Air pollution:

Air pollution is the introduction of particulates, biological molecules, or other harmful materials
into Earth's atmosphere, causing diseases, death to humans, damage to other living organisms such
as animals and food crops, or the natural or built environment. Air pollution may come from
anthropogenic or natural sources.

The atmosphere is a complex natural gaseous system that is essential to support life on planet
Earth. Stratospheric ozone depletion due to air pollution has been recognized as a threat to human
health as well as to the Earth's ecosystems.

Indoor air pollution and urban air quality are listed as two of the worlds worst toxic pollution
problems in the 2008 Blacksmith Institute World's Worst Polluted Places report. According to the
2014 WHO report, air pollution in 2012 caused the deaths of around 7

Air pollution from a fossil-fuel power station

Pollutants

An air pollutant is a substance in the air that can have adverse effects on humans and the
ecosystem. The substance can be solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases. A pollutant can be of
natural origin or man-made. Pollutants are classified as primary or secondary. Primary pollutants
are usually produced from a process, such as ash from a volcanic eruption. Other examples include
carbon monoxide gas from motor vehicle exhaust, or the sulfur dioxide released from factories.
Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. Rather, they form in the air when primary pollutants
react or interact. Ground level ozone is a prominent example of a secondary pollutant. Some
pollutants may be both primary and secondary: they are both emitted directly and formed from
other primary pollutants.
Before flue-gas desulfurization was installed, the emissions from this power plant in New Mexico
contained excessive amounts of sulfur dioxide.

Schematic drawing, causes and effects of air pollution: (1) greenhouse effect, (2) particulate
contamination, (3) increased UV radiation, (4) acid rain, (5) increased ground level ozone
concentration, (6) increased levels of nitrogen oxides.

Major primary pollutants produced by human activity include:

Sulfur oxides (SOx) - particularly sulfur dioxide, a chemical compound with the formula
SO2. SO2 is produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Coal and petroleum
often contain sulfur compounds, and their combustion generates sulfur dioxide. Further
oxidation of SO2, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4, and thus
rain. This is one of the causes for concern over the environmental impact of the use of these
fuels as power sources.
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) - Nitrogen oxides, particularly nitrogen dioxide, are expelled from
high temperature combustion, and are also produced during thunderstorms by electric
discharge. They can be seen as a brown haze dome above or a plume downwind of cities.
Nitrogen dioxide is a chemical compound with the formula NO2. It is one of several
nitrogen oxides. One of the most prominent air pollutants, this reddish-brown toxic gas has
a characteristic sharp, biting odor.
Carbon monoxide (CO) - CO is a colorless, odorless, toxic yet non-irritating gas. It is a
product by incomplete combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular
exhaust is a major source of carbon monoxide.
Volatile organic compounds (VOC) - VOCs are a well-known outdoor air pollutant. They
are categorized as either methane (CH4) or non-methane (NMVOCs). Methane is an
extremely efficient greenhouse gas which contributes to enhance global warming. Other
hydrocarbon VOCs are also significant greenhouse gases because of their role in creating
ozone and prolonging the life of methane in the atmosphere. This effect varies depending
 on local air quality. The aromatic NMVOCs benzene, toluene and xylene are suspected
carcinogens and may lead to leukemia with prolonged exposure. 1, 3-butadiene is another
dangerous compound often associated with industrial use.
Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM), atmospheric particulate
matter, or fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas. In contrast,
aerosol refers to combined particles and gas. Some particulates occur naturally, originating
from volcanoes, dust storms, forest and grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea spray.
Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various
industrial processes also generate significant amounts of aerosols. Averaged worldwide,
anthropogenic aerosolsthose made by human activitiescurrently account for
approximately 10 percent of our atmosphere. Increased levels of fine particles in the air are
linked to health hazards such as heart disease, altered lung function and lung cancer.
Persistent free radicals connected to airborne fine particles are linked to cardiopulmonary
disease.
Toxic metals, such as lead and mercury, especially their compounds.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) - harmful to the ozone layer; emitted from products are
currently banned from use. These are gases which are released from air conditioners,
refrigerators, aerosol sprays, etc. CFC's on being released into the air rises to stratosphere.
Here they come in contact with other gases and damage the ozone layer. This allows
harmful ultraviolet rays to reach the earth's surface. This can lead to skin cancer, disease
to eye and can even cause damage to plants.
Ammonia (NH3) - emitted from agricultural processes. Ammonia is a compound with the
formula NH3. It is normally encountered as a gas with a characteristic pungent odor.
Ammonia contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by
serving as a precursor to foodstuffs and fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly,
is also a building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceuticals. Although in wide use,
ammonia is both caustic and hazardous. In the atmosphere, ammonia reacts with oxides of
nitrogen and sulfur to form secondary particles.
Odours such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes
Radioactive pollutants - produced by nuclear explosions, nuclear events, war explosives,
and natural processes such as the radioactive decay of radon.

