Gly, Ala, Val, Leu, Iso, Phe, Tryp, Met, Pro: ND RD
Gly, Ala, Val, Leu, Iso, Phe, Tryp, Met, Pro: ND RD
Gly, Ala, Val, Leu, Iso, Phe, Tryp, Met, Pro: ND RD
products
MCAT BIO: Print and Highlight in PDF amine attached to alpha carbonyl not consumed, altered positive cooperativity. low [substrate], small of glycolysis will move into mitochondrial
do not alter Keq increasees in [substrate] increase enzyme matrix. inner mitochondrial memberate less
most bio molecules: 10 are essential. lock-and-key theory / enzyme specificity. efficiency and rxn rate. positive are the first permeable. Once inside matrix, pyr converted
-lipids aas differ in their R group. specific shape. changes. its why there is an 02 dissociation to acetyl CoA producing NADH and CO2
-proteins digested proteins reach our cells as single aas curve with Hb. (sigmoidal shape). both
-carbohydrates second theory: induced fit. Shape of both positive and negative cooperativity. --
-nucleotide derivatives Nonpolar: enzyme and substrate altered during binding.
Gly, Ala, Val, Leu, Iso, Phe, Tryp, Met, Pro Krebs Cycle
70 to 80 % water is cell Polar enzymes saturation kinetics. Enzyme Classification: Acetyl CoA coenzyme which transfers 2
Ser, Thr, Cys, Tyr, Asp, Glu as [substrate] goes up, so does rxn rate, but memorize -ase sometimes complex carbons to the 4 carbon oxaloacetic acid to
water, small polar molecule, can H-bond Acidic curve slows as gets closer to Vmax. chemical has ase and you will know it is an begin krebs cycle (aka TCA). Each turn
allows it to maintain liquid at room Aspr Acid, Glu acid Km good indicator of affinity for its substrate enzyme, it contains nitrogen, and it is subject produces 1ATP, 3NADH, and 1 FADH2.
cohesive forces squeeze Basic: to denaturation. ATP production is substrate-level
hydrophobic away from H20 Lysine, Arginine, Hist temp and pH. phosphorylation. during cycle, 2 CO2 given
hydrophilic dissolve easily in human body, temp of 37C lyase catalyzes addition of one substrate to a off. oxaloacetic acid is reproduced, cycle
-negative charged ends (italics for mnemonic) pepsin in stomach likes ph< 2. Trypson, in double bond of a second substrate. again.
attract the posi Hs of small intestine likes ph between 6 and 7.
H20. Proline induces turns. ligase also governs an addition rxn, but
2 types of proteins globular and structural. most enzymes require non-protein component requires energy from ATP. Proteins aas Pyruvic Acid + NH3
Most macromolecules can be hydrolyzed, and glob: enzymes, hormones, memb pumps called cofactor. optimal activity. (waste) Acetyl CoA TCA/Krebs
formed via dehydration. struct: cell / matrix structure. collagen. Cofactors: kinase enzyme which phosphorylates
Minerals, something, phosphatase DEphosphorylates. Fatty acids + energy Acyl CoA + NAD+ +
lipid low sol in H20, high sol in nonpolar glycolproteins cell matrix Coenzymes (many are vits of their eg, hexokinase phosphorylates glucose as soon FAD Acetyl CoA enter TCA/Krebs
make good barriers cytochromes prothetic heme group. Hb derivatives) as it enters cell to prepare for glycolysis.
1) Fatty acids -cosubstrates Polysaccharides simple sugars PGAL
2) triaglycerols --- -prosthetic groups. Metabolism: all the cellular chemical rxns Pyr acid Acetyl CoA TCA/Krebs
3 phsopho lipids Carbohydrates bind to specific enzyme, txfer chemical 3 stages
4) glycolipids C and H20. C(H20). Glucose 6 Cs. all group to another substrate. cosubstrate then1) macromolecules broken down into
5)steroids sugars broken down to glucose. reverted back. constituent parts (little E released) aas are deaminated in the liver. chemically
6) terpenes -2 anomers, alpha (trans) and beta (cis) 2) constituent parts oxidized to acetyl CoA, converted to pyr acid or acetyl CoA.
Animals eat Alpha. Bacteria break Beta ATP is cosubstrate type of coenzyme pyruvate, or other metabolites forming ATP
Fatty acids are building blocks for most lipids and reduced coenzymes (NADH and FADH2) Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
absence of insulin, neural and hepatic cells use --- which does not directly utilize oxygen series of proteins, including cytochromes with
facilitated txport for glucose. Enzyme inhib: 3) if O2 is avail, metabolites go into TCA and heme, in the inner mitochondrial membrane.
Saturated FAs only single C-bonds -irreversible covalently bonded (penicillin) oxidative phosphorylation to form large electrons passed down series and accepted by
Unsaturated one or more double C-C bonds cellulose has beta linkages -competitive raise apparent Km but not amounts of energy (more NADH, FADH2, or oxygen to form water. protons are pumped
Vmax ATP); otherwise, coenzyme NAD+ and other into intermembrane space for each NADH.
most fats reach cell as FA, not triaglycerols if you see N on the mcat, think protein -noncompetitive some other spot, change byproducts either recycled or expelled as proton gradient proton motive force
conformation. lower Vmax waste. 2nd and 3rd stages, the energy acquiring propels protons through ATP synthase to make
trias are 3 carbon backbone stores energy ---- do not change Km stages, called respiration. aerobic and ATP. Oxidative phosphorylation. 2-3 atps
--also thermal insulation, etc. anaerobic versions. manufactured for each NADH. FADH2
Nucleotides: 3 components Regulation: similar fashion. only 2 ATPs, however.
glycolipids have 3-C backbone with sugar -5-C / pentose sugar anaerobic: 02 not required.
attached. membranes of myelenated cells in -Nitrogenous base -zymogen/proenzyme not yet activated. glycolysis first step. intermembrane pH lower than matrix.
nervous system -phosphate group need another enzyme or change of pH. eg, glucose pyruvate (3Cs). Glucose + 02 CO2 + H20 (combustion
pepsinogen. + 2ATP, PO3, H20, 2NADH rxn)
steroids 4 rings. include hormones, vit D, bases in nucleotides AGCT and U happens in cytosol (fluid portion) of cells final electron acceptor is 02, thats why its
and cholesterol (membrane) polymers: DNA, RNA, Nucl-acids -phosphorylation aerobic
joined by phosphodiester glucose facilitated diffusion into cell.
