CHAPTER II: RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 The Sociology of Sport. Is sport a religion?

What is the role of sports in society? Society is self-aware. People might not like sports,

but they know what it is. Sports is considered very basic and something that is natural that even

children know what it is. The sociology of sport questions sport itself. Why do athletes take drugs?

Why do people take part in sports more than others? It examines the role and function of sport in

the lives of the people and the societies it forms. For sociologists, sport is central to identity

construction in modern contemporary societies. Sometimes, sports acts as a surrogate religion and

is an avocation (Malcolm, 2012)

Psychologists are closing in on the conclusion that sport has many of the same effects on

spectators as religion does (Barber, 2012). "The similarities between sport fandom and organized

religion are striking. Consider the vocabulary associated with both: faith, devotion, worship,

ritual, dedication, sacrifice, commitment, spirit, prayer, suffering, festival, and

celebration."(Wann,2001)

If ritual may be entertaining, then entertainment, as experienced in a sports stadium, may

be ritualistic. Fans wear the team colors and carry its flags, icons, and mascots. Then there is

repetitive chanting of team encouragement, hand-clapping, booing the other team, doing the

wave, and so forth. The singing of an anthem at a sporting event likely has similar psychological

effects as the singing of a hymn in church. As a group, sports fans are religious, according to
research. It is also curious that as religious attendance rates have dropped off in recent decades,

interest in sport spectatorship has soared. Moreover, research has debunked several stereotypes

about sports fans that seem incompatible with religiosity. Fans are not lazy, nor are they

particularly prone to violence. (Wann, 2001)

In the Philippines, sport has not just become a religion, it has become a vocation. Many a

people dedicate themselves to their craft and sometimes neglect their needs and obligations outside

sports. A positive outlook is that while Filipinos are avid sports fans, most of them have not

graduated to idolatry or succumbed to maniacy. It has rooted itself in the culture of Filipinos. With

the help of media coverage and circulation of sports paraphernalia, sports in modern Filipino

society has cemented its place along religion in the country.

2.2 Race and Sport

In modern athletics, it has become prevalent that society places race as the main factor for sport

dominance. Black athletes excel in strength and endurance, while white athletes excel in graceful

fundamentals and Asian athletes have little to no advantage over their Western and European

counterparts. Sports has become one of the biggest stages in the issue of racism, as it has permeated

into sport itself. (Malcolm,2012)

dominance:

1)Race Linked Physiological Traits

These traits are evident from a persons birth, as it is their physiological makeup that

defines or accentuates these traits. For example, black athletes are tall in nature and have more

compact muscle mass, making them appear lean and fast while white athletes are moderate in

height but have looser muscle mass making them appear stocky and buff, while Asian athletes are

smaller in stature and have varying muscle mass making them look smaller and weaker.

Although these traits are apparent, psychologists stress that these may be purely visual.

Physiological traits can be trained, developed or changed, rendering assumptions of racial factors

affecting sport dominance to be false. (Malcolm, 2012)

2)Race Linked Psychological Traits

These traits stem from an athletes mindset and his/her disposition on race. Rooting from

assumptions that race governs sport dominance. These assumptions lead to athletes thinking that

training and competing in a sport dominated by another race to be futile. (Malcolm, 2012)

Recognition of this fact renders the athlete to thinking he is unqualified for the sport.

In the Philippines, for example, children smaller in stature are discouraged from partaking

in heavy contact sports like football and basketball. It is a tradition and mindset that to excel in

these sports, you must be bigger, stronger and taller than your competition. Leading to children

being discouraged from partaking in competition which further leads to underrepresentation.

leading to the racial majority into thinking they are the best. This phenomenon is called stacking.

(Malcolm, 2012)

2.3 Sport and gender

In sports, institutional sexism has resulted/ contributed to the current situation where

women in sports are either discriminated or marginalized. Women in sports are often marginalized

and sometimes rendered invisible. This roots from sport being a male preserve. Sport in history

has always been participated in and dominated by men, and historically, women are relegated to

spectatorship or relief of these athletes. While female athleticism challenges gender norms, women

athletes continue to be depicted in traditional roles that reaffirm their femininity - as wives and

mothers or sex objects. By comparison, male athletes are framed according to heroic masculine

ideals that honor courage, strength,

and endurance

This expectation of femininity often results in women being dissuaded from lifting weights,

sweating, grunting, being aggressive, participating and competing in sports and physical activities.

