INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION

1.1 OBJECTIVES OF THE INDUSTRIAL TRAINING PROGRAM

The purpose of training is to expose students to real work of environment experience and at the

same time,to gain knowledge through hands on observation and job execution. From the

industrial training, the students will also develop skills in work ethics, communication,

management and others.Moreover,this practical training program allows students to relate

theoretical knowledge with its application in the field.

The objectives of industrial training are:

1. To provide students the opportunity to test their interest in a particular career before

permanent commitments are made.

2. To develop skills in the application of theory of practical work situations.

3. To develop skills and techniques directly applicable to their careers.

4. To build a communication skills with group of workers and to learn proper behaviour of

corporate life in industrial sector.

5. The students will be able to instilled with good moral values such as responsibility,

commitment and trustworthy during their training.

1.2 SCOPE OF INDUSTRIAL TRAINING PROGRAM

The entire students from engineering colleges have to undergo the industrial training as a

compulsary program before they graduate. These are the following industrial scopes:

1
 INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

1. Gain knowledge and precious experience in the entire networking and programming field

which relates to information technology course.

2. Learn to know the proper way and procedure to run an engineering firm.

3. Understand the whole main operation of a specify firm from different angle and situation.

1.3 IMPORTANCE OF INDUSTRIAL TRAINING PROGRAM

As we know industry is a part of syllabus for all engineering students. In fact it is one of the

compulsary subjects for all the students as a condition for obtaining certificate or degree. The

main importance of industrial training is to expose students to the working environment in

inndustry. So, it will enable students understand the theories studied with more detailed and

hands on practical within a real job situation.

At the same time, industrial training can also nurture a students leadership ability and

responsibility to perform or execute the given task.

Beside of that, the students will be more disciplined to follow rules and regulations while

conducting industrial training. They would be more trained for proper schedule planning and

time management. This situation will be fostered responsibly and independent to students.

Finally, through this training student can take this as a challenge and test their preservance and

thinking ability when facing a decision making situation.

1.4 BENEFITS DERIVED FROM THE TRAINING

The main reason engineerinng students need to do industrial training is so they are well prepared

for a graduate job in their chosen field. It is a chance for you to put what you have learned from

university to work in the kind of real life situation you will come up against when you start your

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career. Industrial training gives you great experience during your Bachelor of Engineering

degree. Many employers use industry work experience as a prerequisite for new graduates.

Employer also use this period as a chance to access new employees for future employment.

1.5 OBJECTIVE OF THE REPORT

Industrial training report is an important document to each of the students. It is the document

with the activities that have been learned throughtout the industrial training, one excellent work

would mean nothing if it cant be reported in a statement that it is excellent. Therefore, writing

reports requires special attention of every student to be able to follow every instruction set and

can meet the need of a institutiion. Each student will be grateful to be able to prepare his or her

report in a timely manner and can generate a report all the part that have been learned during the

training industry in there own company.

Among the advantages and benefits to be obtained for this report are:

1. With the existence of this report then it could be used as a evidence to the students to

undergo industrial training at the industrial training place.

2. In addition, the objectives of this report are to document all activities that have been

carried out during the period of industrial training for one month.

3. If this report is made, it can train students to follow the directions set by the college.

4. Provide guidence or a reference material to students after completing their studies.

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CHAPTER 2 - CONSTRUCTION OF BEAMS

2.1 INTRODUCTION
A beam is a structural element that primarily resists loads applied laterally to the beam's axis. Its
mode of deflection is primarily by bending. The loads applied to the beam result in reaction
forces at the beam's support points. The total effect of all the forces acting on the beam is to
produce shear forces and bending moments within the beam, that in turn induce internal stresses,
strains and deflections of the beam. Beams are characterized by their manner of support, profile
(shape of cross-section), length, and their material. A beam is a structural element that primarily
resists loads applied laterally to the beams axis. The type of beam laid was a doubly reinforced
beam. The beam that is reinforced with steel both in tension and compression zone, it is known
as doubly reinforced beam. This type of beam is mainly provided when the depth of the beam is
restricted. If a beam with limited depth is reinforced on the tension side only it might not have
sufficient resistance to oppose the bending moment. The moment of resistance cannot be
increased by increasing the amount of steel in tension zone. It can be increased by making the
beam over reinforced but not more than 25% on the strained side. Thus a doubly reinforced beam
is provided to increase the moment of resistance of a beam having limited dimensions.

