THE ILFRACOMBE ACADEMY

ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

A GLOSSARY OF CRITICAL VOCABULARY

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 TYPES OF
WRITING TYPES OF POEM WAYS OF TALKING DRAMATIC CREATING CHARACTERS SOUND

AND WRITING CONVENTIONS

ALLEGORY ACROSTIC ANTAGONIST

APOLOGY AUBADE AMBIGUITY ANAGNORISIS ANTI-HERO ALLITERATION

APOSTROPHE BALLAD APHORISM ANTAGONIST APTROYNM ANAPHORA

BEAST FABLE COMPLAINT ARCHAISM ASIDE ARCHETYPE ASSONANCE

BILDUNGSROMAN DOGGEREL BATHOS CATASTROPHE CHARACTERIZATION CACOPHONY

BURLESQUE ELEGY BAWDY CATHARSIS CHARACTERNYM CADENCE

COMEDY EPITHALAMION BOMBAST CHORUS DIALOGUE CONSONANCE

DISCOURSE FREE VERSE CACOPHONY COMIC RELIEF EPONYMOUS HERO ELISION

DYSTOPIA HAIKU CIRCUMLOCUTION CONFLICT HAMARTIA EUPHONY

EMBLEM LAMENT COLLOQUIALISM DEUS EX MACHINA HERO / HEROINE HOMONYM

EPIC LYRIC COPIA DIALOGUE HUBRIS HOMOPHONE

EPIGRAM MONODY DIALECT DRAMATIC IRONY IDIOLECT INFLECTION

MACHIAVELLIAN
EPISTOLARY NOVEL OCCASIONAL VERSE DIALOGUE EPILOGUE CHARACTER ONOMATOPOEIA

EPITAPH ODE DICTION HAMARTIA NEMESIS RHYME

FABLE PAN DIDACTICISM HUBRIS PATHETIC FALLACY RHYTHM

MACHIAVELLIAN
FABLIAU PALINODE DIGRESSION CHARACTER PERSONA SIBILANCE

FARCE RHAPSODY DOGGEREL MASQUE PROTAGONIST STRESS

FICTION SONNET EMOTIVE LANGUAGE MELODRAMA PSYCHOMACHIA SYNCOPE

FURNITURE THRENODY ENCOMIUM NEMESIS TRAGIC FLAW

GENRE TOPOGRAPHICAL EPIPHANY PARABASIS

GOTHIC POETRY EPITHET PATHOS CONNECTING IDEAS AUTHOR AND READER

HYMN EUPHEMISM PERIPETEIA

ILLUSION EXPOSITION PROLOGUE ALLUSION CANON

FREE INDIRECT
JEREMIAD POETIC TERMS DISCOURSE SOLILOQUY ANALOGUE NOM DE PLUME

JUVENILIA FUSTIAN TABLEAU ANITITHESIS OEUVRE

KUNSTLERROMAN ANAPAEST GROTESQUE TRAGIC FLAW ANTONYM RECEPTION

LAMPOON ANAPHORA HARANGUE UNITIES CANON VERISIMILITUDE

LEGEND ASYNDETON HOMILY CONFLICT

MELODRAMA BLANK VERSE HYPERBATION DIALECTIC IMAGERY

METAFICTION CAESURA HYPERBOLE STRUCTURE EPIGRAPH ANTHROPOMORPHISM

MONOGRAPH CANTO IDIOLECT SUB-TEXT IMAGERY

NARRATIVE COUPLET IDIOM ANAGNORISIS EXEMPLUM BLAZON

PANEGYRIC DACTYL INKHORN TERM ANALEPSIS HYPALLAGE CONCEIT

PARODY ELISION INVOCATION ANTI-CLIMAX INTERTEXTUALITY EMBLEM

PASQUINADE END-STOPPED IRONY BATHOS JUXTAPOSITION IMAGERY

PASTICHE ENJAMBEMENT JOURNALESE CATASTROPHE METAFICTION LEITMOTIF

PASTORAL FREE VERSE LEXIS CLIMAX METAPHOR METAPHOR

PETRARCHAN HEROIC COUPLET LITOTES CLOSURE METONYMY METONYMY

PHILIPPIC IAMB MALAPROPISM COMIC RELIEF OXYMORON MOTIF

PICARESQUE METER MAXIM CONFLICT PARADOX PERSONIFICATION

REVERDIE OCTAVE / OCTET MIMESIS CRISIS POLYSEMY PROSOPOPOEIA

RHAPSODY PENTAMETER MOCK HEROIC CRUX PORTMANTEAU WORD SIMILE

ROMAN CLEF PETRARCHAN NEOLOGISM DNOUEMENT PUN SYMBOL

SATIRE POLYSYNDETON ORAL TRADITION DEUS EX MACHINA SIGN

STREAM OF PROSODY PERIPHRASIS ELLIPSIS SIMILE ANALYSIS

CONSCIOUSNESS QUATRAIN PERSONA EPIGRAPH SYNAESTHESIA ELLIPSIS (ie when quoting)

TEXT QUINTAIN PURPLE PATCH EPILOGUE SYNECDOCHE EXEGESIS

RECEIVED
TRAGICOMEDY REFRAIN PRONUNCIATION EXPOSITION ZEUGMA EXPLICATION

TUDOR RANT RHYME REGISTER FORM GLOSS

UTOPIA RHYTHM RHETORICAL QUESTION IN MEDIA RES WORDPLAY GLOSSARY

SCANSION SCATOLOGY PERIPETEIA PROSODY

ATMOSPHERE SESTET / SEXTET SOLECISM PIVOT WORD ANTONYM SCANSION

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 SPONDEE TAUTOLOGY PLOT APTRONYM

DYSTOPIA STANZA TIRADE PROLEPSIS CHARACTERNYM THEME AND ATTITUDE

LOCUS AMOENUS SYNCOPE TONE PROLOGUE HOMONYM

MOOD TRIPLET VERNACULAR RESOLTION HOMOPHONE CARPE DIEM

PASTORAL TROCHEE SUB-PLOT PALINDROME CONTEMPTUS MUNDI

PATHETIC FALLACY VERSIFICATION SUB-TEXT POLYSEMY CRUX

PATHOS VOLTA SYNTAX PORTMANTEAU WORD LEITMOTIF

TONE UNITIES PUN POETIC JUSTICE

UTOPIA SYNONYM UBI SUNT

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 CRITICAL VOCABULARY

ACROSTIC A poem where the initial letter of each line

(Types of Poem) reads downwards to reveal a name or other
word or phrase. Such poems are often
playfully used to conceal the identity of a
mistress or patron.

ALLEGORY (Greek to speak otherwise) A story in

(Types of Writing) verse or prose with two parallel narratives,
one open and superficial, the other
concealed. The presence of the hidden
narrative is often indicated by symbolism
or allusion. The connections between the
two narratives are sustained and
continuous. Adjective: Allegorical.

ALLITERATION Repetition of consonant sounds within

(Sound) poetry or prose. Adjective: Alliterative.

ALLUSION An implied reference to an individual,

(Connecting Ideas) event, or another work of art or literature.
Allusion relies upon the authors and
readers common frame of reference. Eg.
The Bloody Captain in Macbeth alludes to
the crucifixion of Christ when he describes
Macbeths attack upon the rebels as
another Golgotha.

AMBIGUITY When an author intentionally uses

(Ways of Talking / Writing) language which is unclear or open to
interpretation. Adjective: Ambiguous.

ANAGNORISIS (Greek recognition) The moment in a

(Structure / literary work when a character moves from
Dramatic Conventions) ignorance to knowledge, e.g. Othellos
awareness of his credulity after killing
Desdemona.

ANALEPSIS A flashback or retrospection in a narrative,

(Structure) often used to provide background
information for the benefit of the reader or
audience. An example is Prosperos
description of events in Milan twelve years
before the opening of The Tempest.
Adjective: Analeptic.

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ANALOGUE A literary parallel; a text similar in
(Connecting Ideas) structure or theme to another. Adjective:
Analogic.

ANAPAEST A metrical foot composed of two

(Poetic Terms) unstressed syllables followed by one
stressed one; e.g., I went to the Bar as a
very young man.

ANAPHORA The repetition of one or more words in

(Sound) successive lines of verse or prose
sentences. It is generally used to generate
rhetorical momentum. Adjective:
Anaphoric.

