ca Grovp - A at sh heise if i) Clswe ta balde i Ge. te fr abeg. anbeG i) Assoceabwe’ law. hilds in G tei frabhceG. 7 awk sc).= (axb)ee -R).. Ldentrly law halds tn. te br acG , axe cexae a vheve 2 i an idenhly element. NW) Tnverse law Inallds i. ve for acqG A 3/Eq axa = axa such tha =e ae. Tf commutative taw bolds tr Gy thee @ is called abelian svoup: Example:- Ce,+> CR4) (@, +), Cithecg 5 +) ave the examplas ° bo geeup: P14, bjs kKy with the, condita ites pe kek= 1 Inxs x WY xEA thee A is called Soup - #Gauhon: Prove that -(2,, ©) 1s a ovwup. Soluben. eer Bre Fay vw yng Fr abe z, , tes atbez, if arben and 1{ ath 2m jhe af ley divicings a4 by othe Yermandsy is fess than nv andSo baelongs te Zy- - yee binary operation ® ts ele Fined. i) ® is assouahwe tn gene WW) © 2, te an tdewhtly element . WN) Fae a. G By, w-a is inverse of a. “so at M-a)= n=0 | nan & Reraindeve: gv. Zy Ts dsyup undv ©. a Some Lm portant Renult:— Sia G be ‘a Evoup then 1) Canectlakion law holds to G- W) Tdenbty «clement ig unique. - i¥) Tnvevse of the clement is unique. iy) (alyl= a Via€e G- w) “(ab)| = bg!ae Ovder of Group:- an al 2 = defi the numberof _ element: -in..a__grovp ~ scaled ha ardev of . G...and..is denshed by (Gl - \ fh. four. Gq. is. sald Ae__tao Jinike, 4G consists of i a Fintke. umber of elements. Olhewwise G is caid te be an infinite croup: 4+ Orde of Elementi 2 a ae aef.- Sa. a be am. element of a gvoup GR posthive wtegew'n’ is said te be the ovdew ef a if atse and ns the least such - posthue tegen ‘ + Questions : Let 2G amd ordey of ‘a8 ‘w . then the elements a, ay aye a™! ave all dtslact . Solution. : On the convey let ata al Sov Seme pen Yon ,p#Yy, ther. . - at ahee.. nt 3 a’ Vice 2 ys p-y <7 a embvadichem ss ovdey of a issn,” Ron ala ate. : B Sine a? at are dalam to be arbibrery Aherefene’ all clemenh ave diskineh : ‘# Theorem:- Let G: be. 2. group, bv neg lt ace thers Sov Some: integen ko -akee iff n/k. Solutren.- . let -njpk Athen Theve is. a -- such... that k= nq,» some integer = av = (ar)® = ‘eae. Conversely. ut akee yee Kn, So... theve. ave. sokegeve oy and such that = ke mqytr poem, go oe aS 2 aviv age > a’ e > (a )vavae > (eV at ee wom \s order of a. a D. ea-a%n oe vant wich. #2 ont poss ble sf reo thes kang > n [kK “ae Peviodic Group: . te fs— If ever element of a grup Gis of Finthe. ovder. then G is pevtedie gyoup. % Mixed Group:- : def:— If a group G ecotains elements of. Finike as wel® as mftntle order, then *G called mixed dvoup- ag (R5*) ts mixed gvop: \ R= R- So} is+ Sub-grovp def:— Let H be a ve eraply. sulosat’ of a Sroup G ten Wis subgroup of .G if fhaf is a sale group - with the binary opevahin Acfined on G, . L # Theorem: Let qq be a group and H a nen -emn ph subset of G. then His Serep subgroup ff abel 2 ableu Presf: Sa that Hots a subgvoup af then (H+) is a gvoup , ff ben wren hene a ben > ablew Conversely , Suppose Awat ashe & ableu then a,aeH > aableH 3 een Neo e,beH 3 