Fig. 1 Doubly Reinforced Beam

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2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF BEAMS

In engineering, beams are of several types:

Simply supported - a beam supported on the ends which are free to rotate and have no
moment resistance.
Fixed - a beam supported on both ends and restrained from rotation.
Over hanging - a simple beam extending beyond its support on one end.
Double overhanging - a simple beam with both ends extending beyond its supports on
both ends.
Continuous - a beam extending over more than two supports.
Cantilever - a projecting beam fixed only at one end.
Trussed - a beam strengthened by adding a cable or rod to form a truss.

Fig.2 Simply Supported Beam

Fig. 3 Continuous Beam

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Fig.4 Semi continuous or fixed beam

2.3 DETAILING OF BEAM

On the 4th floor a beam is being constructed for the theatre. There are 4 auditoriums for the
theatre. The main tensile reinforcement bars are 4 in number, each having a diameter of 32mm.
Above the tensile bars, there are 4 compressive reinforcement bars, each having a diameter of
25mm. Both the tensile and compressive bars are connected using lateral rectangular ties, each
10 mm diameter @150mm. But at the column junction, the spacing is reduced to 100mm in
order to have confinement zone to resist the moment due to seismic actions.

There were 4 legged stirrups used in beams as in the above pictures it is clearly visible that bar 1
is connected with bar 3 using lateral ties and correspondingly bar 2 is connected with bar 4 using
lateral ties. The bars were given the shape of lateral rectangular ties on the site itself using bar
bending techniques.

Fig.5 Beam reinforcement Fig.6 Ties in beam

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CHAPTER 3 - DESIGN OF SLAB

3.1 INTRODUCTION

A concrete slab is a common structural element of modern buildings. Horizontal slabs of

steel reinforced concrete, typically between 4 and 20 inches (100 and 500 millimeters) thick, are
most often used to construct floors and ceilings, while thinner slabs are also used for exterior
paving. Sometimes these thinner slabs, ranging from 2 inches (51 mm) to 6 inches (150 mm)
thick, are called mud slabs, particularly when used under the main floor slabs or in crawl spaces.
In many domestic and industrial buildings a thick concrete slab, supported on foundations or
directly on the subsoil, is used to construct the ground floor of a building. These can either be
"ground-bearing" or "suspended" slabs. For Double-storey or Multi-Storey buildings, the use of a
few common types of concrete suspended slabs are used.
On the technical drawings, reinforced concrete slabs are often abbreviated to "r.c.c.slab" or
simply "r.c.c." Technical drawings are often created by structural Engineers who use software
such as AutoCad or Revit structure.

3.2 DESIGN OF SLAB

For a suspended slab, there are a number of designs to improve the strength-to-weight ratio. In
all cases the top surface remains flat, and the underside is modulated:

Corrugated, usually where the concrete is poured into a corrugated steel tray. This improves
strength and prevents the slab from bending under its own weight. The corrugations run
across the short dimension, from side to side.
A ribbed slab, giving considerable extra strength on one direction.
A waffle slab, giving added strength in both directions and it looks hollow from bottom.

Reinforcement design

A one-way slab needs moment resisting reinforcement only in its short-direction because the
moment along long axes is so small that it can be neglected. When the ratio of the length of
long direction to short direction of a slab is greater than 2 it can be considered as a one way
slab.
Long direction = ly Short direction = lx
One way slab, if ly/lx > 2

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A two-way slab needs moment resisting reinforcement in both directions. If the ratio of the
lengths of long and short side is less than two then moment in both direction should be
considered in design.
Two way slab, if ly/lx < 2

