding the hole. Further evidence is given in Figure 12,
which shows how the diameter of the damaged layer increases
with pulse duration as well as hole diameter. The heat-af-
fected zone can be as much as 0.25 mm in EBM.
312 McGeough
Figure 11 Cross-section of cavity made by a single electron beam

pulse in chromiummolybdenum steel. (From Ref. 2.)
Figure 12 Effect of pulse duration on width of hole drilled by EBM.

(From Ref. 2.)
11.8 APPLICATIONS OF EBM
Applications lie in the following main areas: (a) drilling, (b)

perforating of sheet, (c) pattern generation associated with in-
tegrated circuit fabrication (with which milling is also associ-
ated), and (d) texturing.
11.8.1 Drilling
Steigerwald and Meyer [4] gave early consideration to EBM
for hole-drilling. They concluded that improved reproducibil-
ity, greater working speeds, and deeper holes of accurately
controlled shapes were needed. Later Boehme [5] discussed
drilling applications with electron beam machines fitted with
systems for numerically controlling the beam power, focus,
and pulse duration. As a result cylindrical and other configu-
rations, such as conical- and barrel-shaped holes, of various
diameters were drilled with consistent accuracy at rates of
several thousand holes per second. Drilling of inclined holes,
at an angle of 15, was also investigated.
At that time Boehme [5] reported that the largest diame-
ters and depths of holes that could be accurately drilled by
EBM were, respectively, 1.5 and 10 mm, and that the ratio of
depth-to-diameter was normally in the range 1:1 and 1:15. For
example, Binnie and Champney drilled stainless steel plate
0.25-mm thick with 0.2-mm holes [6].
For deeper holes, in the range 2.5 to 7.5 mm, Steigerwald
and Meyer [4] emphasized the need for a stable power supply
that can emit the required groups of pulses and for a well-
controlled beam of closely defined diameter, the angle of aper-
ture of which has a strong bearing on the shape of the hole
produced. Under laboratory conditions, holes of about 19 mm
were achieved by their team. Figures 13(a) and (b) show sam-
ples of drilling obtained by them for different materials. A
further useful summary of the characteristics of EBM of
various materials is given in Table 2. Figure 14 shows the
cross-section of holes drilled by EBM under the results (a) of
Table 3.
314 McGeough
Figure 13 Pattern of holes drilled by EBM. (a) Workpiece mate-

rial: stainless steel; thickness: 0.2 mm; diameter of holes: 0.09 mm;
density of holes: 4000 per cm2; distance between holes: 0.16 mm;
distance between rows: 0.16 mm; time required to drill one hole: 10
s. (b) Workpiece material: synthetic fabric; thickness: 0.012 mm;
diameter of holes: 0.006 mm; density of holes: 20,000 per cm2; dis-
tance between holes: 0.07 mm; distance between rows: 0.07 mm;
time required to drill one hole: 2 s. (From Ref. 4.)
11.8.2 Perforation of Thin Sheet

The sheet to be perforated is usually lined with an auxiliary
material. The electron beam first penetrates the sheet forming
a vapor channel within the fused material, and then enters
the auxiliary lining. An eruption of vapor occurs, causing ejec-
tion of molten material [5]. For perforation by EBM to be eco-
nomically acceptable, 10 4 to 10 5 holes per second have to be
produced. Thus single pulses lasting only a few s are needed.
In some applications the sheet or foil metal is stretched on a
rotating drum, which is simultaneously shifted in the direc-
tion of its axis. Rows of perforations following a helical line are
thereby produced. Manipulators capable of linear and rotary
movement in as many as four axes are used, especially for per-
foration by EBM of jet engine components.
Foil made of a synthetic material has been perforated
with 620 holes per square millimeter for filter applications at
a rate of one hole every 10 s. Some melting does occur, espe-
cially with plastics, as occurred with the fabric shown in Fig-
ure 13(b) where foil with 205 perforated holes per square milli-
meter was produced.
Finally, Figure 15 shows a cross-section of a hole 0.125
mm in diameter drilled in 30 s through a sheet of nickel alloy
0.4-mm thick. This technique can be applied to the production
of filters and masks for color television tubes. Other applica-
tions for perforation lie in sieve manufacture, for sound insula-
tion, and in glass fiber production.
11.8.3 Pattern Generation for Integrated

Circuit Fabrication
This section provides useful background to the work on elec-
tron beam technology for high-resolution lithography dis-
cussed in Chapter 12.
Birnie and Champney [6] were among the first to draw
attention to the use of electron beam technology in scribing
thin film circuits for the electronics industry. An attraction of
the former is the wavelengths that are some orders of magni-
316
Table 2 Applications of EBM
Pulse
Voltage Current Pulse width frequency Beam focus
Material (kV) ( A) ( s) (Hz) condition General comments
Aluminum wafers 90 150 80 150 Focused 0.10-mm slot cut

0.25 mm gauge at 300-mm
min1
0.25-mm gauge 125 60 80 50 Focused 0.075-mm hole cut
in 10 s
0.75-mm gauge 150 200 80 200 Focused 0.10-mm slot cut
at 610-mm
min1
0.75-mm gauge 125 60 80 50 Circle generator 0.30-mm hole cut
in 30 s
Sapphire crystal 110 20 9 50 Beam circular 0.064-mm hole-
0.65-mm gauge 30 s
Ferrite wafers 140 25 5 50 Focused 0.025-mm dia.
(0.25-mm thick) holes drilled in
1s
McGeough
Molybdenum shim 140 20 20 50 Focused 0.050-mm dia.
(0.25-mm thick) holes drilled in
1 s on 0.075-
mm centers
Electron Beam Machining
Microdiodes 110 7 12 50 Focused Scribed to 0.025-
scribing mm depth Scrib-
ing rate 1500-
mm min1 (Maxi-
mum rate not
evaluated)
Silicon wafers 130 70 4 3000 Focused Scribed to 0.05-
(0.25-mm thick) mm depth at
(gold deposited) 127 mm min1
Thin film register 100 20 9 1000 Focused Cut by manual
(Tantalum, programming
100 A)
Mylar tape (0.038 110 600 Continuous beam Continuous beam Focused 117200 mm
mm) min1
Steel drill (0.36- 140 200 80 50 Focused circular Drilled in 3 min
mm dia.) deflected
Source: Ref. 6.
317
318 McGeough
Figure 14 Cross-section of holes drilled by EBM. Workpiece mate-

rial: high temperature nickel alloy. (From Ref. 4.)
tude shorter than those of light systems, which were used be-
fore integrated circuits became so complex.
A detailed early account of EBM for the manufacture of
integrated circuits has been presented by Yew [7]. The beam
is positioned accurately by means of deflection coils at the loca-
tion where a pattern is to be written, by exposing a film of
electron resist coated on either a chrome mask blank or a wa-
fer, for the production of the lithographic definition required.
(Although they are discussed more fully in Chapter 12, it is
Table 3 Drilling of Nickel Alloy a

(a) (b) (c) (d)
Thickness (mm) 3.3 3.3 3.3 1.6
Length of drilled hole (mm) 3.3 5.2 5.2 3.1
Diameter of drilled hole (mm) 0.1 0.7 0.2 0.3
Taper () 0 2 1 0
Angle of drilling () 90 35 35 30
Time of drilling (s) 1 15 3 10
a
Accelerating voltage (130150 kV).
Source: Ref. 4.
Figure 15 Hole drilled in metal alloy sheet.
noted that electron resists are polymeric materials, similar to

photoresists used in lithography, except that the former are
sensitive to exposure to electrons rather than ultraviolet light,
as is the case with the latter.)
An electron beam of energy about 10 to 20 kV can readily
break the bonds between polymer molecules in the case of pos-
itively acting electron resists. It can also cause crosslinking in
the polymers for negatively acting electron resists. With the
onset of either of these conditions, the solubility changes when
the resist film is immersed in the developer, usually a solvent
for the resist. Due to the difference in solubility between the
original and exposed resist polymers, differential material re-
moval occurs. A fine pattern of polymer is thus obtained. This
pattern is then used as an active mask to avoid unwanted
etching of the integrated circuit mask or wafer.
For integrated circuits produced on silicon wafers 75 mm
or greater in diameter, a moving worktable was employed to
position precisely each area of the chip under the electron
320 McGeough
beam, in order that the required pattern could be produced.

The accuracy of this operation relied greatly on control of the
relative position between the electron beam and the substrate.
Two systems, field-to-field registration with benchmarks and
laser interferometry, have been discussed by Yew [7].
The pattern generation is carried out by vector or raster
scanning. With the former technique (depicted in Fig. 16), the
electron beam is deflected only to locations at which the elec-
tron resist is to be exposed. As soon as the deflection system
completes the positioning of the beam at the required place,
Figure 16 Vector scan writing method. (a) Simple: each dot has
(x, y) address output from a computer through a D/A converter to a
beam deflection and blanking system; (b) one spot: 2.5 m 2.5 m;
minimum positioning step: 0.25 m; and (c), (d) deflected beam: chip
6 6 mm (max). (From Ref. 7.)
the electron beam action is started. As illustrated in Figure

17 with the raster scan system, the chip pattern is first divided
into subfields. Each subfield is scanned by the electron beam
in a raster, like that employed with television. The electron
beam is turned on and off along each raster line as needed.
The required pattern is fully formed by the combined effects
of electron beam exposure and subsequent resist development.
With the raster scan method, the electron beam has to cover
most of the mask or wafer area and is therefore less attractive
than vector scanning when low density patterns have to be
produced.
The EBM system can produce primary chrome masks in
a single step, since the electron beam is extremely fine and can
have its position very accurately controlled. When the electron
beam is used to manufacture primary chrome masks, conven-
tional chrome and resist-coated glass blanks are used, except
that electron, instead of photo, resists are employed. The elec-
Figure 17 Raster scan method. (From Ref. 7.)

322 McGeough
tron resist is exposed until complete exposure is achieved on

all the chips. The exposed blank is then withdrawn from the
work chamber, and developed by a conventional spray process.
After development subsequent etching of the chrome is under-
taken in a fashion similar to common photolithographic tech-
niques. The mask should then be ready for use.
Line widths as small as several hundred could then be
written with electron beam techniques, and writing speeds up
to about 20 MHz are obtainable. Across a 125-mm mask an
accuracy of 0.125 m could be achieved, and a mask of this
size could be manufactured in about 60 minutes. Direct wafer
processing electron beam systems were built to produce up to
22 wafers per hour.
In his report on electron beam lithography, Richman [8]
described a machine capable of producing masks or wafer lev-
els up to 150 mm across, with a 0.125-m address size, and
figure placement accuracies better than 0.02 m. He com-
ments that industrial requirements for machines capable of
0.25 m feature size, at 10 or more wafer levels per hour would
Figure 18 Hybrid circuit engraved with 40 m traces machining

speed greater than 5 m/s (Courtesy of H. Elhofy.)
be achieved in the 1990s. Advancements made since that time

are discussed in Chapter 12.
In Figure 18 a miniature electronic hybrid circuit en-
gravement produced by EBM with a 40-m wide trace is
shown.
11.8.4 Electron Beam Texturing (EBT)

Although this topic is not directly related to micromachining,
recent accounts show how electron beam technology, among
other new methods, has superseded shot blasting in producing
required surface textures on steel mill rolls made of hard
alloys in order to meet industrial demands for consistent and
reproducible steel sheet [9].
REFERENCES
[1] J. A. McGeough, Advanced Methods of Machining. Chapman &

Hall, London (1988).
[2] J. Kaczmarek, Principles of Machining by Cutting Abrasion and
Erosion. Peter Peregrinus, Stevenage, 514528 (1976).
[3] G. Bellows, Non-Traditional Machining Guide26 Newcomers
for Production. Metcut Research, Cincinnati, Ohio, 40, 41
(1982).
[4] K. H. Steigerwald and E. Meyer, New developments in electron
beam machining methods, electrical methods of machining and
forming. Institution of Electrical Engineers, Conf. Publ. no. 38,
252258 (1967).
[5] D. Boehme, Perforation welding and surface treatment with
electron and laser beam. Proc. 7th Int. Symp. on Electromachin-
ing IFS 189, 200 (1983).
[6] J. V. Binnie and M. A. Champney, The contribution of electron
beams to machining and forming, in electrical methods of ma-
chining and forming. IEE, Cont. Publ. no. 38, 210221 (1967).
324 McGeough
[7] N. C. Yew, Electron beamNort, a practical LS1 production

tool. Solid State Technology, August, W90 (1977).
[8] R. M. Richman, Precision engineering issues in electron beam
lithography machines. In Proc. 3rd Int. Precision Engineering
Seminar, Cranfield (1987).
[9] L. V. Van Hoye and C. de Mare, Inst. of Materials newsletter
of steel division report on Advances in Mill Roll Technology (26)
3, 156 (1999).
12
High-Resolution Lithography
S. Thoms and D. Macintyre
University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland
12.1 INTRODUCTION
12.1.1 Scope
In this chapter, optical, electron-beam, and X-ray lithographic
techniques are described. Methods used to transfer litho-
graphically defined polymer patterns into more substantial
materials, such as metals, are also discussed. The chapter
deals with the limits of lithography in terms of smallness and
pattern placement accuracy. These techniques may be re-
garded as the ultimate form of micromachining in which a
combination of lithographically large patterns, sacrificial lay-
ers, and selective etches are used to make structures such as
cogs and pressure sensors, although such applications are not
included here.
325
326 Thoms and Macintyre
Optical lithography is capable of building very fine pat-

terns on planar substrates with features as small as 0.18 m.
Such patterns are routinely mass-produced in quantities of
more than 107 per circuit. To that end, electron beam lithogra-
phy (EBL) is of particular significance as it provides the masks
for most other lithographic techniques, playing a major part
in defining their accuracy, and is capable of producing smaller
features than any other mature lithography process.
As an example of the ultimate capability of EBL, Fig-
ure 1 shows a cross-section of part of a proposed 256-Mbit mem-
Figure 1 A device cross-section showing the three-dimensional na-

ture of structures in an integrated circuit of a DRAM cell. (From Ref.
56.)
High-Resolution Lithography 327
ory circuit, illustrating some trench capacitors. Their highly

three-dimensional nature is evident, with submicron features
in both the vertical and lateral directions. Many different ma-
terials are structured at these sizes to produce complete cir-
cuits, including silicon, silicon oxide (quartz), aluminum, and
tungsten. The fabrication of such miniature geometries can be
considered to represent the finest micromachining.
12.1.2 Steady Shrinkage: Moores Law

