Ore-Forming

Fluids
Stephen E. Kesler1

O
re-forming (hydrothermal) fluids, consisting largely of H2O, CO2, and and its salinity, and analyses of
inclusion contents provide infor-
NaCl, formed most of Earths ore deposits. The fluids exist as largely
mation on compositions of the
unconfined systems in meteoric, seawater, and basinal settings, or fluids. Isotopic analyses of hydro-
locally and intermittently confined systems in magmatic, metamorphic, and thermal minerals and inclusion
fluids serve as geothermometers
basinal settings, and they are driven largely by differences in temperature,
and tracers of the source of the
elevation or density. Temperatures are highest (~600C) in magmatic and fluid and its dissolved constituents
lowest in basinal and meteoric (~100C) systems. Salinities well above that (Farmer and DePaulo 1997; Taylor
of seawater are reached by boiling, evaporation, and evaporite dissolution, 1997; Ohmoto and Goldhaber
1997).
largely in magmatic and basinal systems. Today, research is focused on
Active hydrothermal systems near
establishing the concentrations of metals in these fluids, the volume and
the present surface operate at tem-
duration of hydrothermal flow, and the links between ore systems and peratures of less than about 350C;
larger, regional fluid systems. on the other hand, ancient sys-
tems exposed in ore deposits
KEYWORDS : ore deposit, reached at least 600C. This large
hydrothermal fluid, fluid, water difference reflects the deeper mag-
matic, basinal, and metamorphic
INTRODUCTION settings of some ore deposits, which produced higher tem-
Ore deposits are formed by geologic processes ranging from peratures and salinities. For instance, near the surface the
weathering to magmatic crystallization, but most form only widespread saline water is seawater with a salinity of
from hot, aqueous fluids. These hydrothermal fluids are the about 3 wt%, and evaporation is the only common process
main agents for the movement of thermal energy and mass that increases salinity. At depth, however, salinity can be
transfer in the crust. The wide variety of textures in increased by dissolution of evaporites, boiling, phase sepa-
hydrothermal ores (FIG. 1) provides evidence of the many ration, and hydration of wallrock (Bodnar et al. 1985;
settings in which hydrothermal fluids operate. Hanor 1987; Yardley and Graham 2002).
Inclusion fluids in ore deposits consist largely of H2O with
ORE-FORMING FLUIDS locally abundant CO2 and smaller amounts of H2S, CH4,
and N2. Dissolved cations include Na, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, and Si,
Temperature and Composition and the dominant anion is Cl, with smaller amounts of
The composition and physical state of ore-forming fluids HCO3- and SO42- (Roedder and Bodnar 1997). Less infor-
can be inferred from studies of active systems, such as the mation is available on concentrations of ore elements such
AuAs deposits of the Waiotapu geothermal system in New as Cu, Zn, Pb, and Au in inclusion fluids. Early efforts com-
Zealand and the CuZnPb black smokers along the mid- paring the volume of metal-bearing daughter minerals to
ocean ridges (Von Damm et al. 1997; Brown and Simmons that of their host fluid inclusions indicated concentrations
2003). Additional information can be obtained from of thousands of parts per million for Cu in inclusion fluids
extinct hydrothermal systems exposed in ore deposits, from porphyry Cu deposits, and more recent analyses of
where minerals that fill open spaces or that replaced and single fluid inclusions confirm these high concentrations
altered wallrocks reflect the composition of their parent (Sawkins and Scherkenbach 1981; Heinrich et al. 1999;
hydrothermal fluid (Barnes 1997). Fluid inclusions are espe- Vanko et al. 2001; Baker et al. 2004).
cially useful sources of information on extinct hydrother-
mal systems because they are microsamples of these Experimental studies show that ore metals are carried in
ancient fluids (Roedder and Bodnar 1997). Daughter min- hydrothermal fluids as complex ions (Wood and Samson
erals in some inclusions provide evidence of salinities and 1998). Most metals are cations, and the most common
compositions of the paleofluids, and inclusions consisting anions in these complexes are Cl- for base metals and HS-
largely of vapor demonstrate that they boiled (FIG. 2). for Au. The generally lower concentrations of organic
Heating and freezing measurements on fluid inclusions anions and lower stabilities of organic complexes limit
indicate the temperature at which the fluid was trapped them to special roles such as the transport of mercury by oil
(Fein and Williams-Jones 1997).
1 Department of Geological Sciences
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
MI 48109 U.S.A.
E-mail: skesler@umich.edu