3.3 CONSTRUCTION OF SLABS

A concrete slab may be prefabricated or on site. Prefabricated concrete slabs are built in a factory
and transported to the site, ready to be lowered into place between steel or concrete beams. They
may be pre-stressed (in the factory), post-stressed (on site), or unstressed. It is vital that the wall
supporting structure is built to the correct dimensions, or the slabs may not fit.
In site concrete slabs are built on the building site using formwork - a type of boxing into which
the wet concrete is poured. If the slab is to be reinforced, the re-bars are positioned within the
formwork before the concrete is poured in. Plastic tipped metal, or plastic bar chairs are used to
hold the rebar away from the bottom and sides of the form-work, so that when the concrete sets it
completely envelops the reinforcement. For a ground slab, the form-work may consist only of
sidewalls pushed into the ground. For a suspended slab, the form-work is shaped like a tray,
often supported by a temporary scaffold until the concrete sets.
The formwork is commonly built from wooden planks and boards, plastic, or steel. On
commercial building sites today, plastic and steel are more common as they save labour. On low-
budget sites, for instance when laying a concrete garden path, wooden planks are very common.
After the concrete has set the wood may be removed, or left there permanently.
In some cases formwork is not necessary - for instance, a ground slab surrounded by brick or
block foundation walls, where the walls act as the sides of the tray and hardcore acts as the base.

Fig.7 Inclined Slab

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3.4 INCLINED SLAB

On the 4th floor of the GOLDEN PALM, an inclined slab was laid which will serve as the base
for the cinema hall- consisting of 4 auditoriums. The inclined slab was a two way slab.

3.4.1 PUMPING OF CONCRETE ON INCLINED SLAB

It is not desirable to make concrete using traditional method for a big project like malls etc., as it
will be uneconomical to distribute the concrete at upper floors from the ground level. So a
universal concrete mixer is used for the manufacture of concrete and the liquid concrete is
transferred by pumping mechanism of concrete pump. Long pipes are used for the transfer of
concrete. In the above picture, long pipes are laid on the reinforcements. Simultaneously a
vibrator is used for compacting concrete. Since concrete contains particles of different sizes, the
most effective compaction of concrete can be achieved by using vibrators with different speeds
of vibration. At the site, needle vibrators are immersed in the slab mesh for the proper
compaction of concrete.

3.4.2 CURING OF CONCRETE

As we know that concrete develops hardened properties over time after being placed at. So
curing of concrete is very important for strength development and durability of concrete. Curing
takes place immediately after concrete placing and finishing, and involves maintenance of
desired moisture and temperature conditions both at depth and near the surface, for extended
periods of time. However, it is suggested to allow proper time to water cure. After concrete is
placed, the concrete increases in strength very quickly for a period of 3-7 days. Concrete which
is moist cured for 7 days is about 50% stronger than uncured concrete.

At the 4th floor, a labour is seen providing water to the concrete inclined slab for water curing
purpose. Correspondingly jute bags are placed on the slab to absorb and retain the water and with
time providing moisture to the concrete.

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CHAPTER 4 - DESIGN OF STAIRS

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Staircases are a vital design element in multi-floor buildings, but they can also be a fascinating
aesthetic addition. In fact, many people are fascinated by stairs. Any house built on more than
one level has at least one staircase that serves as its vertical thoroughfare. There are, of course,
many different kinds of staircases, differing by their materials, construction methods, general
shape, design, and a number of other features. In most situations, a staircase is an integral part of
the homes design and style. Stairs may be steep or gradual, narrow or wide, purely functional or
grand and showy. Some are built in place by woodworkers, finish carpenters, or stair-makers;
others are factory manufactured, shipped to a building site, and installed by carpenters.

A stairs design is heavily affected by its function. An entry stairway that handles all up-and-
down foot traffic and is placed in a highly visible location is bound to be much more grand than
a stairway to a hardly-ever-used basement or where economy of space is imperative.

Regardless of type, all stairs have the same fundamental parts, as shown here. It is how these
parts are built and combined that gives a stairway its style and individuality. Of course, not all
stairways have all of these parts-for example, some stairways have open risers.

Stairs are built according to basic rules and principles intended to make them safe to use. These
rules, governed by building codes, stipulate the permissible heights of risers, depth and width of
treads, placement of handrails, and similar concerns.