In 1965, seven years after invention of the integrated circuits,
Gordon Moore, cofounder of INTEL, observed that the number
of transistors that could be mounted on a chip was doubling
per year. This phenomenological trend, which became known
as Moores law, continued until the late 1970s, when the
pace decreased to a doubling of transistor numbers every 18
months, which quantity has been maintained to the present.
Figure 2 shows that the increase stems from two sources: the
shrinkage of lateral dimensions, every three years, from 10 to
0.25-m design rules, over 1970 to 1999, and the doubling of
chip area every three years, from 2 3 mm2 to 20 30 mm2,
over 1970 to 1999.
Using Moores law, semiconductor manufacturers can an-
ticipate the technological development needed to maintain a
competitive position.
12.2 PRINCIPLES
12.2.1 Lithography
Lithography is the process by which fine features are defined
on a substrate. For conventional lithography the substrate
needs to have a flat surface, and is typically a 200-mm diame-
ter silicon wafer with a thickness of about 1.0 mm. Optical
lithography is the most common form because it combines the
accuracy required for current silicon circuits with considerable
throughput capability. Electron beam lithography is capable
of much higher resolution pattern definition but is a serial
Figure 2 Moores law showing (a) exponential decrease in mini-

mum feature size per year (DRAM) and (b) corresponding exponen-
tial growth in transistor count per chip (IC). (From Ref. 57.)
process and therefore much slower than optical lithography,

which is a parallel process. X-ray lithography combines the
higher resolution of electron beam lithography with the high
speed parallelism of optical lithography. However, it is not as
technologically developed as optical lithography and is cur-
rently a research, rather than a production, tool.
The lithography process leaves a substrate coated with a
finely patterned polymer film. Subsequent processing steps
are needed to transfer this pattern to underlying materials
that are usually metals, semiconductors, or dielectrics. The
pattern transfer step is discussed in Section 12.2.3.
Optical Lithography
The process for optical lithography is shown in Figure 3. First
the substrate is coated with a thin film of radiation-sensitive
polymer known as a resist. Film thicknesses are typically on
Figure 3 Optical lithography.

the order of 0.5 m for 0.18-m minimum feature sizes cur-

rently used. The second stage is the selective irradiation of
areas of the substrate. Two avenues are possible: either irradi-
ation of areas from which the resist is to be removed with the
latter remaining elsewhere (positive tone resist); or the alter-
native (negative tone resist), irradiation of those areas that
are to remain with all the other resist removed. A patterned
reticle is needed for this process as shown in Figure 3. This
typically consists of a chrome-coated quartz substrate with the
desired pattern etched into the chrome. The optical system
produces a reduced image of the reticle on the substrate accu-
rately transferring the desired master copy of the pattern on
the reticle to the wafer. The areas with chromium are opaque
to the UV radiation whereas the quartz is transparent.
The final stage is resist development. Here the resist is
treated to remove selectively exposed or unexposed areas of
resist, depending on whether the resist is positive or negative
tone. The simplest development process consists of simply im-
mersing the wafer in a suitable developer solution, followed
by a rinse, and finally a drying step.
There are two main aspects to optical lithography: con-
tact and projection printing. Projection lithography uses a lens
system as illustrated in Figure 3. In contact printing the reti-
cle is held in close contact with the silicon wafer to be pat-
terned. A main drawback of contact printing is the large num-
ber of defects on both wafer and reticle generated by the hard
contact required between them. Contact printing was used
from the outset of integrated circuit fabrication until the mid-
1970s, when projection printing, which avoids this problem,
became the most dominant technology. Projection printers ini-
tially printed a 1:1 image of the reticle onto the wafer. Soon
the step and repeat principle was developed which employed
a 5:1 reduction lens to produce a demagnified image of the
reticle on the wafer. This pattern, known as a die, contains
one or more complete circuits and is then repeated many times
across the wafer. This tool has become known as the stepper.
The major advantage of five-times reduction is that errors in
linewidth and positioning on the original reticle become less

significant, making reticle production an easier and cheaper
process. Further refinements have been made to this princi-
ple, largely through decreasing the wavelength from the visi-
ble Hg G line of 436 nm, through I line (365 nm) to the deep
UV (DUV) wavelength of 248 nm generated by KrF lasers for
present steppers. Shorter wavelengths are important because
they allow smaller features to be resolved. Another refinement
is the use of the step and scan principle in which the image
area of the lens system is reduced to a rectangle or arc. Both
the wafer and the reticle are then simultaneously scanned to
create the complete image of the die, which, as before, is then
stepped across the wafer. DUV (248 nm) steppers have typical
scanning field sizes on the order of 5 by 22 mm. Shorter wave-
length 193-nm (ArF laser) steppers are now commercially
available but not used in production.
Electron Beam Lithography

The production of the mask for optical lithography is clearly
an important issue. Generally in the lithographic process, it
is the largest application of electron beam lithography. Other
lithography techniques have been used for mask fabrica-
tion, most notably laser lithography, although this subject
is not considered here. Electron beam lithography tools are
also used for so-called direct write applications to pattern
wafers directly. They are employed mainly when higher reso-
lution is required than that obtainable from optical lithog-
raphy.
The outcome of electron beam lithography is very similar
to the concept implemented on personal computers, only on
a much reduced scale. Computer-aided design packages are
available to assist in the creation of complex designs which
are then written onto substrates precisely as viewed on the
computer screen, although on a submicron scale.
In electron beam lithography, the resist is exposed by an
energetic beam of electrons, under the action of a voltage typi-
cally between 10 and 100 kV. Two main types of systems are in
production, one with shaped beams; the other uses a Gaussian
spot. Gaussian spot machines can be further subdivided into
raster, such as the MEBES type and vector, scan machines. In
these techniques, a finely focused beam of electrons is scanned
across the surface of the substrate in order to expose the resist.
This is termed a serial process. It contrasts strongly with opti-
cal lithography, a parallel process, in which the whole circuit
is simultaneously exposed. As a consequence EBL is much
slower than optical lithography, and therefore is generally
used in production only when resolutions smaller than those
available in optical lithography are required. Several methods
of undertaking parallel electron beam lithography have been
suggested, and currently SCALPEL (scattering with angular
limitation in projection electron beam lithography) is under
intense development at Bell Laboratories [1].
Gaussian spot machines are capable of the highest reso-
lution whereas shaped beam machines are faster. In a raster
scan system, the beam is scanned across the whole substrate
and blanked or unblanked as appropriate to produce a pattern
in a way analogous to that used in a television set. Vector sys-
tems only scan the beam where exposure is required which
gives better-defined shape edges. It is also faster when the pat-
tern density is low. Raster systems, however, can scan at much
higher clock rates (typically 100 MHz in contrast to 10 MHz)
which makes them faster for medium- to high-density pat-
terns. Raster scan systems are utilized typically for mask-
making, whereas vector scan systems are employed in high-
resolution direct write applications.
In all these tools the maximum possible movement of the
electron beam by use of the deflection system is about 1 to 5
mm. This movement is limited by aberrations that affect both
the spot size and the positional accuracy as the deflection in-
creases. The largest area that can be written without move-
ment of the substrate is called a field. Larger patterns are
made up by joining a number of fields in a similar way to the
stepping action of an optical stepper. The major difference is
that in an optical stepper a complete circuit is usually written

with each step, whereas with electron beam lithography only
a part of a circuit is written between steps. Where fields butt
together there is inevitably some residual positional mismatch
between the fields, known as stitching error. The column de-
flection system is electronic and much faster than mechanical
stage movements. To improve writing speed, writing strate-
gies have been developed to minimize stage movement, and
these involve a meander-style coverage of the entire substrate
with as few movements as possible.
One key aspect of electron beam lithography is its flexi-
bility. This characteristic stems partly from its much larger
depth of focus, compared to optical lithography; also the beam
focus can be varied during pattern writing. Thus EBL can be
used to pattern highly topological surfaces provided they can
be coated with resist. A further feature is that design changes
can be rapidly implemented without the need to remake costly
sets of reticles. EBL is therefore an invaluable tool in research
and development, even when the feature sizes to be written
could be patterned by means of optical lithography.
Other Lithographies
X-rays, ion beams, lasers [2], and scanning probes [3] can all
be used to carry out lithography. The use of X-ray lithography
was noted as early as 1972 [4], and has until recently been
described as the next generation tool to be used when optical
lithography reaches its limitations. The latter technique was
expected to be replaced for dimensions smaller than 1 m.
However, recent reports (2001) show that circuits with mini-
mum feature sizes of 0.13 m are still being made by optical
lithography, and sizes as small as 0.07 m are also expected
to be achieved by the same procedure.
The principles underlying X-ray lithography are similar
to those of contact printing for optical lithography and there-
fore require a full-sized mask. The production of such masks
for X-ray lithography remains a major technological difficulty.
Not only does mask production lack the benefit of a reduction

system, but also writing on a 2-m thick silicon membrane is
needed, so that mechanical stability becomes a key issue.
Scanned laser lithography is used to make reticles, by a
procedure similar to that of electron beam lithography except
that a laser, rather than an electron beam, is scanned across
the substrate. Scanning probes are currently capable of the
ultimate lithographic limits with controlled atomic movement.
This technique, however, is very slow, and technologically im-
mature. Massive parallel arrays of scanning probes may be
used for future lithography although much development is
still needed.
Another new lithographic technique is mechanical pat-
tern transfer. Several modes are available, although in each
a relief pattern on a master is replicated onto a substrate. The
substrate to be patterned can either be a hard material, such
as silicon, coated with a suitable polymer, or a solid piece of
polymer. In the former, resists are often used as the polymer;
this process is known as nanoimprint lithography [5]. By use
of this technique, resist, and ultimately metal, patterns as
small as 10 nm have been made on silicon. In the latter case
both embossing [6] and injection molding [7] have been shown
to be capable of sub-100 nm pattern transfer. [Recently 25-nm
injection molding has been demonstrated (1999).] Mechanical
pattern transfer for deep submicron features is at a very early
stage of development; it has potential for the cheap mass repli-
cation of nanoscale structures.
12.2.2 Resists
Lithographic procedures generally involve the coating of
energy-sensitive chemical substances called resists. The resist-
coated substrate is then exposed by an energetic beam, which
has been patterned in some way. Pattern transfer to substrates
by mask technologies is well established for both optical and
X-ray lithography [8]. However, high-speed scanning tech-
niques are now becoming increasingly significant. In addition,
ion and electron beam lithography technology by both raster

and vector beam scanning is well established. Recent develop-
ments in this field include projection ion beam and projection
electron beam methods, such as SCALPEL. After patterning,
resist-coated substrates undergo a development process that,
depending on the resist used, selectively removes either ex-
posed, or unexposed, areas of the resist to reveal the pattern.
The quality of pattern definition and the speed at which
pattern transfer into the resist can occur is very dependent on
the type of lithography tools and the resist used. A wide vari-
ety of resists is available; they are constantly evolving to sat-
isfy demands for improved lithography tool performance, new
fabrication processes, and legal requirements for use of envi-
ronmentally safe solvent systems.
Resist Types and the Selection

of Appropriate Resists
Resists are generally classified as either positive, such as the
S1800 Shipley photoresists, or negative tone such as the SC
Waycoat resist series. A number of image reversal resists ex-
ist. Energy patterns can be applied to these resists and the
pattern reversed, normally by carrying out an additional bak-
ing step prior to development. One example is the Hoechst
AZ5200 resist. An important measure of resist performance is
the so-called contrast of the resist, which is a measure of the
variation of the resist dissolution rate with exposure dose.
High-contrast resists generally produce vertical resist pro-
files after development, whereas low-contrast resists produce
sloped resist profiles. Resist sensitivity is defined as the en-
ergy required to produce complete solubility in the exposed
region; it is a significant measure of resist performance.
Choice of resist depends on many factors. Key influences
are the sensitivity of the resist to the energy being used for
patterning, and the type of lithography. The suitability and
thickness of the resist needed for subsequent processing
stages such as metallization, wet or dry etching, electroform-
ing, and the minimum feature sizes in the pattern must also
be considered. Account must also be taken of the continuity
and quality of supplies, cost, and the safety of solvents on
which the resist is based.
The semiconductor industry now regularly uses 0.25-m
process technology. It has recently been demonstrated that
semiconductor production technology can be used to print fea-
tures less than 0.1 m in size. This achievement has been de-
veloped on the design and application of a resist sensitive to
193-nm light sources. Certain photoresists are classified ac-
cording to their sensitivity to major lines in the mercury spec-
trum since mercury lamplight sources are used in the longer
wavelength lithography tools. Thus resists that are sensitive
to light of wavelength about 436 and 356 nm are termed, re-
spectively, g-line and i-line resists. Resists sensitive to
248-nm wavelength deep ultraviolet light are now established,
while 193-nm DUV resists and those sensitive to extreme ul-
traviolet (EUV) are being developed to meet advances in li-
thography tool technology.
A less commonly used but nevertheless important group
of photosensitive materials comes under the category of thick
resists. They include epoxy-based negative tone resists such
as SU-8 (first produced by IBM Corp.) which can be applied in
thicknesses exceeding 100 m, and photosensitive polyimides
such as the Probimide series, which can be applied in film
thicknesses greater than 30 m. These materials have use-
ful applications in the fabrication of high aspect-ratio three-
dimensional features.
The volume market for electron beam sensitive resists is
relatively small and so continuity of supplies can be problem-
atic. Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) was first reported as
a positive electron beam sensitive resist by Haller et al. in
1968, and it has since been well used for this purpose. PMMA
is capable of patterning features less than 10 nm. It is rela-
tively easy to process as it only needs to be applied to sub-
strates, baked, exposed, and then developed. A drawback to
PMMA is its poor dry etch resistance relative to Novolak-
based photoresists, and its relatively poor sensitivity to elec-