ELEMENTS, VOL. 1, PP. 13-18 13 J ANUARY 2005

State of Ore-Forming Fluids
Boiling is a common feature of active geother-
mal systems and is clearly indicated by co-
existing liquid- and vapor-rich inclusions in
ore deposits. Formation of a vapor phase has a
strong impact on the hydrothermal system.
Expansion of the newly formed vapor can
open fractures to create new porosity, but this
can also block porosity creating new flow pat-
terns (Burnham 1997; Hayba and Ingebritsen
1997). Boiling is also important to ore deposi-
tion because CO2 and H2S are partitioned into
the vapor causing deposition of metal from
some chloride complexes and destabilization
of bisulfide complexes such as Au(HS)2-
(Drummond and Ohmoto 1985).
Efforts to delineate regions of the crust in
which vapors could form are commonly based
on phase equilibria in the H2OCO2 and
H2ONaCl systems, in which vapor and liquid
coexist in very different PT ranges (FIG. 2C).
In the H2OCO2NaCl system, vapor-liquid
conditions persist to pressures typical of deep
crustal levels (Schmidt and Bodnar 2000).
Additions of small amounts of K, Ca, and
other dissolved solids cause relatively small
FIGURE 1 Minerals deposited from ore-forming fluids. A. Crustiform quartz-adu-
changes in the H2ONaCl system, but small
laria vein, Hishikari epithermal gold deposit, Japan. B. Near-vertical,
amounts of CH4 and other non-condensable massive quartz-carbonate vein cut by smaller horizontal quartz veins indicating over-
gases greatly expand the two-phase region in pressured fluid, Pamour greenstone gold deposit, Canada. C. Massive quartz vein with
the H2OCO2 system (Hanor 1980; Roedder Fe-rich carbonate wallrock alteration, Mt. Charlotte greenstone gold deposit, Australia.
and Bodnar 1997). D. Folded sedimentary layers of galena (grey) and sphalerite (brown), Sullivan sedi-
mentary exhalative (sedex) PbZn deposit, Canada.

FIGURE 2 A. Coexisting liquid-rich and vapor-rich inclusions,

Circulation Naica PbZnAg carbonate-replacement deposit,
Mexico. B. High-salinity liquid-rich inclusions, Granisle porphyry CuAu
Although hydrothermal flow is a large-scale, pervasive deposit, Canada. C. Critical curves showing the general location of
process, the fact that hydraulic conductivity of rocks varies two-phase fields for H2ONaCl (red) and H2OCO2 (purple) fluids
over 13 orders of magnitude means that most fluids will depending on the fraction of NaCl or CO2 in the fluid (generalized from
Bodnar et al. 1985; Diamond 1994).
move through highly permeable zones (Cathles 1997).
Without this asymmetry of flow, there would probably be
no ore deposits. expelled into surrounding unconfined zones (Sibson and
Rowland 2003; Blundell et al. 2003). Unconfined systems
Hydrothermal systems can be divided into two main
usually form in cool, brittle rocks, whereas confined sys-
groups similar to those applied to groundwater. Unconfined
tems form in hot or ductile rocks.
systems commonly operate near hydrostatic pressure and
are driven largely by topographically high recharge or dif- The lifetime of hydrothermal systems is controlled by the
ferences in temperature or density of the fluid (FIG. 3). factor that drives flow, the availability of fluid, and porosity.
Confined systems, are largely isolated from the surface and Unconfined and confined systems differ in the scale of
are driven by magmatic or metamorphic fluids or by tec- fluid that they can release because unconfined systems can
tonic or sedimentary processes that isolate fluid reservoirs. be recharged by external fluids, whereas confined systems
When the fluid pressure in confined systems exceeds con- can release only the fluid that they contain. Porosity is usu-
fining pressure, or when faults breach the reservoir, fluid is ally filled by quartz, calcite, anhydrite or related minerals,

