LAGRANGES THEOREM

Definition:
An operation on a set G is a function : G G G.

Definition:
A group is a set G which is equipped with an operation and a special element e G, called
the identity, such that
(i) the associative law holds: for every x, y, z G we have x (y z) = (x y) z;
(ii) e x = x = x e for all x G;
(iii) for every x G, there is x0 G (so-called, inverse) with x x0 = e = x0 x.

Definition:
A subset H of a group G is a subgroup if
(i) e H;
(ii) if x, y H, then x y H;
(iii) if x H, then x1 H.

Definition:
If G is a group and a G, write

hai = {an : n Z} = {all powers of a};

hai is called the cyclic subgroup of G generated by a.

Definition:
A group G is called cyclic if G = hai for some a G. In this case a is called a generator of G.

Definition:
Let G be a group and let a G. If ak = 1 for some k 1, then the smallest such exponent
k 1 is called the order of a; if no such power exists, then one says that a has infinite order.

Definition:
If G is a finite group, then the number of elements in G, denoted by |G|, is called the order of
G.

Theorem:
Let G be a finite group and let a G. Then

order of a = |hai|.

Fermats Little Theorem:

Let p be a prime. Then np n mod p for any integer n 1.

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Proof (Sketch): We distinguish two cases.

Case A: Let p | n, then, obviously, p | np n, and we are done.

Case B: Let
p 6 | n.
Consider the group Z
p and pick any [a] Zp . Let k be the order of [a]. We know that h[a]i is
a subgroup of Z
p and by the Theorem above we obtain

|h[a]i| = k.

Lemma (Lagranges Theorem):

If H is a subgroup of a finite group G, then

|H| divides |G|.

By Lagranges Theorem we get

|h[a]i| divides |Z
p |,

which gives
k | p 1,
since |h[a]i| = k and |Z
p | = p 1. So
p 1 = kd
for some integer d. On the other hand, since k is the order of [a], it follows that for any n [a]
we have
nk 1 mod p,
hence
nkd 1d 1 mod p,
and the result follows, since kd = p 1. 

Definition:
If H is a subgroup of a group G and a G, then the coset aH is the following subset of G :

aH = {ah : h H}.

Remark:
Cosets are usually not subgroups. In fact, if a 6 H, then 1 6 aH, for otherwise

1 = ah = a = h1 6 H,

which is a contradiction.

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Example:
Let G = S3 and H = {(1), (12)}. Then there are 3 cosets:

(12)H = {(1), (12)} = H,

(13)H = {(13), (123)} = (123)H,

(23)H = {(23), (132)} = (132)H.

Lemma:
Let H be a subgroup of a group G, and let a, b G. Then
(i) aH = bH b1 a H.
(ii) If aH bH 6= , then aH = bH.
(iii) |aH| = |H| for all a G.

Proof:
(i) ) Let aH = bH, then for any h1 H there is h2 H with ah1 = bh2 . This gives

b1 a = h2 h1
1 = b1 a H,

since h2 H and h1
1 H.

) Let b1 a H. Put b1 a = h0 . Then

aH bH, since if x aH, then x = ah = x = b(b1 a)h = b h0 h = bh1 bH;

|{z}
h1

bH aH, since if x bH, then x = bh = x = a(b1 a)1 h = a h1 h = ah2 aH.

| 0{z }
h2

So, aH bH and bH aH, which gives aH = bH.

(ii) Let aH bH 6= , then there exists an element x with

x aH bH = ah1 = x = bh2 = b1 a = h2 h1
1 H,

therefore aH = bH by (i).
(iii) Note that if h1 and h2 are two distinct elements from H, then ah1 and ah2 are also distinct,
since otherwise
ah1 = ah2 = a1 ah1 = a1 ah2 = h1 = h2 ,
which is a contradiction. So, if we multiply all elements of H by a, we obtain the same number
of elements, which means that |aH| = |H|. 

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Lagranges Theorem:
If H is a subgroup of a finite group G, then
|H| divides |G|.
Proof:
Let |G| = t and
{a1 H, a2 H, . . . , at H}
be the family of all cosets of H in G. Then
G = a1 H a2 H . . . at H,
because G = {a1 , a2 , . . . , at } and 1 H. By (ii) of the Lemma above for any two cosets ai H
and aj H we have only two possibilities:
ai H aj H = or ai H = aj H.
Moreover, from (iii) of the Lemma above it follows that all cosets have exactly |H| number of
elements. Therefore
|G| = |H| + |H| + . . . + |H| = |G| = d|H|,
and the result follows. 

Corollary 1:
If G is a finite group and a G, then the order of a is a divisor of |G|.
Proof:
By the Theorem above, the order of the element a is equal to the order of the subgroup H = hai.
By Lagranges Theorem, |H| divides |G|, therefore the order a divides |G|. 

Corollary 2:
If a finite group G has order m, then am = 1 for all a G.
Proof:
Let d be the order of a. By Corollary 1, d | m; that is, m = dk for some integer k. Thus,
am = adk = (ad )k = 1. 

Corollary 3:
If p is a prime, then every group G of order p is cyclic.
Proof:
Choose a G with a 6= 1, and let H = hai be the cyclic subgroup generated by a. By Lagranges
Theorem, |H| is a divisor of |G| = p. Since p is a prime and |H| > 1, it follows that
|H| = p = |G|,
and so H = G, as desired. 