Eicosanoids local hormones bp, body T, nucleotides written 5 to 3 -control proteins, eg, G proteins Aerobic Respiration: 36 net ATP, including
smooth muscle. Aspirin commonly use DNA written so top strand is 53 resulting 3-C molecules each transfer one of glycolysis. 1 NADH brings 2-3 ATPs, and 1
inhibitor of prostaglandins. bottom is 35 -Allosteric interactions: negative or positive their PO3 groups to an ADP to form one ATP FADH2 brings about 2 ATPs. One glucose
RNA is 1-stranded. U replaces T. feedback mechanism. each in substrate level phosphorylation. produces 2 turns.
lipids insol, so transported in Hb via important nucleotide: ATP. energy. cyclic negative: product downstream comes back to
lipoproteins. classified by density, VLDL, amp inhibit Fermentation: anaerobic respiration.
LDL, HDL. (lipid::protein ratio). is a messenger. positive: product activates first enzyme. glycolysis reduction of pyr to ethanol or
occurs much less often. lactic acid. humans do the latter. no 02 avail
---- --- other proteins have these characteristics or unable to assimilate E from NADH.
fermentation recycles NADH back to NAD+
Proteins: chain of aas linked by peptide bonds Enzymes negative allosteric inhibitors do not resemble
aka polypeptides globular proteins substrates, they cause conformational change.
catalysts can alter Km without affecting Vmax.
as well
Genes 53. 5 is upstream, 3 downstream. operator + promoter + genes = operon Genetic code: mRNA nucleotides.
reading DNA like paddling upstream code is degenerative. more than one set of 3 translocation segment of DNA from 1
gene series of n-tides. codes for single eg, lac operon. codes for enzymes to allow E nucleotides can code for a single amino acid. chromo inserted into another
polypeptide, or mRNA, rRNA, or tRNA. 5 steps of replication: coli to import and metabolize lactose when but 1 and only 1 aa, so unambiguous. inversion orientation reversed
Eukarys have more than 1 copy of some 1) helicase unzips double helix low glucose. low glucose, high cAMP, start codon is AUG transposons can excise themselves and insert
genes. Prokarys only have 1 copy of each. 2) RNA polymerase builds a primer activates CAP, activates promoter. operator stop codons UAA, UAG, and UGA. themselves elsewhere
3) DNA polymerase assembles leading and downstream, too. Allows for repression via 64 possible combinations of the bases
one gene; one polypeptide. exception: post lagging strands binding to a protein, allolactose (inducer). forward mutation changing organism away
transcriptional processing RNA. 4) Primers are removed 20 possible amino acids. from original state
5) Okazaki fragments joined initial mRNA sequence called primary if protein contains 100 aas, then 20<100 backward back to original state
Genome: entire DNA sequence of organism. transcript. processed by addition of n-tides, possible sequences. original state called wild type
process of replication: semidiscontinuous deletion of n-tides, modification of n-bases. 5
only ~ 1% of genome codes for protein end capped with GTP. 3 end poly A tail to RNA n-tides written 53 Cancer
human DNA differs only at about 0.08%. telomeres: ends of eukaryotic chromosomal protect from exonucleases proto-oncogenes stimulate normal growth in
Small variation big difference. DNA. protect from chromosomal erosion Translation: mRNA directed protein synthesis. cells. can be converted to oncogenese genes
primary txscript cleaved into introns, exons mRNA the template. tRNA carries n-tides that cause cancer, by UV radiation, chemicals,
Central Dogma: DNA transcribed to RNA, RNA snRNPs (snurps) recognize, form spliceosome, complementary for codon, called anticodon. or simple random mutations. Mutagens that
translated to aas for protein carbon 2 not deoxygenated cut off introns. only 30,000 genes, but rRNA with protein make up ribosome, which cause these called carcinogens
DNA RNA Protein. single stranded 120,000 proteins possible bc of splicing. is the site of translation.
(same for all organisms) uracil instead of thyamine introns::exons = 24::1
can move through the nuclear pores small subunit, large subunit. ribosomes DNA is 5 ft for each cell. wrapped tightly
4 bases of DNA: denatured DNA heat separated strands. require nucleolus for their origin. around globular proteins, histones. 8 histones
-Adenine (purine) two ring 3 types more C3G pairs, higher Tm tRNA posessing 5-CAU-3 anticodon wrapped in DNA nucleosome. wraps into
-Guanine (purine) two ring DNA-RNA hybridization sequesters methionin and enters at P site. coils, supercoils, entire complex called
-Cytosine (pyrimidine) one ring -mRNA: delivers DNA code for aas to restriction enzymes cut DNA at certain Large subunit joins (initiation). next tRNA chromatin.
-Thymine (pyrimidine) one ring cytosol for protein manufacturing sequences, usually palindromic. leave DNA enters A site. translocation. tRNA shifts,
with sticky end so they can reconnect. moves to E site. somatic cell: 46 double stranded DNA
each n-tide bound to next by phosphodiester -tRNA: collects aas in cytosol, transfers to recombinant DNA. initiation, elongation, and termination. molecules. chromosome. 46 chromosomes
bond b/w 3rd carbon of one deoxyribose and ribosomes before replication, 46 after replication.
the phosphate backbone of a single strand of DNA library use a vector in a bacterium, txlation begins on free floating ribosome. duplicates referred to as sister chromatids.
DNA with 5 3 directionality. -rRNA: combines w/ proteins to form then reproduce bacterium. active gene, turn signal peptide can transport polypeptide to Diploid means cell as 23 homologous pairs.
ribosomes protein synthesis. blue with x-gal. some bacteria wont take up, lumen. SRP can carry entire ribosome towards sex cells haploid.