ELEMENTS 14 J ANUARY 2005

reflecting the relatively high concentrations of major ele- able meteoric recharge water and an oxygen shift, with
ments in hydrothermal fluids. Whereas quartz has prograde O-isotope compositions that are greatly changed by reac-
solubility at low temperature, calcite and anhydrite have tion with O-rich and H-poor wallrocks (Taylor 1997)
retrograde solubility under most hydrothermal conditions (FIG. 4).
(Fournier 1983a,b; Rimstidt 1997). Thus, calcite and anhy-
Seawater hydrothermal systems form in submarine crust, usu-
drite might deposit in the downwelling, recharge limb of
ally along mid-ocean and back-arc ridges, but also along
unconfined systems where temperature increases, and
faults associated with calderas and rift basins (Ohmoto and
quartz would deposit in the upwelling, outflow zone where
Skinner 1983; Scott 1997; Roberts et al. 2003). Ridge and
temperature decreases (Cathles 1983) (FIG. 3).
caldera systems are hosted largely by volcanic rocks and
form volcanic-hosted massive sulfide (VMS) deposits
enriched in Fe, Cu, and Zn, whereas rift margin systems are
hosted by sedimentary rocks and form sedimentary exhala-
tive (sedex) deposits enriched in Zn and Pb. Seawater
hydrothermal systems are largely unconfined and are driv-
en by mafic magma chambers, dikes, and sills (Cathles
1983). Active black smokers and ancient VMS fluids have
temperatures of about 200 to almost 400C and salinities
close to seawater, whereas limited data from sedex ore
deposits suggest lower temperatures and possibly higher
salinities (Fig. 4). The temperature difference reflects the
smaller volumes of igneous rock driving sedex systems, but
the cause of their higher salinities is not clear. VMS fluids
are relatively acid and carry H2S and metals together. Some
sedex fluids have similar compositions, but other, usually
cooler, sedex fluids contain dissolved sulfate rather than
H2S, and deposit sulfides where this sulfate is reduced or
where the fluids vent into anoxic basins containing
reduced sulfur (Goodfellow et al. 1993; Scott 1997; Cooke
et al. 2000). In theory, these systems should form chimneys
and mounds where the venting fluid is less dense than sea-
FIGURE 3 Typical hydrothermal systems. Confined magmatic and
metamorphic systems are shown below a brittle-ductile water, and lens-shaped ponds where it is more dense,
transition and a partly confined aquifer is shown in the basinal system. although the high salinities necessary to produce bottom-
In the unconfined meteoric system, quartz is deposited from cooling seeking brines at these elevated temperatures might require
water flowing out the top of the system and calcite is deposited from
special settings such as evaporite-contaminated rifts (Scott
heating recharge water flowing into the sides of the system. Similar
flow and depositional patterns would be observed in unconfined sea- 1997; Solomon and Quesada 2003).
water hydrothermal systems.
Basinal hydrothermal systems include connate water, as well
as water from diagenetic reactions and meteoric recharge
(Kharaka and Hanor 2003). Hydrocarbon fluids are also
GEOLOGIC SETTING important parts of basinal systems, but usually play a
Ore-forming hydrothermal systems are common in mete- minor role in the formation of ores. Sedimentary basins
oric, seawater, basinal, magmatic, and metamorphic envi- form unconfined systems driven by near-surface evapora-
ronments where water is abundant and a process is avail- tive brines or topographically high recharge, and confined
able to drive fluid flow. Although these systems can be systems where reservoirs are isolated by burial or deforma-
described separately, many geological environments are tion (Cathles and Smith 1983; Garven 1985; Bethke 1986;
transitional, and waters from different systems and sources Jones et al. 2002). The most common ores formed by basi-
can mix. In addition, changing geological and tectonic pat- nal fluids are Mississippi Valley-type (MVT) deposits, which
terns through Earths history have produced parallel contain Zn and Pb (Leach and Sangster 1993). MVT fluids
changes in hydrothermal environments through time have temperatures of 100 to 200C and salinities of 10 to
(Barley and Groves, 1992). 30 wt%, which result from evaporation and dissolution of
Meteoric hydrothermal systems form in the upper kilome- evaporites (Kesler et al. 1995). Their pH is not adequate to
ter or so of subaerial crust where precipitation percolates permit transport of metals and reduced S together, requir-
downward through brittle rock, is heated, and rises along ing reduction of sulfate in the fluid or mixing with a sec-
more focused zones (Fig. 3). Where these unconfined sys- ond fluid to deposit sulfides (Sverjensky 1984; Anderson
tems reach the surface, they form thermal springs with and Garven 1987). Generally similar basinal fluids with dif-
deposits of carbonate travertine or silica sinter. Many parts ferent metal contents form unconformity-type uranium
of meteoric flow systems can form ore. Downward moving and Kupferschiefer-type Cu deposits (Kotzer and Kyser
recharge waters can oxidize sulfide ore deposits forming 1992; Blundell et al. 2003).
oxide Cu and Zn deposits and enriched Cu and Ag deposits Magmatic hydrothermal systems consisting of fluids released
(Chavez 2000; Hitzman et al. 2003). Slightly deeper from crystallizing magma are most common around cupo-
recharge waters form roll-front uranium deposits (Nash et las or other shallow felsic intrusions (Holland 1972;
al. 1981). The hottest meteoric systems in volcanic terranes, Burnham 1997). The systems are probably supplied in part
which are heated by magmatic activity, are associated with by an underlying magma chamber, are confined by a duc-
most active geothermal systems, as well as epithermal tile zone along the margin of the magma, and are sur-
AuAg deposits of the low-sulfidation type (Cooke and rounded by an unconfined hydrothermal system contain-
Simmons 2000). Fluids in these systems are nearly neutral, ing water of meteoric or seawater origin (Norton 1978;
with relatively low S contents, and have temperatures of Shinohara et al. 1995; Fournier 1999). Abrupt release of
about 200 to 350C and salinities of less than about 3 wt% magmatic fluid results in highly fractured, stockwork zones
NaCl. H and O isotope analyses of waters from these sys- that host porphyry-type Cu, Mo, and Au deposits
tems show H-isotope compositions similar to that of prob- (Gustafson and Hunt 1975; Carten et al. 1988; Muntean

