Update in

Anaesthesia
Anaesthesia Outside the Operating Theatre

Lakshmia Jayaraman*, Nitin Sethi, Jayashree Sood

*Correspondence Email: lakjayaraman@gmail.com

DEFINITION OF A REMOTE LOCATION dependent on the location (e.g. in the MRI suite)
Summary
Remote locations, where anaesthesiologists may be or the procedure being undertaken (e.g. methods
Modern hospital practice to reduce intracranial pressure in the interventional
required to administer anaesthesia or sedation outside
has seen the role of the
the operating theatres, include: neuroradiology suite).
anaesthesiogist expand
beyond the operating Radiology suites e.g. cardiac angiography,
theatre complex. While the PATIENT POPULATION
interventional radiology, CTscan, MRI Many procedures undertaken in remote locations
operating theatres have
experienced staff, adequate Endoscopy suites can be accomplished under light sedation, local
equipment and monitors, anaesthesia, or with no sedation. However, there are
providing anaesthesia The dental clinic groups of patients who may require deep sedation or
outside this complex is general anaesthesia on a routine basis. These include:
challenging and requires The burns unit
expertise and skill. Children
Psychiatric unit for electroconvulsive therapy
Uncooperative or anxious patients
Renal unit for lithotripsy
Claustrophobic patients (especially in MRI
The gynaecology unit for in vitro fertilisation. suites)

WHO SHOULD PROVIDE SEDATION FOR Elderly or confused patients

THE PROCEDURES PERFORMED IN REMOTE Patients undergoing painful procedures
LOCATIONS?
A trained anaesthesiologist should provide anaesthesia Patients requiring burns dressings.
in remote locations within the hospital. However non
anaesthesiologists are allowed to provide conscious CHALLENGES OF ANAESTHESIA IN REMOTE
sedation. It is mandatory that all providers should be LOCATIONS
Adult Cardiac Life Support (ACLS) certified. These can be classified as challenges related to:

AIMS OF THE ANAESTHETIST Equipment

Safety of the patient is the overiding goal of anaesthesia Staff
in remote locations and the standard of care should not The procedure
differ from that offered in the operating theatre. Rapid
recovery from anaestheisa or sedation is beneficial. The patient.

In some circumstances, sedation may be chosen Challenges - equipment

Lakshmi Jayaraman rather than general anaesthesia. The particular goals
Anaesthesia machine
Associate Consultant to consider when sedating patients are to:
Ideally the anaesthesia machine should be equivalent
Guard the patients safety and welfare
Nitin Sethi in function to that employed in theatres. However the
Junior Consultant Minimise physical discomfort and pain anaesthesia machine available for remote locations is
Control anxiety, minimise psychological trauma often a very basic model with minimal monitors that
Jayashree Sood
and maximize the potential for amnesia may not be in regular use in the operating theatres.
Chair and Head of Department
It is important that these machines are on the same
Department of Anaesthesia, Control movement to allow safe completion of service schedule as the anaesthetic machines in the
Pain and Perioperative the procedure main operating theatre.
Medicine
Sir Ganga Ram Hospital Return the patient to a state in which safe The design of the anaesthetic machine may not be
New Delhi discharge from medical supervision is possible. familiar, for example the position of the oxygen flow
India 110060 Some procedures may have special requirements meter may be on the left hand side (UK standard),