Secondary pollutants include:

Particulates created from gaseous primary pollutants and compounds in photochemical

smog. Smog is a kind of air pollution. Classic smog results from large amounts of coal
burning in an area caused by a mixture of smoke and sulfur dioxide. Modern smog does
not usually come from coal but from vehicular and industrial emissions that are acted on
in the atmosphere by ultraviolet light from the sun to form secondary pollutants that also
combine with the primary emissions to form photochemical smog.
Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NOx and VOCs. Ozone (O3) is a key constituent of
the troposphere. It is also an important constituent of certain regions of the stratosphere
commonly known as the Ozone layer. Photochemical and chemical reactions involving it
drive many of the chemical processes that occur in the atmosphere by day and by night. At
abnormally high concentrations brought about by human activities (largely the combustion
of fossil fuel), it is a pollutant, and a constituent of smog.
 Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) - similarly formed from NOx and VOCs.

Minor air pollutants include:

A large number of minor hazardous air pollutants. Some of these are regulated in USA
under the Clean Air Act and in Europe under the Air Framework Directive
A variety of persistent organic pollutants, which can attach to particulates

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that are resistant to environmental
degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes. Because of this, they have
been observed to persist in the environment, to be capable of long-range transport, bio accumulate
in human and animal tissue, bio magnify in food chains, and to have potentially significant impacts
on human health and the environment.

Hazardous Air Pollutants

Hazardous air pollutants are those known to cause cancer and other serious health impacts. The
Clean Air Act requires the EPA to regulate toxic air pollutants, also known as air toxics, from
categories of industrial facilities in two phases. The first phase is technology-based, where the
EPA develops standards for controlling the emissions of air toxics from sources in an industry
group (or source category). These technology standards are based on emissions levels that are
already being achieved by the best-controlled and lower-emitting sources in an industry. Within
eight years of setting the technology standards, the Clean Air Act directs the EPA to assess the
remaining health risks from each source category to determine whether the standards protect public
health with an ample margin of safety, and protect against adverse environmental effects.

Sources

Dust storm approaching Stratford, Texas.

Controlled burning of a field outside of Statesboro, Georgia in preparation for spring planting.

There are various locations, activities or factors which are responsible for releasing pollutants into
the atmosphere. These sources can be classified into two major categories.

Anthropogenic (man-made) sources:

These are mostly related to the burning of multiple types of fuel.

Stationary sources include smoke stacks of power plants, manufacturing facilities

(factories) and waste incinerators, as well as furnaces and other types of fuel-burning
heating devices. In developing and poor countries, traditional biomass burning is the major
source of air pollutants; traditional biomass includes wood, crop waste and dung.[10][11]
Mobile sources include motor vehicles, marine vessels, and aircraft.
Controlled burn practices in agriculture and forest management. Controlled or prescribed
burning is a technique sometimes used in forest management, farming, prairie restoration
or greenhouse gas abatement. Fire is a natural part of both forest and grassland ecology
and controlled fire can be a tool for foresters. Controlled burning stimulates the
germination of some desirable forest trees, thus renewing the forest.
Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish, aerosol sprays and other solvents
Waste deposition in landfills, which generate methane. Methane is highly flammable and
may form explosive mixtures with air. Methane is also an asphyxiant and may displace
oxygen in an enclosed space. Asphyxia or suffocation may result if the oxygen
concentration is reduced to below 19.5% by displacement.
Military resources, such as nuclear weapons, toxic gases, germ warfare and rocketry

Natural sources:

Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with little or no vegetation
Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by animals, for example cattle
Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth's crust. Radon is a colorless, odorless,
naturally occurring, radioactive noble gas that is formed from the decay of radium. It is
considered to be a health hazard. Radon gas from natural sources can accumulate in
 buildings, especially in confined areas such as the basement and it is the second most
frequent cause of lung cancer, after cigarette smoking.
Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires
Vegetation, in some regions, emits environmentally significant amounts of Volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) on warmer days. These VOCs react with primary anthropogenic
pollutantsspecifically, NOx, SO2, and anthropogenic organic carbon compounds to
produce a seasonal haze of secondary pollutants. Black gum, poplar, oak and willow are
some examples of vegetation that can produce abundant VOCs. The VOC production from
these species result in ozone levels up to eight times higher than the low-impact tree
species.
Volcanic activity, which produces sulfur, chlorine, and ash particulates

Emission factors

Beijing air on a 2005-day after rain (left) and a smoggy day (right)

Air pollutant emission factors are reported representative values that attempt to relate the quantity
of a pollutant released to the ambient air with an activity associated with the release of that
pollutant. These factors are usually expressed as the weight of pollutant divided by a unit weight,
volume, distance, or duration of the activity emitting the pollutant (e.g., kilograms of particulate
emitted per tons of coal burned). Such factors facilitate estimation of emissions from various
sources of air pollution. In most cases, these factors are simply averages of all available data of
acceptable quality, and are generally assumed to be representative of long-term averages.