ANTAGONIST The chief character in opposition or moral

(Creating Characters / contrast to the Protagonist (qv). The
Dramatic Conventions) antagonist is often villainous, but this is
reversed if the protagonist is evil. Eg.
Shylock in The Merchant of Venice;
Macduff in Macbeth.

ANTI-CLIMAX A deflation of Narrative (qv), switching

(Structure) from intensified expectations to Bathos
(qv) or disappointment. It is often used for
comic effect. Adjective: Anti-Climactic.

ANTI-HERO A central character who conspicuously fails

(Creating Characters) to conform to traditional qualities and
moral standards of the hero; a figure who
lacks heroic virtues. Eg. Pinkie in Brighton
Rock; Jimmy Porter in Look Back in
Anger.

ANTITHESIS A terse oppositional phrase with polarized

(Connecting Ideas) ideas balanced against each other. Eg. O
impotence of mind, in body strong!
(Milton). Adjective: Antithetical.

ANTHROPOMORPHISM To impose human values or attributes

(Imagery) upon creatures or the inanimate world. Eg.
phrases such as The Hand of God, The
song of the whale. Anthropomorphism is
ubiquitous in Aesops Fables and Rupert
the Bear. Adjective: Anthropomorphic.

ANTONYM A word meaning the opposite of another:

(Connecting Ideas / e.g. fair/foul; truthful/dishonest;
Wordplay) short/long; flippant/solemn. Antonyms
own antonym is Synonym. Adjective:
Antonymous.

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APHORISM A compressed statement, usually
(Ways of Talking / Writing) philosophical or reflective in character, and
often witty. Eg. A prince should provoke
neither fear nor war; Dogs, gamblers,
lovers and fire are never content with
little. See also Maxim. Adjective:
Aphoristic.

APOLOGY A written defence of a controversial

(Types of Writing) published opinion. Also Apologia.

APOSTROPHE An address to an abstract idea, entity,

(Types of Writing) absent or dead person, location or thing.
Eg. O Death, where is thy sting?; or
Amen to that, sweet powers.

APTRONYM A name chosen to reflect the personality,

(Creating Characters / physical appearance or other aspect of a
Wordplay) character. Eg. Mr Gradgrind; Miss Dainty
Fidget; Sir Toby Belch; Mr Fondlewife.
Adjective: Aptronymic.

ARCHAISM The use of obsolete or outmoded words. It

(Ways of Talking / Writing) is often used to lend an antiquated or
quaint feel to prose or verse; depending
upon context, it can also appear affected or
self-conscious. Adjective: Archaic.

ARCHETYPE A paradigmatic or stock character with

(Creating Characters) universal application, regardless of time,
place or genre. Eg. The dashing hero; the
troubled genius; the scolding wife; the
strong-spirited daughter; the lecherous
priest; the insolent servant; the loveable
rogue; the tart with heart. Adjective:
Archetypal.

ASIDE Dramatic convention where characters

(Dramatic Conventions) express thoughts to themselves or the
audience without being overheard by other
characters on stage.

ASSONANCE The repetition of vowel sounds in

(Sound) neighbouring words.

ASYNDETON The omission of conjunctives to create

(Poetic Terms) greater compression. It lends prose greater
urgency, edge or immediacy. Eg. The hot
city, menacing, rebellious. Angry people,
restless, impatient.

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AUBADE A poem celebrating the dawn, or a poem
(Types of Poem) about lovers parting at daybreak.

BALLAD A song telling a story, originally

(Types of Poem) accompanied by dancing. In general,
ballads reflect low or humble subjects. The
theme is often tragic, sensational and
moral, the language direct and simple, and
it is often punctuated by a Refrain (qv).
Adjective: Balladic.

BATHOS The unintentional fall into absurdity by an

(Structure / author aiming at elevated expression.
Ways of Talking and Writing) Adjective: Bathetic.

BAWDY The literary term for vulgarity, coarseness

(Ways of Talking / Writing) and sexual innuendo.

BEAST FABLE A short moral tale where animals replace

(Types of Writing) men and women yet show human
characteristics. They are frequently
satirical in intent. Chaucers Nuns Priests
Tale is an example, as are most of Aesops
Fables.

BILDUNGSROMAN (German formation novel) A story

(Types of Writing) following a characters growth or
development through childhood,
adolescence and into adult life.

BLANK VERSE Unrhymed lines of iambic pentameters.

(Poetic Terms) This is the most common English verse
form and is believed to reflect the rhythms
of everyday speech. Should not be confused
with Free Verse (qv).

BLAZON (French, coat-of-arms). Rhetorical device

(Imagery) in poetry where the beauties of a mistress
are itemized in a schematic top-down
manner. The poet conventionally praises
the ladys hair, brow, eyebrows, eyes, nose,
lips, teeth, breath, chin, neck, breasts. John
Donne had, of course, to work up from the
feet in Loves Progress. The tradition
was introduced by Petrarch and frequently
imitated.

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BOMBAST Absurdly inflated language, often ill-suited
(Ways of Talking / Writing) to the theme. When deployed intentionally
by the author, it is usually uttered by
pompous or ridiculous characters.
Adjective: Bombastic.

BURLESQUE A parody of a serious literary work, often

(Types of Writing) applying the style of the elegant original to
a low or vulgar theme.

CACOPHONY Harshness of sound in verse or prose.

(Sound / Adjective: Cacophonic.
Ways of Talking and Writing)

CADENCE The melodic rise and fall of patterns of

(Sound) speech, prose or verse. See also Inflection
(qv).

CAESURA (Latin, cut). A pause in poetry dictated by

(Poetic Terms) the break in clause or sentence. An initial
caesura occurs near the beginning of a
line, a medial caesura near the middle of
a line, and a terminal caesura towards
the end of a line.

CANON A body of works which a consensus of

(Connecting Ideas / Author and critics, scholars and other experts hold to
Reader) be exemplary of a nations literature.
Adjective: Canonical.

CANTO (Italian, song). A subdivision of an Epic

(Poetic Terms) poem, equivalent to the chapter of a novel.

CARPE DIEM (Latin seize the day) A common theme

(Theme and Attitude) in poetry where the reader or addressee is
advised to make the most of fleeting time.
Such poems are often an invitation to
sensuality, but can also warn of imminent
judgement and the afterlife. Famous
examples are Robert Herricks To the
Virgins, To Make Much of Time, and
Andrew Marvells To His Coy Mistress.

CATASTROPHE (Greek overturning) The tragic

(Structure / Dnouement (qv) of a play or novel,
Dramatic Conventions) often involving the death of the
Protagonist (qv).

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CATHARSIS (Greek purgation) 1. The purging of
(Dramatic Conventions) guilt or unhealthy emotion from the
Protagonist in a Tragedy (qqv). 2. The
purging of horror and fear from the
audience at the end of a tragedy. Adjective:
Cathartic.

CHARACTERISATION The representation of figures in literature,

(Creating Characters) including details of psychology,
motivation, appearance and social role.
Flat characters have only one
distinguishing feature; Round
characters have complex, convincing
features; Stock characters conform to
familiar stereotypical roles; Static
characters do not undergo any moral
growth or other transformation through
the course of the narrative.

CHARACTERNYM See Aptronym.

(Creating Characters /
Wordplay)

CHORUS A group of actors speaking or singing in

(Dramatic Conventions) unison in drama or poetry. Deriving from
Greek drama, the chorus often expresses
communal responses to the action.
Adjective: Choric.

CIRCUMLOCUTION Roundabout or digressive speech or

(Ways of Talking / Writing) writing, perhaps to conceal information or
avoid offence.
Adjective: Circumlocutory.

CLIMAX The moment in a narrative where a crisis is

(Structure) resolved. Adjective: Climactic.

CLOSURE The sense of resolution or completion at

(Structure) the end of a literary work.

COLLOQUIALISM The use of informal expression or Dialect

(Ways of Talking / Writing) Words (qv). Adjective: Colloquial.

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COMEDY (Greek revel) A play or other work
(Types of Writing) written to amuse an audience. Comedies
are usually set in the everyday world,
examine social manners, and frequently
treat the trials of love. Comedies almost
always have happy endings for the chief
characters, perhaps marriage or an
improvement in circumstances. In
medieval literature the term was applied to
any story with a happy ending. Adjectives:
Comic, Comedic.

COMIC RELIEF The insertion of a short comic episode

(Structure / Dramatic within a larger, tragic work. This can be
Conventions) used to alleviate tension, intensify pathos
or throw the major issues of a play into
contrast.