eben s&s BER Agaan abet sa, b'EH S alsly'e ab eh. in G the associative law Thus His clesect Hos He holds, mm geneva halds fv. elements of for the clement of G., Heme atl the axioms of a Sveup ave sakisfied by the clemenk of WH. Heme His a tle linary operation defined on G and so ts a sulogvoup f G- Sroup under# Theayem :- lat. G@_ be a. abeluan eroup and Fo ke subset af alt clement of G tlh Hfaite order, then H fs 2 subgroup. Proof ld a,b & F thew thee ave integers m and n such that a" ne and Wee we have te prove able F- Gaby" 2 ww - ee am Us = amg Gs abelsan (eye 6 (any (By = ee” = @-2€ = & implies that. ab? © F theve fove Elowioa sulogvoup * feorem:- ‘Tatersechay of amy Famcly of subgroups of a droop @ is subgroup of @ Pros fe : Set S Hr} 5 ze Let He Dy . lt a,b Gu IT be -a family af subogroups of @ this abe; fo each 2€ 7 Ginw Hy te a subgraup of G se ablels fer each YET thevefore abl EN US=H ret Hen His sulbgvour of G-oe si ae aal ae — ~tubbgvaup of a geaup “Bee $523 4,8 AL then Z,0% = ee SSR tat ae a ~satgretiy voc Hy ey a theo HUH, SHG see Hyuk ey vo HY RH ave. saeginy oe ts ~~ alse, sakegiony mae - Led Uo ts a Seow. and leh My ZH er a, eH, them there area, 2G such that - AsE Hye oo bei VA) ele dol chute dadls BE add & # Hef aay bi edb ho Ms WU, ave sulogiou therefore alee HPS abet ‘or ab € HW, fhe we @abye ib eH, febch & a cstondit hon“te Thes vera. a - a ghana of a gu Ge Define a relation. f such that fa - Wy. Oe ay ‘EH - then yelabian a2 is sausialema yelation.. “Proof. a — a . Reflexwe oo te EH xe e. HW x eH - — eee ee —— - ve this velation is seflexive. 1) Spomebic a ~ lah xy then xy! oe <> Copy eH ai) Transiive ae — - - ——Letscesy then ape Hh a also yo? then y2lé H ee Nas Gey Cp Eye er xqQ'yz eH ter xfer ze Ho oe -- oN xz eH - KO PE ye eis baste, Re ie is equvalenw3 Ket 2 z= 4, *_te_Theoyem nares hah sutfinp fm as _is_ Syste: _ ——Let_G be a eyebic. é a ~ bet tbe he ule Sonos gered a least sive. uotegene soth thot ake th ee -prove._that . YW is_g enenaticnl _loy ah, Fee this Det gf xa aT™ Gt ¥m>ko oo WW Aho A integes a, and + such Ahab a > ~ 3 € A ‘bt kis. gmallest — cahich ak et. and heve aXe A and vee. $2 ey minimality ef ko _ ae Hany ts Ye bo Wf re og — then gy _ Loh aM = (ak. = eas _genexatar. of HO “ee Bo ise eye4¢ Theorem: = ae __ Diet 6 be a eyclio goup of arlene generated _ then an element ab €@ 5a genocactar of. _& WEE ok and nave reba pein i). a Sais - infinche = ony cot ven aad a! tat “Geta, alee > be Pathe cycle feu - Consider .k and ave_velahvely prime. them theve —euists integers p _amd_« sual that pk tq 5}. tet HE bea —suth ~tenewe bed a af — ste penne He = = G@ — —— eK go a als ai — ——— a KPa. (an = (a)? (eye. Let a FR __ ei Y- of G. _ _ we prove kama a ast sala rime ee ais Senevad a $2 Aac_same integer Pa ahs a > atl e ec - Ren] pk -1 - —se 4 —inkesiew such thas ~ pK = Wane = ~— > pa k— ned a eee aye. xelabvaly pri aiD y= gay be in Fini te oN. Dix ts espe