page 37 Update in Anaesthesia | www.anaesthesiologists.org

rather than the right hand side (USA standard). It is important to Scavenging
do routine safety checks, such as ensuring that the oxygen failure If these anaesthetic vapours are used the there should be a reliable
alarm is working or that there is a hypoxic link if nitrous oxide is system for scavenging waste gases.
being used. Make sure that you can see your anaesthetic machine
during the case - radiology procedures are invariably undertaken in Space constraints
darkened rooms and the anaesthesiologist must be vigilant to detect Radiology suites often contain very bulky equipment and it is often
unexpected events such as cessation of oxygen delivery. There may be difficult to accommodate the anaesthesia machine - make sure that
a light on the anaesthetic machine, otherwise a torch is essential. The there is enough space in the working environment.
light from a laryngoscope is insufficient. Where facilities are available
Operating tables
an emergency trolley with a defibrillator should be immediately
An operating theatre table with the expected range of positions, may
available.
not be available in these locations, so the various position adjustments
Oxygen supply including the height of the table may be difficult to achieve.
Modern operating theatres are usually equipped with a central
supply of oxygen, air and nitrous oxide. Each remote site should Monitoring equipment
have a reliable source of oxygen adequate for the duration of the Mandatory monitors should be as for any location where anaesthesia
procedure. In many remote locations, the anaesthesia machine may is conducted: a pulse oximeter, non-invasive BP cuffs, ECG and end-
only have cylinders and therefore it is essential that extra cylinders are tidal CO2 are a minimum requirement. Where muscle relaxants are
ready while the procedure is undertaken. These cylinders should be used, a peripheral nerve stimulator is recommended.
checked prior to the start of anaesthesia to ensure that they are full. A Check that BP cuffs of the appropriate size are available. If possible,
back-up of at least one full E type oxygen cylinder is advisable before mobilise end-tidal CO2 monitoring from the operating theatres.
starting any procedure in a remote location. Monitoring may be a particular challenge in the MRI suite and
specially shielded monitoring equipment is required that is MRI
Cylinder keys
compatible and does not interfere with the MRI signal.
The key to open the cylinder should always be available with the
machine. It is essential to check that the cylinder key is readily Special circumstances - Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
available prior to starting the induction of anaesthesia. All equipment that is taken into the MRI suite should be MRI
compatible, or should be fixed at a safe distance from the magnet.
Electricity
Of particular importance NEVER take an oxygen cylinder into the
There must be sufficient electrical outlets for the anaesthesia and
MRI suite deaths have resulted as the cylinder is sucked into the
monitoring equipment.
magnet coil. NEVER take any ferrous metal into the MRI suite
Illumination anaesthesiologists should remember that this includes laryngoscopes,
A means of illumination other than the laryngoscope is needed. scissors and stethoscopes and mobile phones. In an emergency,
take the patient out of the MRI room, do not take the emergency
Sodalime canister equipment to the patient.
When using a circle system it is advisable to put fresh soda lime in
the canister before undertaking a procedure. Equipment checklist for sedation or anaesthesia in the MRI
suite
Anaesthesia circuit
a. Anaesthesia drugs.
Certain procedures require the anaesthesia machine to be at a
distance from the patient, therefore circuits and monitors with long b. Resuscitation drugs.
extension tubings are necessary. If using a long Bains circuit, a leak c. Defibrillator.
test is essential. A self-inflating bag should also be available to provide d. A difficult airway trolley containing oropharyngeal and nasal
positive pressure ventilation in case of oxygen failure. airways, laryngeal mask airways, ETT of different sizes,
bougies and stilettes should be available.
Drugs and supplies
Since these locations are visited infrequently by the anaesthesia team, e. Simple positioning equipment for instance head rings,
there is often no regular check up of the anaesthesia inventory. Check shoulder rolls, etc.
that you have all the drugs that you may require during anaesthesia f. Infusion pumps with the extension tubing.
(including emergency and resuscitation drugs), and that these drugs g. Warming devices - the temperature in the radiology suites
have not exceeded their expiry date. is often cool as their equipment requires low temperature for
its maintenance. For prolonged procedures, patients may
Working suction become hypothermic and warming devices will have to be
Central suction may not always be available in remote locations, and brought from the operating theatres.
therefore it is essential to ensure that a working suction machine h. Lead aprons, thyroid collars and dosimeters need to be worn
is always available along with an electrical extension boards. A foot in the radiology suites to reduce and monitor the exposure to
operated suction machine is handy as a back up and may be mobilised radiation.
from the operating theatres.

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Challenges - staff Post-procedure care
Staff that work in these areas are trained only in their speciality and Patients who have had a procedure under general anaesthesia require
so may not be familiar with the requirements for safe anaesthesia and expert recovery - this may be either in the procedure room or the
may not be able to provide assistance to the anaesthesiologist. It is patient may be transferred to the recovery room of operating theatres.
the sole responsibility of the anaesthesiologist conducting the cases Patients undergoing aneurysm coiling may need to be ventilated in
to check the machine, anaesthetic drugs, emergency drugs and the the postoperative period. The availability of an ICU bed has to be
defibrillators and to identify an assitant to help them. confirmed prior to the procedure.
In countries where it is usual to have a professional assistant providing Consent forms
support for the anaesthetist in theatres, these standards should be Many procedures in remote locations are performed as day care
upheld in remote settings. Where this is not common practice it is procedures. The patient needs to be registered with the hospital
sensible to have assistance in the form of a trainee anaesthetist. Where in the usual way, an admission clerking should be performed and
the anaesthetist works alone, ensure that rapid communication to consent taken. Day case procedures should not entail a change in the
colleagues in the main theatre suite is possible. usual standard of care for the patient.
Communication
Challenges - the patient
Planning is essential. Anticipate problems before starting the case;
communication with theatre from a distance may be difficult and Assessment
help may be slow to arrive. Patients are often admitted as a day case and include all age groups.
A careful anaesthetic assessment is essential, even if this is done a few
minutes prior to the procedure. In particular, the patient requires
Challenges - the procedure
careful assessment for the reason that they require the intervention,
Poor illumination as well as any associated co-morbidities. Fasting status of the
Many procedures such as interventioanal radiology or endoscopy patient should be noted and a quick airway assessment should be
that require video screening are carried out in darkened rooms. done. Presence of dentures should be noted. Be particularly careful
Ideally the anesthesia machine should have a fluorescent screen to with airway assessment as an unanticipated difficult airway is very
visualise the flow meters and to check accurate gas flows. Remember challenging for the anaesthesiologist in remote locations if skilled
that the safety of the patient is of paramount importance, and the help is unavailable.
lights should not be so low that you cannot monitor your patient.
Instructions
Unplanned procedures Patients who are planned for procedures under anesthesia should be
Beware the situation where the anesthesiologist is called after the given clear instructions regarding:
intervention has started and the patient is found to be uncooperative. Fasting
Without a prior plan or airway assessment the situation is hazardous Consent forms
it is better to abort the procedure and come back another day
Medications for comorbidities
when things can be planned properly. With the growth of acute
cardiological intervention for acute coronary syndromes, emergency A careful metal check needs to be performed by the radiographer
calls to the catheter laboratory for anaesthesic assistance are prior to MRI scans for instance, no hairclips, jewellery, safety
increasingly common. pins, mobile phones, credit cards or coins.

