PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES CENTER

Fundamentals of Hydraulics: Pressure

By Zane Satterfield, P. E., NESC Engineering Scientist

Summary
Hydraulics is the branch of engineering that focuses on the practical problems of collecting, storing, measuring,
transporting, controlling, and using water and other liquids. This Tech Brief is the first of two that will discuss
some fundamental hydraulic problems and will focus primarily on pressure. The second will discuss flow.

Why is understanding hydraulics important? cubic foot (62.4 lb/ft3); so, one cubic foot (1ft x 1ft x
1ft) of water weighs 62.4 lbs. There are 7.48 gallons in
The science of hydraulics is as old as civilization itself.
a cubic foot, with each gallon weighing approximately
For centuries, engineers have succeeded in making water
8.34 pounds, so 7.48 gal x 8.34 lbs/gal = 62.4 pounds.
flow from one place to another with as few hitches as
possible. When problems do occur, they are usually In the metric system, the term for weight (force due
related to the hydraulics involved in pipe flow. to gravity) is called a Newton (N), and the unit weight
of water is 9,800 Newtons per cubic meter (9,800
Liquids in motion produce forces and pressure whenever
N/m3). More appropriately, this is expressed as 9.8
the velocity, flow direction, or elevation changes.
kilonewtons per cubic meter (9.8 kN/m3), where the
Knowing pipe pressure and flow at certain points along
prefix kilo stands for 1,000.
the pipes path can help determine pipe size and capac-
ity. It also can help in determining what pipe material Other important design information:
would work best in given situations. Further, having an
One pound per square inch (lbs/in2 or psi) is approx-
understanding of hydraulics can help system managers
imately equal to 2.31 feet of water height (column of
decide if pressure reducers or pumps are necessary to
water) no matter how big around or square the
transport water in an efficient manner. Most small water
column is. One foot of water height is approximately
and wastewater systems do not have an engineer on
equal to 0.434 psi.
staff, or even one they can consult, who might be able to
answer simple or basic questions about hydraulics. And
the cost of engineering advice can quickly add up. Pressure
Because many small systems are on tight budgets, Water or wastewater exerts force and pressure
understanding hydraulics can save money. against the walls of its container, whether it is stored
in a tank or flowing in a pipe. But there is a differ-
Units and Variables ence between force and pressure, although they are
closely related. Specifically, pressure is defined as
First of all, understanding that water has a unit weight
force per unit area. In U.S. units, pressure is usually
is important. System designers need this information to
expressed in pounds per square inch (lb/in2 or psi).
calculate other variables. The physical and hydraulic
In SI metric units, pressure is expressed in Newtons
behavior of wastewater is so similar to that of clean
per square meter (N/m2). For convenience, the unit
water that there is generally no difference in the design
N/m2 is called a Pascal (Pa). Since a pressure of 1 Pa
or analysis of systems involving these two liquids. For
is a relatively small pressure (1 Pa = 0.000145 psi), the
practical purposes, water and wastewater are considered
term kilopascal (kPa) will be used in most practical
to be incompressible liquids because their volume does
hydraulics applications. 1 kPa = 1000 Pa = 0.145 psi.
not change significantly with changing pressure. Water
or wastewater has a unit weight of 62.4 pounds per In this equation, pressure can be expressed as:
P = F/A

Download all of our Where P = pressure

F = force
Tech Briefs at A = area over which the force is distributed
www.nesc.wvu.edu/techbrief.cfm
DWFSOM147
 smaller diameter storage tankis still the same. The
pressure at point B near the bottom of the tank is greater
TANK 1 TANK 2

Water Surface Zero Gage Pressure than the pressure at point A. In application, if point B
were exactly twice as deep as point A, the gauge pressure
at point B would be exactly twice the pressure at point A
A
because pressure varies in direct proportion to the depth.
E
Again, in Figure 1, consider point E in Tank 2. Since
and

B
point E is at the same depth below the water surface as
A E
C
and
point A, the pressure at point E is the same as the pres-
D
and
sure at point A. Note that it makes no difference that
Tank 2 is narrower than Tank 1. Hydrostatic pressure
depends only on the height of water above the points and
not on the volume or surface area of the water. Even
though point C in the connecting pipe does not have
water directly above it, it still has the same pressure as
Connecting Pipe

