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Gestational diabetes mellitus

Thomas A. Buchanan1 and Anny H. Xiang2
1Departments of Medicine, Obstetrics and Gynecology, and Physiology and Biophysics, and 2Department of Preventive Medicine,
University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California, USA.

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is defined as glucose intolerance of various degrees that
is first detected during pregnancy. GDM is detected through the screening of pregnant women
for clinical risk factors and, among at-risk women, testing for abnormal glucose tolerance that
is usually, but not invariably, mild and asymptomatic. GDM appears to result from the same
broad spectrum of physiological and genetic abnormalities that characterize diabetes outside
of pregnancy. Indeed, women with GDM are at high risk for having or developing diabetes
when they are not pregnant. Thus, GDM provides a unique opportunity to study the early
pathogenesis of diabetes and to develop interventions to prevent the disease.

Historical perspective currently recommended by the American Diabetes Association

For more than a century, it has been known that diabetes antedat- (12) are based on OSullivans criteria (see above). The detection
ing pregnancy can have severe adverse effects on fetal and neona- of GDM, a condition that is generally asymptomatic, involves
tal outcomes (1). As early as in the 1940s, it was recognized that screening in 2 sequential steps (Tables 1 and 2), followed by
women who developed diabetes years after pregnancy had expe- administration of a 2- or 3-hour OGTT (Table 3) to women deter-
rienced abnormally high fetal and neonatal mortality (2). By the mined to be at risk by screening. Women with very high clinical
1950s the term gestational diabetes was applied to what was risk characteristics may be diagnosed with probable pregestation-
thought to be a transient condition that affected fetal outcomes al (preexisting) diabetes based on the criteria provided in Table
adversely, then abated after delivery (3). In the 1960s, OSullivan 4. When the diagnostic criteria for a 3-hour OGTT presented in
found that the degree of glucose intolerance during pregnancy Table 3 was applied to a group of Caucasian women in Toronto,
was related to the risk of developing diabetes after pregnancy. He approximately 7% had GDM (6). The frequency of GDM may vary
proposed criteria for the interpretation of oral glucose tolerance among ethnic groups (higher in groups with increased prevalence
tests (OGTTs) during pregnancy that were fundamentally statisti- of hyperglycemia) (1316) and with the use of different diagnostic
cal, establishing cut-off values approximately 2 standard devia- criteria (higher when lower glucose thresholds are applied and vice
tions for diagnosing glucose intolerance during pregnancy (4). versa) (4). Nonetheless, all approaches to GDM detection pinpoint
In the 1980s those cut-off points were adapted to modern meth- and thereby allow diagnosis of women with glucose tolerance
ods for measuring glucose and applied to the modern definition in the upper end of the population distribution during pregnancy.
of gestational diabetes glucose intolerance with onset or first A small minority of those women have glucose levels that would
recognition during pregnancy (5). While based on OSullivans be diagnostic of diabetes outside of pregnancy (Table 4). The great
values for predicting diabetes after pregnancy, the diagnosis of majority have lower glucose levels. Both groups impart to their
gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) also identifies pregnancies at offspring an increased risk of perinatal morbidity and long-term
increased risk for perinatal morbidity (68) and long-term obesity obesity and diabetes that appear to be related at least in part to
and glucose intolerance in offspring (911). fetal overnutrition in utero. They also incur for themselves a risk
of diabetes after pregnancy that is the main focus of this paper.
Population perspective
Clinical detection of GDM is carried out to identify pregnan- Etiology and pathogenesis
cies at increased risk for perinatal morbidity and mortality.
Available data do not identify a threshold of maternal glycemia Normal pregnancy
at which such risk begins or increases rapidly. A multinational A detailed discussion of glucose regulation in pregnancy is beyond
study, the Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcome study, the scope of this paper. However, 2 points are important for the
is underway to explore this issue in a large multiethnic cohort. discussion that follows. First, pregnancy is normally attended by
In the absence of a defined glucose threshold for perinatal risk, progressive insulin resistance that begins near mid-pregnancy and
many different sets of glycemic criteria have been proposed and progresses through the third trimester to levels that approximate
are employed worldwide for the diagnosis of GDM. The criteria the insulin resistance seen in individuals with type 2 diabetes.
The insulin resistance appears to result from a combination of
Nonstandard abbreviations used: DPP, Diabetes Prevention Program; GAD,
increased maternal adiposity and the insulin-desensitizing effects
glutamic acid decarboxylase; GDM, gestational diabetes mellitus; MODY, maturity- of hormonal products of the placenta. The fact that insulin resis-
onset diabetes of the young; OGTT, oral glucose tolerance test; TRIPOD; Troglitazone tance rapidly abates following delivery suggests that the major
in Prevention of Diabetes.
contributors to this state of resistance are placental hormones. The
Conflict of interest: T.A. Buchanan and A.H. Xiang receive grant support from Take-
second point is that pancreatic cells normally increase their insu-
da Pharmaceuticals North America Inc. T.A. Buchanan is also a consultant to Takeda
Pharmaceuticals North America Inc. and is on the companys Actos Speakers Bureau. lin secretion to compensate for the insulin resistance of pregnancy
Citation for this article: J. Clin. Invest. 115:485491 (2005). (see Figure 1, for example). As a result, changes in circulating glu-
doi:10.1172/JCI200524531. cose levels over the course of pregnancy are quite small compared