ELEMENTS 15 J ANUARY 2005

and Einaudi 2001). Skarn deposits form where magmatic al. 2003). Our research challenge in the coming century is
fluid intersects carbonate rocks. Fluid inclusions in many of to link ore deposits to their more distal kin. At both the
these deposits homogenize at 350 to 700C, have salinities deposit and regional scale, this requires better knowledge of
of 10 to 70 wt%, and were saturated with halite locally exactly where the ore element resides in terms of the com-
(Wilson et al. 1980; Bodnar and Beane 1980; Reynolds and plex history of multiple fluid events that characterize most
Beane 1985; Landtwing et al. 2002; Redmond et al. 2004). systems. It cannot be emphasized too strongly that knowl-
Vapor, which forms abundant fluid inclusions in most edge of the mineralogical setting of ore elements is the key
high-temperature porphyry copper deposits, can be to all geochemical research. Recent recognition of gold
expelled into the surrounding meteoric system (Henley and nanoparticles in Carlin-type deposits provides an example
McNabb 1978). High-sulfidation epithermal AuAg of the type of surprises that will result from further high-
deposits, which form at temperatures of about 200 to 300C resolution imaging of ores and rocks (Palenik et al. 2004).
from S-rich, acid fluids, are thought to result from this
We must also learn more about the fluids that formed
process (Vennemann et al. 1993; Hedenquist et al. 1998).
deposits and that moved through surrounding rocks, par-
Metamorphic hydrothermal systems result from expulsion of ticularly by means of microanalysis of minerals and fluid
water and other fluids from rocks that undergo prograde inclusions. Preliminary results using these methods suggest
metamorphism, usually in tectonically stacked zones or that low-level trace-element contents can be used to identi-
subduction zones (Peacock 1989; Ferry 1995; Breeding and fy specific growth zones in minerals such as arsenian pyrite
Ague 2002). These fluids consist of mixtures of H2O and (Reich et al. 2003), and that elements such as Cu, As, and
CO2, the most common fluids released during metamor- Au are partitioned differently into vapor or liquid during