B C D
points B and D.
Figure 1
The pressure at point A equals the pressure at point E, since Calculating Pressure
these points are at the same depth in the water. Likewise, the In customary U. S. units, 1 ft3 of water weighs 62.4 lbs.
hydrostatic pressure at points B, C, D are equivalent.
So a 1-ft depth of water on an area of 1 ft2, or 144 in2,
the pressure at the bottom would be P = 62.4 lbs/144
Hydrostatic Pressure in2 = 0.43 psi per foot of water (lbs/in2)/ft). This is usu-
The pressure water exerts is called hydrostatic ally written as:
pressure. These principles always apply to
P = 0.43 x h
hydrostatic pressure:
Where P = hydrostatic pressure in psi (lbs/in2)
1. Pressure depends only on the depth of
h = water depth from surface in ft
water above the point in question (not on
0.43 psi/ft or (lbs/in2)/ft
the water surface area).
2. Pressure increases in direct proportion to In SI-metric units, 1 m3 of water weighs 9.8 kN. So a 1
the depth of water. meter (m) depth of water on an area of 1 m2 would have
3. Pressure in a continuous volume of water a pressure of 9.8 kN/m2 or usually written as 9.8 kPa.
is the same at all points that are at the This can be written as:
same depth or elevation. P = 9.8 x h
4. Pressure at any point in the water acts in
all directions at the same magnitude. Where P = hydrostatic pressure in kPa or kN/m2
Consider the two tanks connected by a hori- h = water depth from surface in meters (m)
zontal pipe shown in Figure 1. The water sur- 9.8 kPa or (kN/m2)/m
faces in both tanks are at the same elevation.
Example 1
Pressure at the waters surface equals zero.
A small water system has an elevated water storage tank
Pressure also exists at the free surface and connecting ductile iron pipeline as shown in Figure 2.
because of the weight of air above. This pres- A typical situation for a small water system operator might
sure is called atmospheric or barometric pres- be a recurrent leak at point D, the lowest elevation.
sure. Atmospheric pressure at sea level is Patching the pipe with band clamps may no longer be an
approximately 14.7 psi or 101 kPa. In practi- option and replacing an entire joint or two of the pipe with
cal applications, however, atmospheric pres- something other than ductile iron is now necessary.
sure is not used for hydraulic calculations and Knowing the pressure at this point in the distribution
is considered to be a zero reference or starting system will aid in selecting pipe material, such as PVC,
point. This application is referred to as gauge that is correctly classified and save money in the long run.
pressure as opposed to absolute pressure.
Calculate the hydrostatic pressures at points A, B, C,
Figure 1 shows two storage tanks side by side and D.
that have different volumes but are the same
OF FOUR

height. Many water systems may have encoun- Solution

tered this circumstance when they need to For the above example, the diameter is known because
upgrade and find that the older tank may be the operator has worked on this pipe in the past. Usually
two
larger than the newer one. This figure the elevations can be obtained from as-built drawings or
PAGE

expresses that pressure at the same elevations maybe topographic maps with some measurements of
from a larger diameter (more water storage) to a the tank overflow for maximum water height.

Tech Brief Fundamentals of Hydraulics: Pressure, Winter 2010, Vol. 9, Issue 4

Point A: The depth of water above point A in the tank is In this example, a 6-inch main provides the
equal to the difference in elevation between the maximum service line. The pressure at the water meter
water surface and the tank bottom, or 2000 ft 1,950 ft well or pit is 48 psi. The house sets on a hill,
= 50 ft. using the above U. S. equation for calculating and, according to the topographic maps, the
pressure we get: meter is at elevation 350 feet, and the house is
set at elevation of 430 feet. The elevation dif-
P = 0.43 x h ference is the problemnot the service line
P = 0.43 psi/ft x 50 ft that winds back and forth up the hill, despite
P = 21.5 psi or lbs/in2 the pressure losses due to friction in small
Point B: the total depth of water above point B is diameter service lines (minimal for our con-
2,000 ft 1,900 ft = 100 ft. The pressure at point B is: cerns in this case).

P = 0.43 x h Calculate the pressure drop from the meter to

P = 0.43 psi/ft x 100 ft the house location:
P = 43 psi or lbs/in2 Meter elevation is 350 feet and house
Point C: The pressure at point C is equal to the pressure elevation is 430 feet
at point B because these points are at the same elevation. 350 ft 430 ft = h
Pressure at C = Pressure at B = 43 psi 80 ft = h

Point D: The total depth of water above point D is Using the pressure equation:
2,000 ft 1,600 ft = 400 ft. The pressure is: P = 0.43 x h
P = 0.43 x h P = 0.43 x 80 ft
P = 0.43 psi/ft x 400 ft P = 34.4 psi of pressure drop
P = 172 psi or lbs/in2 In this problem, the house has a bathroom on
The pressure is 172 psi (this would be the maximum work- the second floor. Estimate another 10 feet of
ing pressure at Point D) so the pipe class or pressure rating elevation to the second floor of the house 430
would have to be able to handle a pressure of 172 psi. ft (elevation at first floor) 440 ft (elevation at
second floor) = 10 ft.
Figure 2 So there is an added pressure drop to the
Illustration for Example 1. second floor of:
P = 0.43 x 10 ft
P = 4.3 psi additional pressure drop
Elevation 2000 ft max water height

A
Elevation 1,950 ft bottom of water in elevated tank
Total pressure drop of 34.4 psi + 4.3 psi =
38.7 psi.
Water Storage Tower
So the pressure at the second floor of the
house is:
Ground Surface
48 psi at the meter 38.7 psi pressure
drop = 9.3 psi
Closed Valve
B Whether required or not, it may be good cus-
tomer relations to tell customers that they will
Water Main
C
Elevation

have low-water pressure on the second floor. A

1,900 ft

low-pressure waiver agreement or a long-serv-

Elevation

ice line agreement is an option. Also explain to

1,900 ft

customers that they can install small booster

D
pumps that they own and maintainnot the
Elevation 1,600 ft

water systemto increase pressure.