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Definition:
An operation on a set G is a function
: G G G.

Definition:
A group is a set G which is equipped
with an operation and a special ele-
ment e G, called the identity, such
that
(i) the associative law holds: for every
x, y, z G we have x(yz) = (xy)z;
(ii) e x = x = x e for all x G;
(iii) for every x G, there is x0 G
(so-called, inverse) with x x0 = e =
x0 x.
Definition:
A subset H of a group G is a subgroup
if
(i) e H;
(ii) if x, y H, then x y H;
(iii) if x H, then x1 H.
Definition:
If G is a group and a G, write
hai = {an : n Z} = {all powers of a};
hai is called the cyclic subgroup of G
generated by a.

Definition:
A group G is called cyclic if G = hai for
some a G. In this case a is called a
generator of G.
Definition:
Let G be a group and let a G. If ak =
1 for some k 1, then the smallest such
exponent k 1 is called the order of a;
if no such power exists, then one says
that a has infinite order.

Definition:
If G is a finite group, then the number of
elements in G, denoted by |G|, is called
the order of G.
Theorem:
Let G be a finite group and let a G.
Then
order of a = |hai|.

Fermats Little Theorem:

Let p be a prime. Then np n mod p
for any integer n 1.
Proof (Sketch): We distinguish two cases.
Case A: Let p | n, then, obviously, p | np
n, and we are done.
Case B: Let
p 6 | n.
Consider the group Zp and pick any
[a] Zp. Let k be the order of [a]. We
know that h[a]i is a subgroup of Zp and
by the Theorem above we obtain
|h[a]i| = k.

Lemma (Lagranges Theorem):

If H is a subgroup of a finite group G, then
|H| divides |G|.
By Lagranges Theorem we get
|h[a]i| divides |Zp|,
which gives
k | p 1,
since |h[a]i| = k and |Zp| = p 1. So
p 1 = kd
for some integer d. On the other hand,
since k is the order of [a], it follows that
for any n [a] we have
nk 1 mod p,
hence
nkd 1d 1 mod p,
and the result follows, since kd = p
1. 
Definition:
If H is a subgroup of a group G and a
G, then the coset aH is the following
subset of G :
aH = {ah : h H}.

Remark:
Cosets are usually not subgroups. In
fact, if a 6 H, then 1 6 aH, for other-
wise
1 = ah = a = h1
6 H,
which is a contradiction.
Example:
Let G = S3 and H = {(1), (12)}. Then
there are 3 cosets:
(12)H = {(1), (12)} = H,
(13)H = {(13), (123)} = (123)H,
(23)H = {(23), (132)} = (132)H.
Lemma:
Let H be a subgroup of a group G, and
let a, b G. Then
(i) aH = bH b1a H.
(ii) If aH bH 6= , then aH = bH.
(iii) |aH| = |H| for all a G.
Proof:
(i) ) Let aH = bH, then for any h1
H there is h2 H with ah1 = bh2. This
gives
b1a = h2h1
1 = b1a H,
since h2 H and h1
1 H.
 ) Let b1a H. Put b1a = h0.
Then
aH bH, since if x aH, then
x = ah

x = b(b1a)h = b h 0h = bh1 bH
|{z}
h1
and
bH aH, since if x bH, then
x = bh

x = a(b1a)1h = a h1 h = ah2 aH.
| 0{z }
h2
So, aH bH and bH aH, which
gives aH = bH.
(ii) Let aH bH 6= , then there exists
an element x with
x aH bH

ah1 = x = bh2

b1a = h2h1
1 H,
therefore aH = bH by (i).
(iii) Note that if h1 and h2 are two dis-
tinct elements from H, then ah1 and
ah2 are also distinct, since otherwise
ah1 = ah2

a1ah1 = a1ah2

h1 = h2,
which is a contradiction. So, if we multi-
ply all elements of H by a, we obtain the
same number of elements, which means
that |aH| = |H|. 
Lagranges Theorem:
If H is a subgroup of a finite group G,
then
|H| divides |G|.
Proof:
Let |G| = t and
{a1H, a2H, . . . , atH}
be the family of all cosets of H in G.
Then
G = a1H a2H . . . atH,
because G = {a1, a2, . . . , at} and 1
H. By (ii) of the Lemma above for any
two cosets aiH and aj H we have only
two possibilities:
aiH aj H = or aiH = aj H.
Moreover, from (iii) of the Lemma above
it follows that all cosets have exactly |H|
number of elements. Therefore
|G| = |H| + . . . + |H| = |G| = d|H|,
and the result follows. 
Corollary 1:
If G is a finite group and a G, then
the order of a is a divisor of |G|.

Proof:
By the Theorem above, the order of the
element a is equal to the order of the
subgroup
H = hai.
By Lagranges Theorem, |H| divides |G|,
therefore the order a divides |G|. 
Corollary 2:
If a finite group G has order m, then
am = 1
for all a G.

Proof:
Let d be the order of a. By Corollary 1,
d | m; that is,
m = dk
for some integer k. Thus,
am = adk = (ad)k = 1. 
Corollary 3:
If p is a prime, then every group G of
order p is cyclic.

Proof:
Choose a G with a 6= 1, and let
H = hai
be the cyclic subgroup generated by a.
By Lagranges Theorem, |H| is a divisor
of |G| = p. Since p is a prime and |H| >
1, it follows that
|H| = p = |G|,
and so H = G, as desired.