FIGURE 4 Chemical compositions of typical hydrothermal fluids

phic reactions (Powell et al. 1991). Metamorphic grouped according to type of hydrothermal system and
deposit, generalized from references cited in text. A. Temperature-
hydrothermal systems are largely confined below the brit-
salinity (dark zones inside lines show approximate T-salinity range for
tle-ductile transition and release fluid only when they ore-forming fluids; two red fields in magmatic fluid zone represent
exceed confining pressure (Sibson et al. 1988). Greenstone brine and vapor in boiling systems). B. NaClH2OCO2 (meteoric sys-
or mesothermal Au deposits, which consist of quartz veins tems form a field around the H2O apex that is too small to show
clearly). C. D18O. Deposit types are explained further in the text
in strongly carbonatized wallrock, probably formed from
(Sedex = sedimentary exhalative; VMS = volcanogenic massive sulfide;
metamorphic hydrothermal fluids with variable contribu- MVT = Mississippi Valley-type; U = Rollfront uranium).
tions of meteoric and magmatic fluid (Burrows et al. 1986;
Nesbitt 1988). Fluid inclusions in these deposits homoge-
nize at temperatures of 250 to 400C and have a wide range boiling (Heinrich et al. 1999; Vanko et al. 2001; Baker et al.
of CO2 contents, which reflect phase separation related to 2004). Parallel experimental studies are required to define
episodic release of overpressured fluid, as indicated by phase equilibria in relevant systems, ore metal solubilities,
cross-cutting horizontal and vertical veins (Fig. 1) (Robert and activity models in complex fluids with multiple ligands,
and Kelly 1987; Ridley and Diamond 2000). all of which are needed for the next generation of coupled
reaction-flow modeling of hydrothermal systems (Garven
Mystery hydrothermal systems, which derive fluids from as
and Raffensperger 1997). Finally, we need quantitative
yet poorly understood sources, include those that formed
information on the age and duration of hydrothermal sys-
the important Carlin-type Au and Fe-oxideCuAu
tems (Cathles 1997), and on the source of ore metals and
deposits. Carlin-type deposits formed from acid, low-salin-
the fluids that carry them.
ity, 150 to 250C fluids containing abundant reduced S.
Different geochemical and isotopic tracers support mag- At some point in the 21st century, these efforts will result
matic, basinal, meteoric, and even metamorphic origins for in a new generation of geological maps and sections that
these fluids (Hofstra and Cline 2000). Iron-oxideCuAu delineate crustal hydrothermal systems, just as todays
deposits, which form at temperatures of 200 to at least maps delineate rock units. These maps will be the result of
500C from high-salinity, oxidized fluids that produce careful study of ores and rocks aided by satellite, geophysi-
regional sodic alteration, have been suggested to result cal, and other remote observations. They will help us
from systems of basinal or magmatic origin (Barton and understand the role of crustal fluids in the complex geo-
Johnson 1996; Borrok et al. 1998; Williams et al. 2001). chemistry of Earths crust and will be the basis for new
efforts in fields ranging from medical geology to the search
RESEARCH CHALLENGES for deeply buried ore deposits that will supply future gen-
erations. .
Ore deposits are the high-concentration end of a spectrum
of enriched rocks, including distal trace-element anomalies
such as the S-rich coals of the mid-continent U.S. and the
As-rich waters and soils of northern Taiwan (Goldhaber et

ELEMENTS 16 J ANUARY 2005

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origins of salinity in metamorphic fluids.

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