CHOICE OF ANESTHETIC TECHNIQUE

Setting for the procedure
Burns dressings are commonly done at the bedside and these sites are Monitoring only
usually poorly equipped to deal with any kind of emergency. Sedation
Regional anaesthesia
Patient position
Patients undergoing endoscopy and CT guided biopsies may be Total intravenous anaesthesia
positioned in the lateral or prone position. Ensure that pillows are General anaesthesia.
available for safe prone positioning (i.e. under the chest and pelvis
to allow for free diaphragmatic excursion). Prone position becomes Monitoring only
difficult if the patient requires resuscitation reposition the patient The procedure specialist monitors the patient with the help of their
rapidly if this is the case. staff and do not require an anaesthesiologist.

Sedation
Duration of the procedure
The duration of these procedures is difficult to predict and they may Conscious sedation
finish very abruptly (e.g. cerebral angiography with coiling of cerebral This describes a depressed state of consciousness where the patient
aneurysms). Avoid long-acting muscle relaxants and maintain close is able to respond to commands, maintains his/her airway and the
communication with the specialist performing the procedure. airway reflexes are well preserved.

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Deep sedation monitors the radial/dorsalis pedis pulse. A cotton wick is placed on the
The consciousness of the patient is depressed to an extent that the patients chest. The chest movements are assessed by the movement
protective airway reflexes are obtunded and airway maintenance may of the cotton wick when the patient is inside the tunnel and is
become an issue. sedated. Vigilence is essential. Ideally, MRI compatible monitors
should be available - an MRI compatible pulse oximeter lead can be
The degree of safety in conscious sedation is much higher than
trailed out of the room and monitored in the control room.
deep sedation. The patient can easily drift from a state of conscious
sedation to deep sedation, depending on his age, sensitivity to drugs,
DOCUMENTATION OF ANAESTHESIA
health status etc. Titration and adjustment of the doses of the sedative
A time-based anaesthesia flow sheet should be available to record the
agents requires skill and experience.
following:
Total intravenous anaesthesia (TIVA) Drugs administered time and dose
It is usual to choose drugs to provide a combination of hypnosis and
SaO2
analgesia. Drugs are used intravenously, and some adjunct is often
required to maintain a patent airway. The airway can be maintained Heart rate
by chin lift/jaw thrust, or an oropharyngeal airway or laryngeal mask Respiratory rate
airway may be used if the patient is deeply anaesthetised. Procedures
suitable for TIVA include lithotripsy, oocyte retrieval, in vitro NIBP can omit if minimal sedation, e.g. during MRI/CT
fertilisation and foetal reduction in ultrasound rooms. Level of sedation
General anaesthesia Observations should be performed at 15 minute intervals for
General anaesthesia with controlled ventilation is the choice of conscious sedation, and 5 minute intervals for deep sedation and
anaesthesia in many situations, particularly interventions such as general anaesthesia.
for patients undergoing coiling of cerebral aneurysms. The goals
of anaesthetic management are adequate depth of anaesthesia, CHOICE OF DRUGS
methods to decrease intracranial tension, along with maintenance of This depends on the proedure being performed, and whether this is
normothermia (avoidance of hyperthermia). painful or painless. (e.g. MRI scan compared to endoscopy compared
to a change of burns dressings). Precise guidance for different
In the MRI centre, an MRI compatible anaesthesia machine is essential
procedures is outside the scope of this article, however examples of
if the machine is in the MRI room. Anaesthesia is induced outside
commonly used agents include:
the MRI room and the patient is transferred to the MRI compatible
machine in the room. It is possible to maintain anaesthesia if the Midazolam
machine is outside the MRI room with the help of long anaesthesia In paediatric patients, intranasal midazolam has also been tried
circuits, but this is far from ideal and the patient is at greater risk successfully.
of circuit disconnections. Monitors must always be kept outsde the
MRI room. Fentanyl
0.25-0.5mcg.kg-1 is usually sufficient.
Regional anaesthesia
Propofol
Combined spinal-epidural anaesthesia has been used successfully in
A careful and slow intravenous injection of propofol is an ideal
remote locations, for example for EVAR - Endovascular aneurysym
choice.
repair. The conscious patient can communicate and this is a major
safety consideration. Monitoring should be to the same standard as Ketamine
for general anaesthesia. Used in children. Use in adults has decreased with the availability of
propofol.
Monitoring
The essential monitor for patient safety is the presence of a trained Ketofol
vigilant anaesthesiologist at all times, monitoring various parameters A combination of ketamine and propofol has also been used and it
such as level of consciousness, oxygenation, ventilation, and provides good hemodynamic stability.
haemodynamics.
Remifentanil
Minimum monitoring includes pulse oximetry, ECG, NIBP and end- An ideal drug but not available in India and many other parts of
tidal CO2. In a non-intubated patient, end-tidal CO2 monitoring the world.
can be achieved by taping the sampling line to the patients upper
lip. The expired CO2 is sensed along with the graphic display of Prilox cream has been used successfully in cases for lithotripsy.
respiration.
There is substantial variability in the response to each agent between
In our centre, we do not have MRI compatible monitors and the individuals, and so carefully administration of drugs, titrated to
anaesthesiologist sits inside the MRI suite along with the patient and effect is essential.