There are 12 compounds in the list of Persistent organic pollutants. Dioxins and furans are two of
them and intentionally created by combustion of organics, like open burning of plastics. These
compounds are also endocrine disruptors and can mutate the human genes.

The United States Environmental Protection Agency has published a compilation of air pollutant
emission factors for a multitude of industrial sources. The United Kingdom, Australia, Canada and
many other countries have published similar compilations, as well as the European Environment
Agency.

Air pollution exposure

Air pollution risk is a function of the hazard of the pollutant and the exposure to that pollutant. Air
pollution exposure can be expressed for an individual, for certain groups (e.g. neighborhoods or
children living in a county), or for entire populations. For example, one may want to calculate the
exposure to a hazardous air pollutant for a geographic area, which includes the various
microenvironments and age groups. This can be calculated as an inhalation exposure. This would
account for daily exposure in various settings (e.g. different indoor micro-environments and
outdoor locations). The exposure needs to include different age and other demographic groups,
especially infants, children, pregnant women and other sensitive subpopulations. The exposure to
an air pollutant must integrate the concentrations of the air pollutant with respect to the time spent
in each setting and the respective inhalation rates for each subgroup for each specific time that the
subgroup is in the setting and engaged in particular activities (playing, cooking, reading, working,
etc.). For example, a small child's inhalation rate will be less than that of an adult. A child engaged
in vigorous exercise will have a higher respiration rate than the same child in a sedentary activity.
The daily exposure, then, needs to reflect the time spent in each micro-environmental setting and
the type of activities in these settings. The air pollutant concentration in each micro activity/micro
environmental setting is summed to indicate the exposure.[

Indoor air quality (IAQ)

A lack of ventilation indoors concentrates air pollution where people often spend the majority of
their time. Radon (Rn) gas, a carcinogen, is exuded from the Earth in certain locations and trapped
inside houses. Building materials including carpeting and plywood emit formaldehyde (H2CO)
gas. Paint and solvents give off volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as they dry. Lead paint can
degenerate into dust and be inhaled. Intentional air pollution is introduced with the use of air
fresheners, incense, and other scented items. Controlled wood fires in stoves and fireplaces can
add significant amounts of smoke particulates into the air, inside and out. Indoor pollution fatalities
may be caused by using pesticides and other chemical sprays indoors without proper ventilation.

Carbon monoxide poisoning and fatalities are often caused by faulty vents and chimneys, or by
the burning of charcoal indoors or in a confined space, such as a tent. Chronic carbon monoxide
poisoning can result even from poorly-adjusted pilot lights. Traps are built into all domestic
plumbing to keep sewer gas and hydrogen sulfide, out of interiors. Clothing emits
tetrachloroethylene, or other dry cleaning fluids, for days after dry cleaning.

Though its use has now been banned in many countries, the extensive use of asbestos in industrial
and domestic environments in the past has left a potentially very dangerous material in many
localities. Asbestosis is a chronic inflammatory medical condition affecting the tissue of the lungs.
It occurs after long-term, heavy exposure to asbestos from asbestos-containing materials in
structures. Sufferers have severe dyspnea (shortness of breath) and are at an increased risk
regarding several different types of lung cancer. As clear explanations are not always stressed in
non-technical literature, care should be taken to distinguish between several forms of relevant
diseases. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), these may defined as; asbestosis,
lung cancer, and Peritoneal Mesothelioma (generally a very rare form of cancer, when more
widespread it is almost always associated with prolonged exposure to asbestos).

Biological sources of air pollution are also found indoors, as gases and airborne particulates. Pets
produce dander, people produce dust from minute skin flakes and decomposed hair, dust mites in
bedding, carpeting and furniture produce enzymes and micrometer-sized fecal droppings,
inhabitants emit methane, mold forms on walls and generates mycotoxins and spores, air
conditioning systems can incubate Legionnaires' disease and mold, and houseplants, soil and
surrounding gardens can produce pollen, dust, and mold. Indoors, the lack of air circulation allows
these airborne pollutants to accumulate more than they would otherwise occur in nature.