COMPLAINT A melancholy poem expressing discontent

(Types of Poem) or emotional trauma. The theme of
complaints is typically unhappiness in love,
especially the cruelty of a mistress, but
they can also treat political estrangement
or other misfortunes.

CONCEIT (Latin concept; Italian witty trifle) A

(Imagery) fanciful metaphor depending upon an
unlikely parallel or surprising or daring
comparison. Conceits are typically found in
sixteenth and seventeenth-century poetry,
notably the Metaphysical poets where they
are often sustained displays of inventive
wit. This species of metaphor appeals
principally to the intellect, and is more
rarely sensually vivid.

CONFLICT The collision of ideas, outlooks, interests or

(Dramatic Conventions / ambitions in a narrative. Conflict can occur
Structure / Connecting Ideas) between individuals, typically perhaps a
man and a woman, between an individual
and his environment or social context, or
between an individual and an element
within his own psyche.

CONSONANCE A form of half-rhyme involving the

(Sound) repetition of consonants, usually at the end
of words; e.g. blank and think; strong
and string; swan and stone. See also
Assonance.

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CONTEMPTUS MUNDI Expressions of disaffection and mistrust of
(Theme and Attitude) the world and human achievement. The
writer warns of the fleeting nature of
human life and the impermanence of
human endeavour, contrasting these with
the eternal values of heaven.

COPIA The provision of multiple examples or

(Ways of Talking / Writing) instances to illustrate a point or argument.
Particularly effective in rhetoric, copia is
intended to persuade through weight of
proof.

COUPLET Two successive rhyming lines of verse.

(Poetic Terms)

CRISIS The decisive moment of a narrative where

(Structure) tensions reach their peak and the action
moves towards resolution.

CRUX A puzzling or apparently insoluble problem

(Theme and Attitude / Stucture) sometimes intentional; sometimes owing
to authorial inattention.

DACTYL A metrical foot comprised of one stressed

(Poetic Terms) and two unstressed syllables.

DNOUEMENT (French untying) The resolution of plot

(Structure) complications in a narrative, usually
following the Climax (qv).

DEUS EX MACHINA (Latin god from the machine) The

(Structure / resolution of a plot by an improbable
Dramatic Conventions) coincidence or other fortuitous outcome.
E.g., any James Bond novel.

DIALECT A distinctive variant of a language, often

(Ways of Talking / Writing) spoken within a specific geographical
region where pronunciation, vocabulary
and sometimes grammar differs from the
standard form of the language (see
Received Pronunciation (qv)). The
notion of a standard form of a language is
itself suspect, usually reflecting its form in
the place of greatest political and economic
influence. Examples of dialects within
English include Geordie (NE England);
Cockney (East London); Estuary English
(Essex); Glaswegian (for Glasgow); and
Ulster English (Northern Ireland).

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DIALECTIC In one sense, the process or reasoning or
(Connecting Ideas) logical argument. In another sense, the
exchange of contrary or opposing ideas
within an academic or ideological debate.
Adjective: Dialectical.

DIALOGUE Speech between characters in literary

(Creating Characters / works. In a more specialized application, a
Dramatic Conventions / discursive work articulated by fictional
Types of Writing) characters. Adjective: Dialogic.

DICTION The verbal register of a literary work.

(Ways of Talking / Writing) Typical elements in diction in literature
may include figurative expression, literal
expression, formal expression or informal
expression.

DIDACTICISM The authoritative communication of

(Ways of Talking / Writing) knowledge or doctrine, usually with little
regard for debate or negotiation. Adjective:
Didactic.

DIGRESSION A departure from the narrative or

(Ways of Talking / Writing) discursive thread. Such wanderings from
the point can be used to comic effect, as in
the novels of Henry Fielding. Adjective:
Digressive.

DISCOURSE A sustained exposition or thesis of a

(Types of Writing) serious, often controversial theme, which
develops ideas with care and coherence.

DOGGEREL Execrable or inept poetry.

(Types of Poem / Ways of
Talking and Writing)

DRAMATIC IRONY The discrepancy between what a character

(Dramatic Conventions) in a play believes to be true and what the
audience or reader knows to be true. Eg. In
King Lear, Gloucesters statements of
regard for the illegitimate son who is
plotting against him.

DYSTOPIA The creation of a nightmare fictional world

(Types of Writing / where human conduct is brutal and
Atmosphere) merciless. Dystopic worlds are mirror
images of utopias (qv) and often satirize
contemporary life. Eg. Orwells 1984;
Huxleys Brave New World. Adjective:
Dystopian.

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ELEGY A mournful lyric poem lamenting the death
(Types of Poem) of an individual or some other personal
loss, expressing regret for lifes
vicissitudes. Adjective: Elegaic.

ELISION The slurring of a syllable or vowel, usually

(Sound / Poetic Terms) by running two words together. Eg.
Theventide. Adjective: Elided.

ELLIPSIS The omission of one or more words from a

(Structure / Analysis) sentence or line of poetry, drama, etc.
Commonly used when citing lengthy
quotations. Ellipsis is denoted by a line of
three full stops, or four, if the omitted
words close the sentence. Adjective:
Elliptical.

EMBLEM A literary form of the Renaissance and

(Types of Writing / Imagery) early modern period in which a motto is
combined with a picture and epigram to
comment upon morality, love, politics,
religion and philosophical concerns.
Meaning is often ambiguous or fluid, and
emblems are open-ended forms with
considerable space for personal
interpretation. Adjective: Emblematic.

EMOTIVE LANGUAGE Language calculated to rouse emotions,

(Ways of Talking / Writing) such as anger, patriotism, partisanship,
etc. in the listener.

ENCOMIUM The glorification and celebration of a

(Ways of Talking / Writing) person, place or event. A commonly used
device in propaganda, but deployed for
more innocent purposes in, for example,
poems or addresses to great persons, a
lover, or even to God. Adjective:
Encomiastic.

END-STOPPED When metre, rhyme and sense all coincide

(Poetic Terms) at the end of a line of poetry. See also
Caesura (qv).

ENJAMBEMENT Running the sense of a line of poetry over

(Poetic Terms) the Caesura (qv). As an effect,
enjambement can increase of fluidity and
speed of verse. It also forces attention upon
the terminal word in one line, and the
primary word in the next.

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EPIC (Greek, song). A long narrative poem
(Types of Writing) treating a powerful theme on the life and
achievements of heroes, rulers and military
leaders. Epics typically describe the
foundation of nations or civilizations, and
combine historical elements with allegory
and myth. The leading examples in
Western culture are The Iliad, Odyssey
and The Aeneid. Spensers Faerie Queene
and Miltons Paradise Lost are the most
celebrated examples in English literature.
The term is grossly misused when applied
to Hollywood blockbuster films.

EPIGRAM (Greek, inscription). An aphoristic

(Types of Writing) statement in verse or prose, notable for its
wit and concision. Epigrams can be
moralistic, satiric or eulogistic. Adjective:
Epigrammatic.

EPIGRAPH A short quotation placed on the title page

(Structure / Connecting Ideas) of a book. Adjective: Epigraphic.

EPILOGUE (Greek, long speech). A speech presented

(Structure / Dramatic at the close of a play, often summing up the
Conventions) action, or drawing a moral from it.
Shakespearean epilogues often make a
direct appeal to the audience for applause,
thus wittily breaking the Illusion (qv) of
the play.

EPIPHANY (Greek, manifestation). A transcendent

(Ways of Talking / Writing) moment in a work of literature. They occur
commonly in intensely religious works,
such as seventeenth-century divine lyrics;
but they also appear in modern authors
such as Joyce where they reveal the
spiritual condition of the Protagonist
(qv) or document the experience of
heightened sensory awareness. Adjective:
Epiphanic.

EPISTOLARY NOVEL A form of narrative popular in the

(Types of Writing) eighteenth century where the entire action
of a story was told through letters
exchanged between characters. Famous
examples include Samuel Richardsons
Pamela and Clarissa.

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EPITAPH (Greek, funeral oration). A memorial
(Types of Writing) inscription carved upon a monument
denoting the achievements of the dead.

EPITHALAMION (Greek, bridal chamber). A poem

(Types of Poem) celebrating a wedding, usually elaborately
allegorical in nature. There are famous
examples by Spenser and Donne.

EPITHET (Greek, add). An adjective set before a

(Ways of Talking / Writing) name to define character or properties. An
example is Chaucers repeated use in The
Millers Tale of the phrase hende
Nicholas to denote the characters
amorous nature.