Example 2 Example 3
Another example an operator might encounter is provid-
PAGE

An inverse of the situation in example 2 might

ing a water-tap for a customer with a house at the top of be a customer with a house in the valley with three
a hill. The tap and meter are at the bottom of the hill. an elevation below 139 feet from the connect-
OF FOUR

Most state regulatory agencies or public service commis- ing point at the main at the property line. The
sions require a minimum pressure of approximately 30 pressure reading at the meter reads 106 psi.
psi at the meter at the property line.

NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES CENTER

 What would the pressure be at the house? A common misconception is that pressure increases when
Neglect the friction losses in the service line. the pipe size decreases.
Using the pressure equation: Pressure does not increase with changing pipe diameter.
Pascal's Principle states that a pressure applied to a fluid
P = 0.43 x h
system at rest is felt throughout the entire system. This means
P = 0.43 x 139 ft
that, regardless of pipe diameter, water system pressure is felt
P = 59.77 psi increase in pressure
everywhere. Decreasing pipe diameter will increase the veloc-
Giving a total pressure of 106 psi + 59.77 psi ity, but will reduce the flow rate of the watermeaning that as
= 165.77 psi the pipe size decreases the water or fluid merely goes faster. If
anything, when the water is flowing (in motion) from a larger
This is too much pressure for the house diameter pipe to a smaller diameter pipe the pressure drops
plumbing and even the service line into the due to friction losses in the smaller diameter pipe.
house. A pressure regulator needs to be
installed at/with the meter (water systems
Closing
responsibility) as well as at the house (cus-
tomers responsibility). A high-pressure waiver Hydraulics can be complex when designing or analyzing entire
agreement may be necessary. collection or distribution systems. Knowing the correct formu-
las to calculate forces or pressure is the first step in having a
properly functioning system. Pipe size, tank storage, and loca-
Pressure Head
tion are all key in getting water to system customers.
It is often convenient to express pressure in
terms of the height of a column of water, in Several software and spreadsheet programs are available to
meters or feet, instead of terms of psi or kPa. assist in the hydraulics of system design. However, the data
This is called pressure head, and is the actual they generate is only as good as the information that is
or equivalent height of water above the point input. Knowing the fundamentals of hydraulics can help
in question. users get the most out of these programs.

For example, in the first example (example 1)

References:
the pressure head at point D would be 400 ft
of water instead of 172 psi. Hwang, Ned H. C. and Robert J. Houghtalen. 1996.
Fundamentals of Hydraulic Engineering Systems, Third
In some instances, the pressure in terms of Edition. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
psi or kPa may be known but the system
Lindeburg, Michael R. 1999. Civil Engineering Reference Manual
would prefer to use units of pressure head
for the PE Exam. Seventh Edition. Belmont, CA: Professional
instead. This is done, for example, when eval- Publications.
uating water distribution systems to determine
how high the pressure will push the water up Nathanson, Jerry A. 1997. Basic Environmental Technology,
a hill in elevation. Rearranging the terms in Water Supply, Waste Management and Pollution Control.
the pressure equation, we get: Second Edition. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.

For U.S. units Simon, Andrew L. 1986. Hydraulics. Third edition. New York:
John Wiley and Sons.
h = P / 0.43
where h = height of water in feet
P = hydrostatic pressure in psi (lbs/in2)
Or the equation can be simplified to: NESC Engineering Scientist Zane Satterfield is a licensed
professional engineer and water operator who previously
h = 2.3 x P worked for the West Virginia Bureau of Public Health,
the 2.3 comes from dividing 1 by 0.43 Environmental Engineering Division.

For the SI units For a complete list of Tech Briefs, visit the NESC website
at www.nesc.wvu.edu/techbrief.cfm. You may download
h = P / 9.8 Tech Briefs for free from the site or you may order them
for a nominal cost by calling (800) 624-8301 or by sending
where h = the height of water in meters and email to info@mail.nesc.wvu.edu.
P = hydrostatic pressure in kPa or kN/m2
OF FOUR

9.8 kPa or (kN/m2)/m

Or the equation can be simplified to:
four
PAGE

h = 0.1 x P
The 0.1 comes from 1 divided by 9.8
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Published by The National Environmental Services Center at West Virginia University, P.O. Box 6064, Morgantown, WV 26506-6064

Tech Brief Fundamentals of Hydraulics: Pressure, Winter 2010, Vol. 9, Issue 4