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Fig.8 Staircase

4.2 PARTS OF A STAIRCASE

The basic components of a staircase are the tread; the horizontal surface we walk on, the riser;
the vertical part between each tread, and the stringer; a structural support that holds the treads in
place and provides stability. What we call a step is actually a combination of a tread and a riser,
or one step up or down from our previous position. In some cases, such as open stairs, the riser is
missing and we can see through the stairs.

4.2.1 OPTIONAL ELEMENTS OF A STAIRCASE

Other, optional parts of a staircase include the nosing, banister, and balusters. Nosing is a small
part of a tread that overhangs the riser. The banister, which is also called a railing or a handrail,
is both a decorative and a safety feature that prevents people from falling off the side of a
staircase or allows them to hold on for stability. Some handrails are attached directly to a wall
while others are positioned on the open part of the staircase. When they are on the open part, the
banister is held up by balusters, vertical supports attached to a tread at the bottom and the
banister at the top.

4.2.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF STEPS

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There are also different types of steps, determined by the shape of tread. The basic step involves
a rectangular tread. The most common variation of a simple step is a winder. These involve
treads that are wider on one side than the other. This helps change the direction of staircase
gradually. Sometimes to break up a long, straight staircase or to provide a space to turn when the
steps change direction, a wide platform step called a landing is used. In some staircases,
designers include an elegant feature called a bullnose step. This is when the first step off the
ground floor is wider than the rest of the steps.

4.3 TYPES OF STAIRS

1. Straight stairs:

Generally for small houses, available width is very retractable. So, this type of straight stairs are
used in such conditions which runs straight between two floors. This stair may consists of either
one single flight or more than one flight with a landing.

2. Turning stairs:

Turning stairs are sub classified as:

o Quarter turn stairs

o Half turn stairs ( dog legged stairs)
o Three quarter turn stairs
o Bifurcated stairs

a) Quarter turn stairs:

A quarter turn stair is the one which changes its direction either to the right or to the left but
where the turn being affected either by introducing a quarter space landing or by providing

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winders. In these type of stairs the flight of stair turns 90 degrees art landing as it rises to connect
two different levels. So it is also called as L-stair. Again these quarter turn stairs are two types.

i. Newel quarter turn stairs:

These type of stairs have clearly visible newel posts at the beginning of flight as well as at the
end. At the quarter turn, there may either be quarter space landing or there may be winders.

ii. Geometrical quarter turn stairs:

In geometrical stairs, the stringer as well as the hand rail is continuous without any newel post at
the landing area.

b) Half turn stairs:

In case of half turn stairs its direction reversed, or changed for 180o. Such stairs are quite
common. Again these are three types.

i. Dog-legged stairs

Because of its appearance in sectional elevation this name is given. It comes under the category
of newel stairs in which newel posts are provided at the beginning and end of each flight.

ii. Open newel half turn stair

In this type of open newel half turn stairs, stair has a space or well between the outer strings.
This is the only aspect in which it differs from the doglegged stair.

iii. Geometrical half turn stairs

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In case of geometrical half turn stairs the stringers and the hand rails are continuous, without any
intervening newel post. These stairs may contains either with half space landing or without
landing.

c) Three quarter turn stairs:

The direction of stairs changed three times with its upper flight crossing the bottom one in the
case of three quarter turn stairs. These stairs are may either be newel or open newel type. This
type stairs are generally used when the vertical distance between two floors is more and as well
as length of the stair room is limited.

d) Bifurcated stairs:

Bifurcated stairs are commonly used in public building at their entrance hall. This has a wider
flight at the bottom, which bifurcates into two narrower flights, one turning to the left and other
to the right, at landing.it may be either of newel type with a newel post or of geometrical type
with continuous stringer and hand rails.

3. Continuous stairs:

This type of stairs neither have any landing nor any intermediate newel post. They are geometric
in shape. These are may be of following types.

o Circular stairs
o Spiral stairs
o Helical stairs

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Circular stairs or spiral stairs are usually made either of R.C.C or metal, and is placed at a
location where there are space limitations. Sometimes these are also used as emergency stairs,
and are provided at the back side of a building. These are not comfortable because of all the steps
are winders and provides discomfort.