The main reason for this is because society expects women to be ladylike, not demonstrate

characteristics that are defined as being masculine. However, when women do cross the line and

exhibit these so-called manly traits, their gender identity, sexual orientation, values, and social

roles are often questioned. Only recently has women become empowered to voice out their
reservations to men and feminist movements are gearing towards gender equality in sport in all

areas around the world. (Malcolm, 2012)

2.4 Homosexuality in sport

Homophobia is a fear or hatred of homosexuals. Even though sport provides a wonderful

venue for positive and healthy experiences, homophobia exists in sport and is one of several

reasons that participants in sport are discriminated against on the basis of sexual orientation. Sport

is a gendered experience, and the sporting context is filled with intimate linkages between sport

and masculinity, femininity, and gender exploration.

Homophobia takes several forms. It can be a prejudice or negative prejudgment about those

who are homosexual or thought to be homosexual. It can take the form of a stereotype, where an

individual or group is thought to have characteristics assumed to be indicative of homosexuality.

It can also be a discriminatory behavior toward a person or group being treated differently, usually

negatively, based on sexual orientation. Elimination of homophobia is seen by many as an

important step in playing sports an equitable and safe place for participants. (Brackenridge and

Kirby 1997).

What is homophobia and how does it affect girls and women and boys and men in sport?

Rowe (1995) writes that there is an intimate linkage between sport and maleness and that it is

womens increasing involvement in sport that has contributed to a destabilization of social

categories of relationships and identities. In the sport world, this means that hegemonic
masculinity dominates femininity, and heterosexuality remains the organizing discourse rather

than homosexuality or any other forms of sexuality. Further, the principle referent in sport is the

heterosexual male, followed closely by the heterosexual female and only afterwards, perhaps, by

the gay male or lesbian respectively. Heterosexuality is assumed, and persons who are not

heterosexual experience active (because they are individually and collectively unable to

participate fully in sport) or passive discrimination (because they are made to feel invisible).

However, since sport is so intrinsically male defined and male dominated, it is virtually

impossible to write about homophobia without also writing about gender boundaries in sport,

hegemonic masculinity, compulsory heterosexuality, heteronormativity, homoeroticism, the gay

gaze, and homonegativity. Perhaps this makes homophobia look more complex, but it is essential

to understanding the discrimination dynamic. (Perotti, 2002)

2.5 Sport, Culture and the Public

Sport has entrenched itself into a cultures soul and the help of media coverage and

dissemination of sport paraphernalia further entrenches the soul of sport to its spectators and

consumers. Through the force of publicity, the world of sport is created and is being kept alive

by the services extended by the press and the public. (Schultz, 2015)

Sport reflects dominant cultures/ cultural themes. Athletes, at an early age, are reinforced

by their countrys cultural values like self-heroism, self-sacrifice, duty, honor etc. Sports media

further preserves old values and introduce /reinforce new traditional values. (Schultz, 2015)
 In the Philippines, athletes are taught the value of puso (heart) and sipag (diligence)

from an early age. These traditional traits are combined with the countrys athlete mantras of

humility in glory, grace in defeat and Laban Pilipinas! (Fight, Philippines!). These are

reciprocated by the public, cheering these words during spectating in international competitions

and taken into heart by the national athletes. By bringing people together, sport plays an important

role in societies as it builds solidarity and reminds us of the importance of being connected in a

community. Sports is a way that young people from around the world are finding a way to connect

with each other. Young people are looking for community and they are finding it through sport.

2.6 Youth and Sports

Sports and Athletics can benefit young children because sports and athletics offer these

young children several different avenues to becoming more physically, mentally, and spiritually

tough. By participating in athletics youth learn to be reliant on a team effort, not only does this

build leadership skills but it also builds up the child's self-esteem. Sports and athletics also helps

to build the participants mental, physical, and emotional awareness. By becoming more aware of

oneself through sports and athletic one can grow to levels of emotional matureness that are not

readily accessible to those of whom do not participate in sports and athletics.

