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ME1251 THERMAL ENGINEERING

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UNIT II

INTERNAL COMBUTION ENGINES

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CONTENTS
TECHNICAL TERMS
2.1 Classification of IC engine
2.2 Components of I.C engine 1.Cylinder block
2.3 Theoretical valve timing diagram of four stroke engine

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2.4 Comparison of two stroke and four stroke engines
2.6 Simple Carburetor
2.7 Diesel Pump and Injector system
2.8 Diesel knocking and detonation

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2.9 Ignition System
2.10 Comparison between Battery and Magneto Ignition System
2.11 Lubrication System
2.12 Cooling System
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2.12.1 Air Cooled System
2.12.2 Water Cooling System
2.13 Emission Formation in C.I. Engine
2.14 Principle C.I. Engine Exhaust Constituents
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2.15 Sample problems

2.16 Solved Problems
2.17 Two Marks University Questions
2.18 University Essay Questions
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TECHNICAL TERMS

1. IC Engines: Air and fuel mixture flows through inlet valve and exhaust leaves through
exhaust valve Converts reciprocating motion to rotary motion using piston and crank
shaft
2. TDC: Top Dead Center: Position of the piston where it forms the smallest volume\

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3. BDC: Bottom Dead Center: Position of the piston where it forms the largest volume
4. Stroke: Stroke means Distance between TDC and BDC
5. Bore: Bore Diameter of the piston (internal diameter of the cylinder)
6. Clearance volume: The clearance volume means minimum volume formed is called

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the clearance
7. Compression ratio: The compression ratio means ratio of total cylinder volume to
clearance volume.
8. MEP: Mean effective pressure: A const. theoretical pressure that if acts on piston
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produces work same as that during an actual cycle Wnet = MEP x Piston area x Stroke
9. Common layouts of engines are:

Reciprocating:
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Two-stroke engine
Four-stroke engine (Otto cycle)
Six-stroke engine
Diesel engine

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Atkinson cycle
Miller cycle

10. Two-Stroke Engine:

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Engines based on the two-stroke cycle use two strokes (one up, one down) for every
power stroke. Since there are no dedicated intake or exhaust strokes

11. Cylinder: A cylindrical vessel in which a piston makes an up and down motion.

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12. Piston: A cylindrical component making an up and down movement in the cylinder
13. Combustion chamber: A portion above the cylinder in which the combustion of the
fuel-air mixture takes place
14. Intake and exhaust ports: Ports that carry fresh fuel-air mixture into the combustion
chamber and products of combustion away

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15. Crankshaft: A shaft that converts reciprocating motion of the piston into rotary motion
16. Connecting rod: A rod that connects the piston to the crankshaft
17. Spark plug: An ignition-source in the cylinder head that initiates the combustion
process
18. Four stroke engine: Engines based on the four-stroke ("Otto cycle") have one power

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stroke for every four strokes (up-down-up-down) and employ sparkplug ignition.
Combustion occurs rapidly, and during combustion the volume varies little ("constant
volume") They are used in cars, larger boats, some motorcycles, and many light aircraft.
They are generally quieter, more efficient, and larger than their two-stroke counterparts.
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19. AFR: Airfuel ratio is the mass ratio of air to fuel present in an internal combustion
engine. If exactly enough air is provided to completely burn all of the fuel, the ratio is
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known as the stoichiometric mixture, often abbreviated to stoich. AFR is an important

measure for anti-pollution and performance-tuning reasons
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UNIT-II
INTERNAL COMBUTION ENGINES

2.1 Classification of IC engine:

Normally IC engines are classified into

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1.C.I engines and
2.S.I engines
Some of the important classifications are given below,
1. Number of strokes -two stroke and four stroke
2. Working Cycles -Otto, Diesel, Dual cycle

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3. Cylinder arrangement -In-line, V-type, Opposed, Radial
4. Valve Arrangement -T-head, F-head, L-head, I-head
5. Fuel Used -Petrol, Diesel, Gas
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6. Combustion chamber design -Open, divided
7. Cooling System -Water and air cooling
8. According to the number of cylinders -Single and Multi
9. According to the speed -Slow, medium, and high speed engines
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10. According to the application -Stationary, Automotive, Marine, Locomotive, Aircraft

etc.,
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2.2 Components of I.C engine 1.Cylinder block:

The cylinder block is the main body of the engine, the structure that supports
all the other components of the engine. In the case of the single cylinder engine the
cylinder block houses the cylinder, while in the case of multi-cylinder engine the number
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of cylinders are cast together to form the cylinder block. The cylinder head is mounted at
the top of the cylinder block.

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When the vehicle runs, large amounts of heat are generated within the cylinder
block. To remove this heat the cylinder block and the cylinder head are cooled by water
flowing through the water jackets within larger engines such as those found in cars and
trucks. For smaller vehicles like motorcycles, fins are provided on the cylinder block and
on the cylinder head to cool them. The bottom portion of the cylinder block is called a

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crankcase. Within the crankcase is where lubricating oil, which is used for lubricating
various moving parts of the engine, is stored.