tron beams. Typical resist sensitivity is 200 C/cm 2 on silicon
substrates. Thus PMMA often has to be used as a mask to
produce more robust dry etch masks in other materials such
as metal films; and pattern writing speeds are slower than
machine capabilities. Improvement in the dry etch resistance
of PMMA has been attempted through the formation of com-
posite resist systems [9,10] by the addition of subnanometer
etch-resistant particles such as ruthenium metal clusters and
Buckminsterfullerene (C60). Copolymers of methyl methacry-
late and methacrylic acid (PMMAMAA) offer improved sensi-
tivity and are commonly used in multilayer resist applica-
tions. Other positive tone copolymers used in electron beam
lithography include ZEP-520 from Nippon Zeon (copolymer of
chloromethacrylate and methylstyrene), the sensitivity of
which is 10 times better than PMMA with comparable resolu-
tion capabilities. EBR-9 is a positive acrylate based (2,2,2-
trifluoroethyl chloro acrylate) electron beam resist produced
by the Toray companies for microfabrication in the VLSI in-
dustry. It has a sensitivity of 30 C/cm 2 at 50 kV, can resolve
0.2 m features, and has good adhesion to chrome-coated sub-
strates. This resist is commonly used in the production of
photomasks by electron beam lithography as is poly(butene-1-
sulfone)PBS which is more sensitive but involves more com-
plicated processing.
Negative tone electron beam resists often suffer from re-
sist swelling during development. Shipley SAL resists have
been designed specifically for electron beam lithography and
are claimed to be nonswelling. These resists are Novolak-
based, have relatively good dry etch resistance, and reported
sensitivities of approximately 7 C/cm 2 at 20 kV.
It has been shown that certain positive and negative tone
DUV photoresists can be used as sensitive (around 20 C/
cm 2 at 50 kV), electron beam resists [11] capable of defining
pattern features less than 100 nm. These resists allow fast
pattern writing. As they exhibit relatively good dry etch re-
sistance, they can be used to design simpler fabrication proce-
dures. Shipley UVIII, UV5, and UVNII are typical examples.

They are in plentiful supply, owing to their increasing use in
the semiconductor industry.
Resist Chemistry
This topic is discussed in detail in Moreau [12]. Many types
of resists are available, and the processing conditions used
greatly depend on the resist chemistry. In general, resists can
be described as being one-, two-, or three-component resist ma-
terial. A one-component positive resist material is typically a
polymer whose molecular weight is reduced upon irradiation.
An organic solvent or solvent mixture is used as developer and
the dissolving power of the solvent varies strongly with the
molecular weight of the polymer. PMMA is an example of a
single-component positive resist, the sensitivity of which de-
creases slightly with increased molecular weight. Negative,
single-component resists work by free radical-induced cross-
linking of polymers which become insoluble above a gel point
dose. These resists suffer from swelling during development.
Typical two-component resists are i-line photoresists which
are often based on diazonapthoquinone (DQN) dispersed in a
Novolak resin [13]. The DQN has a dual role as a dissolution
inhibitor and photosensitizer, while good dry etch resistance
is attributed to the Novolak resin. Absorption of radiation de-
stroys the dissolution inhibitor in patterned areas and aque-
ous alkaline developers are used to create the photodifferen-
tiation. An increasing number of three-component resist
systems are being produced. They offer good dry etch resis-
tance and enhanced sensitivity from chemical amplification.
Three-component positive resist systems often comprise a No-
volak or acrylate matrix which provides good dry etch resis-
tance and allows aqueous development, a dissolution inhibitor
which is not photosensitive but which is decomposed in an
acid-catalyzed hydrolysis reaction, and a radiation-sensitive
component which generates an acid catalyst on exposure to
radiation. The catalyst is not stoichiometrically consumed in
the hydrolysis reaction and is regenerated. The original radia-

tion event can thus lead to several catalytic cycles and the re-
sists are thus termed chemically amplified. The hydrolysis
reaction is slow at room temperature and so chemically am-
plified resists are normally given a postexposure bake (PEB)
prior to development in order to speed up this process. Reliable
processing of these resists requires careful control of bake
temperatures and times. In order to decrease the sensitivity
of chemically amplified resists to airborne contamination,
some of the more recent resists have been designed to have
relatively high bake temperatures (approximately 135C.)
compared to i-line photoresists (80C).
Resist Processing and Related Fabrication Issues

Both resist and substrate must be exceptionally clean since
any particle contamination will result in poor pattern transfer
and defects. Resists are commonly filtered to remove particles
as small as 0.2 m and relative humidity must be controlled
below 50% RH (relative humidity) in order to obtain satisfac-
tory resist adhesion. (Relative humidity is the ratio between
the water vapor in the air and the amount of water vapor the
air can actually hold.) Wafers must be completely dry prior to
the application of the resist to substrates and adhesion pro-
moters such as HMDS (hexamethyldisilizane) are often used
to improve resist adhesion, particularly to silicon wafers. Re-
sists are generally applied to wafers by spin coating and the
process can be described by Newtonian models in which the
film thickness t is given by

C2
tK (1)
SS
where K is a constant depending on the type of resist and the

casting solvent, SS is the spin speed, and C is the concentra-
tion of polymer in the solvent. The film thickness of the spun
film is independent of the wafer diameter provided there is
sufficient fluid present to cover about two thirds of the wafer.

Resist spinning procedures normally produce highly uniform
resist thicknesses over flat wafers. However, topographical
features such as etched mesas or metal patterns can cause
variations in resist thickness that can translate into varia-
tions in linewidth. These problems are sometimes eliminated
by planarizing wafers with resists such as polyimide. The uni-
formity of resist films over entire wafers can be rapidly mea-
sured by equipment such as the Prometrix reflectometer and
more detailed investigations into the surface roughness of re-
sists is often carried out by atomic force microscopy (AFM) (see
Chapter 2).
Resist-coated wafers are given a soft bake prior to expo-
sure in order to drive off the casting solvent, and this is either
effected in an oven or by use of a vacuum hot plate. In the
semiconductor industry wafer coating and baking are carried
out automatically on wafer tracks. After pattern exposure and
possibly postexposure baking, resist-coated substrates are de-
veloped. The choice and concentration of developer largely de-
pend on the resist used, but may also depend on whether con-
tamination will arise from the presence of metal ions. Resist
manufacturers generally recommend particular development
techniques such as puddle development which give optimum
resist performance. Bake temperatures and times, process de-
lays, development temperature, and other conditions can in-
fluence the quality of lithography; design of experiment tech-
niques is sometimes used to simplify process optimization.
Resist films are occasionally given a postdevelopment
bake to enhance their resistance to dry etching. This proce-
dure, combined with the etching process itself can lead to
crosslinking in the resist which can render difficult removal
of the resist at a later fabrication stage. A variety of special-
ized resist strippers is therefore manufactured to deal with
this difficulty.
Fabrication techniques often exploit the performance of
different resists. For example, in high resolution electron
beam lithography, improved metal lift-off is achieved by using
a bilayer of resists with different sensitivities to give sloped

resist-profiles. The fabrication of T-shaped gate structures re-
lies on the use of a highly sensitive resist such as copolymers of
PMMA or UVIII on top of less sensitive resists such as PMMA.
12.2.3 Pattern Transfer Techniques

These techniques are usually divided into subtractive and ad-
ditive processes which are illustrated in Figure 4. In the for-
mer the resist acts as a mask protecting the underlying ma-
terial from the etch. In regions where resist is absent, the
Figure 4 Pattern transfer from resist to hard material showing

(a) additive process and (b) subtractive process.
material is removed. In the additive process, material is added

in such a way that it remains only in those areas free of resist.
In both types of process, on completion of the pattern transfer,
the resist is removed, its function now having been fulfilled.
These processes are described very briefly here. A fuller de-
scription is given by Chang and Sze [14].
Deposition
The two main classes are chemical vapor (CVD) and physical
vapor deposition (PVD). In CVD reactant components are
brought together in gaseous form in a suitable chamber. A
chemical reaction takes place on the surface of the wafer lead-
ing to deposition of the desired material. Conformal coverage
of the material across the wafer is then achieved, in which the
deposited thickness is uniform across changes in topography
and underlying material. Many materials can be deposited by
CVD, including polycrystalline silicon, silicon oxide, silicon ni-
tride, titanium nitride, tungsten, and aluminum.
The PVD process involves physical removal of material
from a target and its uniform deposition on the wafer surface.
The two main procedures used are electron gun evaporation
and plasma sputtering. In the former the designated material
is heated until a satisfactory evaporation rate is achieved. In
the latter, a small argon or nitrogen plasma is formed near
the source. Energetic gas molecules from the plasma strik-
ing the target remove material which then travels through the
vacuum system to the wafer. Many metals such as gold, alumi-
num, nickel, and titanium can be deposited by PVD.
Additive Processes
Two principal additive processes are liftoff and electroplat-
ing. In liftoff, a directed stream of material, usually from an
evaporation source, is deposited onto the resist as shown in
Figure 4. Conformal covering is unwanted in this case. After
the deposition is complete, the resist and the metal coated on
its top are removed by immersion in a suitable solvent, which
undergoes agitation. Electroplating can also be used to add

material in the gaps patterned into the resist. In this case a
plating base is usually first needed.
Subtractive Processes
The subtractive process is illustrated in Figure 4. There are
two main classes: wet etching, which occurs in solution, and
dry etching, which takes place in a low vacuum and relies on
either a plasma or a beam of atoms/ions. A decision that wet
etching should be replaced by a dry etch process depends
mainly on the verticality of the etch which can be achieved by
the latter, as illustrated in Figure 4. This quality has become
increasingly important with reduction of device dimensions
below 2 m. Wet etching makes use of chemicals such as hy-
drofluoric acid and potassium hydroxide to etch selectively one
material, others being left untouched. Dry etching has both
physical and chemical aspects. High energy atoms/ions strik-
ing the surface physically remove material by sputtering. If
reactive species are present then a chemical reaction takes
place that enhances the etch rate, and makes possible selec-
tive etching of one material in preference to others. Verti-
cal sidewalls result partly from the directional aspect of the
ions causing sputtering and also by deposition of reaction by-
products on the sidewalls, which inhibit lateral etching. As
each different material requires etching, fresh chemical and
plasma conditions have had to be developed.
Dry etching technology has many subclasses. In reactive
ion etching (RIE) a plasma is struck between two parallel
plate electrodes by applying radio frequency (RF) power caus-
ing a plasma to be struck between them. A self-bias is formed
between the plasma and the substrate to be etched which is
placed on the lower electrode. Ions and reactive radicals are
accelerated across the dark space between the plasma and
the substrate with energies typically in the range 20 to 400
eV. These basic operating conditions may be varied in order
to increase the etch speed and reduce etch damage, the latter
being caused by impingement on the substrate of high energy

ions. In electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) etching electrons
are confined by the interaction of a magnetic field with micro-
wave radiation. The resulting plasma is of a very high density,
approximately two to three orders of magnitude more than
that in RIE, typically producing high etch rates. Inductively
coupled plasma (ICP) etching uses a large coil external to the
vacuum to couple RF power inductively into the plasma. The
resulting plasma densities are also two to three orders of mag-
nitude higher than those of RIE.

RELEVANT MATERIALS
Two issues are discussed in this section: the rapidity at which

the lithographic process itself can be carried out (measured in
area per unit time), and the rate of the pattern transfer (depth
per unit time).
12.3.1 Lithography
Optical Lithography
For optical steppers the rate of area coverage is measured in
wafers per hour. For 200-mm wafers typical values are be-
tween 30 and 60 per hour for 0.25-m feature sizes.

This procedure is much slower than optical lithography; typi-
cal times are measured in hours per wafer, and depend on the
nature of the pattern to be written, the two main factors being
the pattern density, or fill factor, and the ultimate resolution
required. The required resolution determines the beam diame-
ter which is typically set between two and five times smaller
than the minimum feature size. An approximation for the
writing-time T for a pattern can be expressed as
FFAS
T (2)
i
where FF is the fill factor, A the total area to be covered, S is
the sensitivity, and i is the beam current. The beam current
i is related to the spot diameter d by
2d22
iB (3)
4
where B is the electron source brightness, and is the beam
semiangle at the substrate, typically 1 to 10 mrad. The beam
brightness depends greatly on the electron source used. Two
main types of sources are employed by EBL machines, namely,
thermionic sources such as LaB6 and field emission sources,
their respective brightnesses being about 106 and 108 Acm2
sr1. Clearly the field emission sources have superior speed;
they also provide smaller spot sizes giving improved resolu-
tion.
For a typical beam current of 5 nA and a resist sensitivity
of 20 C cm2, the time to write a square centimeter with 50%
fill factor is 2000 s (or about one half hour). Practical fill factors
are between 1 and 50% giving area coverage rates between 2
and 100 cm 2 per hour. Equation (2) considers only calculation
of the beam time, that is, the time needed for the beam to scan
the pattern. In calculation of writing time, account may also
have to be taken of machine calibration, stage movement, and
shape loading times. Although the beam time usually deter-
mines the writing time, in some cases these other factors may
have a greater effect. In particular, the stage movement times
required to cover a 200-mm wafer are noted to amount to
about 2 hours for a typical vector scan machine, which is not
taken into account in the determination of beam time.
12.3.2 Pattern Transfer

Deposition Rates
Typical rates are on the order 10 to 100 nm/min, and depend
on the system and the materials being deposited.
Dry Etch Rates

Many etches have been developed for different applications
with a large spread in etch rates. Nonetheless in the develop-
ment of an etch, not only must the etch rate be considered,
but also other aspects, notably selectivity and semiconductor
damage. Selectivity is the differential etch rate of one material
over another. Some selectivity is key to any etch process, as
the mask must remain intact while the specified material is
removed. Multilayer structures are common in lithographic
applications. Etches are often required that etch through one
layer and cease on another. A high degree of selectivity from
one to the next material is thereby required. An etch is often
required that removes at the same rate two or more different
materials. Dry etch damage is inflicted on semiconductor ma-
terials by the rapidly moving ions in dry etching, which
thereby degrades device performance. Such degradation is a
vital consideration in development of any etch.
Table 1 cites different dry etches showing both the spread
of different materials which can be microetched, and also the
variation in etch rates obtained.
Wet Etch Rates

Most semiconductor etching is carried out by using plasma-
based systems, although wet etches are still frequently used.
Table 2 shows the characteristics of some common wet etches.