Fig .9 Detailing in reinforcement i Fig 10 Detailing of reinforcement ii

CHAPTER 5 - SHUTTERING

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Shuttering is basically defined as wood in planks or strips used as temporary structure to contain

setting concrete, to support the sides of trenches , or similar. Shuttering or form work is the term

used for temporary timber, plywood, metal or other material used to provide support to wet

concrete mix till it gets strength for self-support. It provides supports to horizontal, vertical and

inclined surfaces or also provides support to cast concrete according to required shape and size.

The form work also produces desired finish concrete surface.

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Fig. 11 Shuttering in column

Shuttering or form work should be strong enough to support the weight of wet concrete mix and

the pressure for placing and compacting concrete inside or on the top of form work/shuttering. It

should be rigid to prevent any deflection in surface after laying cement concrete and be also

sufficient tight to prevent loss of water and mortar form cement concrete. Shuttering should

be easy in handling, erection at site and easy to remove when cement concrete is sufficient hard.

5.2 TYPES OF SHUTTERING

Generally there are three types of shuttering:

Steel Shuttering

Wooden Planks Shuttering

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Temporary Brick Masonry Shuttering

5.2.1 STEEL SHUTTERING

Steel shuttering plate is the best type of shuttering because this is water tight shuttering

which can bear the load of cement concrete placed on it. This shuttering can be used for

horizontal, vertical or any other shape required for the work. It gives leveled surface which

has good appearance. This shuttering gives good appearance and pattern work according to

architectural drawings. If the plaster is required, the thickness of plaster will be less. Being

water tight shuttering, the strength of concrete with steel shuttering is comparatively

higher.

5.2.2 WODDEN PLANK SHUTTERING

Generally wooden planks shuttering is used by contractors because this shuttering is cheap

and easily available .This type of shuttering is more economical than steel shuttering, hence

it is widely used.

5.2.3 TEMPORARY BRICK MASONRY SHUTTERING

In some cases labor contractor uses Temporary Brick Masonry in mud for vertical support of

sides of beams, fascia etc. This shuttering should be avoided. This type of shuttering

reduces the strength of cement concrete by soaking cement slurry. Also no proper

compaction is made as this shuttering does not bear the pressure of vibrator. The surface of

cement concrete given by this type of shuttering is uneven and the thickness of plaster is

increased.

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Mostly steel shuttering and wooden shuttering was done.

Fig.12 Shuttering in Beam

Shuttering is done to shape casted concrete using timber, plastic or steel. When the casted
concrete becomes strengthened, the formwork is taken off. According to the construction
material used, formwork is divided into 3 different types.

Timber formwork
Ply wood formwork
Steel formwork

5.3 ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD FORMWORK OR

SHUTTERING

A good frame work should have the following characteristics.

It must be strong so that it can bear the loads of concrete weight, compaction and curing
during casting.

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The materials used in formwork or shuttering should be cheap, available and reusable.
Formworks should be water resistant so that it cannot suck water out of the concrete.
Formworks should be as light as possible.
Shuttering should be easy to construct and take off.
The side which gets in contact with concrete should be smooth.
The connections will be strong so that it can prevent cement grout leakage.
The formwork or shuttering should be placed on strong supports.

Though steel is expensive but on the site, steel shuttering is used because of the following
advantages of steel shuttering over timber and plywood type of shuttering:

Steel formworks can be easily used again and again.

The stripping is easier than others.
It provides smooth and plane surface.
Steel shutters can bear higher loads.
It is free from tilting and compaction.

Shuttering of beams Shuttering of Columns

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CHAPTER 6 - PLASTERING & FINISHING

6.1 INTRODUCTION

Plaster is a building material used for the protective and/or decorative coating of walls and
ceilings and for moulding and casting decorative elements. Cement plastering is commonly used
as ideal coating for external and internal surface of wall. The most common types of plaster
mainly contain either gypsum, lime, or cement, but all work in a similar way. The plaster is
manufactured as a dry powder and is mixed with water to form a stiff but workable paste
immediately before it is applied to the surface. The reaction with water liberates heat through
crystallization and the hydrated plaster then hardens.