Health effects

Air pollution is a significant risk factor for a number of health conditions including respiratory
infections, heart disease, COPD, stroke and lung cancer. The health effects caused by air pollution
may include difficulty in breathing, wheezing, coughing, asthma and worsening of existing
respiratory and cardiac conditions. These effects can result in increased medication use, increased
doctor or emergency room visits, more hospital admissions and premature death. The human health
effects of poor air quality are far reaching, but principally affect the body's respiratory system and
the cardiovascular system. Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a
person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, and the individual's health status and genetics. The
most common sources of air pollution include particulates, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and sulphur
dioxide. Children aged less than five years that live in developing countries are the most vulnerable
population in terms of total deaths attributable to indoor and outdoor air pollution.

Mortality

It is estimated that some 7 million premature deaths may be attributed to air pollution. India has
the highest death rate due to air pollution. India also has more deaths from asthma than any other
nation according to the World Health Organization. In December 2013 air pollution was estimated
to kill 500,000 people in China each year. There is a correlation between pneumonia-related deaths
and air pollution from motor vehicles.

Air pollution is estimated to reduce life expectancy by almost nine months across the European
Union. Causes of deaths include strokes, heart disease, COPD, lung cancer, and lung infections.

The US EPA estimates that a proposed set of changes in diesel engine technology (Tier 2) could
result in 12,000 fewer premature mortalities, 15,000 fewer heart attacks, 6,000 fewer emergency
room visits by children with asthma, and 8,900 fewer respiratory-related hospital admissions each
year in the United States.

The US EPA estimates allowing a ground-level ozone concentration of 65 parts per billion, would
avert 1,700 to 5,100 premature deaths nationwide in 2020 compared with the current 75-ppb
standard. The agency projects the stricter standard would also prevent an additional 26,000 cases
of aggravated asthma, and more than a million cases of missed work or school.

A new economic study of the health impacts and associated costs of air pollution in the Los
Angeles Basin and San Joaquin Valley of Southern California shows that more than 3,800 people
die prematurely (approximately 14 years earlier than normal) each year because air pollution levels
violate federal standards. The number of annual premature deaths is considerably higher than the
fatalities related to auto collisions in the same area, which average fewer than 2,000 per year.

Diesel exhaust (DE) is a major contributor to combustion-derived particulate matter air pollution.
In several human experimental studies, using a well-validated exposure chamber setup, DE has
been linked to acute vascular dysfunction and increased thrombus formation. This serves as a
plausible mechanistic link between the previously described association between particulates air
pollution and increased cardiovascular morbidity and mortality.

Cardiovascular disease

A 2007 review of evidence found ambient air pollution exposure is a risk factor correlating with
increased total mortality from cardiovascular events (range: 12% to 14% per 10 microg/m 3
increase).

Air pollution is also emerging as a risk factor for stroke, particularly in developing countries where
pollutant levels are highest. A 2007 study found that in women, air pollution is not associated with
hemorrhagic but with ischemic stroke. Air pollution was also found to be associated with increased
incidence and mortality from coronary stroke in a cohort study in 2011. Associations are believed
to be causal and effects may be mediated by vasoconstriction, low-grade inflammation and
atherosclerosis Other mechanisms such as autonomic nervous system imbalance have also been
suggested.

Lung disease

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) includes diseases such as chronic bronchitis and
emphysema.

Research has demonstrated increased risk of developing asthma and COPD from increased
exposure to traffic-related air pollution. Additionally, air pollution has been associated with
increased hospitalization and mortality from asthma and COPD.

A study conducted in 1960-1961 in the wake of the Great Smog of 1952 compared 293 London
residents with 477 residents of Gloucester, Peterborough, and Norwich, three towns with low
reported death rates from chronic bronchitis. All subjects were male postal truck drivers aged 40
to 59. Compared to the subjects from the outlying towns, the London subjects exhibited more
severe respiratory symptoms (including cough, phlegm, and dyspnea), reduced lung function
(FEV1 and peak flow rate), and increased sputum production and purulence. The differences were
more pronounced for subjects aged 50 to 59. The study controlled for age and smoking habits, so
concluded that air pollution was the most likely cause of the observed differences.