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Table 1
Screening for GDM, step 1: clinical risk assessmentA,B

Risk category Clinical characteristics Recommended screening

High risk (presence of Marked obesity Blood glucose screening at initial antepartum visit or as
any is sufficient) Diabetes in first-degree relative(s) soon as possible thereafter; repeat at 2428 wk if not
Personal history of glucose intolerance already diagnosed with GDM by that time
Prior delivery of macrosomic infant
Current glycosuria
Average risk Fits neither low- nor high-risk profile Blood glucose screening between 24 and 28 wk gestation
Low risk (all required) Age <25 Blood glucose screening not required
Low-risk ethnicityC
No diabetes in first-degree relatives
Normal prepregnancy weight and pregnancy weight gain
No personal history of abnormal glucose levels
No prior poor obstetrical outcomes
ABased on recommendations of the American Diabetes Association (5). BPerformed at initial antepartum visit. CEthnicities other than Hispanic, African,

Native American, South or East Asian, Pacific Islander, or indigenous Australian, all of which have relatively high rates of GDM. Adapted with permission
from N. Engl. J. Med. (72). Copyright 1999, Massachussets Medical Society. All rights reserved.

with the large changes in insulin sensitivity. Robust plasticity of with GDM have the same markers present in their circulation (17,
cell function in the face of progressive insulin resistance is the 2831). Although detailed physiological studies of these women are
hallmark of normal glucose regulation during pregnancy. lacking, they most likely have inadequate insulin secretion resulting
from autoimmune damage to and destruction of pancreatic cells.
Gestational diabetes They appear to have evolving type 1 diabetes, which comes to clini-
GDM is a form of hyperglycemia. In general, hyperglycemia results cal attention through routine glucose screening during pregnancy.
from an insulin supply that is inadequate to meet tissue demands The frequency of antiislet cell and anti-GAD antibodies detected in
for normal blood glucose regulation. Studies conducted during late GDM tends to parallel ethnic trends in the prevalence of type 1 dia-
pregnancy, when, as discussed below, insulin requirements are high betes outside of pregnancy. Patients with antiislet cell or anti-GAD
and differ only slightly between normal and gestational diabetic antibodies often, but not invariably, are lean, and they can rapidly
women, consistently reveal reduced insulin responses to nutrients in develop overt diabetes after pregnancy (30).
women with GDM (1723). Studies conducted before or after preg-
nancy, when women with prior GDM are usually more insulin resis- Monogenic diabetes and GDM
tant than normal women (also discussed below), often reveal insulin Monogenic diabetes mellitus has been identified outside of pregnan-
responses that are similar in the 2 groups or reduced only slightly in cy in 2 general forms. Some patients have mutations in autosomes
women with prior GDM (18, 2226). However, when insulin levels (autosomal dominant inheritance pattern, commonly referred to
and responses are expressed relative to each individuals degree of as maturity-onset diabetes of the young [MODY], with genetic sub-
insulin resistance, a large defect in pancreatic cell function is a types denoted as MODY 1, MODY 2, etc.). Others have mutations
consistent finding in women with prior GDM (23, 25, 27). in mitochondrial DNA, often with distinct clinical syndromes such
Potential causes of inadequate cell function are myriad and not
fully described. Outside of pregnancy, there are 3 general settings
that are recognized through classification as distinct forms of dia- Table 2
betes mellitus (12) as separate categories of cell dysfunction: (a) Screening for GDM, step 2: blood glucose screeningA
autoimmune; (b) monogenic; and (c) occurring on a background of
insulin resistance. There is evidence that cell dysfunction in GDM Glucose cut Percentage of women Sensitivity
can occur in all 3 major settings, a fact that is not surprising given pointB with positive testC for GDMC
that GDM is detected by what is, in essence, population screening for 140 mg/dl (7.8 mmol/l) 1418% 80%
elevated glucose levels among pregnant women. 130 mg/dl (7.2 mmol/l) 2025% 90%
A The test is a 50-g oral glucose challenge performed in patients with
Autoimmune diabetes and GDM
high or average clinical risk characteristics. No preparation is needed;
Type 1 diabetes results from autoimmune destruction of pancreatic the test can be done any time of day. Women with very high clinical risk
cells. It accounts for approximately 510% of diabetes in the gener- characteristics may proceed directly to measurement of fasting glucose
al population (12). Prevalence rates vary by ethnicity, with the high- or to diagnostic OGTT (see Tables 3 and 4). BVenous serum or plasma
glucose measured by certified clinical laboratory. Cut point identifies
est rates in Scandinavians and the lowest rates (i.e., 0%) in full-blood-
women recommended for 2- or 3- hour OGTTs as described in Table 3.
ed Native Americans. Type 1 diabetes is characterized by circulating CMay vary with ethnicity and with diagnostic OGTT employed. Adapted

immune markers directed against pancreatic islets (antiislet cell with permission from N. Engl. J. Med. (72). Copyright 1999, Massa-
antibodies) or cell antigens (such as glutamic acid decarboxylase chussets Medical Society. All rights reserved.
[GAD]). A small minority (less than 10% in most studies) of women

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in the third trimester have documented insulin resistance in both