Physical skills are peaked when participating in sports and athletics. When a person is

physically fit, athletic skills are normally above and beyond what they would normally be without

them. Mentally, sports and athletics helps to strengthen the mind, helping people to go farther
mentally then they thought would ever be possible. It is proven that people that play sports and

become involved with clubs and other groups do better in school. It also allows people to gain

recognition in their sport.

Physical play is during infancy and early childhood is central to the development of

social and emotional competence. Researchers have reported that children who engage in more

physical play with their parents exhibited greater enjoyment during play sessions, were more

aware of their emotions, had greater self-esteem and were more popular with their peers. (Merkel,

2013)

Playing sports helps children spend their time better. Some studies show that children

spend 7.5 hours on electronics daily. Going outside and playing sports would cut into that time.

Other studies show that youth that play sports tend to get better grades.

Playing sports teaches children many social skills. They will communicate with teammates

their age and coaches who are older than them. Sportsmanship and character will also be taught

while playing. These social skills will greatly benefit them the rest of their life. Sports can also

help childrens self-esteem. They will undoubtedly get praise and encouragement from parents

and coaches. (Junonia, 2017)

2.7 Timelessness of sport

It is easy to assume that todays sport will remain forever. History shows that a sport does

not die and just simply evolves. This is because spectators have unprecedented demands and
modern designers and sport architects have finally learned to meet their own demands. Spectators

have a definite and predictable nature. If they like it, they turn up and stay and in they dont, they

grow bored and find something else. This poses a challenge for designers and sport facility

architects. How long can the building outlive its intended purpose and how it should be cutting

edge.

Now, sport architects must be highly specialized in consumer trends, safety legislation,

environmental issues and politics and the machinations of high finance and planning procedures.

Despite these demands, there is a cruel caveat, facilities alone are not enough (Ingus,2001)

2.8 Functional training and how it works

Functional training programs prepare an athlete to play his sport. Functional training does

not use one specific type of regimen to train an athlete of one sport to another which is called cross

training. Many programs confuse the two and as a result, trainers train their athletes to excel in

another sport other than their own primary sport. (Boyle, 2016)

How it works is that functional training programs produce instability in the athlete in

controlled amounts and allowing them to react accordingly to regain their stability. These ensures

that there is no over- or underdevelopment in an unnecessary aspect and instead focusing on

attaining a balance. This allows athletes to train parts of their body based on how they would use

it. (Boyle, 2016)

To be effective, a functional exercise program should include several different elements

which can be adapted to an individual's needs or goals

Individualized a training program should be tailored to each individual. Any program must

be specific to the goals of an individual, focusing on meaningful tasks. It must also be specific

to the individual state of health, including presence or history of injury. An assessment should

be performed to help guide exercise selection and training load.

Integrated It should include a variety of exercises that work on flexibility, core, balance,

strength and power, focusing on multiple movement planes.

Progressive Progressive training steadily increases the difficulty of the task.

Periodized mainly by training with distributed practice and varying the tasks.

Repeated frequently.

Use of real life object manipulation.

Performed in context-specific environments.

Feedback should be incorporated following performance (self-feedback of success is used as

well as trainer/therapist feedback).

2.9 The potential role for sport and physical activity in disabilities

According to the World Health Organization (WHO) (2007), approximately 600million

people in the world live with some form of disability. Of these, 80% live in LMICs, are poor, and

have little or no access to basic services (WHO, 2007). In many LMICs, disability, if not outright

excluded, is only minimally addressed by public health and social policies, leaving PWD with few
structural supports (WHO, 2007).

Having a disability or impairment may prevent persons from participating in their

social roles and being active members of their community. The ability to be productive and to

engage in activities is viewed as an essential part of life, a basic human need, and an important

determinant of health and well-being. The long-term health benefits of physical activity, including

recreation and sports, have long been established for all individuals with or without disability.

However, as with other marginalized members of society, PWD have also been generally excluded

from activities found in mainstream society, including sports and leisure activities. PWD have

traditionally been considered frail and not physically capable, and, because of their perceived

inferior physical and mental status, excluded from sports beyond rehabilitation or therapeutic

applications (DePauw & Gavron, 2005)

The benefits of participation in sports and physical leisure activities are not limited to

rehabilitation for PWD. As with the general population, physical activity may reduce the risk for

chronic illnesses and secondary conditions for PWD However, even though they would derive

considerable benefit from physical exercise, children and adults living with disabilities are more

likely to be sedentary compared to their able-bodied counterpart both at a social and an individual

level. Participation in such activities may improve functioning in daily activities, resulting in

increased independence and empowerment of PWD, increased social integration and inclusion, as

well as help to change attitudes among members of the society in general. (Burchell, 2006)

2.10 Sport Psychology

benefited from the application of psychological principles and mental training in the pursuit of

maximum athletic performance, stress management, improved training attitude and every other

aspect of sport where the mind, emotions and physical performance intersect.