In DNA, two strands run antiparallel bound so introduce lac-z with your inserted vector. ER
together by H-bond. Double stranded. h- DNA is produced by replication introduce X-gal and the right ones will turn stages of cells life
bonding base pairing. only in nuc and mito matrix blue Mutations 1) G1 first growth
complementary strands double helix RNA by transcription any alteration that is not recombination 2) S Synthesis
also in cytosol one way to find gene in library hybridization gene mutation sequence of n-tides in a single 3) G2 second growth phase
each groove spirals once around double helix radioactive labeled comp sequence of desired gene 4) M mitosis / meiosis
for every 10 base pairs. transcription: starts w/ initiation. promoter. DNA fragment (probe). cDNA product chromosomal mutation structure is changed 5) C cytokinesis
diameter of double helix is 2 nanometers RNA polymerase. promoter is upstream from mRNA produced by the DNA. lacks introns
gene. (good). somatic vs. germ cell mutations
remember: Ntide made of pentose sugar, P03 latter more serious 1-3 called interphase.
group, nitrogenous base. replication: transcription bubble, elongation better cloning: polymerase chain rxn (PCR). in G1 regions of heterochromatin have been
mode. strand transcribed: template or fast way to clone dna. heating and annealing. point mutation single n-tide changed unwound into euchromatin, RNA synth and
pairings: AT, GC antisense. other strand is coding. RNA poly, primers hybridize. polymerase replicates. base pair mutation AT to GC, vice versa protein synth very active. G1 checkpoint S
2 H bonds in A-T, 3H bonds in C-G like DNA poly, reads in the 35 direction, missense bp mutation in aa sequence of stage, if ratio of cytoplasm to DNA is high
A2T, C3G building new RNA to be made 53 southern blotting: ID target fragments of gene enough.
no proofreading mechanism. slower. rate of known DNA in large pop of DNA. DNA may or may not be serious Gzero is nongrowing state. neurons, liver
DNA replication: semi-conservative error is higher. not hereditary errors. end is cleaved into restriction fragments. separated eg, sickle cell anemia cells.
new dbl strand created has one new one called termination. Coding strand resembles by size in gel elctrophoresis. large moves insertion or deletion frameshift mutation G2 checkpoint Mitosis promoting factor
old. RNA transcript. slower than small. gel denatures DNA multiples other than 3. (MPF)
fragments. probe hybridizes w/ and marks sometimes nonframeshift and still functional
Replication proceeds in both direction from replication doesnt distinguish genes. target fragment. usually frameshift is non-functional Mitosis, nuclear division w/o genetic change
origin each direction produces a leading and transcription decides this. most regulation of nonsense stop codon created by mutation 4 stages remember PMAT: prophase
lagging strand. gene expression during transcription by Northern blot uses same techniques to ID (condensation of chromatin into chromosomes,
activators and repressors. bind to DNA specific sequences of RNA chromosomal mutations centrioles move to opposite sides of cell.
Prokaryotic replisome promoter, and either activate or repress RNA deletionsportion of chromosome breaks off spindle apparatus forms of aster, centromeres
DNA polymerase builds the new strand. poly. can be allos regulated by small Western blot: detects a protein with antibodies duplication breaks off and incorporates into at center. spindle micotubules connect two
Requires RNA primer to get started. molecules such as cAMP. respond to enviro hmologous chromosome centrioles.) metaphase (chromosomes align
reads parental in 35 direction changes. RFLP: IDs individuals instead of specific along equator), anaphase (sister chromatids
complementary strang 53 eukaryotes: one gene per transcript genes. we are polymorphic for our restriction Down syndrome result of aneuploidy where 3 split at attaching centromeres, move towards
convention: DNA nucleotides 5to3 prokary: polycistronic sites. can only negate people, cannot identify copies of chromosome 21 opposite ends of cell. cytokenesis, separation
of cytoplasm due to microfilaments.), and lysogenic, longer word, longer cycle gradient. the two can be added to form an transformation, and transduction. also can do
telophase (nuclear membrane reforms electrochemical gradient. binary fission (split).
followed by reformation of nucleolus.
Chromosomes decondense and cannot be seen Microbiology membrane must be permeable to allow
under microscope. Continuued cytokinesis). Prokaryotes no memb bound nucleus. diffusion binary fission
Viruses, tiny infectious agents. consists of either bacteria or archea. arch more similar to usually semipermeable membrane. -circular dna replicated
Interphase is both before and after PMAT. protein coat (capsid), 1-400 genes (DNA or euks -2 dna polys begin at same point of circle
Interphase = normal cell, nothing happening. RNA) inside. mature virus outside host cell two things affect permeability size and (origin of replication)
viron. carbon source. all microorganisms tend to fix polarity. larger, less permeable -cell divides, leaving 1 chromosome in each
Meiosis double nuclear division which not living bc need host cell to txfer genetic CO2, reducing it and using it to create organic the greater the polarity of a mol, less daughter
produces four haploid gametes. aka germ material. Do not metabolize nutrients. use molecules via Calvin cycle permeable a membrane is. very large lipids -2 daughters are identical.
cells. only spermatogonium and oogonium hosts ATP. (nonpolar) can therefore move easily.
undergo it in humans. infection begins when virus absorbs chemical however this is energy expensive. Autotrophs conjugation
receptor of host, usually glycoprotein on can use Co2 as sole source of carbon. eg, water is larger than sodium, but water is requires one of the bact. have a plasmid w/
membrane. Heterotrophs use organic molecules. polar whereas sodium is a complete charge, so gene that codes for sex pilus. small circles of
after replication of S phase, cell is primary easier to pass through. most membranes DNA that exist and replicate independently of
germ cell. in females, replication takes place in bacteriophage, virus infects bacteria. nuc classification system of prokaryotes: highly permeable to water. bact. chromosomes. sex pilus phalic,
before birth. life cycle arrested at primary acid is injected through tail after it has made a 1) energy source photo if light, chemo if attaaches to the other bacterium. one strand is
oocyte stage until puberty. before ovulation, hole in wall with enzymes. virus engulfed by from chemicals water moving is considered passive diffusion. nicked. etc etc
primary oocyte undergoes meitotic division to endocytosis. 2) carbon source- auto (CO2) and hetero for larger, necessary compounds, proteins are
become secondary oocyte. 2ndary released (organic molecules) needed. transport or carrier proteins 2 important plasmids. F and R. F is called
upon ovulation, penetration of secondary by lytic or lysogenic infection. fertility factor. if it has F, called F+. if not, F-
sperm stimulates anaphase II of second lytic: virus takes over machinery and begins some bacteria can fix nitrogen. N2 converted facilitated occur down electrochemical .
meitotic division of oocyte. reproducing new viruses. cell lyses bc of the to ammonia. nitrification breaks down gradient of all species. all human cells do this
produced viruses. aka Virulent Virus. ammonia into nitrates, useful to plants. for glucose supply. selectively permeable, bc R plasmid denotes resistance to antibiotics.