a a fs als a depart of &. _ o¥P-l = 2 > Kp-l ze oy Kp-l=9 —_t Kp =l fo Arena ep-tss kpat Sina aed pave se tea, gl ave—oaly senevaboes -__ ee _ays eT heXeem : - << then Hk is —salgennp oh 65. KekKH —___let__HK be a subgvoup ee let ky 2 HK fer by SH kp eK _ Ss hk yle HE or HK fe uldros —— = _ Ne Unk J! = wh eu wlew, mle: Tre AK KA - QD kek Me! cette Tene ~ _as_ WK is ub fvoup. KH S HK —— id a Sar_some ly hy CH 5 kyoks G1 > (nk ke) = Unde) U6'bS)) _ a = hy (ke bet ae = (ky hp!) for Kaka & _ he ks= kil! € kK = hithitsy 1s KHE UK - et) Kee ho EH, bee he — = hk € UK: — “thew ak is a_subsimue ey See “Cushion if - H_ts_sulodvoup of Ef 6 the _ i) Prove Haat Hoe HH — 2) Proue that He! =_H. payed =4 Theoem:— : te mses —af a inch and HOK = "$e, Hew OT Blin) 20 ab) Sree hens kek} and WOK = fe} at abich atail o ott ste) ok) > —4-=-< a hg ad a FJ ae = bo he 2 ow Bee — _ ky = ky _ _ ye ee sap. ath 2) ag — pret tatt HejHe Bh ey wt} — BE me lon bem ph G Haw = fry ___HK= oe Pore tn - where g =e > Pee, (fzY=e wae Prove. Shat @ 7. _grovp ~~Thensem: = “such “Aha: SOcHni) > 1. “ertace ey Mhena PAARL = etretk) a : : RCL) “otha Tuy = Tee Pee = — ~—— Ufo) =p. oik)= 4 "athe r, altkK}em —as_HK = fhk thee, we KR _— oa foe 2 an 2a > My} Lamy) a, “Mie owing) 2 each Me SANK TSG _ : and nk is a “sibgyoup e yy! e tink Me a2 “to gS mage = cee Choy Oi ky = nk = x! — ERs repeat ymax hr Oe __ Se TT number of clenacks possible in HK is ms _ ae ie _rm= pq —= pm = ty ae Soke OH) = OCH) OOK o(HnK)y> Tog > eK q a > MKEG > ot). olG) _ re 0(G)- o(Hb) | _ __ocH) 10lK): _ pe OCHA) 2 > fete)- focq>. - OCHAK) =. _oty _ OTHHK) - > o(Hatc) | _ > YOK ist fet.* Conch. def: Uk. H be a subgroup of a fraup.G then the set Has Sha > hen? whee a€G- is called right coset of Hin G. Similarly ati= Sah: hen? is eft cosed of Hin G. Iv case of adcibim art, H+a ave left and right unet respectively . 4 Example: - uw a= 32,F, ¢ ef 5g, ef be a group ahgre- . Pee - |. Let H= fe, $97} be a subsvoup- Hee Vey £3 bed tee a gta 9 gts Po eth eg Ses gf HR = CF, gf et = ff, ef fe5 daye=e te 9 ffee a f-7 > Upla) =< |: sa 9 gtdze a ghost! 9 figs gf a igo gt So Hef = Sef of, oF - tafe 5]. His =f¥g, she) , Uh = Te EM SEN = 146 4589} Nios He = Hs = Nata fee gt}. Hf = Use Heh = $F, gf, $3 We we hae ely too disjnnt vight cose ® Index of Sabgivoup:— defi- the number of distinct Left or right coteds of Hin @ is called imdex of WH im G,st _Index_of subg rou —-def:— The number = iio ee ox cc ight essed of a_subgroup Hof _is_called the index of He in G and ts dene oe U8 LHI. a Thesvem.- Lrageange’ « Theavem) + =! Bath the odes onc index of asubpgroup. a finite. anaes Abe -oxder of the one - Precf — Lat Gee 0. cup of ender and Bebe a ot —of. oxder mi. _ ea tea ee dee fo Lat ay Hg AH, nn aH ave the distinct Neft cosets of Hon G@. ae_prove G= ast ates oe end 2 Je Mant and ain ajH = ge Ue gee _ they a; = ace & a;H_-__beca so. G@ & VasH Gy Also each. a;H. is a subset of. G 2 Ua & & 2 Gd. and Wid. ye wo _-G= ait W) ‘Ned, det aH a bH. axe disknct BeSt « and x € aH bH then x= ahi = bhi >. as bh, bi’ Sk ke hah,’ New Sox het, aheab _ bat ah = bhsh is ake an demed of bH _ Fer. some. hy i eH. (say), ah = bH Similerly bH. Gabested ect ha eee Pen ate yale lene ANN bH. - aHnNbnH = => all Jeft essets J 1 in ie define. a. part bron, se. (G\= lah) + lad|as.