It is believed that much like cystic fibrosis, by living in a more urban environment serious health
hazards become more apparent. Studies have shown that in urban areas patients suffer mucus
hypersecretion, lower levels of lung function, and more self-diagnosis of chronic bronchitis and
emphysema

Cancer

A review of evidence regarding whether ambient air pollution exposure is a risk factor for cancer
in 2007 found solid data to conclude that long-term exposure to PM2.5 (fine particulates) increases
the overall risk of non-accidental mortality by 6% per a 10 microg/m3 increase. Exposure to PM2.5
was also associated with an increased risk of mortality from lung cancer (range: 15% to 21% per
10 microg/m3 increase) and total cardiovascular mortality (range: 12% to 14% per a 10 microg/m3
increase). The review further noted that living close to busy traffic appears to be associated with
elevated risks of these three outcomes --- increase in lung cancer deaths, cardiovascular deaths,
and overall non-accidental deaths. The reviewers also found suggestive evidence that exposure to
PM2.5 is positively associated with mortality from coronary heart diseases and exposure to SO2
increases mortality from lung cancer, but the data was insufficient to provide solid conclusions.
Another investigation showed that higher activity level increases deposition fraction of aerosol
particles in human lung and recommended avoiding heavy activities like running in outdoor space
at polluted areas.

In 2011, a large Danish epidemiological study found an increased risk of lung cancer for patients
who lived in areas with high nitrogen oxide concentrations. In this study, the association was
higher for non-smokers than smokers. An additional Danish study, also in 2011, likewise noted
evidence of possible associations between air pollution and other forms of cancer, including
cervical cancer and brain cancer.

In December 2015, medical scientists reported that cancer is overwhelmingly a result of

environmental factors, and not largely down to bad luck. Maintaining a healthy weight, eating a
healthy diet, minimizing alcohol and eliminating smoking reduces the risk of developing the
disease, according to the researchers.

Children

In the United States, despite the passage of the Clean Air Act in 1970, in 2002 at least 146 million
Americans were living in non-attainment areasregions in which the concentration of certain air
pollutants exceeded federal standards. These dangerous pollutants are known as the criteria
pollutants, and include ozone, particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon
monoxide, and lead. Protective measures to ensure children's health are being taken in cities such
as New Delhi, India where buses now use compressed natural gas to help eliminate the "pea-soup"
smog. A recent study in Europe has found that exposure to ultrafine particles can increase blood
pressure in children.
Even in the areas with relatively low levels of air pollution, public health effects can be significant
and costly, since a large number of people breathe in such pollutants. A 2005 scientific study for
the British Columbia Lung Association showed that a small improvement in air quality (1%
reduction of ambient PM2.5 and ozone concentrations) would produce $29 million in annual
savings in the Metro Vancouver region in 2010. This finding is based on health valuation of lethal
(death) and sub-lethal (illness) affects.

Central nervous system

Data is accumulating that air pollution exposure also affects the central nervous system.

In a June 2014 study conducted by researchers at the University of Rochester Medical Center,
published in the journal Environmental Health Perspectives, it was discovered that early exposure
to air pollution causes the same damaging changes in the brain as autism and schizophrenia. The
study also shows that air pollution also affected short-term memory, learning ability, and
impulsivity. Lead researcher Professor Deborah Cory-Slechta said that "When we looked closely
at the ventricles, we could see that the white matter that normally surrounds them hadn't fully
developed. It appears that inflammation had damaged those brain cells and prevented that region
of the brain from developing, and the ventricles simply expanded to fill the space. Our findings
add to the growing body of evidence that air pollution may play a role in autism, as well as in other
neurodevelopmental disorders." Air pollution has a more significant negative effect of males than
on females.

In 2015, experimental studies reported the detection of significant episodic (situational) cognitive
impairment from impurities in indoor air breathed by test subjects who were not informed about
changes in the air quality. Researchers at the Harvard University and SUNY Upstate Medical
University and Syracuse University measured the cognitive performance of 24 participants in three
different controlled laboratory atmospheres that simulated those found in "conventional" and
"green" buildings, as well as green buildings with enhanced ventilation. Performance was
evaluated objectively using the widely used Strategic Management Simulation software simulation
tool, which is a well-validated assessment test for executive decision-making in an unconstrained
situation allowing initiative and improvisation. Significant deficits were observed in the
performance scores achieved in increasing concentrations of either volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) or carbon dioxide, while keeping other factors constant. The highest impurity levels
reached are not uncommon in some classroom or office environments.

Agricultural effects

In India in 2014, it was reported that air pollution by black carbon and ground level ozone had cut
crop yields in the most affected areas by almost half in 2010 when compared to 1980 levels.

Historical disasters

The world's worst short-term civilian pollution crisis was the 1984 Bhopal Disaster in India Leaked
industrial vapours from the Union Carbide factory, belonging to Union Carbide, Inc., U.S.A. (later
bought by Dow Chemical Company), killed at least 3787 people and injured anywhere from
150,000 to 600,000. The United Kingdom suffered its worst air pollution event when the December
4 Great Smog of 1952 formed over London. In six days more than 4,000 died and more recent
estimates put the figure at nearer 12,000. An accidental leak of anthrax spores from a biological
warfare laboratory in the former USSR in 1979 near Sverdlovsk is believed to have caused at least
64 deaths.[67] The worst single incident of air pollution to occur in the US occurred in Donora,
Pennsylvania in late October, 1948, when 20 people died and over 7,000 were injured.