Two rounds of division for 4 daughters molecules of similar size and charge.
meiosis I and II In lysogenic infection, viral DNA incorporated prokarys dont have nucleus. euks do. Transformation bacteria may incorporate
similar to mitosis except: into the host genome. if RNA virus, has instead, proks have single ciruclar double if against e-chemical gradient, active transport. DNA from external environment into genome.
prophase I, homologous cr-somes align along enzyme reverse transcriptase, DNA made from stranded molecule of DNA. Under requires expenditure of energy. typical experiment: heat killed virulent
side, matching their genes exactly. May RNA and then incorporated into cell genome. microscope can be seen as a nucleoid. name bacteria mixed with harmless living. harmless
exchange exchange sequences of n-tides in Temperate virus. Cell may show no often reveals shape, e.g., spiroplasma, Bacterial Envelope. surrounds protoplast living receive those genes and become
crossing over. recombination happens here for symptoms. virus is dormant or latent. staphylococcous, or pneumococcous. (plasma membrane). basic function: to virulent.
euks. Side by side homologues exhibit a cocci round, and bacilli are rod shaped. prevent cell burst / lysis. most bacteria are
total of four chromatids. called tetrads. common cold unenveloped. plus strand helical called spirilla or spirochetes. hypertonic to enviroment (their soln has more sometimes, capsid of bacteriophage w/
chiasma, center of the x shape. RNA. plus = proteins can be directly solute when compared to outside). mistakenly encapsulate DNA fragment of host
translated from the RNA. enveloped version Bacteria have no complex membrane bound cell. when virons infect, they inject harmless
under microscope, metaphase in mitosis include retroviruses such as HIV. Retrovirus organelles. They have organelles, ribosomes, bc of concentration gradient, water would like bacterial DNA fragments. called transduction.
appears like metaphase II in meisosis, but not = reverse transcriptase = making DNA from nucleoid, mesosomes, but not complex ones. to move inside cell, but this would call cell virus that mediates this called vector. can be
number I. RNA. DNA incorporated into host cell. burst. done in a lab.
Phospholipid: phosphorylated alchohol head
mitosis = meiosis except minus strand rna include measles, rabies, and (phosphate), glycerol backbone + 2 fatty acid as water goes in, hydrostatic pressure builds. Endospores gram + bact. that can lie
-2 rounds flu. must be transcribed to plus version first. tails. eventually equals osmotic pressure and filling dormant for 100s of years. resistant to heat,
-daughters haploid -polar heads stops. uv, etc. can survive in boiling water.
-genetic recomb occurs -nonpolar tails
body defends against viruses w/ antibodies. aka amphipathic cell wall made of peptidoglycan. made of ---
Spermatogenesis antibodies bind to infected cell, and with disaccharide chains w/ aas Fungi. in divisions, not phyla. all are
spermatogonium primary spermatocyte cytotoxic T cells, kill the infected cell. embedded in plasma membrane are proteins. more elastic than cellulose, plant cell walls eukaryotic heterotrophs, obtain food by
secondary spermatocytes spermatids can act as transporters, receptors, attachment absorption. spend most of their time in the
spermatozoa vaccine either injection of antibodies or sites, and enzymes. amphipathic proteins that can ID bacteria by their cell wall. via gram haploid state. can reproduce both sexually and
injection of nonpathogenic virus w/ same transverse the entire membrane are called staining. if gram positive thick cell wall, asexually. most have cell walls called septa.
Oogenesis capsid or envelope. viruses may attack several integral or intrinsic. Peripheral or extrinsic are more peptidoglycan, shows up as purple. most are saprophytic (rotten, decayeed).
oogonium primary oocyte + first polar species at once. just on the surface. gram negative appears pink. outside these walls made of chitin. more resistant to
bodies second oocyte + 2nd polar bodies walls is a phospho bilayer, unlike gram neg. microbial attack.
zygote Virus structure: the membrane is fluid, parts can move laterally less peptidoglycan.
-capsid but not separate. fluid mosaic model. In growth state, fungi consist of tangled mass
nondisjunction centromere doesnt split -nucleic acid cholestorol moderates fluidity in eukaryotic Flagella. Long hollow rigid cylinders. do called mycelium, of branched structures,
during anaphase I or II. 1 cell has 2 extra -lipid-rich protein envelop for some membmrane. Prokary membrane only differs NOT equal euk flagella, which are made of hyphae.
chromatids. the other lacks a chromosome. slightly from euk membrane microtubules.
for most bacteriophages: haploid spores in hyphae give rise to new
----------------------------------------------------- -tail Diffusion. Moving down gradient if no Bacterial reproduction. they dont do mit or mycelia in asexual reproduction. yeasts,
-base plate electrical charge. chemical concentration mei. do not reproduce sexually. 3 alternative asexual occurs by budding / fission.
-tail fibers gradient. if electric charge, also electrical forms of genetic recombination: conjugation,
sexual repro occurs between hyphae from to SER lacks ribosomes. resembles tubes, not microfilaments smaller than microtubules. -simple: 1 layer, eg heart dendrites, nucleus, axon hillock,
mycelia of diff mating types + and flattened sacs like RER. actin is major component of microfilaments. -stratified: 2+ layers mitochondrion in soma. nodes of ranvier,
conjugation bridge. -contains G6P, which can hydrolyze to contractile force in muscle, also cytoplasmic 2) muscle myelin sheath, axon terminal.
glucose, glycolysis. streaming, etc. 3) connective: extensive matrix. eg, blood,
asexual repro: when conditions are good -triglycerides produced in SER and stored bone, lymph, cartilage, etc. Neurons do NOT depend on insulin to obtain
sexual: when its tough. parent less adaptable -adipocytes 4) nervous glucose. Get it right from the blood.