- + Jag | ——ail) To find number of element mm each eset we. define a mapping pr dtl—r agH by — PC) = azh, he HH, Sein i: eth) = (hn) See nee iia aie 3 Wie ha, P is me- ne Alwo fv. each ach €asH. 4. hed. $0 Piss ante - a ee the numberof clemesads in _H. = az is The same. Py Sa Bare As H has m clement, each. acl. He m_alements - Se Fem cit) we ia We my eee Ck Almes) D> naikm. eran and om] on re a ee and index of sebgvouy eliwidles der of geo =& Centvalizey def: — Let x be a. cabect_ of. a_goup 4 a WX EX, then the set Ca (0). = far 2€G A axaxat is called eentyalrzer of. X in G , tt Centre. of G defr— The. cotvalizer of. G. in Gute calhed eentve of G- 2 te _Theevem:— of G. Prowfi— leh a b e: Le X) then by- definition, Wo x & X ax = xa Ww bx = xb —— (oe Frown an) - (bx) haben) ke! Sab) =| x (bb) > bow) = oe a (b'x) - A by ity = (ou! = = (xa)! oe = x(ab') > ablé Cg lx)- ema Ca (x) i a subgroup of G -at= b*= (aby=) > vat} ii) x= fla, ata’h yn : bre (aber > _ - — = it abe, ab, ob, arb} o at 4 Le : eo ase? Te viok _ y (ab)*= | — tp (aby 1 - —Cab)(ab) = | 2 ss (ab) (ab) = 2 _ sb ab = Ela! 2 aba) b = a : =—_ba? —ts han ay) _ = 2a%b ee (ba). ae “Goble = oh - -a*(ath) = abn = at. (ate) = arb “abe 1 cab) —__tab).2 2 (ba) a* = bas — (ba)at = ba _— = aeb = at(ab)’ . ey a ee oS sab. __ 2 ——Latb)-a* = ea) -a* = ba? ab} atta b)= ab = at(ab) = ab ——_____ 2b) at a (a?b) _ 28) 12 (22) oo = a(abja* = alba’) a. - __= alba) = a(a*b) = ath = at la Sb) sail stead ef tamale th —slaist fx Aherelete Cand G - _. h = jtoa, wah : _ Lind Mee center of Dg: = De = eee eee are eee a 7 Bree eis Ter oe eo ae Bind tabs (cies wy) if Ge De _ and) 2 aa wt) hae fies atay wee ~ Pietfe Remarke~ oN oe ie ba gag op a= 9 bg oe Ba gags men cl ga” g! end... a= 4 Bg) C6 2 boa so re” eda ota eo. Tf xX = feb = singlckon st oe fhe Celts Nel. — + Self Ce ee A demeact a 6 G. vs < called : ae GQ, as 32.9" in gas Balt Conjyapic ~ cloned. nn _Corbyes. clemadth. a Corallary i nape Ge ic -ai axjigote io. oe : “Lat 1 wlhnconpiale Ban a te a -—sich that a= gece go gt cs _ — _--—_s—- Xj =—9 2 ——_ > — a a ‘6 Ce(G) > Cot = =—hrrhrrr——s—CseeEeOOOS wt Conjagancy “Glass ole Fs- Led aeG thers. “Me csubect of all -clemeat of G_toojup'ate te a is called. conjugacy. . class. Co = $b bEGs baqagig EGF. teeSie Gaia dined a 2 ceria la ao normalizer of 3a} ing. diue_Ng(Gah)is No _ ~ a Aak A. be the enlleckion of alk vighh. cosels of nevmalizer = — . ~—then se havo. tapos that vuyber of elements... — aia aby “gins = Jag. +504. iG ise che fine _ ~ teh tg gt thee gp q-& q ab. F-(Ng,).