EPONYMOUS HERO A character who lends his/her name to a

(Creating Characters) book: eg. Macbeth, Hamlet, Emma,
Madame Bovary, Squirrel Nutkin, Rupert
the Bear.

EUPHEMISM Circumlocution. The avoidance of a

(Ways of Talking / Writing) sensitive, personal, indelicate or taboo
subject by the use of mild or evasive
language. For example, to avoid talking of
death, it might be said that someone has
kicked the bucket, passed away, is no
longer with us. A pregnant woman is
expecting, in the family way, has a bun
in the oven, etc. Adjective: Euphemistic.

EUPHONY Beautiful, soft sounds in poetry, usually

(Sound) achieved through the use of Assonance
and Sibilance (qqv). Adjective:
Euphonic.

EXEGESIS The Exposition (qv) of difficult or

(Analysis) obscure passages in literature, and, in
particular, the Bible. Adjective:
Exegetical.

EXEMPLUM A reference to a universally known story to

(Connecting Ideas) illustrate a moral. An example might be an
Allusion (qv) to the story of Samson to
warn against trusting a scheming wife, or
reference to Canute to advise against
Hubris (qv).

EXPLICATION The formal analysis and dissection of a

(Analysis) passage of text. Adjective: Explicatory.

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EXPOSITION The method of providing necessary
(Structure / Ways of Talking knowledge of character, place or
and Writing) circumstance at the beginning of a story or
play. Adjective: Expository.

FABLE A moral story with universal applicability.

(Types of Writing) Fables often treat the follies and virtues of
humanity through simple, monolithic
stories. Their truths and lessons are
timeless. Beast fables
Anthropomorphize (qv) human
behaviour through a narrative involving
animals, and often carry a pronounced
Satiric edge (qv).

FABLIAU A species of Fable (qv) that flourished in

(Types of Writing) the Middle Ages often of a scabrous or
Bawdy nature (qv).

FARCE A dramatic comic mode characterized by

(Types of Writing) slapstick humour, physical comedy,
preposterous scenarios, and often a frantic
pace. Essentially unrealistic, farces feature
exaggerated human types, far-fetched
coincidences and comical confrontations.
Adjective: Farcical.

FICTION General term for imaginative writing in

(Types of Writing) prose, that is, novels, short stories,
novellas, etc. Adjective: Fictional,
Fictive.

FORM The structure and mechanics of a literary

(Structure) work, embracing such things as genre,
style, etc. An analysis of form does not
consider contents of the work. Adjective:
Formal.

FREE INDIRECT A narrative standpoint when the third

DISCOURSE person narrator uses the language and
(Ways of Talking / Writing) speech patterns of the character without
using the first person (I). In free indirect
discourse the narrative is flexible and may
quickly shift back and forth from intimate
and subjective to distant and objective. He
went to the door. Damn. She was waiting
for him. See the opening of Virginia
Woolfs To the Lighthouse for the
sophisticated use of it.

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FREE VERSE Verse with no regular Rhythm, line
(Poetic Form / Types of Poem) length, or Meter (qqv).

FURNITURE Props and apparatus in a work that help

(Types of Writing) identify genre; for example, sheep,
shepherds, shepherdesses, are all furniture
that denote Pastoral; weapons,
warhorses, city walls, denote Epic (qqv).

FUSTIAN Pompous, inflated or Bombastic

(Ways of Talking / Writing) literature (qv), always used disparagingly.
See also Inkhorn Term (qv).

GENRE A literary category, such as novel, Epic

(Types of Writing) poetry, dramatic monologue, Lyric,
Gothic novel, Jacobean city comedy, etc.
Adjective: Generic.

GLOSS An explanatory note provided either by the

(Analysis) author or his/her editor.

GLOSSARY A list of technical, obscure or difficult

(Analysis) words, for example, the present document.

GOTHIC A genre of literature, generally believed to

(Types of Writing) have been invented by Horace Walpole
with his novel The Castle of Otranto
(1764), that combines elements of horror
and Romance. Prominent features include
mystery, terror, madness, decay, bandits,
ghosts, castles, demons, monsters and
hereditary curses.

GROTESQUE The bizarre, exotic, forbidden or unnatural

(Ways of Talking / Writing) in literature, usually exaggerated human
types. Dickenss villains are often styled in
the grotesque.

HAIKU Short Japanese verse form using seventeen

(Types of Poem) syllables in three lines of five, seven and
five respectively. Sometimes attempted by
modern English poets as demonstration of
skill.

HAMARTIA Tragic misjudgement or error by the

(Creating Characters / Protagonist (qv) in a novel or play.
Dramatic Conventions) Closely connected to Tragic Flaw,
Hamartia normally afflicts the protagonist
by coincidence or chance.

17
HARANGUE An inflammatory speech calculated to
(Ways of Talking / Writing) rouse dangerous or passionate emotions in
its hearers, for example, Henry Vs speech
before Agincourt.

HERO/HEROINE Principal male or female character in a

(Creating Characters) work of literature. See Protagonist (qv).

HEROIC COUPLET A couplet comprised of two rhymed iambic

(Poetic Terms) pentameters.

HOMILY A sermon or moral address. Adjective:

(Ways of Talking / Writing) Homiletic.

HOMONYM A word with identical sounds and spelling

(Sound / Wordplay) to another , but with different meaning,
e.g. bear (animal) and bear (carry);
late (tardy) and late (recently
deceased). Adjective: Homonymic.

HOMOPHONE Words with identical sounds but diverse

(Sound / Worddplay) meanings, for example, doe and dough;
read and reed; there, theyre and
their. Adjective: Homophonic.

HUBRIS (Greek, wanton insolence). Insolence or

(Creating Characters / overweening arrogance directed towards
Conventions of Drama) the gods, Prometheuss theft of fire. More
generally, pompous, high-handed and
arrogant behaviour. Adjective: Hubristic.

HYMN Song of praise for a god or hero. In the

(Types of Writing) Christian tradition, a thanks offering of
song to God. Adjective: Hymnodic.

HYPALLAGE (Greek, exchange). Transferring an

(Connecting Ideas) epithet to an object to which it does not
naturally belong, for example, the
fortunate path; the lucky trousers; the
hot seat.

HYPERBATON In practice, the placement of a verb at the

(Ways of Talking / Writing) end of a line of verse to magnify effect,
often of grandeur or foreboding, for
example, something wicked this way
comes from Macbeth.

18
HYPERBOLE The use of exaggeration for literary or
(Ways of Talking / Writing) comical or emotional effect, e.g. Im so
hungry I could eat a horse; No woman in
the world could match her beauty and
grace. Adjective: Hyperbolic.

IAMB A metrical foot employing an unstressed

(Poetic Terms) syllable followed by a stressed syllable.
Iambic meter is the commonest metrical
form in English verse as it is judged to
correspond closely to spoken patterns.
Adjective: Iambic.

IDIOLECT The vocabulary and spoken forms peculiar

(Creating Characters / Ways of to an individual.
Talking and Writing)

IDIOM Linguistic phrases, constructions and

(Ways of Talking / Writing) figures of speech peculiar to a language,
but not obvious or apparent by themselves,
for example, its raining cats and dogs;
shes leading him up the garden path;
hes not the full shilling, etc. Differences
in idiom between languages are often
interesting, e.g. English: To push up the
daisies; German: To stare up at the
radishes from below: English: To shut
the stable door when the horse has bolted;
German: To put the lid on the well when
the child has drowned: English: To trust
the cat to keep the cream; German: To
appoint the goat to be gardener.
Adjective: Idiomatic.

ILLUSION The creation of a fictional, believable

(Types of Writing) world, like the social communities
conjured by Jane Austen, or the sense of
danger in a horror story. Illusion requires
the involvement of the reader through
suspension of disbelief, etc.

IMAGERY The use of figurative language to represent

(Imagery!) or evoke objects, actions, emotions,
thoughts, ideas, experiences, etc.

IN MEDIA RES (Latin, In the middle of things). When a

(Structure) narrative begins in the middle of
significant action. It has the effect of
quickly establishing the interest of the
reader or audience; preceding events are
later related through Analepsis (qv).

19
INFLECTION A change of pitch in the pronunciation of a
(Sound) word; inflection can add to the musicality
of language. Adjective: Inflected.