-cholestorol formation, conversion to steroids
the 4 types combined can form an organ, diff
Defining feature of eukarys nucleus. DNA phospholipids in cell memb formed from SER. Cellular junctions organs combine into a system.
cannot leave the nucleus, so transcription must oxidizes foreign substances, drugs, toxins, etc. key to MCAT Bio is knowing that body is
take place in nucleus. RNA leaves nucleus Key in liver. 3 types of junctions that connect animal cells entire organism with systems that work in Action Potential
thru nuclear pores. -tight water tight seal, blocks water, ions, conjunction w/ eachother
Peroxisomes vesicles in cytosol. grow by etc.bladder, intestines, kidney. also blocks AP is disturbance in e-field across membrane
nucleus wrapped in double phospholipid incorporating lipids. self replicate. apical and basolateral movement of proteins in Intercellular Communication resting potential established by an
bilayer nuclear envelope. large holes, pores. membrane. fluid barrier around cells equilibrium b/w passive diffusion across the
w/in nucleus is nucleolus where rRNA is overview: occurs via 3 types of mols membrane and Na+/K+ pump. it moves 2 +
transcribed and subunits are assembled. 1) 2 basic sides of cell cytosol and ER -desmosomes spot welds holding cells 1) neurotransmitters (nervous system) charged K+ ions into cell while 3+ Na+ ions
lumen. in order to get to cytosol, substance together. attach directly at cytoskeleton. found 2) local mediators (paracrine system) out of cell. force pushing Na back into clel
cells can acquire stuff via endocytosis. diff must cross membrane via passive or facilitated in places of stress: skin, intestinal epithelium. -released into interstitial fluid becomes greater. at equilibrium, inside memb
types diffusion, or active transport. can reach er -act on neighboring cells mm away has _ potential difference (voltage) compared
-phagocytosis: memb protrudes outward. lumen via endocytosis w/o ever transporting -gap tunnels b/w cells, allow exchange of -eg, prostaglandins, smooth to outside. called resting potential.
started by receptor binding. across a membrane. small molecules. important in cardiac muscle muscle contraction, inflammation
-pinocytosis - extracelular fluid engulfed. 2) RER has Ribosomes attached to cytotic to allow spread of APs from cell to cell. aspirin inhibits this. voltage gated sodium channels allow Na+ to
nonselective side. synthesizes virtually all proteins not used 3) hormones (endocrine system) flow thru membrane shortly. the membrane
-receptor mediated. uptake of hormones and in cytosol. proteins synth on RER pushed into Mitochondria reverses polarity. Depolarization. Neuronal
nutriants. ER lumen and sent to Golgi membrane also contains voltage gated
3) Golgi modifies and packages proteins for mitochondria powerhouses of euk cell. kreb they differ mainly by distance traveled. potassium channels. cause repolarization.
exocytosis is the reverse of endo. use in other parts of cell and outside cycle happens here. NTs travel over short intercellular gaps or hyperpolarization. passive diffusion returns
4) lysosomes come frome golgi, have endosymbiont theory: mito may have evolved synapses membrane to resting postential. throughout,
ER separates cytosol from ER lumen / hydrolytic enzymes to digest endocytosed from symbiotic relship b/w ancient proks and local mediators function in immediate area sodium-potassium pump keeps working.
cisternal space. ER can be contiguous w/ cell substances euks. mito like proks: have own DNA that around cell
membrane. 5) SER is site of lipid synthesis, eg steroids. replicates independently. Always inherited by hormones travel through the organism via the AP Overview
SER also detoxs, eg drugs. momma. bloodstream 1) Membrane at rest. Na/K channels closed
near nucleus, ERs cytosome side has a 2) Na channels open, cell depolarizes
granular appearance (ribosomes). aka, rough Cellular filaments: Sturcutre: NT tends to be rapid, direct, and specific 3) K channels open as Na channels begin to
ER. cytoskeleton determines skeleton and motility -outer membrane hormonal tends to be slower, spread close
of a cell inter membrane space throughout the body, and affect many cells and 4) Na channels closed. Open K channels
Translation on RER propels proteins into ER -inner membrane (holds ETC chain) tissues in many ways. repolarize membrane
lumen as they are created. They are tagged 2 major types of filaments: (2 phospholipid bilayers, the space in between) 5) K channels close and membrane
and sometimes glycosylated. Newly -cristae (invagination of inner membrane) Nervous system equilibrates to resting potential
synthesized proteins moved through lumen -microtubules: larger than filaments. involved -matrix
towards golgi. Golgi organizes and in flagella and cillia construction, and spindle rapid and direct communication b/w specific AP is all or nothing. Membrane completely
concentrates proteins as shuttled by transport apparatus. in humans, cilia only found in Extracellular Matrix parts of body deporalirzes or no AP is generated. must pass
vesicles. end product: vesicle full of proteins. fallopian tubes and resp tract. rigid hollow tissue group of cells of similar function muscular contractions or glandular a threshold stimulus. Once there is AP,
either can be expelled from the cell as tubes made of protein tubulin. spiral -some tissue have fibroblasts that secrete secretions absolute refractory period until another AP can
secretory vesicles, released from golgi to appearance from alpha and beta parts. mitotic fibrous proteins elastin and collagen includes: brain, spinal cord, nerves, neural happen.
mature into lysosomes, or transported to spindle is made of microtubules ---form molecular network that holds tissue in support cells, organs such as eye and ear.
oother parts of cell such as mitochond. place (extracellular matrix) main unit is neuron Aps, besides in neurons, also in skeletal and
-microfilaments: smaller. squeeze membrane can be liquid (blood) or solid -electrical signal from one cell via cardiac muscle.