Table 3 lean and obese women who go on to develop GDM (18, 24).
Diagnosis of GDM during pregnancyA Only a small number of potential biochemical mediators of the
chronic insulin resistance that frequently accompanies GDM and
Procedure Glucose cut pointsB that likely contributes to the high risk of type 2 diabetes have been
Time (h) mg/dl mmol/l examined. It is likely that there is not a single underlying biochemical
100-g, 3-h OGTTC Fasting 95 5.3 etiology. Women with GDM tend to be obese, so mechanisms pro-
1 180 10.0 moting obesity and/or linking obesity to insulin resistance are likely
2 155 8.6 to play a role. Small studies have revealed increased circulating levels
3 140 7.8 of leptin (41) and the inflammatory markers TNF- (42) and C-reac-
75-g, 2-h OGTTC Fasting 95 5.3 tive protein (43) and decreased levels of adiponectin (44, 45) in women
1 180 10.0 with GDM. Increased content of fat in liver (46) and muscle (47) has
2 155 8.6 also been reported in women with previous gestational diabetes. All
ABased on recommendations of the American Diabetes Association of these findings are consistent with the current understanding of
(5). B Venous serum or plasma glucose measured by a certified clini- some potential causes of obesity-related insulin resistance.
cal laboratory. CTwo or more values meeting or exceeding the cut Defects in the binding of insulin to its receptor in skeletal muscle
points are required for diagnosis. Adapted with permission from
do not appear to be involved in the exaggerated insulin resistance
N. Engl. J. Med. (72). Copyright 1999, Massachussets Medical Soci-
ety. All rights reserved. of GDM (48). Alterations in the insulin signaling pathway (4952),
abnormal subcellular localization of GLUT4 transporters (53),
reduced expression of PPAR (49), increased expression of the mem-
brane glycoprotein PC-1 (51), and reduced insulin-mediated glucose
as deafness. In both instances, onset tends to occur at an early age transport (52, 53) have been found in skeletal muscle or fat cells
relative to other forms of nonimmune diabetes (e.g., type 2 diabe- of women with GDM or a history thereof compared with normal
tes, described below), and patients tend not to be obese or insulin women. Whether any of these defects is primary or the result of more
resistant. Both features point to abnormalities in the regulation fundamental defects in insulin action is currently unknown. Given
of cell mass and/or function. Indeed, detailed metabolic studies that GDM represents a cross-section of young women with glucose
have revealed abnormalities in glucose-mediated insulin secretion in intolerance, mechanisms that lead to chronic insulin resistance in
some forms of MODY (32). Mutations that cause several subtypes of GDM are likely to be as varied as they are in the general population.
MODY have been found in women with GDM. These include muta- It has long been thought (and taught) that GDM develops in
tions in genes coding for: (a) glucokinase (MODY 2) (29, 3335); (b) women who cannot increase their insulin secretion when faced
hepatocyte nuclear factor 1 (MODY 3) (29); (c) and insulin pro- with the increased insulin needs imposed by late pregnancy. Serial