INKHORN TERM Obsolete or pretentious language used

(Ways of Talking / Writing) pompously or pedantically, or the adoption
of affected foreign words.

INTERTEXTUALITY A way to describe the way in which texts

(Connecting Ideas) interrelate whether intentionally or not. A
popular way of describing the phenomena
is to say that later texts are woven from the
threads of earlier ones. The threads can
range from explicit Allusions (qv) to
hidden influences, to the readers ability to
read one text in light of their experience of
another, to the fact that they all use
language. For the reader, every text is,
from minute to significant ways, an
absorption and transformation of other
texts.

INVOCATION The appeal made by poets to a muse or

(Ways of Talking / Writing) deity to assist them in achieving their
poetic task. Common in Epic poetry (qv),
invocations usually appear at the beginning
of the poem, as in Miltons Paradise Lost,
or throughout the poem, as in Luis Vaz de
Cames Lusiads.

IRONY An incongruity or discrepancy of language

(Ways of Talking / Writing) or action against a situation. Verbal irony
is where what is said is at variance with
intention; dramatic irony is where a
character says or thinks things the
audience or reader knows to be untrue;
and situational irony is when there is a gap
between appearance and reality, or
expectation and fulfilment. Irony is a
major aspect of comedy, but can also be
used to evoke pathos and empathy.
Adjective: Ironic.

JEREMIAD Any writing lamenting the state of the

(Types of Writing) world, or taking a pessimistic view of
human nature. Named after the cheerless
Old Testament prophet.

20
JOURNALESE The populist style of non-fictional writing
(Ways of Talking / Writing) favoured by print journalists, often rich in
a recognized shorthand, vivid phrasing and
clichs. Examples might include headlines
such as Tesco Targets Sickies; PM Faces
Kicking In Polls; Yoga Death Fall Of
Imran Ex; or Bar Staff Cigs Peril.
Favourite verbs in Journalese include
Blasts, Slams, or Snubs; favourite
abbreviations Op, KO-ed, or Doc; and
favourite slang Boffin, Love Rat or
Eurocrat. Personalities are often given
truncated forms of their names; Becks;
Wozza; Wills; e.g. Macca Fury at
Prezza Prank i.e. Paul McCartney is
aggrieved at the behaviour of John
Prescott.

JUVENILIA The literary output of an author from their

(Types of Writing) childhood or youth.

JUXTAPOSITION Placing contrasting ideas, objects, motifs,

(Connecting Ideas) characters beside each other for effect, for
example, a young child standing in a
graveyard, a wolf in sheeps clothing, a fly
in the ointment. Adjective: Juxtaposed.

KUNSTLERROMAN German term for a novel charting the

(Types of Writing) growth of an artist from childhood to
maturity. Joyces A Portrait of the Artist as
a Young Man is perhaps the best known
example in English.

LAMENT A poem expressing grief in bereavement or

(Types of Poem) regret for the loss of status, former
happiness, or other reverse.

LAMPOON An attack upon an individual and their

(Types of Writing) folly, involving ridicule and personal
abuse. It is a form of Satire (qv).

LEGEND A story or cycle of stories passed down

(Types of Writing) through the oral tradition telling the deeds
of an improbably heroic character, often a
king, saint, warrior, or other exemplary
figure. Examples include the tales of King
Arthur and his Round Table, or Robin
Hood. Adjective: Legendary.

21
LEITMOTIF A recurring phrase, concept or symbol in a
(Imagery / Theme and Attitude) literary work underpinning the general
theme. The term has crossed over into
literary study from musical terminology.

LEXIS Either the entire range of vocabulary in a

(Ways of Talking / Writing) language, or, in critical use, the range of
vocabulary within a single literary work. A
poem on nature could be said to feature a
morbid lexis if there is a repeated use of
words associated with death. Also Lexical
Field.

LITOTES An understatement, e.g., I wouldnt say no

(Ways of Talking / Writing) to winning the Lottery; I wouldnt call
her unattractive; Ive heard worse ideas
in my time. Litotes is the opposite of
Hyperbole (qv).

LOCUS AMOENUS (Latin, beautiful place). In literary works,

(Atmosphere) a beautiful setting apposite for a love
scene, or trysting place. Typically, such
places feature shady groves, with fruit
trees, fountains, and flowery meads.
Common in Renaissance literature.

LYRIC Originally a song sung to a lyre, lyric is now

(Types of Poem) understood to mean a short poem
conveying personal sentiment or subjective
expression. Lyric poems can embrace the
themes of love, devotion, reflection and
melancholy: they are often beautiful and
passionate. Widespread in the medieval
and Renaissance periods, and particularly
strong in the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries, lyric poems are perhaps the
most common form of poetry of all.
Adjective: Lyrical.

MACHIAVELLIAN In Renaissance drama, a character whose

CHARACTER behaviour corresponds to contemporary
(Creating Characters / understanding of the philosophy of the
Dramatic Conventions) sixteenth-century Florentine statesman,
Niccolo Machiavelli. Notorious for his
treatise The Prince, Machiavelli was
believed to be atheistic, unscrupulous,
cunning, and ruthless. Accordingly,
Machiavellian characters in (e.g.)
Shakespeares plays are thoroughly
villainous and calculating: Richard III,
Edmund, and Iago.

22
MALAPROPISM An authors deliberate misuse of a word,
(Ways of Talking / Writing) usually for comic effect. Often placed in the
mouth of pompous or foolish characters to
betray their ignorance or pretension, e.g.
Dogberry in Much Ado About Nothing. The
word derives from Richard Sheridans
character Mrs Malaprop in the play The
Rivals (1775).

MASQUE A theatrical form popular in court circles in

(Dramatic Conventions) the first part of the seventeenth century,
so-called because of its deployment of
masques and disguise, characterized by a
blend of drama, song, dance and spectacle.
Masques featured elaborate staging and
theatrical effects, and were costly and
elevated forms of entertainment. They
were often staged to celebrate dynastic or
political events, such as marriages or peace
treaties, and have a strongly allegorical or
mythological flavour.

MAXIM A pithy, Aphoristic (qv) sentence

(Ways of Talking / Writing) expressing a moral precept of universal
application.

MELODRAMA Dramatic form with exaggerated action

(Dramatic Conventions / Types and emotion, often similar to Tragedy,
of Writing) but generally with a happy Resolution
(qqv). Melodramas typically feature overtly
virtuous characters pitched against openly
villainous antagonists. Adjective:
Melodramatic.

METAFICTION A term given to fictional writing which self-

(Types of Writing / consciously and systematically draws
Connecting Ideas) attention to its status as an artefact in
order to pose questions about the
relationship between fiction and reality. In
providing a critique of their own methods
of construction, such writings not only
examine the fundamental structures of
narrative fiction; they also explore the
possible fictionality of the world outside
the literary fictional text. Salman Rushdies
Midnights Children is a clear
contemporary example; the Chorus in
Romeo & Juliet arguably plays a meta-
fictional function as well.

23
METAPHOR (Greek, carrying from one place to
(Imagery / Connecting Ideas) another). Imagery (qv) in poetry, prose
or drama. A metaphor differs from the
Simile (qv) in explicitly suppressing its
artificiality, i.e. the act of comparison
between entity and concept is not signalled
by the use of the formulae x is like y or
as x does this, so y does this. Adjective:
Metaphorical.

METONYMY A figure of speech where the name of an

(Connecting Ideas / Imagery) entity is substituted by a related Symbol,
e.g. The Chamber, for the House of
Commons, or the Throne, for the
institution of monarchy. Metonymy is
related to Synecdoche (qv). Adjective:
Metonymic.

METER The pattern of stressed and unstressed

(Poetic Terms) syllables in verse. Useful metrical terms
include Monometer (1 syllable);
Dimeter (2 syllables); Trimeter (3
syllables); Tetrameter (4 syllables);
Pentameter (5 syllables); hexameter
(six syllables); Heptameter (7 syllables);
Octameter (8 syllables). Adjective:
Metrical.

MIMESIS Where a word or action reflects a larger

(Ways of Talking / Writing) concept in a work of literature, or where
the use of form mirrors the theme, e.g. the
fluid structure of D. H. Lawrences poem
Snake which corresponds to the animals
flexuous movement. Adjective: Mimetic.

MOCK HEROIC Treating a frivolous or minor subject

(Ways of Talking / Writing) seriously, especially by using the
machinery and devices of the Epic (qv),
i.e. Invocations (qv), descriptions of
armour, battles, extended similes, etc. See
Alexander Popes The Rape of the Lock.