Secretory vesicles: may contain enzymes, together in phagocytosis and cytokinesis. also (bone) electrochemical means. so specialized it
growth factors, or extracellular matrix force in the microvilli and muscle. cannot divide. depends entirely on glucose. Neural impulses transmitted intercellularly via
components. release contents thru exocytosis. basal lamina thin sheet of matrix material. depends on aerobic respiration: low stores of a synapse. Usually chemical, not electrical.
flagella and cilia specialized structures from separates epithelial from support tissue. also glycogen and oxygen, so relies heavily on aka motor end plate if neuron-muscle connex
Lysosomes contain acid hydrolases (function microtubules. axoneme contains nine pairs of found around nerves, muscle, and fat. acts as blood. usually soma (body) and 1 axon w/
best in acidic environs). capable of breaking tubules arrangment 9+2. cross bridges from semipermeable barrier. many branches, as well as many dendrites. unidirectional. small vesicles filled with NT
down any time of macromolecule w/in cell. protein called dynein. reside just inside presynaptic membrane.
interior pH of 5. fuse w/ endocytotic vesicles Organization dendrites receive signal to be transmitted membrane near end contains large number of
and digest contents. Problem: can release their Eukaryotic flagella made from 9+2 electrical stimulus goes to axon hillock, if Ca2+ voltage gated channels. When AP
contents into the own cell causing autolysis. microtubule configuration; prokaryotic is just cells of same tissue tend to have same great enough, hillock generates AP towards arrives, these are activated to allow calcium
happens during formation of tissue, however, thin strand of protein called flagellin. euk embryology. synapse, which passes signal to cell. flow into cell. causes NT vesicles to be
to form fingers, etc. flagella do whip-like action, whereas prok just 4 types of tissue in animals: released through exocytotic process into
rotate. 1) epithelial separates free body surfaces Basic anatomy of neuron: synaptic cleft. diffuses across cleft with
from surroundings. random or Brownian motion. Post synaptic
membrane contains NT receptor proteins. deactivates all of the above and activates pressure since oval window is smaller than ear
When attached, post syn membrane becomes only vertebrates have mylenated axons intestines and excretory system. lets follow path of light through eye. drum. (physics, mech advantage).
more permeable to ions. ions move through eg, slows heart rate, increases digestive and light reflects off object in external environ, 3) inner ear: wave moves thru cochlea to
now permeable proteins called ionophores, to naked eye: excretory activity. strikes first on cornea (nonvascular, made of center of spiral, spirals back out to round
completing transfer of neural impulse. White matter mylenated axons collagen). refractive index of abt 1.4, bending window. as wave moves thru cochlea, the
Grey matter neuronal cell bodies. receptors for epi and norepi called adrenergic of light occurs at interface of air and cornea, alternating increase/decrease of P moves
NT attaches to receptor only for milisecond. receptors for ACh called cholinergic not lens. vestibular membrane in and out. movement
then released back into syn cleft. if remains, nodes of ranvier tiny gaps b/w myelin, 2 types goes to anterior cavity/aq. humor. (leaks detected by hair cells of organ of corti,
can stimulate post syn memb over and over. to allows for saltatory conduction -nicotinic: generally found in postsyn cells of out to canal of Schlemm. if blocked, transduced into neural signals towards brain.
deal with this, cell can use enzyme to destroy Structure of Nervous System synapse between ANS pregang and post gang glaucomma, blindness.) also here are semicircular canals, responsible
NT. it can also be absorbed by cell Neurons are of 3 functions neurons, and on skeletal membranes at for balance (contain fluid and hair cells).
1) Sensory (afferent)- recv signals from neuromuscular junction. responds to gravity. senses motion.
Usually 1 NT per 1 synapse. Can either inhibit receptor cell from environment. txfers signal -muscarinic: found on effectors of PNS.
or excite. Some have diff effects depending to other neurons. 99% is discarded by brain. Nose and Mouth
on area; Located located dorsally (toward back) from Overview: ANS is involuntary. innervates from ant. cavity, light enters lens. ciliary
-Acetyl Choline (ACh) spinal cord. cardiac and smooth muscle, some glands. muscle attached to it. circles lens. when it senses called olfactory and gustatory.
on heart: inhibitory effect 2) Interneurons txfers signals from neuron somatic nervous system innervates skeletal contracts, opening of circle decreases, 4 tastes
on visceral smooth muscle (intestines): to neuron. 90% of neurons in body muscle. Autonomic pathways controlled by allowing lens to be more like sphere, bringing 1)bitter
excitatory 3) Motor (efferent) neurons carry signals to hypothalamus. focal point closer to lens. when relaxes, lens 2) sour
muscle or gland called effector. Located flattens, increasing focal distance. 3) salty
Receptors ventrally (toward front) from spinal cord Generally, when you hear 4) sweet
-ion channels themselves, or, acetylcholine somatic and parasympathetic eye acts as converging lens. object is outside all tastes are combos of the above.
-2nd messenger system Think of CNS as brain + spinal cord, PNS as nervous systems focal distance, image on retina is real and
everything else. (nor)epinephrine sympathetic nervous inverted
For prolonged change, eg, memory, 2nd system
messenger preferred. CNS integrates nervous signals b/w sensory Retina covers inside of back/distal part of eye
and motor neurons. connected to peripheral Central Nervous System contains rods and cones. tips of these contain
G proteins initiatie 2nd messenger systems parts of body via PNS. PNS handles sensory spinal cord, lowerbrain, all of higher brain pigments, chem change when e-trons struck by
-attached to receptor inside post syn memb. and motor functions of nervous system. acts mainly as conduit for nerves to reach photon.
-when receptor stimulated by NT, part of the G brain rods rhodopsin pigment. made from protein
protein called alpha subunit breaks free Simple reflex arc does limited integrating functions retinal. derived from vit A. photon isomerizes
Alpha subunit may receptordorsal root ganglionsensory -walking reflexes, leg stiffening, etc. retinal, causing membrane of cell to be less
1) activate separate specific ion channels neuron interneuronMotor neuron permeable to Na+, causes hyperpolarization.
2) activate a 2nd messenger, eg, cAMP or GMP effector lower brain: medulla (pons, mesencephalon), transduced into neural action potential, signal
3) activate intracellular enzymes hypothalamus, thalamus, cerebellum. sent to your noggin. sense wv 390nm to 700.