moter factor 1 (MODY 4) (29). Together, these monogenic forms studies of women who develop GDM do not support that concept.
of GDM account for less than 10% of GDM cases (29, 3336). They As illustrated in Figure 1, insulin secretion in obese women who
likely represent cases of preexisting diabetes that are first detected develop GDM can increase considerably over weeks or months
by routine glucose screening during pregnancy. in association with the acquired insulin resistance of pregnancy.
However, the increase occurs along an insulin sensitivity-secre-
Insulin resistance, cell dysfunction, and GDM tion curve that is approximately 50% lower (i.e., 50% less insulin
The majority of women with GDM appear to have cell dysfunc- for any degree of insulin resistance) than that of normal women.
tion that occurs on a background of chronic insulin resistance. These short-term responses appear to occur on a background of
As noted above, pregnancy normally induces quite marked insu- long-term deterioration of cell function that, over years, leads to
lin resistance. This physiological insulin resistance also occurs in progressive hyperglycemia and diabetes (see Link to diabetes after
women with GDM. However, it occurs on a background of chronic pregnancy, below). Longitudinal studies of lean and obese women
insulin resistance to which the insulin resistance of pregnancy is before pregnancy, at the beginning of the second trimester, and
partially additive. As a result, pregnant women with GDM tend to in the third trimester also reveal an increase in insulin secretion
have even greater insulin resistance than normal pregnant women. in association with the acquired insulin resistance of pregnancy
Differences in whole-body insulin sensitivity tend to be small in (18, 24). However, the increase is less than that which occurs in
the third trimester, owing to the marked effects of pregnancy itself normal pregnant women despite somewhat greater insulin resis-
on insulin resistance. Nonetheless, precise and direct measures of
insulin sensitivity applied during the third trimester have identi-
fied, in women with GDM, exaggerated resistance to insulins abil- Table 4
ity to stimulate glucose utilization (17, 18) and to suppress both Probable pregestational diabetesA
glucose production (17, 18) and fatty acid levels (17). After delivery,
when the acquired insulin resistance of pregnancy abates, women Timing of sample Serum or plasma glucoseB
who had GDM end up, on average, with considerably greater insu- After overnight fast 126 mg/dl (7.0 mmol/l)
lin resistance than normal women. This finding, which has been Random 200 mg/dl (11.1 mmol/l)
consistent across studies in which whole-body insulin sensitivity ABased on recommendations of the American Diabetes Association (5).
has been measured directly (22, 23, 25, 26, 3740), indicates that BVenous serum or plasma glucose measured by a certified clinical labo-
most women who develop GDM have chronic insulin resistance. ratory. Adapted with permission from N. Engl. J. Med. (72). Copyright
Sequential measurements of insulin sensitivity performed in the 1999, Massachussets Medical Society. All rights reserved.
same women before pregnancy, early in the second trimester, and