Sport psychology is unique amongst the applied psychology disciplines for several reasons.

The phrase suggests that there are accepted common practices employed by sports psychologists

and it is acknowledged as with any science, the baseline approaches to the education, training and

certification of the sport psychologist are well understood across the world of sport and athletic

competition. The feature of sports psychology practice that tends to differentiate it from other

form of applied psychology is the general closeness of the relationships developed between an

individual athlete and their psychologist.

The common professional boundaries of professional detachment are different in sports

environments where intense emotion and competitive desire are the fuel that both drives the

athlete onwards and makes them vulnerable to psychological stresses. Many sport psychologists

play a multi-dimensional role in the lives of their athlete clients - trained professional

psychologist, friend, sounding board, confidante and advisor are each possible and entirely ethical

component to the relationships that may develop in practice applications (Scott, 2001)

Applied sport and exercise psychology involves the extension of psychology theory and

research into a specific field. While the athlete or team will inevitably attract the most attention in
these applications, given that the pursuit of athletic excellence is a primary objective, the

psychologist has a significant role to play in the education of any coaches, teammates, parents,

fitness professionals, and athletic trainers about the psychological aspects of the specific sport or

exercise activity. Applied sport and exercise psychologists seek to facilitate maximal involvement,

performance, and enjoyment in any sport environment.

The practice of applied sport and exercise psychology usually involves a combination of

individual and group consulting or counseling depending on the style of the professional

conducting the intervention and the needs of the client. The realty of amateur sport is that many

athletes do not have the access or means to have a personal psychological consultant. The

principles that support a proper practitioner / athlete relationship are the same. (Boyle, 2009)

2.11 Stages of Athlete Development

This long-term athlete development mainly focuses on five different stages in an athletes

career.

STAGE 1- FUNDAMENTAL STAGE

The emphasis is on the overall development of the athletes physical capacities, and

fundamental movement skills, and the ABC's of athleticism - Agility, Balance, Coordination and

Speed. Participation in as many sports as possible is encouraged. Speed, power and endurance are

developed using games. Correct running, jumping and throwing techniques are taught, using the
ABC's of athletics. Strength training during this stage should include exercises using the athletes

own body weight exercises. Athletes should be introduced to the simple rules and ethics of sports

STAGE 2- TRAINING STAGE

During this stage, young athletes learn how to train and they also learn the basic skills of a

specific sport. As well, they are introduced to the basic technical/tactical skills and ancillary

capacities including: warm up and cool down, stretching, hydration and nutrition, recovery and

regeneration, mental preparation, taper and peak, integrated pre-competition routines and post-

competition recovery. During competitions athletes play to win and to do their best, but the major

focus of training is on learning the basics as opposed to competing.

STAGE 3- COMPETITION STAGE

During this stage, high intensity individual and sport-specific training is provided to

athletes year-round. Athletes, who are now proficient at performing both basic and sport specific

skills, learn to perform these skills under a variety of competitive conditions during training.

Special emphasis is placed on optimum preparation by modelling training and competition. Fitness

programs, recovery programs, psychological preparation and technical development are now

individually tailored to a greater degree. This emphasis on individual preparation addresses each

athletes individual strength and weaknesses.

STAGE 4-OPTIMIZATION STAGE

This is the final stage of athletic preparation. All of the athletes physical, technical,

tactical, mental, and ancillary capacities are now fully established and the focus of training has

shifted to the optimization of performance. Athletes are trained to peak for major competitions.

Training is characterized by high intensity and relatively high volume. Frequent prophylactic

breaks help to prevent physical and mental burnouts.

This stage refers to the activities performed after an athlete has retired from competition

permanently. During this final stage, ex athletes move into sport related careers that may include

coaching, officiating, sport administration, small business enterprises, masters competition,

media, etc.