CONTROL
12.4.1 Lithographic Tolerances
In lithography, size control for the smallest features is usually
both crucial and difficult. The size of these smallest features
is known as a critical dimension (CD); CD control is a major
aspect of lithography, as the absolute positional fidelity with
which patterns can be placed. In practical applications, the
High-Resolution Lithography
Table 12.1 Etch Rates for Various Materials
Feature
Material to Etch Etch Rate Depth size
be etched Mask gasses system (nm/min) (m) (m) Ref.
Si 600 nm photoresist ICP SF 6 /CHF 3 680 0.5 0.5 34

Si 2.8 m SiO 2 BCl 3 /Cl 2 RIE 200 48 10.0 35
Si 15 nm Au SiCl 4 RIE 140 0.06 0.015 36
Polycrystalline tetraethoxysilane HBr ECR 230 0.4 0.3 37
Si BPTEOS
GaAs 40 nm Cr Cl2 /CH4 ECR 460 2.3 0.2 38
AlGaAs 40 nm Cr Cl 2 /CH 4 ECR 280 1.4 0.2 38
InGaAs 100 nm NiCr RIE 90 3 2 39
InGaAs 20/50 nm Ti/Ni Cl2 /Ar ICP 250 0.4 0.1 40
Au 500 nm SiO2 Cl 2 ECR 250 0.4 1 41
AlCu (0.5% Cu) photoresist BCl2 /Cl2 ICP 1000 0.7 0.4 42
W/WSix resist SF6 /Ar RIE 100 0.4 0.3 43
W 45 nm Ni SF 6 ECR 120 0.45 0.2 44
W 50 nm PMMA SF6 /O2 RIE 50 0.05 0.03 45
NiMnSb photoresist SF6 /Ar ICP 1000 0.5 1.2 46
YBa2Cu3O7x 50 nm C ion beam milling Ar 25 0.1 0.2 47
SiO2 300 nm polycrystal- C4F8 /O2 /Ar M-RIE 600 1.0 0.06 48
line Si
Si3N4 50 nm Ti C2F6 ECR 25 0.1 0.03 49
C diamond Al CF 4 /O2 RIE 0.78 0.3 0.01 50
Polyimide NiCr O2 RIE ?? 0.6 0.1 51
347
Table 12.2 Various Wet Etch Rates

Material to Rate
be etched Mask Etchant (nm/min) Comments
SiO2 resist HF 50
Si3N4 resist H3PO4 10
Al resist HNO3 / 35
CH3COOH/
H3PO4 /H2O
Si SiO2 KOH 600 80C, anisotropic.
Stops on (111)
plane.
GaAs resist H2SO4 /H2O2 /H2O 800 anisotropic
From Ref. 52.
main positional parameter is the overlay accuracy. Semicon-

ductor circuits are built by use of a large number, typically
more than 20, of lithography and pattern transfer steps. Over-
lay error refers to the accuracy with which one lithographic
step is aligned to the next, and the usual target is about 25%
of the minimum CD.
Optical Lithography
The resolution of optical lithography is usually defined by the
Rayleigh criterion discussed by Moreau [12],
k
R (4)
NA
where R is the smallest printable feature, NA is the numerical
aperture of the lens system, and is the exposing wavelength.
For periodic patterns R is equal to one half of the pitch. For
a given optical system, and NA are fixed and k is a factor
that describes the modulation of the aerial image. The abso-
lute minimum of the k-factor for periodic structures is 0.25
since at this stage the modulation becomes zero. In order to
achieve the smallest possible features, k has to be made as
small as possible. The minimum practical value of k is about
0.35, which is achieved by a combination of techniques includ-
ing the use of phase-shifted masks and off-axis illumination

[15]. For an assumed large NA of 0.7, 0.13-m features can be
printed with 248-nm steppers. Isolated (in contrast to dense)
lines of 0.12 m have been reported by use of a 248-nm stepper
and phase-shifted masks [16].
Positional errors come from two main sources: the reticle
and the lens system. For a SVG lithography DUV scanner
lens, distortions are 35 nm, and tool-to-tool overlay errors
amount to 90 nm [17].

The smallest size of the features that can be written depends
mainly on the spot size, beam energy, and the resist used. Con-
trol of this feature size across a wafer also depends on the pat-
tern density and the nature of the substrate. In this procedure,
impingement of the electron beam on a substrate is first con-
sidered. Figure 5 shows a Monte Carlo simulation [18] of elec-
trons entering a resist-coated surface and illustrates the key
Figure 5 Monte Carlo simulation of electrons entering a resist-

coated surface. The electron scattering within the resist and sub-
strates is clearly visible. (From Ref. 18.)
processes that take place in lithography. The two main pro-

cesses are forward- and backscattering. Forward-scattering is
caused by electronelectron interactions and results in a grad-
ual spread of the beam as it penetrates the resist. In addition,
forward-scattering results in a shower of secondary electrons
with energies on the order of 10 to 100 eV. Their range is about
3 nm in resist [19]. They form the major contribution to resist
exposure.
Backscattering is caused by electronnucleus interac-
tions and can cause a large change in the direction of travel.
The amount of electron backscattering depends strongly on
the atomic number of the substrate atoms increasing rapidly
for heavier atoms. The significance of the backscattered elec-
trons is that they expose the resist again as they leave the
substrate. Following Chang [20] the point exposure distribu-
tion is often approximated as a double Gaussian expression:
f(r)
1
1
(1 ) 2
exp
r 2
2

2
exp

r 2
2
(5)
The first Gaussian approximates the finite size of the forward

beam along with forward-scattering contributions. The second
Gaussian represents the backscattered electrons with a much
wider spread given by , and intensity relative to the for-
ward beam. Table 3 shows typical values for and . The back-
scattered electrons act as a background fog to the main expo-
sure which varies in intensity according to the local pattern
density. The so-called proximity effect then arises, in which
all shapes close to a point contribute to the actual electron
dose there. CD control across a pattern is then made difficult,
although software packages are available that calculate either
the dose or feature size corrections necessary to maintain the
desired CD across the pattern.
Even with zero beam size and sufficiently thin resist,
which conditions should help to ensure that forward-scatter-
ing can be neglected, the minimum feature sizes would still
Table 12.3 Measured Electron Backscatter Characteristics

for Different Substrates and Beam Energies
Resist
thickness Energy
Substrate (m) (kV) (m) Ref.
Silicon 0.5 25 2.81 0.92 53
Silicon 0.5 50 8.80 0.75
Si 10 25 5.22 0.35
GaAs 0.5 25 3.24 1.21
Si 0.1 20 2.0 0.78 54
Si 0.1 60 13.1 0.70
Si 0.1 120 43.0 0.76
InP 0.11 50 3.7 1.4 55
be limited by the secondary electron range in the resist (which

is on the order of 3 nm) [21]. This limitation is avoided by the
use of inorganic materials such as sodium chloride (NaCl),
from which small holes can be evaporated by means of an in-
tense beam exposure. These materials, however, have been
found to be too slow for practical use. Practical EBL machines,
of course, do not have zero spot size. Typical minimum spot
sizes for a high-resolution Gaussian beam are about 5 and 10
nm, respectively, for field emission LaB6 sources. Specially
built machines with smaller spot sizes have long been avail-
able for experimental work [22,23].
PMMA is the positive resist that gives the smallest fea-
tures and 10-nm lines were obtained in 1983 [24]. Since then,
smaller features have been achieved, such as 7-nm PMMA
lines subsequently etched into Si [25] and 3-nm NiCr wires
made in Glasgow [26]. The latter are formed as a constriction
between two larger wires and arbitrary 3-nm features are not
possible. Evidence is available that 10-nm features reported
are smaller than the PMMA pattern, and are caused by the
metal, usually gold, balling up on the substrate because of
poor adhesion. Edge roughness at linewidths below 30 nm is
a further issue. The preferred edge roughness should be less

than 10% of the designated CD, but typical values are on the
order of 2 to 5 nm and are considered to be caused by aggre-
gates of polymer molecules [27]. Hydrogen silsquioxane (HSQ)
is an example of a negative resist with a small polymer size
that has been developed to reduce edge roughness fluctuations
[28]. Recently other resists have been reported that are capa-
ble of resolution below 20 nm.
Pattern positional accuracy is achieved by laser interfe-
rometer control of the stage. Typical stage interferometer
wavelength () accuracies vary from values of 1/1024 to 1/120
(0.6 to 5 nm), a benchmark against which the deflection sys-
tem is calibrated. Positional accuracy for electron beam lithog-
raphy is usually subdivided into stitching and registration ac-
curacy. Absolute positional accuracy is also significant in
applications, such as in mix-and-match lithography, in which
some levels are written with an electron beam tool and others
by optical lithography. Positional errors arise from sources
including scanfield distortion, temperature- and charging-
induced drift, and height errors. Scanfield distortion is caused
by the nonsquareness of the field. Corrections are usually
made by adding small additional deflections to the beam as it
is scanned across the field. These corrections are calculated
by calibrating the deflection field against the stage interfe-
rometer and are applied dynamically as the beam is scanned.
Temperature-induced drift can come from many places in the
tool, and is minimized by applying rigorous thermal manage-
ment. A quartz substrate, for instance, has a coefficient of
thermal expansion of 106 C1; this means that a 1C temper-
ature change results in errors of 150 nm across a 150-mm
reticle. Charge-induced drift can arise from any insulating
surfaces in the beam path. When surfaces near the beam be-
come charged, a voltage-induced beam shift arises, which can
be on the order of 100 nm. Electrons striking conducting sur-
faces in a vacuum eventually produce insulating layers of con-
tamination caused by the breakdown of residual pump oil.
Charge-induced drift is reduced by careful column design,
improved vacuum systems, and by regular cleaning of the

column.
Commercial vector scan Gaussian beam tools have over-
lay and stitching specifications as low as 40 nm (mean 3),
a twofold improvement in 10 years to date. Further improve-
ments have been claimed, for example, 20 nm by means of a
Leica EBPG tool [29]. Faster, shaped beam machines have less
accuracy but an overlay figure of 50 nm and stitching of 20
nm (both mean 3) has been reported for 1 Gbit DRAM man-
ufacture [30]. These actions also quote 20 nm (3) CD control
across wafers for 150-nm features.
Recent workers have cited even smaller values, for exam-
ple (overlay), below 10 nm reported by Yamazaki in 1998, and
20 nm for stitching by Koek in 1994. Between 1989 and 1999,
available equipment has improved from, respectively, 80 nm
(mean 2) to 40 nm (mean 3).
12.4.2 Etch Tolerances

Etch tolerances, in both the vertical and lateral directions,
have a key role. Table 1 shows typical values for lateral dimen-
sions that can be achieved for various material systems. In-
dustrial lithographic processing works on a 10% lateral size
control tolerance. For mass-produced 0.25-m silicon devices,
this condition implies a 25-nm feature size control across a
wafer. Depth control is achieved by the use of etch stop layers,
by simple time reckoning, or by the use of laser reflectometry.
Etch stop layers are placed under the material to be etched.
An etch is then selected (or developed) with a large differential
etch rate between the etch stop layer and the layer to be
etched. Almost perfect control may then be achieved, although
such conditions can be difficult to obtain for etching into bulk
material. Accuracies of approximately 10% can be achieved, by
measuring the etch rate and then timing an etch. For greater
accuracy, laser reflectometry which makes use of interference
patterns obtained between the etched material and the mask,
can yield accuracies up to two percent.

12.5.1 Steppers for Photolithography
See Figure 3 for a photolithography illustration. The step-and-
scan system is used for DUV steppers for photolithography.
The size and complexity of i-line tools may be noted from their
footprint of about 6 m 2 and cost (several million U.S. dollars).
The lens system is made of quartz, although CaF 2 may be used
for DUV tools, and can contain more than 100 kg of glass.
12.5.2 Electron Beam Lithography

A high-resolution Gaussian beam vector scan system is de-
scribed here. Many of its features are similar to those of other
types of EBL tools. Figure 6 shows a simplified diagram of a
typical Gaussian beam EBL tool. The main components are
the column, plinth, pattern generator, and master computer.
The column contains the following elements. First, there
is the electron gun, the source of the electrons. Older tools typ-
ically use a single crystal LaB6 source whereas newer sys-
tems, since the mid-1990s, employ much brighter field emis-
sion sources. In either case a beam of electrons is drawn from
the tip by means of strong electric fields. Most of the column is
at ground potential but the electron source itself is at a raised
potential to provide the beam energy. Beam voltages are be-
tween 10 and 100 kV with higher values being used for im-
proved resolution. Extraction currents are on the order of 10
to 100 A. As most of this current is discarded on the way
down the column, typical beam currents at the substrate are
between 0.1 and 100 nA. Lens L1 and the blanker are now
considered. Electron beam lenses perform the same function
as the familiar optical lens, although they have a different
working principle [31]. They use a magnetic field and their
focal length can be controlled by varying the current passing
through a coil. The blanker consists of two parallel plates;
when a voltage is applied across the plates, the beam is de-
Figure 6 Schematic illustration of commercial electron beam li-

thography equipment.
flected into a beam dump thus switching off the beam at the
substrate. Beam blanking times can be less than 100 ns. Lens
L1 focuses the beam to a crossover point in the center of the
blanker, to ensure that when it blanks it does not also move
on the substrate. The next elements are lenses L2 and L3
which form a zoom lens system but with fractional magnifica-
tion: the focal plane of L3 is kept constant; by varying the cur-
rent through L2 and L3 different amounts of demagnification
are introduced into the system. This procedure allows the spot
size and beam current at the substrate to be varied. Further
down the column sit the deflection coils which electronically
scan the beam in the x- and y-directions. These coils are con-
trolled by the pattern generator. Below the coils is the final
lens, L4 which focuses the beam accurately onto the substrate.