4) activate gene transcription. PNS divides to Integrates subconcious activities such as resp cannot distinguish colors.
system, arterial pressure, salivation, emotions, cones distinguish 3 types of colors.
overall: chemical synapse most important. -Somatic nervous system to respond to ext. and rxn to pain, pleasure.
slowest step in txfer of nervous signal, can environement. motor neurons only innervate fovea- small point on retina containing most
only occur in 1 direction. 2nd messenger also skeletal muscle. cell bodies of these in ventral higher (cortical) brain: incapable to function cones. vwhere vision is most acute.
important to recognize. horns of spinal cord. use ACh for NT. w/o lower brain. acts to store memories,
considered voluntary. sensory bodies process thoughts. consists of cerebrum/cortex. iris: colored portion of eye, creates opening
Support Cells located in dorsal root. called pupil. made of circular+radial muscles
-Autonomic nervous system (ANS) sensory Sensory Receptors
nervous tissue contains glia cells/neuroglia. receives singals from viscera, organs inside in dark, symp ns contracts, dillating, allow
usually ratio of 10::1 glia to neurons ventral body cavity. function is involuntary. overall: sensory receptors transduce physical more light in.
neuroglia, unlike neurons, CAN divide, and NT used by all preganglionic neurons and by stimulus to neural signals in light, parasymp contracts muscles,
usually do during traumatic brain injury to fill the post ones in the parasympathic is ACh. constricting pupil, ,screening out light.
any space created in CNS. The post ganglionic in the symp system use 5 types of sensory receptors
either epinephrine (adrenaline) or -mechanoreceptors (touch) The Ear
6 types of glia norepinephrine (noradrenaline). -thermoreceptors (change in T)
-microglia phagocytize microbes and debris divides into 2 antagonistic systems: -nocireceptors (pain) can show up on physics passage, concerning
in CNS -sympathetic (fight or flight): -e-magnetic (light) waves or mechanics. Know cochlea detects
-ependymal epithelial that line the cerebral activates heart, major skeletal muscles, dilates -chemoreceptors (taste, smell) sound, while semicircular canals detect
fluid containing parts of CNS pupils for night hunting, redirects blood, etc. orientation/movement of head.
-satellite- support ganglia in PNS eg, heart, it increases beat rate, stroke volume, on MCAT, prob just deal with eye and ear.
-astrocytes star shaped neuroglia in CNS, constricts vessels around digestive and 3 basic parts
give physical support to neurons, help excretory systems to increase flow around Eye 1) outer ear: cartilage, helps direct sound into
maintain mileu skeletal muscle. might show up as physics passage. understand external canal. carries wave to tympanic
-oligodendrocytes wrap around axons in signals originate in spinal cord. if in CNS, lens of eye is converging, flatting the eye by membrane / ear drum / begin of middle ear
CNS, creating electrical insulation. called nucleus, if outside CNS, called ganglion relaxing ciliary muscles makes the lens less 2) middle ear: malleus, incus, and stapes
-neurolemmocytes or Schwann. in PNS, -parasympathetic (rest and digest) powerful, thus moving focal point away from (bones). act as lever system, translate wave to
increases rate at which axon can txmit signals lens. oval window. increase in force. increase in
2) steroid come from adrenal cortex, translation, transcription, decreasing Cortisol: steroid, glucocorticoid. blood PO3 uptake by gut, renal production of
gonads, and placenta. lipids, can diffuse thru breakdown of proteins and aas. glucose by stimulating gluconeogenesis in DOHCC (vit D derivative). regulated by
memb and act in nucleus. dont mix with liver. degrades adipose to fatty acids for plasma ion conc, and glands grow & shrink
Endocrine System blood, so need transport molecule. acts at the energy. a stress hormone. diminishes accordingly.
txscription level. increasing membrane or 2) Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) immune response.
Hormone Chemistry cellular proteins
vs. NTs, which are local hormones. stimulateds adrenal cortex to release
General hormones are released by endocrine steroid must knows: glucocorticoids via 2nd msnger using cAMP.
system, released into body fluids, blood, etc. a) glucocorticoids and mineral corticoids of stimulated by stress. glucos are stress Catecholamines: Reproductive hormones FSH, LH, HCG, and
affect many cell types in tissue, many types of adrenal cortex: cotisol and aldosterone hormones. tyr derivatives synth in adrenal medulla; epi inhibin are peptides. All others are steroids.
tissues. b) gonadal: estrogen, progesterone, and norepi (aka adrenaline and noradrenaline).
testosterone. 3) Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) Similar to sympathetic nervous response, but Male Reproductive System
Exocrine release enzymes to external enviro longer. both are vasoconstrictors of most male gonads = testes. production of sperm in
thru ducts. include sweat, oil, mucous, and 3) tyrosine derivatives thyroid hormones aka thyrotropin. stimulates thyroid to release tissues but they are vasodilators of skeletal seminiferous tubules. Spermatogonia located
digestive and catecholamines. Some can diffuse, some T3 and T4 via 2nd messenger cAMP. increases muscle. consistent with fight or flight in tubules arise from epithelial to become
Endocrine release hormones directly into cant. thyroids diffuse, but catecholamines thyroid cell size, number, and rate of secretion response (give the most blood to the parts of spermatocytes spermatids spermatozoa.
blood fluids. cant, so they use 2nd msnger. of T3&4. their concentrations have neg body that will carry you away). stress
feedback effect on TSH release, both at ant. hormones FSH causes sertoli cells to surround, nurture
Pancreas does both: releases digestive tyrosine must knows: pituitary and hypothalamus. pre-sperm. lydig cells release testosterone
enzymes thru panc duct (exo), and releases thyroid hormones T3 and T4 (insoluble) Thyroid Hormones when stimulated by LH. Test is the primary
insulin/glucagon directly into blood (endo) catecholamines formed in adrenal medulla 4) FSH and 5) LH Triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) and androgen (male sex hormone), stimulates germ
epinephrine and norepinephrine. (water calcitonin. cells sperm. also resp for 2ndary sex
endocrine tends to be slower, less direct, and soluble) 6) Prolactin T3 and T4: very similar in effect. secretion characteristics, pubic hair, enlargement of
longer lasting than nervous system. may take promotes lacation. inhibited by progesterone regulated by TSH. both lipid soluble tyr larynx, growth of penis and vesicles.
seconds to days to have an effect. Hormones Negative Feedback and estrogen if baby not yet born. derivitives, diffusable,a ct in nucleus of cell of
need a receptor, either on membrane or inside glands tend to over-secrete, usually aspect of hypothalamus, oddly, inhibits release of their effector. basal (resting) metabolic rate. when spermatid becomes spermatozoon, forms
cell. effector will inhibit this. (negative feedback). prolactin. suckling stimulates hypo to head, midpiece, and tail. head composed of
stimulate ant. pituitary to release, inhibits Calcitonin large peptide. blood Ca2+ via nuclear material and acrosome for penetrating
each receptor specific to its hormone. one gland lags behind effector: high insulin does menstrual cycle. also: prolactin produces osteoclast activity & number. egg. carried to epididymus to mature.
method of hormone regulation: reduction or not create low blood glucose. high insulin milk; oxytocin ejects milk. propelled thru vas deferens during ejaculation
increase of receptors, or modulating hormone responds to high blood glucose, and low blood Pancreas (Islets of Langerhans) into urethra and out of penis. Semen is
concentration. glucose causes high glucagon to respond. so if Posterior Pituitary acts as both endo and exocrine gland. 2 mixture of spermatozoa and fluid that leaves
patient has high levels of blood glucose, you important endocrine are insulin and glucagon. penis.