=—FONG,) — = 7 "defined We hate wh every, - a9 & ay we hee wight eased Ng. —ee a PNG} = (ng,} ——— FG 4, CHEE ee es a PAGEG IAG = 2 Ga3aG,s aye _ es 7 > 3g EN EEE oG bak, gs — aos Ng, <= Sg o . aan QeiontDady ee eae ue Ng Sts, : _ ae 25 Nig Sa Eevetenont a 3 @ & bijective ——aad_sin_ly Lagvango’s Mneryera index (0 of. ——wigtht_toseh | divides order af \he_ grou oo. t & Review —— oo ne ne de dowd a ee 4G so ae ~cattea_cogpegacy ela —— oe eg ee fe rb eG, oo 34a} iia /a {ei then. Ne) ane aoe te Notmabszen ef Xin G8 Conkealiane of Xi an on :a 2 HAL ia a aulgeoap: ola: gmap a ood - 7 a ee ee de ate a ee ieee Prof _ ae ite sug. aighj's he ne a ee - oa a= ghig' ba ghag— os \ ew “aka (gn )Gh3). SeUuLanEE as ahegiiCgiieg) a a ats gk'g ale = : =te. Normal_ Sub gre _ — lef. — Let Hee. a subgroup of a &oup Gq. if Sask fev aE G o ahach fer héH,aeGq, then His cael normal subgroup. -and we write HAG.at_Theow - a - <= Lf Hand K ave narmall. subs FG. — with HOK = Jet. Shaw that. every ‘ced at ae a ui th_¢ es tt Koo Tat a _ = khk eu for Wen, Kekeq, ae h(kR Me) eH by. closuve,..lane_as he ew hk kik eH ——— Milse Kk novmnal subpvoup.of Go ~>hkb'e Ky kek het Wed e oS (kh ee KO by —elesuve. law 26 KE K = | == ==s=seses we oa hie! te K. Wk HN ~$eh TS hk Ee SL hke kh - a Corollary 22 _— et Let_G be an abel cap thew. oad _ pancag of Gis normals in oe Proof, - - . - - Leb He isa S subgiep. of GQ. - 2G bade, - | 1. ye a,b 6G. \? ahsha. wv h€H and 2eG p> ho aha eH Ce ee _._ae Ask H bea subgroup of a group 4 then follasing are equivalent. D. H is normal subgrowp of G . i) ghg\~ H for each 53 6G. W. gH = Hg. Proof ad) =>. di) Lek Hts nova subsioup of G - then ghg é@u a 9§eS a gh = Whew od he (9994 (95') + ghg E4594 = -gbgihgngt oo = qWgl € gh! > HE gg! ce) From (A) and 1B) - $45! Ee New Gi 3 WW Ne sng = H - 3 ghjl-Wo phheH obs a9 fer ghé gH , qh= 9(9 hg) 0: eho © iG a Ulewise qh SHG SAH > gle Hq. ©)Gi) <2 dy _ —_— Se = feat Rotana ec —~ >. guise oo st Eaery sulegicoup of index eo ts saormal) 4 suber, OR la G_bea._¢' grup. Anda. siege t — --—indox tuto Vhew bp AG - Peek a gy fae a corr ier distinc right (or tefh) cased io. G..- : Awsn ight det is Hae and egies Ha. ~ wp then a BU if a eH Mken Mas Ho Svoifacdy one. A eset is. (=e) and the —- okher deft coset ig a Ho a — e's. Yheavem. al night (ov. sake). catch _ — tiie, —— eG = HUHa. =-HUal. — oe Sera reer res P. a scan = Ha — > eer ele ~~ thabe q mo# Factor ov_Qustient - Group. _ at _H. be anormal subgroup of a geoup Ge ees a collection all vght udels Ha — oa ie — : _ : re QQ =4/u = “Sua: aegs oe is called he quotiewt ees of -G = H. - We define emutlip lication to : "a -Hbh ois . __ This soulbiphi cakienis well define . 2 hb € Hb h, (ahs) BE eave = hy (haa). whee hoa yb GH =. (hhs}tab) — ra ahs Gsay) & H _hyab — . > Hab = are ae - ~Also_Qis Es _ ere ae tea as a Yb x Mab Q. a Inverse _ each vig cwsct . oe Q= G/H= Fhe: ae gt oe _ - — is. a _qushewt Soup —wat tet _G) be a ele. Hasulgroup. and -K a normal subgroup of Gey 2 > HNK ts movmal..subpreup.