In focusing the distance (height) of the substrate from the final
lens needs to be measured, usually by automatic systems. The
final item is the electron detectors which measure electrons
backscattered from the sample, in order to be able to locate
accurately markers on the substrate. These markers are typi-
cally heavy metal squares or crosses, such as tungsten, on the
silicon substrate. When the electron beam strikes the marker
more electrons are backscattered than arise from the sub-
strate enabling it to be accurately located. The capacity to lo-
cate markers is vital for both machine calibration and for
achievement of overlay in multilayer lithography.
The plinth contains the stage and the pumping units. A
highly clean vacuum is required to minimize contamination.
To that end, turbomolecular pumps are generally used. The
stage usually has solely x- and y-motion, with metrology pro-
vided by a laser interferometer usually giving sub-5-nm ac-
curacy. The pattern generator takes data generated by com-
puter-aided design, and translates these data to the x- and
y-deflections necessary for writing a pattern on the substrate.
Typical maximum scan rates are between 10 and 25 MHz with
15 or more bit accuracy in both x- and y-directions.
The master computer controls all aspects of pattern writ-
ing. The first stage, calibration of the system, includes focus-
ing the spot, adjusting the field size, and measuring the beam
current in order to ensure the correct dose. These procedures
can be done automatically. Then the pattern is written on the
substrate which can often take several hours. At intervals dur-
ing the writing process the machine is recalibrated in order
to minimize drift in position, focus, dose, and field size.
12.5.3 Dry Etch Kit

Figure 7 shows a basic RIE chamber. The wafer is placed on
the bottom electrode, the system is pumped down, and etch
gasses are passed through the chamber. The RF frequency ap-
plied to the bottom electrode strikes a plasma between the
Figure 7 Schematic illustration of a reactive ion etch system.
electrodes and the ions are accelerated across a dark space

onto the wafer. Recently developed equipment is more com-
plex, and will be likely to incorporate an airlock for rapid wafer
exchange, microprocessor control, and possibly etch depth
monitoring apparatus. ECR and ICP etch systems are now
more common and incorporate the basic RIE apparatus with
additional facilities to increase the plasma density.
12.6 APPLICATIONS
The production of silicon chips will continue to be the main

application for the lithography outlined in this chapter. Silicon
chips are used in diverse ways. Typical examples are personal
computers, high fidelity sound reproduction, car engine man-
agement, wristwatches, traffic lights, and medical systems.
Such use has all been made possible by the high resolution
machining of material by the lithographic processes outlined
here.
Lithography has been applied to other semiconductors as
well as silicon. In particular, GaAs-based devices are used to
make high-speed transistors for mobile phones and satellite
communications. Solid-state laser technology makes extensive
use of lithographic techniques. Its applications include CD
players and high-speed fiber communications. Flat panel dis-
plays, such as those employed in laptop computers, are made
from amorphous thin films of silicon on glass substrates by
use of lithographic techniques.
High-resolution lithography has also been used in other
applications, such as biotechnology. Microtextured surfaces
made by lithographic techniques affect the direction of cell
growth and have been used to make smart bandages for liga-
ment repair. Large arrays of electrodes have been made that
can be used to propel selectively different bioparticles, for frac-
tionating blood into different components [32]. Another ap-
plication is bespoke microscopy. An atomic force microscope
essentially consists of a sharp tip which is scanned across
a surface, as described more fully in Chapter 2. By carrying
out lithography on the tip, functional probes can be made,
such as thermometers to measure temperature or small holes
for scanning nearfield optical microscopy (SNOM). Figure 8
shows a 70-nm thermocouple fabricated on the top of a 20-m
high pyramid on a cantilever designed for use as a scanning
thermal probe [33].
12.7 DEVELOPMENT
The SIA has produced a lithography roadmap to highlight

the achievements needed in order to maintain the momentum
of Moores law until the year 2012. If circuit sizes continue
to decrease at the current rate, by the year 2012, minimum
dimensions in mass-produced transistors will have reached 35
Figure 8 (a) 70-nm Au/Pd thermocouple defined atop 20-m high

pyramid; (b) example of very high resolution lithography on an ex-
tremely nonplanar surface. The thermocouple is written after the
pyramid has been written but before the cantilever is released.
(Courtesy of Dr. J. M. R. Weaver.)
nm in circuits containing more than 108 transistors. Such con-

ditions pose major difficulties for the semiconductor industry.
It is widely believed that optical lithography will be superseded
before this stage is reached, perhaps ending with the 70-nm
generation in the year 2006. Contenders for replacing optical
lithography include X-ray, projection electron beam, and ex-

treme UV lithographies. Technological obstacles still need to
be overcome before any of these techniques can be selected. It
is noted that on a logarithmic scale, production devices are
now more than one-half way towards the use of atomic dimen-
sions since the formulation of Moores law in 1965.
Physical as well as technological drawbacks have to be
faced as devices continue to shrink. Atomic structure on the
35-nm length scale no longer appears continuous, which has
severe implications for transistor performance. Although
many so-called quantum devices have been proposed that
take advantage of quantum effects, at this length scale none
has yet seriously threatened the dominance of the transistor.
It is clear, however, that transistors cannot be scaled indefi-
nitely. At some stage new devices will need to emerge if the
shrinkage is to continue.
Nonetheless, frequent predictions of the demise of
Moores law over the past 20 years have been proven to be
unfounded. Thus despite the formidable obstacles that lie
ahead, it seems likely that devices will continue to shrink for
the foreseeable future.
The equations dealing with high-resolution lithography in this

chapter need to be interpreted on an individual basis. Stan-
dard equations employed in practice have been used. As differ-
ent units are typically used for the same symbols in the differ-
ence equations, the following explanation of symbols is given
for each equation.
(1) K is a constant of proportionality. Because of this

condition, the units are arbitrary. However, for a
given resist when K is determined, the units should
not be changed.
(2) T is time (seconds)
F is fill factor (unitless number from 0 to 1)

A is area (cm2)
S is sensitivity (C/cm2)
i is beam current (A). (Here i has to be in A to give
the correct value for T. This equation simply
states that the time is given by dividing the to-
tal number of Coulombs by the current.)
(3) i is current (A)
B is A/cm2 /sr
D is in cm
is in radians.
(4) R is resolution (m). Thus wavelength needs to be

in m
NA is dimensionless
K is dimensionless.
(5) , are quoted in m
r is in m
is dimensionless.
AFM Atomic force microscopy
ArF Argon fluoride
B Electron source brightness
CD Critical dimension
CVD Chemical vapor deposition
DQN Diazonapthoquinone
DRAM Dynamic random access memory
DUV Deep ultraviolet
EBL Electron beam lithography
EBPG Electron beam pattern generator
ECR Electron cyclotron resonance

EUV Extreme ultraviolet
eV Electron volts
FF Fill factor
Hg Mercury
HMDS Hexamethyldisilizane
KrF Krypton fluoride
kV Kilo volts
ICP Inductively coupled plasma
Wavelength (nm)
LaB6 Lanthanum boride
MHz Mega Hertz (10 6 Hertz)
C/cm 2 Units of electron beam exposure dose (106
Coulombs per square centimeter)
m Micrometers (106 meters)
NA Numerical aperture
nm Nanometers (109 meters)
P(MMA-MAA) Copolymer of methyl methacrylate and metha-
crylic acid
PBS Poly(butene-1-sulfone)
PEB Postexposure bake
PMMA Polymethyl methacrylate
PVD Physical vapor deposition
RH Relative humidity (%)
RF Radio frequency (Hz)
RIE Reactive ion etching
SCALPEL Scattering with angular limitation in projection
electron beam lithography
SNOM Scanning nearfield optical microscopy
SS Spin speed (revs per min)
VLSI Very large scale integration
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[55] D. M. Tennant, G. E. Doran, R. E. Howard, and J. S. Denker,
Electron scatterning distribution in InP at 50 kV. J. Vacuum

Science and Technology (B6), 426431 (1988).
[56] T. Nishihano et al., Solid State Technology, June, 90 (1994).
[57] J. T. Clemens, Silicon microelectronics technology. Bell Labs
Technical J. Autumn, 76102 (1997).
Appendix
Micromachining by Finishing
Techniques
Joseph McGeough
A.1 INTRODUCTION
The main text of this book deals with the principal methods of
micromachining that are currently attracting industrial and
research interest.
Other material removal processes used primarily for fin-
ishing and polishing of surfaces are also occasionally consid-
ered to act in the manner of micromachining. The purpose of
this appendix therefore is to draw attention to and describe
some techniques that may be regarded in this category. Some
of these methods are already well established and have had
to be adapted to meet the requirements of microengineered
components.
369
370 McGeough
A useful guide to the place of these techniques may be

derived from the review by Komanduri et al. [1]. They classify
wide groups of material removal processes. Well-established
techniques such as lapping, honing, finishing, and polishing
are now being given new emphasis, especially for applications
in which precision is paramount. (See, for example, [2,3].)
Shaw has given a useful account of the principles of precision
finishing [4]. Thus, conventional lapping is used for form accu-
racy such as flatness or sphericity in the cases of, respectively,
planar objects or balls. Honing, like lapping, is used for form
and shape accuracy and for generating topography, for exam-
ple, to trap lubricant. The term polishing usually implies
best finish without regard to shape or form accuracy; finish-
ing is a general term describing any or all of these processes.
A.2 MICROLAPPING
The principles of some of these techniques are now described.

We begin with the well-established lapping process, which is
now being developed for special micromachining applications.
A.2.1 Principles
In lapping an abrasive such as fine grit diamond is applied in
a slurry or paste in water, grease, or oil. A common type is
ball-lapping in which balls are placed between cast iron laps
into which are machined circular grooves to control the move-
ment of the balls. Rotation of one of the laps results in a cir-
cular movement of the balls around the laps onto which is
superimposed a spinning motion of the balls to ensure their
complete coverage. The hard abrasive becomes embedded in
the soft lap and acts as a cutting point.
Material removal by lapping is very slow. The technique
is mainly used to improve surface finish. The surfaces pro-
duced depend on the material removal mechanism but are
generally isotropic. Lapping is used to produce smooth flat
Micromachining by Finishing Techniques 371
parts such as gauge blocks or sealing surfaces and in bearing

technology for finishing of steel and ceramic balls.
A.2.2 Applications of Microlapping

Magnetic Materials
A magnetic material extensively used in the electrical indus-
try is MnZn ferrite. Its finishing by conventional abrasive
grinding including lapping is found to give rise to microcrack-
ing, chipping, and damage to the surface layers. In order to
understand the effects that arise, Touge and Matsuo [5] report
high-precision lapping of MnZn polycrystalline ferrite with
0.5 to 2.0 m diamond abrasive grains under loads of 42.7 and
90.5 kPa. They propose that the motion of abrasive grains has
a direct effect on process efficiency and the surface character-
istics of lapped surfaces. Material is removed by two types of
grains: fixed grains trapped on the lapping plate and loose
grains contained in the lapping fluid. They conclude that work
material is mainly removed by loose grains.
Air Bearing Surfaces

Another application for lapping is in the machining of air bear-
ing surfaces (ABS) of the read-write head for magnetic disk
data storage devices; surface roughnesses of 5 mm or better
is required. Small abrasive sizes are used to ensure slow mate-
rial removal rate and satisfactory surface roughness. Chang
et al. [6] have studied the mechanisms involved and have clas-
sified the mechanisms into four states. They reported transi-
tions for three-body brittle to two-body ductile machining in
the first 90 s of lapping with 3-m diameter grains of A2O3
abrasive. Acoustic emission (AE) was proposed as a basis for
in-process monitoring for microlapping.
Silicon Wafers
Advances in lapping for silicon wafer applications by a rapidly
renewable lap technique that separates functions of figure and
372 McGeough
finish control for a broad range of lapping and polishing pro-

cesses have been described by Evans and coworkers [7]. Ad-
vanced theoretical analyses have been presented by Cai et al.
[8].
A.3 MICROHONING
Honing is an abrasive machining process used primarily to

improve the surface characteristics of a working surface. Al-
though honing is considered to be a minimal material removal
technique it is being increasingly employed as a final machin-
ing step to obtain or to correct a part shape and dimensional
accuracy. When the technique is used to obtain a very smooth
surface, it is often termed superfinishing; c.f. conventional
honing which usually yields higher material removal and
rougher finish.
The process may be categorized into short- and long-
stroke honing [9,10].
A.3.1 Short-Stroke Honing (SSH)

In short-stroke honing a superfinishing stone is shaped to con-
form to the component. An oscillatory motion is applied to the
stone so that it interacts at moderate pressure with the work-
piece which rotates at relatively low speed. Figure 1 illus-
trates the relatively large contact area between superfinishing
Figure 1 Main features of stone-superfinishing. (From Ref. 10.)