Alternatives to creating air pollution

There are now practical alternatives to the three principal causes of air pollution. Combustion of
fossil fuels for space heating can be replaced by using ground source heat pumps and seasonal
thermal energy storage. Electric power generation from burning fossil fuels can be replaced by
power generation from nuclear and renewables. Motor vehicles driven by fossil fuels, a key factor
in urban air pollution, can be replaced by electric vehicles.

Reduction efforts

There are various air pollution control technologies and land-use planning strategies available to
reduce air pollution. At its most basic level, land-use planning is likely to involve zoning and
transport infrastructure planning. In most developed countries, land-use planning is an important
part of social policy, ensuring that land is used efficiently for the benefit of the wider economy
and population, as well as to protect the environment.

Because a large share of air pollution is caused by combustion of fossil fuels such as coal and oil,
the reduction of these fuels can reduce air pollution drastically. Most effective is the switch to
clean power sources such as wind power, solar power, hydro power which don't cause air pollution.
Efforts to reduce pollution from mobile sources includes primary regulation (many developing
countries have permissive regulations), expanding regulation to new sources (such as cruise and
transport ships, farm equipment, and small gas-powered equipment such as string trimmers,
chainsaws, and snowmobiles), increased fuel efficiency (such as through the use of hybrid
vehicles), conversion to cleaner fuels or conversion to electric vehicles.

Titanium dioxide has been researched for its ability to reduce air pollution. Ultraviolet light will
release free electrons from material, thereby creating free radicals, which break up VOCs and NOx
gases. One form is superhydrophilic.

In 2014, Prof. Tony Ryan and Prof. Simon Armitage of University of Sheffield prepared a 10 meter
by 20 meter-sized poster coated with microscopic, pollution-eating nanoparticles of titanium
dioxide. Placed on a building, this giant poster can absorb the toxic emission from around 20 cars
each day.

A very effective means to reduce air pollution is the transition to renewable energy. According to
a study published in Energy and Environmental Science in 2015 the switch to 100% renewable
energy in the United States would eliminate about 62,000 premature mortalities per year and about
42,000 in 2050, if no biomass were used. This would save about $600 billion in health costs a year
due to reduced air pollution in 2050, or about 3.6% of the 2014 U.S. gross domestic product.

Health Hazards of Air Pollution

In Singapore, the air quality is generally good due to the strict pollution standards. Yet doctors still
see many patients whose lives and health are directly affected by the global phenomenon of air
pollution.

The common effects of air pollution include irritation to the eyes, nose and throat, and upper
respiratory infections such as bronchitis and pneumonia. Poor air quality can also exacerbate
underlying lung problems, such as bronchial asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
(COPD), or allergic rhinitis. Some patients may even need to be hospitalized.

Fine air particles can accumulate in the lungs

We can divide pollutants into two types:

1. gas pollutants (e.g. carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, etc.) and

2. particles in the air

Broadly speaking, gas pollutants can be detrimental to our health as they take part in gas exchange
during each breath we take. However, they are not retained in the body and are excreted.

Particles in the air are another story. While the bigger particles are filtered by the respiratory tract
(which includes our nostrils, airways and lungs), the finer particles are deposited in our lungs and
may build up over a prolonged period. Such prolonged exposure to pollution can lead to the onset
of chronic lung diseases.

Dangerous haze

In Singapore, the most preoccupying source of air pollution is the haze attributable to forest fires
in Indonesia. This typically happens around October, when farmers carry out their slash and burn
method of cultivation.

The haze can be exacerbated depending on the prevailing wind direction which carries the smoke
particles. Air pollution may then reach the moderate to unhealthy range.

During the smoke haze pollution of 1997, there was an immediate 30 per cent increase in outpatient
attendance and increased accident and emergency attendance for haze-related conditions.
Measurements showed that 94 per cent of haze particles were smaller than 2.5 microns in diametre,
which is the size that bypasses our filtering system and gets deposited in our lung tissues.
Ways to protect yourself from air pollution

Should you want a face mask to protect yourself against the haze and air pollution, make sure you
get one that can catch the smallest particles? Look for filters that contain an electro-static charge,
which can trap fine dust and particles below 0.3 microns.

As for inside your home, using an air conditioner may help remove air pollutants. Why? Air
conditioning makes the air drier, effectively removing many water-soluble pollutants.