MONODY A poem of mourning.

(Types of Poem) Adjective: Monodic.

MONOGRAPH A prose essay or composition focussing in a

(Types of Writing) sustained way upon a narrow theme.

MOOD The overall emotional feeling generated in

(Atmosphere) a passage, scene or poem.

24
MOTIF A recurring theme, idea, or character in a
(Imagery) literary work.

NARRATIVE A story, tale, novel: any sustained telling of

(Types of Writing) a story, true or fictional, through related
episodes and scenic, contextual
consistency. First-Person Narrative is
told from the perspective of I, a narrator
telling of events from his or her position;
Third-Person Narrative is where the
narrator is not apparently interchangeable
with the authorial voice, and the actions
and thoughts of characters are described in
terms of he, she, they etc.

NEMESIS The punishment for wrong-doing, often

(Creating Characters / visited upon a protagonist of a tragedy. The
Dramatic Conventions) Nemesis is often identified with an
avenger, after the Greek goddess Nemesis
who used human agents to perform her
purposes.

NEOLOGISM A coinage /a new word. Adjective:

(Ways of Talking / Writing) Neologic.

NOM DE PLUME An assumed name used by an author, e.g.

(Author and Reader) George Orwell for Eric Arthur Blair.

OCCASIONAL VERSE Poetry written to mark an occasion, such as

(Types of Poem) New Year, a birthday, marriage,
promotion, bereavement, etc.

ODE Type of poem originating in antiquity and

(Types of Poem) intended to be sung. Generally lofty and
moral in tone, and ceremonious or public
in intention. Examples by Keats are the
best known in the language.

OEUVRE A corpus of writing by an author.

(Author and Reader)

OCTET/OCTAVE The opening eight-line sequence of a

(Poetic Terms) Sonnet (qv), usually presenting an
argument or problem to be resolved or
answered in the Sextet/sestet (qv).

25
ONOMATOPOEIA The use of words whose sounds imitate the
(Sound) action they describe, e.g. crash, thump,
sizzle, belch, spit, strum, whip. Adjective:
Onomatopoeic.

ORAL TRADITION Poetry passed from generation to

(Ways of Talking / Writing) generation in spoken, not written form.
The outline of stories and themes remain
stable, but considerable colouration is
given to details of character or
circumstance by the individual performer,
with the result that the form develops
organically over the course of time. Oral
poetry is the earliest type of structured
utterance, and occurs predominantly
within semi-literate cultures. As a
consequence it is not part of mainstream
international literature today, but holds
enormous local and cultural significance.

OXYMORON A species of Paradox (qv) where two

(Connecting Ideas) apparently opposed ideas are set in
immediate proximity for heightened ironic
effect, e.g. cold flame, blinding darkness,
evil prayer. Adjective: Oxymoronic.

PAN Originally, a song of triumph after military

(Types of Poem) success; more generally, any poem of
praise, especially directed towards political
leaders.

PALINDROME A word that reads the same forwards or

(Wordplay) backwards, e.g. tenet, eye, level, civic,
radar. Adjective: Palindromic.

PALINODE A poem retracting statements made in

(Types of Poem) earlier poems by the same author.

PANEGYRIC Enthusiastic praise of an individual,

(Types of Writing) institution or state in poetic form. See also
Encomium. Adjective: Panegyrical.

PARABASIS When a character in a play steps out of the

(Dramatic Conventions) action at the close and addresses the
audience directly, e.g. Prospero in The
Tempest.

26
PARADOX A contradictory or absurd statement which
(Connecting Ideas) conceals a hidden truth or depth, such as
Wordsworths idea that The child is father
to the man. Adjective: Paradoxical.

PARODY An imitation of the words, ideas, form of

(Types of Writing) literature or social manners in such a way
as to point up absurdity, folly or weakness.
Parody is widely used in Satire (qv), and
therefore shares its reformatory instincts,
but it can also be used more abusively.
Adjective: Parodic.

PASQUINADE Alternative name for Lampoon (qv).

(Types of Writing)

PASTICHE Writing made up of quotations and or

(Types of Writing) imitations of other works and styles. When
used Satirically, it can be a form of
Parody (qqv).

PASTORAL A genre originally deriving from antiquity

(Types of Writing / which deals with the lives and concerns of
Atmosphere) shepherds, but more widely understood as
literature extolling the virtues of the rural
life, always in implicit contrast to the vices
of the city and civilization.

PATHETIC FALLACY A term coined by John Ruskin in 1856 to

(Creating Characters / denote passages in literature where natural
Atmosphere) phenomena or climactic conditions reflect
the mood of characters in their midst, e.g.
heavy downpours of rain reflecting a
characters bleakness, or the sun breaking
through cloud their emotional recovery.

PATHOS The emotionally moving power of a work of

(Atmosphere / Dramatic literature, particularly when the
Conventions) reader/audience shares feelings of
compassion, pity or sorrow for the
Protagonist (qv). Adjective: Pathetic.

PENTAMETER See Meter.

(Poetic Terms)

PERIPETEIA (Greek sudden change). The reversal of a

(Structure / Dramatic protagonists fortunes from prosperity to
Conventions) misery.

27
PERIPHRASIS (Greek roundabout speech). Talking
(Ways of Talking / Writing) around a subject because of its delicacy, or
a sense of courtesy. The term can also
denote pomposity and verbosity and is
related to Circumlocution. Adjective:
Periphrastic.

PERSONA The speaking voice in a work of literature,

(Ways of Talking / Writing) or identity of the narrator.
(Creating Character)

PERSONIFICATION General term for the species of Metaphor

(Imagery) (qv) where inanimate or non-human
entities are ascribed human characteristics,
e.g. The eye of the storm; the sun has got
his hat on, etc.

PETRARCHAN Any literature that deploys themes or

(Types of Writing / tropes from the poetry of the Italian author
Poetic Form) Francesco Petrarch, particularly his
vocabulary of images describing the
agonies, desires, hopes and other
sensations felt by the lover. Also known as
Petrarchist.

PHILIPPIC A strong denunciation or condemnation in

(Types of Writing) speech or writing, so named after
Demosthenes attacks upon Philip of
Macedonia.

PICARESQUE Strictly, a novel that tells the story of a

(Types of Writing) servant or low character (the picaroon)
employed by a series of masters and who
undergoes some low, often comic,
experiences. More widely, picaresque
stories relate the adventures of comic
characters and are coarsely Satirical (qv)
of contemporary society. Henry Fieldings
Tom Jones is perhaps the best example in
English.

PIVOT WORD A single word that alters or modifies the

(Structure) meaning, mood or direction of a poem,
speech or essay. They often occur, for
example, as the first word in the Sextet of
a Sonnet, signalling the beginning of the
Resolution of the problem posed in the
Octet (qqv). See also Volta.

28
PLOT The narrative shape of a literary work,
(Structure) involving the organization of events in a
play. Plots are manipulated to create
effects of tension, suspense, uncertainty,
and often conclude with a Crisis, Climax,
Dnouement (qqv), etc.

POETIC JUSTICE A seventeenth-century term indicating

(Theme and Attitude) when virtue is rewarded and vice punished
in a literary work. Poetic justice is closely
related to a moralistic conception of
literature.

POLYSEMY (Greek many meanings). When a word

(Connecting Ideas / carries more than one meaning, such as
Wordplay) crane (bird) and crane (building device);
or strike (blow) and strike (industrial
action). Adjective: Polysemous.

POLYSYNDETON The repeated use of conjunctions to link a

(Poetic Terms) sequence of words, clauses or sentences,
e.g. Mustard and ham and pickle and
lettuce. Polysyndeton is the opposite of
Asyndeton (qv).

PORTMANTEAU WORD A word created by combining two other

(Connecting Ideas / Wordplay) words, e.g. brunch (breakfast and lunch);
Oxbridge (Oxford and Cambridge); and
Californication (California and
fornication).

PROLEPSIS (Greek, anticipation). When a future

(Structure) episode is alluded to in a narrative; the
opposite of Analepsis (qv), or flashback.
Adjective: Proleptic.

PROLOGUE The opening section of a literary work,

(Structure / Dramatic introducing the author, Protagonist (qv),
Conventions) or situation. In drama, prologues are
characters who serve as intermediaries
between the action and the audience, e.g.
in Shakespeares plays Henry V or Romeo
and Juliet.