stone and workpiece. Neat honing oil is supplied into the

working area to (i) provide lubrication over the large contact
length in order to reduce stone wear and (ii) flush away any
adherent chips that may cause stone loading. Neat honing oils
are petroleum-based such as paraffin oils and kerosene and
are undiluted with water. The neat oil often has included ex-
treme pressure additives (EP) to prevent welding of chips to
the stone surface. In high-precision applications, the lubricant
can also be used to control the workpiece temperature in order
to achieve finer dimensional accuracy. The superfinishing
stone is often impregnated with a lubricant additive such as
wax or sulphur directly into the stone structure so that it is
directly available at the interface between stone and work-
piece.
Oscillation of the superfinishing stone can reduce loading
and increase the rate of material removal. The oscillation
speed can be controlled to produce a certain surface character-
istic, that is, a cross-hatched pattern. The motion of the honing
stone resulting from oscillation of the stone and rotation of the
workpiece gives rise to a sinusoidal path around the work-
piece, the angle of the cross-hatch being dependent on the rela-
tive speed of the workpiece and its oscillation.
Typical applications of short-stroke honing are found in
the bearing industry, in which plunge and through-feed
technique honing are used. In the former method, an oscillat-
ing honing stone of correct form is plunged onto the surface
of a rotating ring. Plunge honing can be used for rough and
fine finishing with a single stone, by change in process vari-
ables. For example, rough honing can be achieved by slow ro-
tation of the workpiece with fast-stone oscillation and finish-
ing, then accomplished by high workpiece speed and low
oscillation rates.
However, surface finish and material removal are mainly
dependent on grit size, and double-stage honing is used for
rough and fine surface finishing. An example of through-feed
honing is shown in Figure 2. The workpieces are rotated and
fed to different honing stations by drive rolls which are set at
374 McGeough
Figure 2 (a,b) Plunge and (c) through-feed honing. (From Ref. 10.)
a slight angle to produce the feeding motion. A coarse grit can

be used initially to achieve a required material removal, and
fine grits are employed at the end of the operation for surface
finishing.
A.3.2 Long-Stroke Honing (LSH)

This technique is used for finishing of bores of components
such as bushings, hydraulic cylinders, connecting rods, and
cylinder liners. Usually, the honing head is applied to the bore
of the component. The honing head, which is expendable, ro-
tates and is reciprocated or stroked through the bore; this mo-
tion provides for a cross-hatch pattern as already discussed
for short-stroke honing.
The honing head may comprise one or several (for in-
stance, two, four, or six) hones, the characteristics of which
(e.g., abrasive type, grit size, or bond) influence the roundness,
cylindricity, roughness, and material removal from the bore,
as do operating variables. Long-stroke honing can improve
bore form errors, such as out-of-roundness, waviness, taper,
and barrelling resulting from earlier processing such as heat
treatment and machining.
In the single-stroke honing of bores diamond and CBN-
plated tools are used. The tool has an electroplated sleeve,
which is expandable to compensate for tool wear although no

expansion occurs during the operation. A desired amount of
material is removed in a single pass in order for the hole to
be correctly sized and surface finished; the grit size has to be
judiciously chosen.
A.3.3 Industrial Applications

As noted above, typical applications for microhoning are found
in the bearing and automotive industry and for finishing of
components such as hydraulic cylinders. An innovative hybrid
microhoning technique has recently been described which has
proved useful in machining of internal combustion parts. A
laser is used to produce deep valleys, 5-m deep, 30 m-wide
with 600-m separation and cross-hatch angle of 30, followed
by honing to yield a low surface roughness of 1 m Rz. A pat-
tern of slots or pits has also been produced by this technique.
Reduction in oil consumption, emission, wear, friction, and
fuel is claimed [10].
A.4 SUPERFINISHING
Honing stones are utilized widely in conventional superfin-

ishing practice, although they suffer from the disadvantage of
lack of consistency and controllability. They tend to glaze or
dull or become loaded such that material removal and finish
vary. Satisfactory finishing becomes highly dependent on the
skill of the operator [10].
These difficulties may be overcome by use of coated abra-
sives, which are designed to present a controlled open and ag-
gressive cutting surface to the workpiece. This configuration
combined with continuous or step feed and oscillation gives a
consistent and predictable high-quality surface finish.
The basic structure of a coated abrasive consists of a thin,
strong backing material onto which an adhesive make-coat
is applied. A single layer of abrasive is then electrostatically
coated, so that the sharp cutting edges are exposed in a direc-
376 McGeough
tion perpendicular to that of the surface. A second layer of ad-

hesive, the size-coat is then applied to secure the abrasive
to the backing. Often fillers such as alumina bubbles (of alumi-
num oxide), cryolite, or pyrite are added to the make-coat to
improve performance. For very fine grit abrasives, a slurry
coating is used; the grits become covered and some wear is
needed for effective working.
The type of abrasive and its grain size greatly influence
surface finish and removal rate. Higher material removal and
poorer surface finishing are generally obtained with coarse
grains and vice versa for finer grains.
Grains are more precisely graded with a narrower distri-
bution of grain sizes so that when coated onto a backing they
give a more uniform abrasive height above the tape thereby
reducing deep scratches. The fine abrasive grain sizes used for
finishing are so small that they are not classified by the usual
mesh or grade number but by the actual grain size (m). The
abrasives used include fused and sintered alumina, sol gel,
and superabrasives such as CBN and diamond.
Conventional monolayer-coated abrasives can wear lead-
ing to variations in surface finish, especially during the initial
break-in period, as much as 30% of the belt life. Clustered-
coated abrasives, consisting of fine abrasive grains bonded to-
gether are now available which are coated onto the backing
in order to extend the life of the abrasive tape. A three-dimen-
sional structure of any shape (e.g., pyramids, cones, or cubes)
is produced on the tape. Within these shapes is an abrasive
composite of bond and fine abrasive grains. These shapes wear
uniformly exposing fresh unused abrasive. A more consistent
surface finish and higher rate of cut is maintained for longer
times.
Onchi and coworkers describe several typical characteris-
tics of superfinishing shown in Figure 3 for CBN and alumi-
num oxide superfinishing stones [11].
1. Cutting (CC): high stock removal and rough surface

finish
Figure 3 Characteristics of superfinishing. (From Ref. 11.)
2. Mirror finishing (MF): low stock removal and fine

mirror finish
3. Semicutting (SC): intermediate behavior.
Further work by Bordeianu and Marinescu on conven-

tional stones of 1000 grit alumina and SiC concludes that alu-
mina should be used for the rough superfinish stage due to
its high material removal, whereas SiC is preferable for fine
superfinishing [12,13]. Their work was performed on DGBB
inner rings of outer diameter 14.7 mm with initial surface fin-
ish of 0.1 m. With SiC a surface finish of 0.025 m Ra was
achieved in 6 s.
A.4.2 Magneto-Abrasive Micromachining and

Finishing (MAF)
A related mechanical abrasive technique is MAF. Magneto-
abrasive brushes are energized electromagnetically across a
small machining gap formed between the work surface and
378 McGeough
magnetic poles. The cutting agents, abrasive grains of alumin-

ium oxide or boron nitride, are sintered with a ferromagnetic
iron base. They arrange themselves with the iron particles to
conform with the contour of the work surface while the MAF
particles are held firmly against the rotating work surface. A
rapid short-stroke oscillatory motion is carried out in a direc-
tion parallel to the work axis. See Figure 4.
The MAF brushes first make contact and act upon the
surface protruding elements that may originally stem from ir-
regularities in the form of the surface. Surface defects such as
scratches, hard spots, lay lines, and tool marks can be re-
moved. Irregularities in form, such as lobbing, chatter marks,
and taper can be corrected with only limited depth of stock
removal, for example, 20 m.
MAF is used in micromachining of the internal and exter-
nal surfaces of materials ranging from carbon and stainless
steel to ceramics and thermosetting plastics. In one applica-
tion to bearing surfaces, surface roughness was lowered from
0.5 to 0.6 m to 0.05 to 0.06 m in 30 to 60 s [14,15]. Varghese
and Malkin discuss enhanced stock removal for superfinish-
ing, mainly by ultrasonic vibration to reduce loading [16].
Figure 4 Apparatus for magneto-abrasive finishing. (From Ref.

15.)
A.5 SUPERPOLISHING
The close relationship between superfinishing and polishing

of surfaces gives rise to discussion of developments in super-
polishing technology, again much of which has been driven by
the needs of the electronics industry.
A.5.1 CHEMICALLY ASSISTED

MECHANICAL POLISHING (CMP)
CMP combines simultaneous chemical and mechanical action

for polishing and producing a plane surface. A rotating pol-
ishing pad is pressed against a workpiece. The pad is soaked
with a slurry composed of (i) a chemically active liquid such
as hydrogen peroxide or ammonium hydroxide and (ii) an
abrasive, for example, fine-grained alumina or diamond. Sur-
face finishing is achieved by a cyclic process in which a metal
passivation layer is produced and then subsequently removed
by the action of the abrasive. A balance has to be obtained
between the high oxidation rate needed for rapid metal re-
moval and the etching rate which can lead to selective etching
of different phases or components within the workpiece. For
example, planarization of metalization structures on silicon
wafers may consist of insulating SiO2 and conductive Cu
tracks which can be etched at different rates.
CMP is used extensively in the electronics industry in the
manufacture of wafers, flat panel displays, and thin film mag-
netic heads, as is now illustrated.
As noted above Komanduri et al. have described techno-
logical advances in fine abrasive processes [1]. They give de-
tailed consideration to CMP for finishing of silicon wafers in
the semiconductor industry. They draw attention to the scal-
ing down of device dimensions to the range 0.1 to 0.5 m, and
the growing importance of local and global planarization.
Other workers have also drawn attention to planariza-
tion of submicron dielectrics and metallic layers used in semi-
conductor chip technology. Jeong and coworkers [17] discuss
380 McGeough
integrated planarization by use of ultrafine abrasive machin-

ing for silicon substrates, blanket films of oxide, and wafers
with pattern topography. Loose abrasive superpolishing meth-
ods such as CMP and also bonded abrasive methods such as
ductile mode grinding with ultrafine abrasives are discussed.
Chemicalmechanical grinding combined with the recently
developed electrolytic grinding process (ELID) yielded a 0.3-
m flatness and surface roughness of 4 nmRa for a 150-mm
substrate wafer (see also Chapter 5 and Section A.6.1). ELID
grinding plays a significant role in achieving high flatness.
Subsequent chemical mechanical grinding can realize a mir-
ror surface almost the same as CMP, with only 2-m surface
removal. (See the discussion on ELID in Section A.6.)
Further work on planarizing silicon wafers is reported by
Byrne et al. [18] who discuss wear of the polishing pad.
A.5.2 Mechanochemical Polishing

An alternative to the above technique is mechanochemical pol-
ishing. Abrasive powders are used. These are mechanically
softer than the workpiece but can chemically react with it. Ex-
amples are BaCO3 powder which is used for polishing of silicon
wafers or Cr2O3 oxide for polishing SiC and Si3N4.
Attractions of the process are low mechanical damage
and no scratch marks. The process can be dry so that cleanli-
ness is improved. Surface finishes better than 1 nmRa are
claimed [19].
A.6 ELID-GRINDING (ELECTROLYTIC

IN-PROCESS DRESSING)
A.6.1 Introduction
Advanced precision grinding processes are playing a major
part in competing with, and replacing, conventional loose
abrasive processes such as lapping. For example, Zhong and
Venkatesh [20] provide a thorough account of semiductile
grinding of silicon, germanium, and glass. The need for new
advanced manufacturing processes for semiconductors, mag-

netic leads, and optical components has prompted Ohmori and
Nakagawa [21] to devise new mirror surface grinding tech-
niques that use metallic bond grinding wheels with electro-
lytic in-process dressing. It was devised through application
of cast-iron bonded diamond (CIB-D) wheels for grinding of
silicon wafers (see Figure 5). In further developments a metal
bonded or conductive resin bonded grinding wheel uses dia-
mond or CBN for ferrous materials.
The principles of ELID are as follows. The wheel is the
anode and is spaced about 0.1 mm from a secondary electrode
acting as the cathode (graphite, stainless steel or copper). A
chemical solution type of grinding coolant diluted by water is
used both as grinding fluid and electrolyte. The metallic bond
wheel is predressed electrolytically before grinding during
which the working current is found to decrease. This decrease
arises owing to an insulating oxide/hydroxide layer which is
generated on the wheel surface. The friable oxide formed pre-
vents grinding chips from adhering to the wheel. As the
cutting grains become worn, the insulating oxide layer also
becomes worn. Fresh oxidation of the wheel occurs in a self-
Figure 5 Principles of ELID grinding. (From Ref. 22.)