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as obesity, weight gain, and increased age, that are known to be

associated with type 2 diabetes. Relatively high glucose levels dur-
ing and soon after pregnancy also correlate with increased risk of
diabetes, perhaps because they identify women who are relatively
close to developing diabetes when the diagnosis of GDM is made.
Longitudinal studies of the pathophysiology of diabetes that
develops after GDM are limited to Hispanic women with clinical
characteristics suggesting a risk for type 2 diabetes. Those stud-
ies have revealed much about the cell defect that leads to type
2 diabetes after GDM in 1 ethnic group. First, weight gain and
additional pregnancies, factors associated with chronic and acute
insulin resistance, respectively, independently increase the risk of
Figure 1 developing diabetes (59). Second, decreasing cell function is asso-
Insulin sensitivity-secretion relationships in women with GDM and ciated with increasing hyperglycemia (Figure 2) (60). The impact
normal women during the third trimester and remote from pregnancy.
of reduced cell function on glucose levels is relatively small until
Values were measured at the end of 3-hour hyperglycemic clamps
(plasma glucose, about 180 mg/dl) (22). Prehepatic insulin secretion the disposition index, which reflects acute insulin responses to
rates were calculated from steady-state plasma insulin and C-peptide glucose in relation to insulin resistance, is very low (approximately
levels. Insulin sensitivity index was calculated as steady-state glucose 1015% of normal). Thereafter, relatively small differences in cell
infusion rate divided by steady-state plasma insulin concentration. function are associated with relatively large increases in glucose
FFM, fat-free mass. Figure reproduced with permission from J. Clin. levels (60). Third, treatment of insulin resistance at the stage of
Endocrinol. Metab. (27). Copyright 2001, The Endocrine Society. impaired glucose tolerance results in a reciprocal downregulation
of insulin secretion (61), which in turn is associated with a reduc-
tion in the risk of diabetes and with preservation of cell function
tance in individuals with GDM. These small but elegant physi- (62). Taken together, these 3 findings reveal a progressive loss of
ological studies reveal that the limitation in insulin secretion in insulin secretion that appears to be caused by high insulin secre-
women with GDM is not necessarily fixed. Rather, in at least some tory demands imposed by chronic insulin resistance. Glycemia in
of them, insulin secretion is low relative to their insulin sensitivity the diabetic range is a relatively late consequence of the loss of
but responsive to changing sensitivity. One approach to the pre- insulin secretion. That loss can be slowed or stopped through the
vention of diabetes after GDM has taken advantage of this respon- treatment of insulin resistance in order to reduce of high insulin
siveness (discussed below in Link to diabetes after pregnancy). secretory demands (62). Whether the same or similar mechanisms
Very little is known about the genetics of GDM in women with of progressive cell dysfunction and opportunities for cell pres-
chronic insulin resistance. The few studies that have been done ervation occur in other ethnic groups remains to be determined.
have compared allele frequencies of candidate genes in women
with and without GDM, with no selection for specific phenotypic Implications for clinical care
subtypes of GDM. Variants that differed in frequency between To date, insights into the mechanisms underlying impaired glucose
control and GDM subjects were found in genes coding for: (a) the regulation in GDM have not had an important impact on clinical
islet-specific promoter of glucokinase (54), known to be important management during pregnancy. The focus for antepartum care is
for glucose sensing by cells; (b) calpain-10 (55), a gene associated on the use of standard antidiabetic treatments, mostly appropriate
with type 2 diabetes in Hispanic Americans and some other ethnic nutrition and exogenous insulin delivery but more recently admin-
groups; (c) the sulfonylurea receptor 1 (56), which is involved in istration of selected oral antidiabetic agents (6365), to normalize
glucose-stimulated insulin secretion; and (d) the 3 adrenorecep- maternal pre- and postprandial glucose levels and minimize fetal
tor, which may regulate body composition. Whether these find- overnutrition. Fetal ultrasound measurements have also been used
ings will be confirmed in larger studies with broader representa- to refine the identification of pregnancies in which the fetus dem-
tion among women with GDM remains to be determined. onstrates signs of excessive adiposity pregnancies in which the
need to aggressively lower maternal glucose is the greatest (66, 67).
Link to diabetes after pregnancy After pregnancy, the main focus of clinical care should be on
The hyperglycemia of GDM is detected at one point in a womens reducing the risk of diabetes and detecting and treating diabetes
life. If glucose levels are not already in the diabetic range, GDM could that does develop. Measurement of fasting glucose in the immedi-
represent glucose intolerance that is limited to pregnancy, is chronic ate postpartum period will identify women with persistent fasting
but stable, or is at a stage in the progression to diabetes. Long-term hyperglycemia in the diabetic range. Other women should have
follow-up studies, recently reviewed by Kim et al. (57), reveal that an OGTT sometime during the first 26 months postpartum
most, but not all, women with GDM do progress to diabetes after and, if not diabetic, annual testing for diabetes. Family planning
pregnancy. Only approximately 10% of patients have diabetes soon is important to reduce the occurrence of unplanned pregnancies
after delivery (58). Incident cases appear to occur at a relatively con- in the presence of poorly controlled diabetes (68), a scenario that
stant rate during the first 10 years thereafter (57), and the few stud- leads to serious birth defects in offspring (69).
ies that have been conducted over a period of more than 10 years Classification of patients into 1 of the 3 major subtypes of GDM
reveal a stable long-term risk of approximately 70% (57). discussed in this review can aid in clinical management. Lean patients
Most studies of risk factors for the development of diabetes after are less likely to be insulin resistant than overweight or obese patients,
GDM fail to distinguish among the possible subtypes of GDM and so autoimmune and monogenic forms of diabetes should be consid-
diabetes discussed above. They generally reveal risk factors, such ered in such patients. Screening for evolving autoimmune diabetes