Stand-alone HEPA air cleaners can also be considered. The best ones are those equipped with True
HEPA filters, which can capture high proportions of very small particles.

Air pollution is a major environment-related health threat to children and a risk factor for both
acute and chronic respiratory disease. While second-hand tobacco smoke and certain outdoor
pollutants are known risk factors for respiratory infections, indoor air pollution from solid fuels is
one of the major contributors to the global burden of disease. In poorly ventilated dwellings, indoor
smoke can be 100 times higher than acceptable levels for small particles. Exposure is particularly
high among women and young children, who spend the most time near the domestic hearth.

WHO is providing technical support to countries in their own evaluations and scale up of
promoting safer stove technologies, as well as air quality guidelines to offer global guidance on
reducing the health impacts of air pollution?

Outdoor air pollution

Outdoor air pollution is large and increasing a consequence of the inefficient combustion of fuels
for transport, power generation and other human activities like home heating and cooking.
Combustion processes produce a complex mixture of pollutants that comprises of both primary
emissions, such as diesel soot particles and lead, and the products of atmospheric transformation,
such as ozone and sulfate particles.

Urban outdoor air pollution is estimated to cause 1.3 million deaths worldwide per year. Children
are particularly at risk due to the immaturity of their respiratory organ systems. Those living in
middle-income countries disproportionately experience this burden. Exposure to air pollutants is
largely beyond the control of individuals and requires action by public authorities at the national,
regional and even international levels.

Indoor air pollution

Indoor cooking and heating with biomass fuels (agricultural residues, dung, straw, wood) or coal
produces high levels of indoor smoke that contains a variety of health-damaging pollutants. There
is consistent evidence that exposure to indoor air pollution can lead to acute lower respiratory
infections in children under age five, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and lung cancer
in adults.

Indoor air pollution is responsible for 2 million deaths annually. Acute lower respiratory infections,
in particular pneumonia, continue to be the biggest killer of young children and this toll almost
exclusively falls on children in developing countries.

Impact of air pollution on health

The magnitude of the London fog of 1952, which affected such a large number of people, was the
first incident that made people aware of the damage done to the atmosphere due to
industrialization. The SPM levels increased manifold and resulted in over 4000 deaths.

Indoor air pollution can be particularly hazardous to health as it is released

in close proximity to people. It is stated that a pollutant released indoors
is many times more likely to reach the lung than that released outdoors. In
the developing countries a fairly large portion of the population is
dependent on biomass for their energy requirements. These include wood,
charcoal, agricultural residue, and animal waste. Open fires used for
cooking and heating are commonly found in the household both in the
rural and the urban areas. The stove is often at floor level, adding to the
risk of accident and the hygiene factor. In addition, they are often not fitted
with a chimney to remove the pollutants. In such households the children and women are most
likely to be affected, as they are the group that spends more time indoors. The main pollutant in
this environment is the SPM. In fact, death due to indoor air pollution, mainly particulate matters,
in the rural areas of India are one of the highest in the world. Many of the deaths are due to acute
respiratory infections in children; others are due to cardiovascular diseases, lung cancer, and
chronic respiratory diseases in adults. If emissions are high and ventilation is poor, household use
of coal and biomass can severely affect the indoor air quality.

Pollutant emissions per meal are also very high compared to those of other fuels. Household use
of fossil fuel is also fairly common in the developing countries, particularly coalboth bituminous
and lignite. These are particularly damaging as they burn inefficiently and emit considerable
quantities of air pollutants. If emissions are high and ventilation poor, then the exposure levels to
the gases emitted are far higher. The most harmful of the gases and agents that are emitted are
particulate matter, carbon dioxide, polycyclic organic matter, and formaldehyde. The indoor
concentrations of these are far higher than the acceptable levels and is cause for concern in rural
areas.

Health impact of specific air pollutants

Some of these gases can seriously and adversely affect the health of the population and should be
given due attention by the concerned authority. The gases mentioned below are mainly outdoor air
pollutants but some of them can and do occur indoor depending on the source and the
circumstances.