382 McGeough
regulatory fashion, providing continued exposure of fresh cut-

ting points, so that the grinding force is kept low. Knight [10]
reports surface finishes of R max22 nm and Ra of 4 nm with 3.0-
m or smaller grits, for a cast-iron fiber-bonded diamond
grinding wheel.
Most ELID applications lie with ceramics, optical materi-
als, and, recently, bearing steels [2224]. The surface finishes
achieved are usually 0.011 to 0.036 m Ra, and 0.08 to 0.18
m Rz. ELID cycle times are about 20 s.
A.7 CONCLUSIONS
As micromachining moves steadily toward nanotechnological

applications, increasing effort will continue to be devoted to
the place of finishing by the above techniques, their develop-
ment, and their successors [25,26]. Many of these advances
will be driven by the needs of the electronics, medical, and
optical industries.
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in high precision lapping of Mn-Zn ferrite. Annals of the CIRP
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[6] Y. P. Chang, M. Hashimura, and D. A. Dornfield, An investiga-

tion of the AE signals in the lapping process. Annals of the
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[7] C. J. Evans, R. E. Parks, D. J. Roderick, and M. L. McGlaufin,
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[8] C. Q. Cai, Y. S. Lu, R. Cai, and H. W. Zheng, Analysis on lap-
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Index
Abbe equation, 21, 23 Acid, hydrofluoric, 343

Ablation, laser, 205, 213, 218, Acoustic systems, 157, 167,
219, 220, 221, 228, 232, 371
234 Acoustic wave devices, 293
Abrasive, coated, 375, 376 Alloy, shape-memory, 196,
Accuracy, 2, 3, 64, 65, 74, 85, 197
86, 101, 102, 104, 108, Alumina, 281, 282, 376,
109, 110, 113, 117, 118, 377
125, 127, 136, 138, 180, Aluminium, 67, 75, 77, 78,
187, 231, 235, 325, 326, 127, 142, 143, 225,
332, 346, 352, 353, 356, 226, 232, 307, 327,
370 342
IBM, 291 (alloys), oxide (Al 2 O 3 ), 7, 96,
USSM, 159, 160, 161, 166, 107, 149, 151, 162, 169,
168, 169, 171, 175 171, 172, 293, 371
385
386 Index
AMMG (abrasive micromachin- Biomedicine, 175

ing and microgrinding), Biotechnology, 358
85, 86, 87, 95, 96, 97, Boron carbide, 149, 151, 161,
105, 106, 111, 112 162
Anodic dissolution, 9, 243, Boundary element methods,
244 (BEM) 255, 256
Apertures, whole field, 15, 57 Brass, 182, 184
Applications Bronze, 110, 118
automotive, 111 Bubble memory devices,
defense, 138 294
diamond micromachining, Bushings, 374
141
EBM, 313 Calipers, high resolution, 16
industrial, AMMG, 111 Capacitor, trench, 327
laser, 225 Capillary drilling, 241, 264
medical, 138 Carbide, cemented, 159, 179,
ultrasonics, 173, 175 180, 183, 184, 190
ultrasonic, 166, 176 Carbon, 96, 97, 280, 295, 311
Argon, 228, 281, 282, 287, amorphous, 229
288, 289, 291, 293 Carbonization, 234
plasma, 342 Cast iron, 96, 107, 381
Artificial intelligence, neural Cathode ray tube (CRT), 21,
networks, 10 26
Aspect ratio, 179, 188, 194, Cathodic protection, 190
195, 241, 242, 256, 257, Cavitation erosion, 148
263, 264, 272, 336 CBN, 374, 376, 381
Aspherizing, of lenses, 293 Ceramic, 7, 87, 91, 101, 107,
Astigmatic method, principle, 108, 119, 127, 135, 138,
33, 35 141, 143, 144, 148, 150,
Atomic force microscopy 151, 153, 159, 164, 169,
(AFM), microscope, 18, 172, 175, 180, 225, 234,
19, 47, 52, 55, 57, 340, 266, 267, 296, 378, 382
358 Characterization of microma-
chining, 4
Barium carbonate (BaCO 3 ), Chemically assisted mechani-
380 cal polishing (CMP),
Bearing, surfaces (ABS), 117, 379, 380
119, 370, 371, 373, 378 Chip (semiconductor), 321,
Biological materials, 7 327, 357, 358, 379
Index 387
Chrome, 321, 330 Cornea shaping, 232

-coated quartz, 330 Corrosion, 259, 267
mask, 318 Crystallographic orientation,
Chromium, 26, 330 288
ClausiusClapeyron equation, Cubic boron nitride (CBN), 96,
215 107, 110
Cleaning Current
(IBM), 292, 293 efficiency, 254, 255, 263, 265
laser, 232 emission, 300, 301, 302, 304
Computer numerical control limiting, 247, 251, 252, 272
(CNC), 125, 127, 137, pulsed, 252, 253, 254
138, 142 Cutting, 1, 93, 94, 102, 105,
Components, optical, optics, 223, 293
117, 127, 135, 144 conventional and ultrasonic
Composites, 148, 169 assistance, 153, 172, 173
Computer industries, 2 machine tool, 126, 128, 130
Computer numerically con- ultraprecision and ultrafast,
trolled (CNC) machin- 63, 78
ing, 2 Cutting-off (EBM), 306
Computer-aided design, 331,
356
Cone connector, 270 de Broglie formula, 23
Contouring (contour machin- Defect of focus, principle, 33
ing), 160, 161, 162, 164, Dentistry, 172, 173
171 Deposition, 296, 343, 345
Control, dimensional, 101, chemical vapor (CVD), 342
108, 109, 110, 136, 180, physical vapor (PVD), 342
184, 187, 346 Diamond, 27, 43, 44, 78, 96,
Coolant, cooling media (micro- 99, 110, 125, 126, 127,
machining, abrasive), 128, 142, 149, 153, 159,
95, 96, 97, 106, 107, 119 162, 164, 165, 168, 169,
Coordinate measuring ma- 171, 173, 175, 205, 225,
chine (CMM), 16, 18, 227, 228, 370, 371, 374,
19, 50, 57 376, 379, 381, 382
Copper (Cu), 7, 67, 71, 74, 75, abrasive, 93, 97, 99, 100,
77, 78, 125, 127, 128, 101, 107, 118
142, 172, 182, 183, 184, tool, 63, 64, 67, 68, 71, 75
192, 196, 250, 265, 269, turning, 63, 65, 75, 78
270 Die, 50, 162, 169, 180, 181,
388 Index
[Die] [Electrodischarge machining]

184, 187, 188, 191, 194, 153, 161, 179, 180, 182,
196, 197, 232 183, 184
injection, 190, 196, 197 Electroforming, 192, 193, 267,
wire drawing, 228 335
Diffraction method, 27 Electrolyte flow, 239, 240, 246,
Diffusion, of heat, 214, 220 255, 259, 262, 264
Diffusion layer, 247, 248, 249, hydrodynamics of, 11
250, 253, 273 Electrolytic grinding in-
Direct numerically controlled process dressing
machining (DNC), 2 (ELID), 132, 380, 381,
Discharge, 180 382
Disk, 138, 142, 169, 295 Electrolytic jet, 241, 247, 255,
Dissolution, 239, 245, 247, 264
248, 255, 263 Electromilling, 241
Dressing, 106, 131 Electron beam cleaning,
Drilling, 1, 7, 155, 159, 160, 292
161, 164, 165, 166, 169, Electron beam drilling, 264
304, 313 Electron beam machining
electrochemical, 263, 264 (EBM), 9, 23, 24, 26,
micro, 205, 223, 225, 228 299, 300, 302, 304, 305,
rate of, 308 306, 308, 310, 311, 313,
Duty cycle, 189, 253, 254 315, 318, 319, 320, 321,
Dynamics, molecular (MD), 322, 323
63, 65 Electron cyclotron resonance
(ECR), 344
Elastic transmission method, Electron microscopy, 169
53 Electron resist, 318, 319
Electrical discharge (cleaning), Electron-beam lithography
292 (EBL), 15, 325, 326,
Electrical industry, 371 327, 329, 331, 332, 333,
Electrochemical machining, 334, 337, 340, 344, 345,
(ECM), 9, 10, 11, 239, 349, 351, 352, 354, 360
240, 241, 244, 247, 250, Electronic devices, 113, 119
251, 252, 253, 254, 255, Electronics, 176, 315
263272 industry, 205, 209
Electrodischarge drilling, Electroplating, 232, 252, 342,
264 343
Electrodischarge machining, Electropolishing, 239, 240,
(EDM), 4, 9, 10, 11, 250, 251, 252
Index 389
Energy, specific cutting, 8 Finite element analysis

Equipment, micromachining (FEM), 255
(AMMG), 111 Fluence, threshold, 219, 220,
industrial (diamond), 221, 222, 225, 226, 227,
137 232
Etching, 288, 295, 296, 319, Fluoride, 244
335, 336, 337, 338, 340, Fluorine, 291
341, 343, 344, 346, 353, Fourier equation, 214
356, 357 Frequency, ultrasonic, 148
acid, 91, 294, 295 Fuzzy logic controllers, 10
photo, 194
rates, 240, 241, 242, 243,
251, 257, 258, 263, 268, Gap, equilibrium machining
269, 272, 291 (ECM), 10
selective resistance, 325, Gaussian expression, 332,
337, 338, 339 350, 351, 353, 354
Ethylene glycol, 97 microground, 110, 117
Eye surgery, 228 precision, 190, 196, 197
Generator, micro-discharge,
Faradays law, constant, 246, 189
255, 274 Germanium, 87, 101, 119,
Ferricyanide solution, 272 133, 134, 143, 150, 380
Ferrite, 101, 102, 107, 119 Glass, 7, 26, 86, 87, 91, 97,
Ferrous materials (metals), 107, 108, 117, 119, 127,
96, 127 135, 138, 140, 141, 148,
Fiber, optical, 196, 294 150, 151, 154, 159, 161,
Fidelity, 346 165, 166, 169, 172, 175,
Film, surface, 16, 244, 255, 194, 293, 354, 358, 380
315 blank, 321
Filters, filtration, 196, 259, fiber, 315
260, 315 optical, 169
Finishing, 115, 116, 117, 159, Gold, 7, 267, 292, 293, 295,
160, 240, 251, 253, 254, 311, 342, 351
272, 369, 370, 371, 373, photoresist, 295
374, 375, 376, 377, 382 Graphite, 96, 148, 151, 159,
Finish, surface quality, 80, 161, 227, 229, 381
106, 111, 113, 116, 180, pyrolytic, 47
185, 189, 194, 196, 244, G ratio, 99
375 Grinding, 2, 7, 86, 87, 93, 102,
Finite difference method, 66 107, 111, 117, 119, 125,
390 Index
[Grinding] Implants, medical, 196

127, 131, 135, 136, 137, Industrial micromachining
138, 144, 293 equipment, 354
abrasive, 99, 371 applications, 85, 87, 111,
chemical-mechanical, 380 127, 138, 169, 379, 382
diamond, 127, 134, 136, 137, medical, 382
139, 143, 153, 161 optical, 85, 87, 111, 127,
electrodischarge (EDG), 182, 138
184, 185, 197 Industry
precision, 380 aerospace, 169, 240, 241,
Grit, abrasive, 87, 89, 93, 94, 375
95, 96, 98, 99, 106 bearing, 375
Groove, 16, 28, 39, 44, 49, computer, 138
115, 142, 196, 205 semiconductor, 101, 112,
113, 240, 241, 336, 379
Hand tools, 2 Infrared lenses, 119, 143
Head, magnetic, 127, 379 Injection moulding, 334
Heat-affected zone (EBM), 310 Inkjet, 194
Hole, 225, 226 Integrated circuit (IC), 112,
diameter, 311 113, 313, 319, 330
drilled, 241, 263, 264 Integration, large-scale, 55
laser, 205, 227, 228 Interferometers, 137, 138,
micro, 184, 187, 191, 192, 139, 352
194, 196 technique, 35, 37, 39, 40,
measurement, 16, 23, 50, 49
52, 53 Ion beam
ultrasonic, 153, 154, 155, equipment, 194
159, 160, 161, 164, 165, lithography, 333, 334
166, 169, 172, 175 machining (IBM), 9, 277,
Honing, 370, 374, 375 278, 281
long-stroke, 372, 374 micro-focused, 296
oil, 373 Ion milling, 240
plunge, 373 Ion source, 228, 281
short-stroke, 372, 373, 374 Iron, 96, 97, 288, 296, 378
through-feed, 373
Hydrodynamics, 244, 248, 249, Jet (EMM), 241, 259, 263,
253, 254, 255 265, 266
Hydroxide, 243, 244 Jet engine components, 315
potassium, 343 Joule (heating), 251, 261
Index 391
Kerosene, 181, 183, 192, 373 Machinability, 7, 8, 306

Knife-blades, cutting, 228 Machines, 166, 283, 286, 287,
Knowledge-based systems 289, 291, 292, 293, 294,
(KBS), 10, 11, 12 295, 296
tools, 64, 74, 78, 102, 109,
Langmuirs method, 215 111, 118, 119, 128, 130,
Lapping, 102, 108, 111, 113, 131, 136, 138, 140, 166
119, 127, 136, 293, 370, Machining
371, 372, 380 abrasive, 85, 87, 91, 99, 105,
Lasers, 9, 10, 375 380
ablation, 270, 296 electrochemical (ECM), 239,
CO 2 , 161 240, 244, 247, 250, 253,
drilling, 264 254, 255
interferometry, 320 high resolution, 358
lithography, 333, 358 laser, 4
micromachining, 203, 204, normal, 4
223, 229 photochemical, 194
mirrors, 292 precision, 4, 111
pulses, beam, 203, 205, 213, rate, 87, 98, 134
218, 220, 222, 223 material removal (EBM),
semiconductor, 295 307, 308
YAG, 161 ultraprecision, 4
Laser-based surface follower Magneto-abrasive microma-
(system), 16, 27, 28 chining and finishing
Laser-jet (EMM), 241, 265 (MAF), 377, 378
Lens, optical, 99, 117, 118 Magnetic disk, 47, 371
Lithography, 144, 244, 245, Magnetic heads, 293
315, 325, 330, 333, 334, Mask-based processes, 7
335, 336, 340, 344, 346, Maskless (EMM), 241, 243,
348, 349, 350, 352, 354, 244, 252, 253, 255, 256,
356, 357, 358, 360 258, 259, 260, 261, 262,
electron beam, 299, 319, 263, 264, 266, 267, 268,
322 269, 270, 272, 274
galvanoform, (LIGA), 196 Masks, 4, 6, 225, 226, 227,
laser, 331, 334, 360 232, 315, 319, 321,
micro, 44 322
techniques, 325, 326, 327, electron gun, 4, 15
329, 335, 336, 358, making, 326, 331334, 337,
360 341, 346, 349
392 Index
[Masks] Microelectronics, 3, 183, 225,

through micromachining, 232
241, 244, 255, 262, 270, packages, 240, 241
272 Microfabrication, 241, 263,
patterning, 293, 294, 295 264, 266, 295
Mass production, 7 Microforceps, 197
Material removal Microgrinding, 85, 86, 92, 94,
conventional, 8 102, 104, 107, 108, 110,
EBM, 305 111, 112, 113, 114, 117,
IBM, 287 118, 119
laser by evaporation, 208, Microgripper, 198
218, 221, 222 Microhoning, 372, 375
macro-scale, micro-scale, 9 Microjoining, laser, 204
ultrasonic, 149 Microlapping, 370, 371
Measuring machine, 3-D, 53 Micromachinability, 9
Medical applications, 225 Micromachining
Medical system, 358 abrasive, 85, 87, 91, 94, 95,
Metal removal, specific rate 102, 104, 105, 107, 110,
(ECM), 10 111, 112, 114, 115, 116,
Metals 117, 119
refractory, 169 diamond, 125, 127, 128,
sintered, 180 136, 144
Methane, 291 electrochemical, 194, 240
Michelson principle, 37 laser, 203, 205, 211
Microadjustment, laser, 204, nonconventional, 11
205, 231 rate of, 133
Microcracking, 107, 130, 144 through-mask, 255, 266
Microcutting, 64, 65, 72, 73, ultrasonic, 147, 160, 176
74, 128 Micromilling, laser, 205
laser, 234 Microproduct, 6
Microdrilling, ultrasonic, 154, Micropunches, 188, 194
159 Microscissors, 197
Microelectrodischarge machin- Microscopes
ing, 179, 180, 182, 183, electron, 19, 23, 24, 55
184, 185, 187, 188, 189, high resolution, 16
191, 192, 194, 196, 197, interference, 19
198 optical, 17, 19, 20, 22, 40
Microelectromechanical sys- Microscopy
tems (MEMS), 240 atomic force, 194, 358
Index 393
[Microscopy] Numerical control (NC), 2,