Plaster can be relatively easily worked with metal tools or even sandpaper, and can be moulded,
either on site or to make pre-formed sections in advance, which are put in place with adhesive.
Plaster is not a strong material; it is suitable for finishing, rather than load-bearing, and when
thickly applied for decoration may require a hidden supporting framework, usually in metal.

Cement plaster is usually applied in a single coat or double coat. Double coat plaster is applied
where thickness of plaster is required to be more than 15 mm or when it is required to get a very
fine finish.

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6.2 PROCESS OF APPLYING PLASTER

The process of applying a double coat cement plaster on wall surface consists of the following 5
steps.

Step-1-Preparation of surface for plastering

Keep all the mortar joints of wall rough, so as to give a good bonding to hold plaster.
Clean all the joints and surfaces of the wall with a wire brush, there should be no oil or
grease etc. left on wall surface.
If the surface is smooth or the wall to be plastered is old one, then rake out the mortar
joint to a depth of at least 12 mm to give a better bonding to the plaster.
If the projection on the wall surface is more than 12 mm, then knock it off, so as to obtain
a uniform surface of wall. This will reduce the consumption of plaster.
If there exist any cavities or holes on the surface, then fill it in advance with appropriate
material.
Roughen the entire wall to be plastered.
Wash the mortar joints and entire wall to be plastered, and keep it wet for at least 6 hours
before applying cement plaster.

Step-2-Ground work for plaster

In order to get uniform thickness of plastering throughout the wall surface, first
fix dots on the wall. A dot means patch of plaster of size 15 mm * 15 mm and having
thickness of about 10 mm.
Dots are fixed on the wall first horizontally and then vertically at a distance of about 2
meters covering the entire wall surface.
Check the verticality of dots, one over the other, by means of plumb-bob.
After fixing dots, the vertical strips of plaster, known as screeds, are formed in between
the dots. These screeds serve as the gauges for maintaining even thickness of plastering
being applied.

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Step-3-Applying first coat (or under coat or rendering coat)

In case of brick masonry the thickness of first coat plaster is in general12 mm and in case
of concrete masonry this thickness varies from 9 to 15 mm.
The ratio of cement and sand for first coat plaster varies from 1:3 to 1:6.
Apply the first coat of plaster between the spaces formed by the screeds on the wall
surface. This is done by means of trowel.
Level the surface by means of flat wooden floats and wooden straight edges.
After leveling, left the first coat to set but not to dry and then roughen it with a scratching
tool to form a key to the second coat of plaster.

Step-4-Applying second coat (or finishing coat or fine coat)

The thickness of second coat or finishing coat may vary between 2 to 3 mm.
The ratio of cement and sand for second coat plaster varies from 1:4 to 1:6.

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Before applying the second coat, damp the first coat evenly.
Apply the finishing coat with wooden floats to a true even surface and using a steel
trowel, give it a finishing touch.
As far as possible, the finishing coat should be applied starting from top towards bottom
and completed in one operation to eliminate joining marks.
After completion of the plastering work, it is kept wet by sprinkling water for at least 7
days in order to develop strength and hardness.

CHAPTER 7 - EQUIPMENTS AND MATERIALS

USED

7.1 EQUIPMENTS USED:

7.1.1 CONCRETE MIXER

All the R.C.C work slab, beam, column etc were casted by concrete mixer. In case of hand

mixing 10% of the cement was added every time for casting of R.C.C units at various stages.

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The tilting type of mixer is generally used. The concrete mixer consist of a drum with blades in

the inside portion. Arrangement is provided to rotate the drum. The aggregates are collected in

dry condition in hopper and they are then placed in the revolving drum of the mixer. The

aggregates together with cement mortar is rotated for a certain period. The mixing of the

aggregate thus carried out and wet concrete thus discharged by a concrete mixer.