PROSODY The science or study of Versification

(Poetic Form / Analysis) (qv), i.e. the mechanics of poetic writing.
Adjective: Prosodic.

29
PROSOPOPOEIA An alternative term for Personification
(Imagery) (qv).

PROTAGONIST The principal character in a book or play,

(Creating Characters) often, but not always, the Hero/Heroine
(qv). Readers and audiences follow the
fortunes of the protagonist through the
narrative sequence.

PYSCHOMACHIA An internal battle within a character

(Creating Characters) determining his moral behaviour.
Macbeths agonized inner debate prior to
the murder of Duncan is one example; the
contrary voices of the devil cat and angel
cat on the shoulders of Tom in Tom &
Jerry is another.

PUN A play on words, where Homonymic (qv)

(Connecting Ideas / terms are interchanged for effect. They are
Wordplay) primarily used for comic effect, but can
have serious applications, such as the
frequent conflation of Sun and Son in
religious verse of the Renaissance period.
For further examples, let the pun
commence: Reading Ovids
Metamorphoses? That makes a change;
Youre employing a squirrel in your
wholefood store? You must be nuts!; The
top cosmetic surgeon liked to keep abreast
of the latest research; The bearded lady
burned herself while cooking chips; it was
a freak accident, etc. Puns are not always
the highest form of humour. Adjective:
Punning.

PURPLE PATCH An overly ornate piece of writing sitting at

(Ways of Talking / Writing) odds with its context. It is related to
Bombast and Fustian (qqv).

QUATRAIN A Stanza (qv) of four lines, the

(Poetic Terms) commonest form in English poetry.

QUINTAIN A Stanza (qv) of five lines, sometimes

(Poetic Terms) conveying an unsettling effect, e.g. A. E.
Housmans Bredon Hill.

30
RECEIVED Sometimes called BBC English, received
PRONUNCIATION pronunciation is a form of spoken English
(Ways of Talking / Writing) considered to be the purest and most
correct. It does not derive from a specific
geographical region (although its origins
are in the establishment circles of the
South East of England), but through its use
in official channels such as BBC
broadcasting, and government.

RECEPTION How a book is received by readers,

(Author and Reader) particularly over a historical period.

REFRAIN Repeated group of lines in a poem, usually

(Poetic Terms) at the end of a Stanza (qv). Popular in
older poetry, particularly in the nineteenth
century.

REGISTER The style of language used in different

(Ways of Talking / Writing) circumstances, or for different audiences.

RESOLUTION Events that constitute the outcome of the

(Structure) Climax (qv) of a play or narrative,
literally, a resolving of problems and
difficulties.

REVERDIE In medieval poetry, a rapturous greeting of

(Types of Writing) Spring-time. The best-known example is
the opening lines of Chaucers General
Prologue of The Canterbury Tales.

RHAPSODY An ecstatic or passionate passage in verse

(Types of Writing / Poem) or prose.

RHETORICAL QUESTION A question that does not require an

(Ways of Talking / Writing) answer, generally asked for persuasive
effect. It is commonly used in public
speaking, for example, Are we expected to
tolerate this buffoon in public office? In
literature, a well-known example is
Caesars comment Et tu, Brute?

31
RHYME Paired sounds in poetry or drama, usually
(Sound / Poetic Form) at the end of a metrical line (End-
Stopped Rhyme), but also occurring
within the line (Internal Rhyme). A
simple rhyme chiming the last syllables of
words together is called Masculine
Rhyme, e.g. dove/love, bear/stare,
begun/shun. A more complex form
chiming the last two syllables of words is
called Feminine Rhyme, e.g.
moister/oyster, clyster/blister,
confound/compound.
Adjective: Rhyming.

RHYTHM The pattern of sounds in verse, drama or

(Poetic Terms / Sound) prose, heard or sensed as beats or
intervals. In poetry, or other crafted
writing, rhythm can be defined by
Scansion and Prosody (qqv); but the
unwritten language of speech also
communicates rhythm. Adjective:
Rhythmic.

ROMAN CLEF Literally, a novel with a key. Such works

(Types of Writing) are thinly veiled accounts of real events,
rendered in fictional form. D. H.
Lawrences Sons and Lovers or James
Joyces A Portrait of the Artist as a Young
Man are such works; but Orwells Animal
Farm is also a species of Roman Clef
because it conceals the events in Russia of
1917.

SATIRE Writing which reacts against lapses in

(Types of Writing) morality or offences against accepted
ideals. Satire is a literary response which is
by its nature public-spirited; it attacks the
abuses of those in positions of power or
authority who are seen to be compromising
standards they should be defending. Satire
is often humorous in nature, and often
scabrous too. Favourite targets for the
satirist are hypocrisy, cant and dishonesty:
politicians, moral guardians and optimists
are frequently picked out for ridicule.
Jonathan Swift, one of the languages
greatest satirists, simultaneously defined
and illustrated satire with his observation,
Satire is a sort of glass wherein beholders
do generally discover everybodys face but
their own. Adjective: Satirical.

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SCANSION The analysis of metrical forms; a branch of
(Poetic Form / Analysis) Prosody (qv).

SCATOLOGY A preoccupation with bodily functions;

(Ways of Talking / Writing) therefore, coarse, vulgar, and often funny
writing, usually Satirical. (qv).

SEXTET/SESTET The last six lines of a (usually Petrarchan)

(Poetic Terms) Sonnet, following from the
Octet/Octave (qqv). The proposition or
problem posed in the Octet is generally
answered in the Sextet, e.g. in Rupert
Brookes The Soldier the octave examines
the physical dust he will become after
death, while the seset reflects more
spiritually on what the dust represents.

SIBILANCE A variety of Alliteration (qv) where the

(Sound) consonant sounds are soft or hissing (s, sh,
c, ch) or breathy (wh, f). These effects can
be used to convey softness of sound or
mood, and contribute to Euphony (qv).
Adjective: Sibilant.

SIGN In literary studies a term composed of two

(Connecting Ideas) elements: the Signifier (word) and the
Signified (meaning). A text is composed
of signifiers, the signifieds of which are
unstable owing to the readers own
interpretative strategies and context.
(Although the signifiers of Jane Eyre have
not changed, their associations and
contextual origins have.) Certain theorists
have taken this to extremes, arguing that
the distance between the signifier and
signified is such that textual meaning can
never be fully closed or certain, owing to
the arbitrary and socially contrived
relationship between a signifier and
signified. A great deal of contemporary
literature (especially post-modern poetry)
has enjoyed exploiting this gap, leading to
accusations of it being either meaningless,
or open to endless interpretation.

SIMILE Related to Metaphor (qv), but where the

(Imagery / Connecting Ideas) comparison between entity and concept is
made explicitly, such as My love is like a
red, red rose; or I wandered lonely as a
cloud.

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SOLECISM A deviation from standard language that
(Ways of Talking / Writing) exposes the speakers or writers ignorance:
e.g. This glossary aint done nice.
Adjective: Solecistic.

SOLILOQUY (Latin, to speak alone). A dramatic speech

(Dramatic Conventions) made by a sole character upon a stage, or a
character unheard by other characters on
stage. Soliloquies are used to reveal the
inner thoughts of a character, and help the
audience understand his/her motives,
intentions or mentality. Considerable irony
can be established between a characters
real thoughts, as expressed through the
soliloquy, and his/her apparent thoughts,
as conveyed to other characters.
Soliloquies are often addressed directly to
the audience, drawing it into a characters
plots or schemes: this is particularly true of
villainous characters. The quality of
language and ideas are often elevated and
philosophical in great soliloquies, and they
are the epitome of dramatic writing in
Shakespearean drama. Verb: Soliloquize.

SONNET (Italian, little song). A fourteen-line

(Types of Poem) poem, usually in iambic pentameters,
first created by Francesco Petrarch in the
1300s. Originally handling amorous
themes, sonnets have been subsequently
written on almost all imaginable subjects
and issues. Major types of sonnet include
the Petrarchan Sonnet (perhaps the
dominant form), consisting of an
Octet/Octave (qv) rhyming abbaabba,
and a Sestet/Sextet (qv) rhyming cdecde
or cdcdcd; the Spenserian Sonnet,
consisting of three Quatrains (qv) and a
Couplet (qv) rhyming abab, bcbc, cdcd,
ee; and the Shakespearean Sonnet, also
with three quatrains and a couplet,
rhyming abab, cdcd, efef, gg. Sonnets have
always been regarded as particularly
challenging poems to write, and retain
their long-held mystique.