Update in Anaesthesia | www.anaesthesiologists.org page 40

 Further detail on sedation for children can be found in the Further
Equipment check list for anaesthesia or sedation in a remote reading section.
location away from the operating theatre3
Remember the acronym SOAPME. SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
Anaphylaxis to iodinated dyes is possible. All the drugs for
S (suction) Appropriate size suction catheters and management of anaphylaxis should always be immediately
available.
functioning suction apparatus.
Techniques to measure temperature and avoid hypothermia are
O (oxygen) Reliable oxygen sources with a functioning flow essential.
meter. At least one spare E-type oxygen cylinder. Radiation exposure - anaesthesia personnel should be aware
of the radiation hazards and take precautions to avoid radiation
exposure.
A (airway) Size appropriate airway equipment:
Face mask POST-PROCEDURE CARE
Nasopharyngeal and oropharyngeal airways
Transport of the patients to a standard recovery room accompanied
Laryngoscope blades
ETT
by the monitors along with the accompanying anaesthesiologist is
Stylets the safest practice for post-procedural care. Most patients require
Bag-valve-mask or equivalent device. oxygen during transport. Patients who require elective postoperative
ventilation must be transferred with continuous monitoring.

P (pharmacy) Basic drugs needed for life support during DISCHARGE CRITERIA
emergency: The discharge criteria of these patients are the same as for any patient
Epinephrine (adrenaline) after surgery.
Atropine
Glucose CONCLUSION
Naloxone (reversal agent for opioid drugs)
The secret of success in anaesthesia for remote locations is the skilled
Flumazenil (reversal agent for benzodiazepines).
anaesthesiologist with the appropriate equipment and drugs, along
with adequate back up facilities.
M (monitors):
Pulse oximeter FURTHER READING
NIBP 1. Statement on non-operating room anesthetizing locations.
End-tidal CO2 (capnography) Committee of Origin: Standards and Practice Parameters.
Temperature American Society of Anaesthesiologists, 2008. Available at:
ECG http://www2.asahq.org/publications/

2. Sethi DS, Smith J. Paediatric sedation. Anaesthesia Tutorial of

E (equipment):

the Week 2008. Available at totw.anaesthesiologists.
org/2008/11/10/paediatric-sedation-105/
Defibrillator with paddles
Gas scavenging 3. Guidelines for Monitoring and Management of Pediatric
Safe electrical outlets (earthed) Patients During and After Sedation for Diagnostic and
Adequate lighting (torch with battery backup) Therapeutic Procedures: An Update. American Academy of
Means of reliable communication to main theatre site. Pediatric dentistry, 2006. Available at: www.aapd.org/media/
policies.asp

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