Fig.13 Concrete mixer

7.1.2 VIBRATOR:

Good quality of concrete cannot be obtained without a vibrator, immersion generally used at any

construction site. These are used for vibration of placed concrete for reducing air content in the

concrete mass and thus preventing any honey combing thus dense and impermeable mass of

concrete is obtained by proper use of vibrator.

Electric vibrator:

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Fig.14 Electric vibrator

Diesel operating vibrator:

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Fig.15 Diesel operating vibratot

7.1.3 TOWER CRANE:

Tower cranes are a modern form of balance crane that consist of the same basic parts. Fixed to

the ground on a concrete slab (and sometimes attached to the sides of structures as well), tower

cranes often give the best combination of height and lifting capacity and are used in the

construction of tall buildings. The base is then attached to the mast which gives the crane its

height. Further the mast is attached to the slewing unit (gear and motor) that allows the crane to

rotate. On top of the slewing unit there are three main parts which are: the long horizontal jib

(working arm), shorter counter-jib, and the operators cab.

Fig.16 Towercrane

7.1.4 CONCRETE PUMP:

Concrete pump is either mounted on a truck and known as a truck-mounted concrete pump or

placed on a trailer, and it is commonly referred to as a line pump or trailer-mounted concrete

pump. This pump requires steel or flexible concrete placing hoses to be manually attached to the

outlet of the machine. Those hoses are linked together and lead to wherever the concrete needs to

be placed. Basically concrete pumps are provided in order to fasten the process of constructions

so that the concrete mixture can easily reach the far away surface at less time than labour.

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Fig.17 Concrete Pump

7.1.5 BULLDOZER :

A bulldozer is a crawler (continuous tracked tractor) equipped with a substantial metal plate

(known as a blade) used to push large quantities of soil, sand, rubble, or other such material

during construction or conversion work and typically equipped at the rear with a claw-like device

(known as a ripper) to loosen densely-compacted materials.

Bulldozers can be found on a wide range of sites, mines and quarries, military bases, heavy

industry factories, engineering projects and farms.

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The term "bulldozer" is often used erroneously to mean any heavy equipment (sometimes

a loader and sometimes an excavator), but precisely, the term refers only to a tractor (usually

tracked) fitted with a dozer blade.

Fig.18 Bulldozer

7.2 BUILDINNG MATERIALS USED:

7.2.1 CONCRETE:

Concrete is an intimate mixture of:

1. Cement,

2. Sand (Fine Aggregate),

3. Coarse Aggregate,

4. Water.

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New Generation Concrete needs use of Special Materials in addition to above i.e.

ADMIXTURES

Admixtures may be Mineral or Chemical Admixtures.

7.2.1.1 Requirements of Good Concrete A good concrete should:

meet the strength requirements as measured by compressive strength,

fulfil durability requirements to resist the environment in which the structure is expected to

Serve.

be mixed, transported and compacted as efficiently as possible and

will be as economical as possible.

7.2.1.2 Curing of Concrete:

Curing can be defined as keeping the concrete moist and warm enough so that hydration of

cement can continue. It is process of maintaining satisfactory moisture content and a favourable

temperature of concrete, during the period immediately placing, so that hydration of cement

continues until the desired properties develop to desired degree. Method of Curing: Water

curing. This is the best method of curing. Water curing can be done in the following ways:

Immersion Ponding Spraying and wet covering.

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In all but the least critical applications, care needs to be taken to properly cure concrete, to

achieve best strength and hardness. This happens after the concrete has been placed. Cement

requires a moist, controlled environment to gain strength and harden fully. The cement paste

hardens over time, initially setting and becoming rigid though very weak and gaining in strength

in the weeks following. In around 4 weeks, typically over 90% of the final strength is reached,

though strengthening may continue for decades.[29] The conversion of calcium hydroxide in the

concrete into calcium carbonate from absorption of CO2 over several decades further strengthen

the concrete and making it more resilient to damage. However, this reaction, called carbonation,

lowers the pH of the cement pore solution and can cause the reinforcement bars to corrode.