Tobacco smoke. Tobacco smoke generates a wide range of harmful chemicals and is a major
cause of ill health, as it is known to cause cancer, not only to the smoker but affecting passive
smokers too. It is well-known that smoking affects the passive smoker (the person who is in the
vicinity of a smoker and is not himself/herself a smoker) ranging from burning sensation in the
eyes or nose, and throat irritation, to cancer, bronchitis, severe asthma, and a decrease in lung
function.
Biological pollutants. These are mostly allergens that can cause asthma, hay fever, and other
allergic diseases.
Volatile organic compounds. Volatile compounds can cause irritation of the eye, nose and throat.
In severe cases there may be headaches, nausea, and loss of coordination. In the longer run, some
of them are suspected to cause damage to the liver and other parts of the body.
Formaldehyde. Exposure causes irritation to the eyes, nose and may cause allergies in some
people.
Lead. Prolonged exposure can cause damage to the nervous system, digestive problems, and in
some cases cause cancer. It is especially hazardous to small children.
Radon. A radioactive gas that can accumulate inside the house, it originates from the rocks and
soil under the house and its level is dominated by the outdoor air and also to some extent the other
gases being emitted indoors. Exposure to this gas increases the risk of lung cancer.
Ozone. Exposure to this gas makes our eyes itch, burn, and water and it has also been associated
with increase in respiratory disorders such as asthma. It lowers our resistance to colds and
pneumonia.
Oxides of nitrogen. This gas can make children susceptible to respiratory diseases in the winters.
Sulphur dioxide. SO2 (sulphur dioxide) in the air is caused due to the rise in combustion of fossil
fuels. It can oxidize and form sulphuric acid mist. SO2 in the air leads to diseases of the lung and
other lung disorders such as wheezing and shortness of breath. Long-term effects are more difficult
to ascertain as SO2 exposure is often combined with that of SPM.
SPM (suspended particulate matter). Suspended matter consists of dust, fumes, mist and smoke.
The main chemical component of SPM that is of major concern is lead, others being nickel, arsenic,
and those present in diesel exhaust. These particles when breathed in, lodge in our lung tissues and
cause lung damage and respiratory problems. The importance of SPM as a major pollutant needs
special emphasis as a) it affects more people globally than any other pollutant on a continuing
basis; b) there is more monitoring data available on this than any other pollutant; and c) more
epidemiological evidence has been collected on the exposure to this than to any other pollutant.

Regulations
In general, there are two types of air quality standards. The first class of standards (such as
the U.S. National Ambient Air Quality Standards and E.U. Air Quality Directive) set
maximum atmospheric concentrations for specific pollutants. Environmental agencies
enact regulations which are intended to result in attainment of these target levels. The
second class (such as the North American Air Quality Index) take the form of a scale with
various thresholds, which is used to communicate to the public the relative risk of outdoor
activity. The scale may or may not distinguish between different pollutants.
Canada

In Canada, air pollution and associated health risks are measured with the Air Quality Health Index
or (AQHI). It is a health protection tool used to make decisions to reduce short-term exposure to
air pollution by adjusting activity levels during increased levels of air pollution.

The Air Quality Health Index or "AQHI" is a federal program jointly coordinated by Health
Canada and Environment Canada. However, the AQHI program would not be possible without the
commitment and support of the provinces, municipalities and NGOs. From air quality monitoring
to health risk communication and community engagement, local partners are responsible for the
vast majority of work related to AQHI implementation. The AQHI provides a number from 1 to
10+ to indicate the level of health risk associated with local air quality. Occasionally, when the
amount of air pollution is abnormally high, the number may exceed 10. The AQHI provides a local
air quality current value as well as a local air quality maximums forecast for today, tonight and
tomorrow and provides associated health advice.

12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 +

Risk: Low (1-3) Moderate (4-6) High (7-10) Very high (above 10)

As it is now known that even low levels of air pollution can trigger discomfort for the sensitive
population, the index has been developed as a continuum: The higher the number, the greater the
health risk and need to take precautions. The index describes the level of health risk associated
with this number as 'low', 'moderate', 'high' or 'very high', and suggests steps that can be taken to
reduce exposure.

The measurement is based on the observed relationship of Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2), ground-level
Ozone (O3) and particulates (PM2.5) with mortality, from an analysis of several Canadian cities.
Significantly, all three of these pollutants can pose health risks, even at low levels of exposure,
especially among those with pre-existing health problems.
When developing the AQHI, Health Canada's original analysis of health effects included five
major air pollutants: particulates, ozone, and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), as well as sulfur dioxide
(SO2), and carbon monoxide (CO). The latter two pollutants provided little information in
predicting health effects and were removed from the AQHI formulation.

The AQHI does not measure the effects of odour, pollen, dust, heat or humidity.
Reference:

www.engineeringtoolbox.com/Air_pollution

www.scribd.com/air pollution hazards

http://www.healthxchange.com.sg /Health-Hazards-of-Air-Pollution.aspx

http://edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/air/health.htm
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We owe our gratitude to Allah Almighty whose shower of blessings and kindness has been on us
throughout the working on these pages. It is His help that we finally able to compile this document.

We are indebted to our respected teacher Dr.Saleem Khan whos indispensable and intricate
comments on various aspects conjoined with motivation made us come forth holding such as
project.