bespoke, 358 162, 167, 181, 184, 188,
optical, 358 189
Microshafts, 188 EBM, 313
Microstructuring, laser, 232
Microtools, 5 Oil, emulsified, 97, 98
Microwave ion gun, 296 Optical component, material,
Milling 381, 382
EBM, 313 Optical disks, 44
ion, 294, 295 Optical industries, 3
rate, 288, 289, 291, 294 Optical lithography, 325, 326,
Mirror surface grinding, 381 327, 329, 330, 331, 332,
Mn-Zn ferrite, 371 333, 334, 344, 348, 352,
Molding, 142 359, 360
Molds, 142, 162, 180, 181, Optical triangulation method,
196, 232, 267 30, 31, 50
Molecular dynamics, 8 Optoelectronics, 144
Molybdenum, 262, 265, 272, 280 Orifice, nozzle (paint spray),
Moores Law, 327, 358 190, 197
Oxides
Needle (hypodermic), 196 aluminum, 376, 378
Neurosurgical instruments, 197 Cr 2 O 3 , 380
Nickel (alloy), 7, 127, 149, silicon, 327, 342
150, 153, 172, 192, 231,
254, 267, 315, 342 Paraffin oil, 373
Nickel-titanium, 196, 197 Passivating (electrolyte) met-
Nitric acid, 264 als, 244, 247, 254, 255,
Nitride, boron, 378 263
Nitride, silicon, titanium, 342 Pattern, 332, 337, 344, 345,
Nitrogen 346, 348, 352, 354, 355
liquid, 44 generation (integrated cir-
plasma, 342 cuit), 313, 315, 318, 320
Nonconventional machining, transfer, 334, 337, 340, 351
179, 182, 239 Peclet number, 249, 250
Nonpassivating (electrolyte) Perforating of sheet, 313, 315
systems, 244, 254, 263 Phosphor, 231
Nozzles, 50, 115, 194, 196, Photolithic process, 203
255, 259, 260, 261, 265, Photolithography, 26
267, 268, 269, 270, 273 steps, 266
394 Index
Photomasks, 337 Pulse electrolysis (ECM)

Photoresist, 241, 242, 243, (PECM) (EMM), 253,
245, 249, 252, 256, 258, 254, 255
268, 269, 270, 319, 337 Pyrolithic process, 203
stripping, 232
Piezo electric-driven stage, ele-
Quartz, 101, 119, 140, 148,
ment, activated, 17, 47,
165, 171, 175, 259, 327,
119
330, 352, 354
Planarization, 379, 380
force, 71, 227, 229
Plasma, 278, 280, 281
sputtering, 342, 343, 344,
346, 356, 357 Radio frequency (RF), 198,
pressure, 215, 220 296, 343, 356
Plasma etching, 240 Raster scanning, 27, 46, 320,
Plastics, 128, 142, 180, 221, 321, 332, 334
222, 225, 226, 232, 378 Rayleigh criterion, 348
Platinum, 264 Reactive gases, 291, 296
Polishing, 86, 108, 110, 113, Reactive ion etching (RIE),
119, 127, 130, 136, 161, 240, 343, 344, 356,
162, 229, 293, 369, 370, 357
372, 379, 380 Reflectometry, laser, 353
mechanochemical, 380 Removal, metal, 239, 240, 241,
Polyimides, photosensitive, 243, 244, 245, 247, 262,
336, 340 264
Polymer (film), 44, 196, 203, Removal rate, 85, 89, 94, 95,
221, 232, 270, 319, 325, 99, 100, 101
329, 334, 337, 338, 341, diamond, 130, 131, 134,
352 135, 136
Polymethyl methacrylate ultrasonic, 149, 150, 151,
(PMMA), 7, 336, 337, 153, 154, 155, 157, 159,
338, 341, 351 161, 162, 168, 172
Precision applications, finish- Resist, 295, 321, 329, 330,
ing, 125, 370 331, 332, 334, 335, 336,
Printed circuit board (PCB), 21 337, 338, 340, 341, 349,
Printed wiring, 229 350, 351, 352
Printers, 194 Resistance-capacitance (RC),
contact, 330, 333 183, 185, 189, 190
Profile Reticle, 330, 331, 333, 349
optical follower (OPF), 18 Rotary ultrasonic machining
single (SP), method, 18 (RUM), 172
Index 395
Roughness, surface edge, 27, [Silicon]

37, 40, 44, 46, 47, 73, 296, 319, 327, 334, 337,
74, 77, 89, 99, 100, 101, 339, 342, 353, 356, 357,
104, 105, 106, 107, 109, 358, 379, 380, 381
115, 129, 130, 133, 135, (carbide) (nitride) (oxide),
235, 240, 340, 351, 352 96, 97, 107, 149, 151,
159, 161, 171, 377, 380
Saw, electrochemical, 255 wafer, 49, 101, 107, 112,
SCALPEL, 332, 335 113, 319, 339, 371, 379,
Scanning, 334, 335, 358 381
Scanning electron microscope Silver, 7, 292
(SEM), 16, 18, 19, 24, Simulation, 8, 255
26, 27, 128, 270, 272 molecular dynamics (MD),
Scanning force microscope, 16 8, 65, 66, 67, 69, 71, 72,
Scanning transmission micro- 75, 77, 78, 80, 220
scope, 3 Monte Carlo, 349
Scanning tunneling micro- Single profile (SP) method, 18
scope (STM), 16, 18, 19, Sinking, 153, 158, 161, 162,
44, 46, 47, 52, 55 169
Schmidt number, 249 Slits, 144, 196
Selectivity, 263 Slots, 15, 23, 28, 39, 50, 153,
Semiconductors, 327, 329, 169, 172, 188, 191, 195
336, 338, 340, 346, 348, Slotting (EBM), 306
358, 359 Small unit removal (UR), 4
devices, 6, 50, 114, 127, 143, Smart bandages, 358
148, 175, 205, 295, 296, Smoothing (IBM), 292
381 Sodium chloride (NaCl) solu-
Sensitivity, resist, 335, 337, tion, 265, 268, 351
338, 345 Sodium nitrate (solution), 265,
Shape evolution, control, 255, 266
256 Sol gel, 376
Shape specification elements Sonotrode, 148, 149, 150, 151,
(SSE), 4, 5, 6 153, 157, 161, 162, 167
Shaping (IBM), 293 Sound reproduction, 358
Silica (glass), 140, 169, 293 Spark erosion, 179
Silicon, 7, 15, 34, 49, 52, 87, Sputter deposition (cleaning),
97, 101, 107, 108, 112, 292, 293
113, 119, 134, 136, 138, Sputter etching, 240
143, 150, 151, 154, 165, Sputtering, 227, 286, 293,
166, 180, 185, 291, 293, 296, 343
396 Index
Stainless steel, 172, 173, 184, Texture, 102, 104, 111, 313,
185, 191, 192, 195, 196, 323
198, 208, 211, 234, 259, Texturing
260, 265, 266, 269, 270, electron beam, 323
292, 313, 378, 381 laser, 232
Steel, 107, 126, 127, 149, 150, Thinning (IBM), 293
153, 159, 162, 184, 208, Titanium (alloy), 97, 149, 150,
213, 216 153, 172, 174, 291, 310
bearing, 382 Titanium diboride, 198
carbon, 378 Tolansky interferometer, 40
sheet, 323 Tool
Stefan problem, 214 abrasive, 99, 100, 102, 107
Steps, 16, 39 cutting, 126, 128, 138, 139
Stokes flow, 250 design, optimization of, 11,
Stone, 172, 173 12
Stray current (cutting), 247, edge, 172, 173
265 fixed, 4
Structuring, surface laser, 232 making, 5
Stylus instruments, 18, 42, Tool-based micromachining, 4
43, 44 Tool-based processes, 7
Sulphur, 184, 231, 373 Tool makers microscope
Superfinishing, 2, 372, 373, (TMM), 22, 23, 50
375, 376, 377, 378, 379 Tool storage, 6
Superpolishing, 379, 380 Transfer fidelity, 74, 77, 78
Surface Transistor, 327, 358, 359, 360
abrasive, 131 Transmission electron micro-
finish, 127, 142, 144, 370, scope (TEM), 24, 293
373, 376, 377, 382 Trench, 144, 165
microtextured, 358 Tungsten, 150, 182, 184, 188,
profiler, 41 190, 191, 195, 197, 300,
roughness, 161, 173, 291, 301, 307, 311, 327, 342,
292, 310, 371, 378, 380 356
texture, texturing, 292 Turbine engine blades, 15,
Surgery, 172, 174, 175 115, 264
Synthetic materials, 315, 319 Turning
diamond, 125, 127, 129, 133,
Teflon, 221 134, 136, 137, 141, 142
Television monitor, 15, 205, mechanical, 4, 7, 172
229, 332 Two-beam method, 36
Index 397
Ultra large scale integration Waves, ultrasonic, 147, 175

(ULSI), 240 Wax, 372
Ultrasonic machining (USM), WC-alloy, 165
150, 151, 153, 157, 161, Wear, 96, 97, 109, 110
164, 165, 166, 167, 175 abrasive (sonotrode), 149,
Ultrasonic vibration, 9, 147, 150
192 electrode, 195
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation, ratio, 183
330, 331, 336, 349, 354, tool, 150, 151, 159, 168, 172
360 Welding, 205, 223, 229, 231
Unit of removal (UR), 6, 7 Whole field contouring (WFC),
Universal measuring machine 18, 19
(UMM), 22 Wire electrochemical grinding
(WECG), 192
Vacuum deposition, 232 Wire electrodischarge grinding
Vector scanning, 320, 332, (WEDG), 184, 188, 191,
335, 345, 353, 354 192, 194
Vibration, ultrasonic, 147, Wire-electrodischarge machin-
167, 171, 172, 173, ing (WEDM), 184, 187,
378 189, 190, 196, 197
Vibroscanning method (VS),
50, 52, 57 X-ray, 15, 26, 44, 325, 329,
333, 334, 360
Wafer (silicon), 101, 107, 112, scanning, 91
113, 114, 119, 138, 169, telescope, 142
318, 319, 322, 327, 330,
331, 339, 340, 342, 344, Yield (IBM), 286, 287, 288,
345, 349, 356, 379, 380, 291
381
Water, 181, 182 Zerodur, 135
jet cutting, 157 Zinc, 134, 143

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ISBN: 0-8247-0644-7

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Eastern Hemisphere Distribution

World Wide Web

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Current printing (last digit):

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

The present need for smallness of parts stems mainly from

been considered to set the border between micro- and macro-

explained. With the inexorable transition from micro- to nano-

My greatest thanks have to be reserved for my wife,

Chapter 2 Measurement Techniques in Micromachining 15

Chapter 3 Molecular Dynamics Simulation of the Atomic

Chapter 4 Abrasive Micromachining and Microgrinding 85

Chapter 5 Diamond Micromachining 125

Chapter 6 Ultrasonic Micromachining 147

Chapter 7 Microelectrodischarge Machining 179

Chapter 8 Laser Micromachining 203

Chapter 9 Micromachining by Electrochemical

Chapter 10 Ion Beam Machining 277

Chapter 11 Electron Beam Machining 299

Chapter 12 High-Resolution Lithography 325

Appendix Micromachining by Finishing Techniques 369

David M. Allen Cranfield University, Bedford, England

Y. Benkirane Ecole Nationale Superieure dArts et Metiers, Paris,

Madhav Datta* IBM Corporation, Yorktown Heights, New York

Kai Cheng Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow, Scotland

John Corbett Cranfield University, Bedford, England

* Current affiliation: Intel Corp., Hillsboro, Oregon.

H. El-Hofy Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt

A. B. M. Khairy Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt

D. Kremer Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Lausanne, Swit-

D. Macintyre University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland

T. Masuzawa Tokyo University, Tokyo, Japan

Joseph McGeough The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scot-

Johan Meijer University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands

Shoichi Shimada Osaka University, Osaka, Japan

S. Thoms University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland

Mohammad A. Younes Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt

1.1 ADVANCES IN MACHINING

The shaping of materials for practical needs has been part of

trends with increasing demands for components of dimensions

Figure 1 Machining accuracies. (After Refs. 3 and 4.)

normal, precision, and ultraprecision. The term microma-

Through the 1990s, Masuzawa drew attention to the need for

examples of SSE. Indeed, most conventional machining pro-

1.3 TOOL-MAKING ON-THE-MACHINE

Figure 2 Tool system configurations for micromachining. (After

cannot be performed simultaneously this system leads to low

higher, owing to the different mechanisms of material re-

1. Since the UR can be very small, production from the

Mass production is a major issue in micromachining tech-

Until recently the main materials considered in micromachin-

machining, as do qualitative indicators such as type of chip

Figure 3 Molecular dynamic simulation of nanometric chip re-

Figure 4 Dependence of specific cutting energy on depth of cut.

about by elastic recovery of work material and/or tool flank

chineability rating systems for ECM [810], EDM [10, 11],

1.5 APPLICATION OF ARTIFICIAL

It is evident therefore that micromachining often demands