Endocrine system alters metabolic activities, would expect the hormone to be most present aka neurohypophysis. hromones oxytocin and also releases somatostatin, which inhibits both
regulates growth and development, guides the one that is responding to the condition, not ADH synthesized in hyopthalamus, but ins and gluc. Female Reproductive System
reproduction. works in conjunction w/ creating it. so: insulin. txported down axons to posterior pituitary Insulin: peptide, released by B-cells of panc. oogenesis-begins in ovaries. all eggs are
nervous system. Many endocrine glands where released into blood. (small peptides). with energy abundance / high [nutrients] in arrested as primary oocytes at birth. at
stimulated by neurons to secrete hormones eg, ADH holds water in body, decreasing urine blood. released when blood levels of carbs or puberty, FSH stimulates growth. form zona
output. increases blood pressure. so person w/ Oxytocin: small peptide that increases uterine proteins high. affects carb, fat, and protein pellucida around egg. primary follicle. theca
3 basic types of hormones high blood Hg has low ADH. contractions during birth; causes milk ejection metab. insulin carbs uptaken as glycogen in cells differentiate and form secondary follicle.
1) peptide all made in RER, cleaved in ER liver and muscles, fat as adipose, aas in cells LH stimulates androgen secretion, conversion
lume, transported to golgi, packaged by golgi, eg2, aldosterone increases blood Hg. if low Antidiuretic Hormone / Vasopressin and made into proteins. lowers blood to estradiol (type of estrogen). FSH stimulates
exocytosed whenever the cell is stimulated by blood Hg in pt, high aldosterone. (ADH): glucose. it uses a 2nd messenger, so it binds to its release into blood. estradiol is steroid
another hormone or nervous signal. Water small peptide, causes collecting ducts of receptor. does not affect neurons in brain. all hormone preparing uterine wall for pregnancy.
soluble, move freely thru blood. But have Specific Hormones and their Functions kidney to become permeable to water, H20 others become highly permeable to glucose inhibits LH secretion by ant pituitary. just
trouble diffusing thru membrane of effector must know major hormones and glands and reputake, blood Hg. coffee and beer block upon insulin binding. also,k intracellular before ovulation (bursting of folicle), estradiol
(aka target cell). Instead, must attach to target tissues. group them together in the ADH. metab enzymes activated, and even translation, levels rise rapidly, LH secretion. (luteal
receptor. gland that secretes them. transcription rates affected. surge). positive feedback loop. egg swept into
Adrenal Cortex fallopian (uterine) tupe or oviduct. remaining
peptide must knows: Anterior Pituitary adrenal glandson top of the kidneys. Glucagon: peptide hormone, released by - portion left behind to become corpus luteum.
a)anterior pituitary: FSH, LH, ACTH, hGH, aka adenohypophysis. located in brain contain: cells of panc. nearly opposite to insulin. secretes estradiol and progesterone thruout
TSH, Prolactin beneath hypothalamus controls release of adrenal medulle and adrenal cotex: outside stimulates glycogenolysis (glyc breakdown). pregnancy, or if no pregnancy, for about 2
b) posterior pituitary: ADH, oxytocin ant. pituitory hormones with releasing and portion. secretes only steroid hormones. Acts via 2nd messenger cAMP. in higher []s, weeks until corpus luteum degrades into
c) parathyroid: PTH inhibitory hormones of its own. nervous secretes 2 types of steroids, mineral breaks down adipose, increasing fa level in corpus albicans.
d) pancreatic: glucagon, insulin signals control release of these. corticoids (affect electrolyte balance in blood) Hb. blood glucose levels.
and glucocorticoids ( [blood glucose], fat, Menstrual cycle repeats itself every 28 days
Receptor may act as ion channel, may 6 major ant pit hormones (all peptide) protein metab). major one is cortisol. Parathyroid after puberty until pregnancy. with each cycle,
(de)activate other intrinsic proteins. May 4 small parathyroid glands attached to back of 3 phases
activate intracellular 2nd messenger such as 1) Human growth Hormone (hGH) Aldosterone, steroid, mineral corticoid. acts thyroid. they release: 1) follicular development of foillicle, ends at
cAMP, cGMP, or calmodulin. Creates stimulates growth in nearly all cells. increases in distal conv. tubule and coll. duct to Na+ parathyroid hromone (PTH) peptide, ovulation
cascade of of rxns that amplify hormone. episodes of mitosis, cell size, rate of protein and Cl- reabsorption, K+,H+ secretion. Ca2+ in blood. osteocyte absorption of Ca 2) luteal- begins w/ ovulation, ends w/
synthesis, mobilizing fat stores. increases aa bloodHg. and PO3- from bone and osteoclasts. renal degeneration of corpus luteum into corpus
txport across cell membrane increases Ca reabsorption, renal PO3 excretion. Ca and albicans
3) flow shedding of uterine lining for ~ in 3rd week, gastrula neurula (neurulation). Progesterone to a lesser extent lower pH of stomach and raised pH of blood.
5days notochord induces overlying ectoderm to also secrete intrinsic factor, helps ileum absorb
thicken and form into nerual plate. Eventually B12.
in menstrual cycle, all of FSH, LH, and degenerates, while a neural tube forms from
Estrogen peak right before ovulation. neural plate to become spinal cord, brain, and 4) G cells - secrete gastrin to interstitium.
Estrogen and progesterone have peaks during most of nervous system. (Induction is when large peptide hormone, absorbed into blood
secretory phase. one cell type affects direction of differentiation and stimulates parietal cells to secrete HCl.
of another cell type).
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