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7.2.2 CEMENT

In the most general sense of the word, a cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens

independently, and can bind other materials together. The word "cement" traces to the Romans,

who used the term opus caementicium to describe masonry resembling modern concrete that was

made from crushed rock with burnt lime as binder. The volcanic ash and pulverized brick

additives that were added to the burnt lime to obtain a hydraulic binder were later referred to as

cementum, cimentum, cment, and cement.

Cement used in construction is characterized as hydraulic or non-hydraulic. Hydraulic cements

(e.g., Portland cement) harden because of hydration, chemical reactions that occur independently

of the mixture's water content; they can harden even underwater or when constantly exposed to

wet weather. The chemical reaction that results when the anhydrous cement powder is mixed

with water produces hydrates that are not water-soluble. Non- hydraulic cements (e.g. gypsum

plaster) must be kept dry in order to retain their strength. The most important use of cement is

the production of mortar and concretethe bonding of natural or artificial aggregates to form a

strong building material that is durable in the face of normal environmental effects.

Concrete should not be confused with cement, because the term cement refers to the material

used to bind the aggregate materials of concrete. Concrete is a combination of a cement

and aggregate..

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7.2.3 AGGREGATES

"AGGREGATE", is a broad category of Coarse Particulate material used in Construction,

Including Sand, Gravel, Crushed Stone, Slag, Recycled Concrete And Geosynthetic Aggregates.

Aggregates Are The Most Mined Material In The World. Aggregates Are a

Component Of Composite Materials Such Asconcrete And Asphalt Concrete; The Aggregate

Serves As Reinforcement To Add Strength To The Overall Composite Material. Due To The

Relatively High Hydraulic Conductivity Value As Compared To Most Soils, Aggregates Are

Widely Used In Drainage Applications Such As Foundation And Frenc hDrains, Septic Drain

Fields, Retaining Wall Drains, And RoadSide Edge Drains. Aggregates Are Also Used As Base

Materia lUnder Foundations, Roads, And Railroads. In Other Words, Aggregates Are Used As A

Stable Foundation Or Road/Rail Base With Predictable, Uniform Properties (E.G. To

HelpPrevent Differential Settling Under The Road Or Building), Or As A Low-Cost Extender

That Binds With More Expensive cement or asphalt to form concrete,

Fig.19 Aggregates Fig.20 Sand

Construction aggregate, or simply aggregate is a broad category of coarse particulate material

used in construction, including sand, gravel, crushed stone , slag, and recycled

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concrete. Aggregates are a component of composite materials such as concrete and asphalt

concrete; the aggregate serves as reinforcement to add strength to the overall composite material.

Aggregates are also used as base material under foundations, roads, and kaaluroads.

7.2.4 BRICKS

A brick is a block, or a single unit of a ceramic material used in masonry construction. Typically

bricks are stacked together, or laid as brickwork using various kinds of mortar to hold the bricks

together and make a permanent structure. Bricks are typically produced in common or standard

sizes in bulk quantities. They have been regarded as one of the longest lasting and strongest

building materials used throughout history.

In the general sense, a "brick" is a standard-sized weight-bearing building unit. Bricks are laid in

horizontal courses, sometimes dry and sometimes with mortar. When the term is used in this

sense, the brick might be made from clay, lime-and-sand, concrete, or shaped stone. In a less

clinical and more colloquial sense, bricks are made from dried earth, usually from clay-bearing

subsoil. In some cases, such as adobe, the brick is merely dried. More commonly it is fired in a

kiln of some sort to form a true ceramic.

7.2.5 SAND

Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely

divided rock and mineral particles. The composition of sand is highly variable, depending on the

local rock sources and conditions, but the most common constituent of sand in inland continental

settings and non-tropical coastal settings is silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO2), usually in the form

of quartz.

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CHAPTER 8 - CONCLUSION
APPENDIX

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

I.S. 456:2000(Plain and Reinforcement Concrete)

I.S. 383(Specification for Coarse Sand)

I.S. 516(Test for concrete)

Building Construction By Shushil Kumar.

Building materials By B.C.Punmia.

Treasure of R.C.C. Design By Shushil Kumar.

P.W.D. Schedule of rates

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