SPONDEE In verse, two stressed syllables, e.g.,

(Poetic Terms) Sleep sleep, old Sun, thou canst not have
repast.

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STANZA A group of lines in a poem forming a sub-
(Poetic Terms) section of the whole. Stanzas within the
same poem are often of uniform length;
they also usually share the same rhyme
scheme and meter. Such elements within a
poem are sometimes called a verse: this
is a less accurate term than stanza.
Adjective: Stanzaic.

STREAM OF A Narrative (qv) style that seeks to

CONSCIOUSNESS capture the random nature of human
(Types of Writing) thought processes. Eschewing the ordering
and selection of traditional narrative
method, stream of consciousness bestows
equal significance and weight to all ideas,
reflections and sense impressions that
crowd in upon an imagined consciousness.
The greatest exponent in the language of
this mode of writing is James Joyce,
particularly in his work Ulysses.

STRESS The emphasis given to a syllable in

(Sound) pronunciation. It is used in Prosody (qv)
to evaluate the metrical characteristics of
lines.

SUB-PLOT Secondary action in a play or story which

(Structure) corresponds thematically to the action of
the main plot. Common in Shakespearean
drama, well-known sub-plots include the
Sir Toby Belch / Feste / Sir Andrew
Aguecheek / Malvolio axis, which links
thematically with the love intrigues of the
Olivia / Orsino / Viola /Sebastian axis in
the main plot; or the Caliban / Trinculo /
Stephano axis, that relates to the political
drama of Prospero / Alonso / Antonio /
Sebastian axis in the main plot.

SUB-TEXT Meanings implied but not stated in a

(Connecting Ideas / literary text, particularly a dramatic work.
Structure)

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SYMBOL An entity that is understood to represent
(Imagery) something other than itself. A cross
represents Christianity; a dove, peace.
These are not self-evident meanings, but
the result of cultural tradition and shared
agreement. Symbols almost always convey
a larger idea than the sum of their
constituent parts: the clenched fist is not
an anatomical contraction, but a symbol of
political freedom or resistance; beyond
that, the clenched fist hints at complex
political histories and agendas for reform.
Symbols are elements of Allegory,
Metaphor, and Simile (qqv). In some
applications they are held to body forth
higher truths than those apparent to the
human eye; this kind of transcendentalism
is common in religious or mystical works,
where a ladder symbolizes the souls ascent
towards heavenly enlightenment, or a
fountain signifies the purification from sin.
Adjective: Symbolic.

SYNAESTHESIA Where words describing one sensation are

(Connecting Ideas) applied to another, e.g. the cold look; the
harsh voice; the soft breeze; the heavy
silence. Adjective: Synaesthetic.

SYNCOPE Shortening a word in poetry or drama by

(Sound / Poetic Terms) omitting a letter or syllable: e.g. een for
even; heavn for heaven; neer for never.
See also Elision (qv).

SYNECDOCHE Where one part of an entity stands for the

(Connecting Ideas) whole. An example would be the phrase
All hands to the pump, where hands
refers to all available persons, not just their
hands. Other instances: Frank Lampard
was clearly playing for the shirt this
afternoon (shirt meaning Chelsea
Football Club); The Crown forces took the
building by storm (Crown representing
the legitimate government); or Give us
this day our daily bread (Daily bread
signifying a means to life and sustenance).

SYNONYM A word close to or identical in meaning to

(Wordplay) another, e.g. cold, freezing, chilly, nippy,
perishing, wintry, bleak, icy, frigid, frosty,
artic, raw, keen. It is the opposite of
Antonym (qv). Adjective: Synonymous.

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SYNTAX Word order in a sentence. Adjective:
(Structure) Syntactical.

TABLEAU In the theatre, the positions on the stage

(Dramatic Conventions) established by a group of actors which
conveys silent significance to the audience.
A tableau can be inserted as an artificial,
frozen moment in a play, or can arise
naturalistically from the action.

TAUTOLOGY The use of redundant words, e.g.

(Ways of Talking / Writing) Sincerely, to be honest; I, for myself,
believe; Cooking plaice with butter
gives it a lovely buttery taste; This
lovely present is truly lovely. Adjective:
Tautological.

TEXT The words of a literary work as established

(Types of Writing) by the author, before interpretation by a
reader or theatrical director.

THRENODY A poem of lament, especially expressing

(Types of Poem) sorrow in bereavement. Adjective:
Threnodic. See also Lament.

TIRADE A violent and vituperative speech. King

(Ways of Talking / Writing) Lear offers some good examples in his
descent into madness.

TONE The manner in which a work is written,

(Ways of Talking / Writing) tone reflects the authors outlook upon the
(Atmosphere) world, his/her mood, opinion and moral
understanding. A writer may interact with
the reader in a playful or ironic tone;
equally the tone may be moralistic or
sincere.

TOPOGRAPHICAL Poetry describing landscape, particularly of

POETRY a specified locality. Often Panegyric (qv)
(Types of Poem) in tone, topographical poetry can be a
means to praise the owner of land who is
seen as responsible for guaranteeing the
orderliness that so impresses the eye.
Topographical poetry was particularly
popular in the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries.

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TRAGEDY A serious play detailing the downfall of a
(Types of Writing) mighty or important character, the
Protagonist (qv), who is obliged to die at
the end. According to classical rules, the
protagonist should experience Catharsis,
Hamartia, Hubris, and Nemesis (qqv).
These concepts are often present in
modern tragedies, which can, of course,
embrace wider literary forms than the
dramatic. Thus Hardys novels are tragic;
so are many films and TV dramas. The
tragic effect in all these forms is
communicated by the audiences
awareness of admirable qualities in the
doomed protagonist. His/her downfall is
usually the result of the Tragic Flaw (qv).
Adjective: Tragic.

TRAGIC FLAW A defect of character that leads to the

(Creating Characters / destruction of the Protagonist in a
Dramatic Conventions) Tragedy (qqv), e.g. ambition in Macbeth;
jealousy in Othello; rashness in Michael
Henchard.

TRAGICOMEDY A play featuring both tragic and comic

(Types of Writing) elements, perhaps with a happy ending to
trying events. Among Shakespeares plays,
works such as The Winters Tale or
Measure for Measure have been identified
as tragicomic.

TRIPLET A sequence of three lines of verse sharing a

(Poetic Terms) common rhyme sound.

TROCHEE A metrical foot consisting of a stressed

(Poetic Terms) syllable followed by an unstressed syllable;
e.g. mi-ddle.

UBI SUNT (Latin, where are they?). Any expression

(Theme and Attitude) of despair over the fleeting nature of
human achievement, the question asking
what destiny has befallen all the great men
and women of history, i.e. death.

UNITIES Conventions from classical drama that

(Structure / Dramatic required playwrights to observe unity of
Conventions) time, unity of place, and unity of action in
their works. According to this scheme, a
plays action should occur within a time-

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 scale of twenty-four hours (sometimes
thirty-six); within a closely defined
geographical location, such as a town or
city; and that the action depicted should
relate to a narrow group of characters.
Shakespeare showed how brilliantly the
unities could be observed in his Comedy of
Errors.

UTOPIA (Greek, no place). From Sir Thomas

(Types of Writing / Mores 1516 work of the same name, a
Atmosphere) utopia is any imagined ideal society.
Originally More wrote with some Satirical
intentions (qv), but the term has come to
imply an earthly paradise of social equality
and reform. Its Antonym is Dystopia
(qqv).

VERISIMILITUDE Believability, or likeness to truth,

(Author and Reader) Verisimilitude concerns how convincing or
persuasive a literary work is to the reader,
and how alike it is to life. Verisimilitude
helps persuade a reader of a works truth.
Adjective: Verisimilar.

VERNACULAR The native tongue of an ethnic or national

(Ways of Talking / Writing) group.

VERSIFICATION Either the practice of writing poetry, in

(Poetic Terms) terms of principles, techniques,
approaches; or the framing ideas within
verse.

VOLTA (Italian, turn). The change of thought or

(Poetic Terms) feeling between the Octet and Sestet of a
Sonnet.

ZEUGMA (Greek, yoking). When a word in a

(Connecting Ideas) sentence or line of poetry is related to two
terms, but with different meaning: e.g.,
He struck a blow for America, and to the
Republicans hopes; or He marched
across the Sahara, and into the history
books.

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