— : fi) WK ts. subgroup of G- —- = ai) Afank HK Ag Proofs 2. i. Te pve BOK hee ae rr let 2e une He ae sb x€H and x € Ke Kf normal subgroup : _ aa he eK. fee he EG: connec also hal € 1 ee => hank! @ HK - ~ > MOK is novmad subsioup on i) Te prove WK isa a tpeup _ 2 Ag a Se wthen 7 = ky 2 hae fav hohe en, Koln eK Nee ny Ki = Cink) Gia _wheve rae K Dk kyt = Ks Cay? Ieee bee ee Thskakzl€ Kas. K is nord) SNK ig subgroup 3f 4. epee Hing = BM DeFhre. a mappin So - = Aaa n> WK fe _by _ eth) = hK —= (aba'b') blacd a) ——- -= [arb] ta,ey? [a, 5) ‘ec abla@y! = abla! : proxect ¢ uw = 6 Cba bia") b = 6) (bablaly (sty? [bale . = proved = a'(babla')a = a (ba ba) tay! 2 = |bal- : proved 6 # Derive Group._or Commutative subgvaup. defi Let G be a group and @ ve a subgroup -ef GIVE ic gemevated by a set of commutators then Gis called clevived group G = 4% 4. Ze isle: Praduct of thee commutators mdf ast sloe. e-tonmfater ae Theorem:- at het G be a group thea i) Ahe devived group @ wa nowmal Subgroup of G ii) The quottert group Geo is abdian . i) If K. is namal subs gvoup af G such that “/q iS abelian -then GSK Proof To prove GAG, Sia Lr 36G gfasb]g' = 9(aba'k') 5!: — 23a gig.bgig alg'g og! - tong seat OF 57 a = (gag ytars STS) CesT ef es eet ager oo -carmal ahpinap oh: ee a et “3G bG fA Gf e wh cuheve - 4 eG - hey __ faa’, Sb ] = (ag bg ad) Tie = alee ad LO @) — = (aba!) by malliplinhin < ; ee [ajbl=e | aba be ~ab= ba We. / | oe - e Si @/ is abelam, Sina ak. BK Lak). “teksa Direct Product of Groups ee _.def:—_ tet Hand Kaye ste subdvoups. of a EOP Gwe define the diveet product of these Fue groups. by. , HxK = 3(h,k) hehak eK? under rowltipLieation Chis ks Un ka) Chvha kyla) Note: Under malhpleahon Hx Kis a group with idenkily (2,2) where eis ideah ly of 1 and -e/ ts idenhdy of Ku. And inverse of Ch, k) ais (Wa). _ te Theavem _=ileba group G bea divecl product of Hs clue novmak sabdvoups H with Hak = fe}, G = HK_Ahem. —: _ / 1) Evey element of His permatable (commute ) wtth every clement of Ko i). Every, elemant.cf. Gis uniquely expressible as ge hk. ne em itt), GS UxKKk ve HK SS Axk. Preof: Consider an_element hk kik! then. khIK'_€ HL ve HAG _ Ss hk) € a @- he. also hkkle K_ "KEG | > (hk Ee K ~ ke Te hee enw tk = Fee Céiven)- > hkh'Klee > hk=_lh every clemect of His. permafabile = ge clementif) Lek if potsiele gi has tive expresstins ~ =k) ge bes ay ig hi He ke eee ee ee SS hehe | a > Why = ko) eK ad HO, Vee - bys hs 44 ke = - — Oo ok od met Gm byl 8 unique representation,# Lemmai__ - Hoang ko ae_eychic. wp ae -ardev am . and ively, wheve. m_andn = el prime then HxK is a —— group. = Proef : Ho 2s. — Kee. and. element oF Hx is of dhe “Bove (4.5) fr a,b) = fab) = level iff mika nik. sm, 0 _avevelahvely” prime —_ Sonal k oe 7 _.......... $0 _ - (aby = (a, Bm") won 7 (cary, co") yn) = a be Mek ea os fab se SD HxK & eke Sveun. of ovdex nm.