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impaired glucose tolerance. GDM was one of the risk factors that led
to inclusion in the study. Protection against diabetes was observed in
all ethnic groups. Treatment with metformin in the same study also
reduced the risk of diabetes, but to a lesser degree and primarily in the
youngest and most overweight participants. To date, specific results
from women with a history of GDM have not been published.
The Troglitazone in Prevention of Diabetes (TRIPOD) study
was conducted exclusively on Hispanic women with recent GDM.
Assignment to treatment with the insulin-sensitizing drug tro-
Figure 2 glitazone was associated with a 55% reduction in the incidence
Relationship between pancreatic cell function and post-challenge glu- of diabetes. Protection from diabetes was closely linked to initial
cose levels in women with prior GDM. Data are from 71 nonpregnant
reductions in endogenous insulin requirements and ultimately
Hispanic women who had at least 2 (86% had at least 3) sets of oral
and frequently sampled i.v. glucose tolerance tests that were sched- associated with stabilization of pancreatic cell function (62). Sta-
uled at 15-month intervals between 15 and 75 months after the index bilization of cell function was also observed when troglitazone
pregnancy (totaling 280 sets of tests). Participants had fasting plasma treatment was started at the time of initial detection of diabetes by
glucose of less than 140 mg/dl at entry into the study and were followed annual glucose tolerance testing (71). The DPP and TRIPOD stud-
until that value was exceeded. Disposition index (x axis) is the product ies support clinical management that focuses on aggressive treat-
of minimal model insulin sensitivity (SI) and the acute insulin response ment of insulin resistance to reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes and,
to i.v. glucose (AIRg), a measure of pancreatic cell compensation for
at least in Hispanic women, to preserve pancreatic cell function.
insulin resistance. The y axis shows glucose values at hour 2 of 75-g
OGTTs. Symbols represent mean values for disposition index and cor-
Taken together, these 2 studies suggest that postpartum manage-
responding 2-hour glucose values ( 1 SD) in each octile of disposition ment of women with clinical characteristics suggesting a risk for
index. The mean disposition index was 2018 in Hispanic women with- type 2 diabetes should focus on treatment of insulin resistance and
out a history of GDM (arrow). Figure based on data from ref. 60. monitoring of glycemia both to assess success (as reflected by stabi-
lization of glucose levels) and to detect diabetes if it develops.

by measuring antibodies to GAD may be warranted, particularly in Future directions

women with no strong family history of diabetes who are from ethnic Considerable work is needed to dissect the various mechanisms
groups in which type 1 diabetes is relatively common. Although there underlying maternal GDM and its evolution to diabetes after preg-
are no established treatments to modify the progression to type 1 dia- nancy. Large studies of screening for evolving autoimmune diabe-
betes, careful monitoring of glucose levels is advised because patients tes are necessary to more accurately define the clinical character-
can rapidly develop diabetes after pregnancy (30). Genotyping for istics of women who need such screening as part of routine GDM
monogenic diabetes is still primarily a research tool, but clinical management. Genetic studies may help identify women whose
tests are being developed. Early-onset diabetes with a relevant fam- cells will tolerate insulin resistance poorly, as well as women who
ily history (autosomal dominant inheritance for MODY; maternal develop poor insulin secretion for reasons unrelated to insulin
inheritance for mitochondrial mutations) may provide a clue to the resistance. Studies of gene-environment interactions and addition-
diagnosis. In addition, Ellard et al. (34) have provided 4 clinical cri- al studies of insulin action in muscle and fat may identify causes of
teria that have relatively high specificity for identifying women with insulin resistance, especially as they relate to obesity. Better under-
the glucokinase mutations that cause 1 form of MODY, MODY2: (a) standing of mechanisms that can lead to GDM should allow more
persisting fasting hyperglycemia (105145 mg/dl) after pregnancy; rational development and administration of therapy during preg-
(b) a small (less than 82 mg/dl) increment in glucose above the fast- nancy, as well as more rational approaches to prevention of both
ing level during a 75-g, 2-hour OGTT; (c) insulin treatment during at GDM and diabetes after pregnancy. GDM is an especially attrac-
least 1 pregnancy but subsequently controlled on diet; and (d) a first- tive target for such studies because the disease is detected in the
degree relative with type 2 diabetes, GDM, or fasting serum or plasma course of routine clinical care and it provides an opportunity to
glucose greater than 100 mg/dl. The constellation was infrequent in study relatively early stages of glucose dysregulation that may be
patients in the United Kingdom, but 80% of women who met all 4 cri- fundamental to the long-term pathobiology of diabetes.
teria had glucokinase mutations. Identification of monogenic forms
of diabetes is important for genetic counseling. Acknowledgments
There is currently no clinical role for genetic testing for variants We thank our long-term collaborators Siri Kjos, Ruth Peters, and
that have been associated with polygenic forms of type 2 diabetes Richard Bergman for their contributions to studies on the patho-
(see Insulin resistance, cell dysfunction, and GDM, above). The genesis of type 2 diabetes after GDM in Hispanic women. Our
variants cannot be used reliably to discriminate between normal work cited in this paper was supported by research grants from
individuals and individuals affected with diabetes and, just as impor- the NIH (R01-DK46374, R01-DK61628, and M01-RR00043), the
tantly, testing is not available to clinicians. On the other hand, recent American Diabetes Association (Clinical Research Award and Dis-
advances in the understanding of mechanistic links between GDM tinguished Clinical Scientist Award), and Parke-Davis Pharmaceu-
and type 2 diabetes have been translated into clinical care aimed at tical Research (the TRIPOD study).
reducing the risk of diabetes. At least 2 studies of diabetes prevention
in high-risk individuals have included women with a history of GDM. Address correspondence to: Thomas A. Buchanan, Room 6602
In the US Diabetes Prevention Program (DPP) (70), intensive lifestyle GNH, 1200 North State Street, Los Angeles, California 90089-
modification to promote weight loss and increase physical activity 9317, USA. Phone: (323) 226-4632; Fax: (323) 226-2796; E-mail:
resulted in a 58% reduction in the risk of type 2 diabetes in adults with buchanan@usc.edu.

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