Cylinder:

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As the name suggests it is a cylindrical shaped vessel fitted in the cylinder
block. This cylinder can be removed from the cylinder block and machined whenever
required to. It is also called a liner or sleeve. Inside the cylinder the piston moves up and
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down, which is called the reciprocating motion of the piston. Burning of fuel occurs at
the top of the cylinder, due to which the reciprocating motion of the piston is produced.
The surface of the cylinder is finished to a high finish, so that there is minimal friction
between the piston and the cylinder.
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Piston:
The piston is the round cylindrical component that performs a reciprocating
motion inside the cylinder. While the cylinder itself is the female part, the piston is the
male part. The piston fits perfectly inside the cylinder. Piston rings are fitted over the
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piston. The gap between the piston and the cylinder is filled by the piston rings and
lubricating oil. The piston is usually made up of aluminum

. Piston rings:
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The piston rings are thin rings fitted in the slots made along the surface of the
piston. It provides a tight seal between the piston and the cylinder walls that prevents

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leaking of the combustion gases from one side to the other. This ensures that that motion
of the piston produces as close as to the power generated from inside the cylinder.
Combustion chamber:
It is in the combustion chamber where the actual burning of fuel occurs. It is the
uppermost portion of the cylinder enclosed by the cylinder head and the piston. When the

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fuel is burnt, much thermal energy is produced which generates excessively high
pressures causing the reciprocating motion of the piston.

Inlet manifold:
Through the inlet manifold the air or air-fuel mixture is drawn into the cylinder.

Exhaust manifold:

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All the exhaust gases generated inside the cylinder after burning of fuel are
discharged through the exhaust manifold into the atmosphere.
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Inlet and exhaust valves:
The inlet and the exhaust valves are placed at the top of the cylinder in the
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cylinder head. The inlet valve allows the intake of the fuel during suction stroke of the
piston and to close thereafter. During the exhaust stroke of the piston the exhaust valves
open allowing the exhaust gases to release to the atmosphere. Both these valves allow the
flow of fuel and gases in single direction only.
Spark plug:
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The spark plug is a device that produces a small spark that causes the instant
burning of the pressurized fuel.

Connecting rod:
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It is the connecting link between the piston and the crankshaft that performs the
rotary motion. There are two ends of the connecting rod called the small end and big end.

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The small end of the connecting rod is connected to the piston by gudgeon pin, while the
big end is connected to crankshaft by crank pin
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Crankshaft:
The crankshaft performs the rotary motion. It is connected to the axle of the

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wheels which move as the crankshaft rotates. The reciprocating motion of the piston is
converted into the rotary motion of the crankshaft with the help of connecting rod. The
crankshaft is located in the crankcase and it rotates in the bushings.
Camshaft:
It takes driving force from crankshaft through gear train or chain and operates the

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inlet valve as well as exhaust valve with the help of cam followers, push rod and rocker
arms.
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2.3 Theoretical valve timing diagram of four stroke engine:
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2.3.1 Actual valve timing diagram of four stroke engine:

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2.3.2Theoretical port timing diagram of two stroke engine:

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2.4 Comparison of two stroke and four stroke engines:

Table 2.1 Comparison of two stroke and four stroke engines

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2.6 Simple Carburetor:

The function of a carburetor is to vaporize the petrol (gasoline) by means of

engine suction and to supply the required air and fuel (petrol) mixture to the engine cylinder.

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During the suction stroke, air flows from atmosphere into the cylinder. As the air passes through
the enture, velocity of air increases and its pressure falls below the atmosphere. The pressure at
the nozzle tip is also below the atmospheric pressure. The pressure on the fuel surface of the fuel
tank is atmospheric. Due to which a pressure difference is created, which causes the flow of fuel
through the fuel jet into the air stream. As the fuel and air pass ahead of the enture, the fuel gets

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vaporized and required uniform mixture is supplied to the engine. The quantity of fuel supplied
to the engine depends upon the opening of throttle valve which is governed by the governor.
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The main parts of a simple carburetor are:

Float chamber: The level of fuel in the float chamber is maintained slightly below the tip of the
nozzle. If the level of petrol is above then the petrol will run from the nozzle and drip from the

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carburetor. If the petrol level is kept low than the tip of the nozzle then part of pressure head is
lost in lifting the petrol up to the tip of nozzle. Generally it is kept at 5mm from the level of
petrol in the float chamber. The level of the fuel is kept constant with the help of float and needle
valve. The needle valve closes the inlet supply from main tank if the level rises above the
required level. If the level of fuel decreases then the needle valve opens the supply. Generally the

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fuel level is kept 5mm below the nozzle tip.

Venturi: When the mixture passes through the narrowest section its velocity increases and
pressure falls below the atmospheric. As it passes through the divergent section, pressure
increases again.

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Throttle valve: It controls the quantity of air and fuel mixture supplied to the engine through
intake manifold and also the head under which the fuel flows.

Choke: It provides an extra rich mixture during to the engine starting and in cold weather to
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warm up the engine. The choke valve is nearly closed during clod starting and warming. It
creates a high vacuum near the fuel jet which causes flow of more fuel from the jet.
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2.7 Diesel Pump and Injector system:

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2.8 Diesel knocking and detonation:

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We already know that if the delay period is long, a large amount of fuel will be injected
and accumulated in the chamber. The auto ignition of this large amount of fuel may cause high
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rate of pressure rise and high maximum pressure which may cause knocking in diesel engines. A
long delay period not only increases the amount of fuel injected by the moment of ignition, but
also improve the homogeneity of the fuel air mixture and its chemical preparedness for explosion
type self ignition similar to detonation in SI engines. It is very instructive to compare the
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phenomenon of detonation is SI ensues with that of knocking in CI engines. There is no doubt

that these two phenomena are fundamentally similar. Both are processes of auto ignition subject
to the ignition time lag characteristic of the fuel air mixture. However, differences in the
knocking phenomena of the SI engine and the CI engine should also be care fully be noted: 1. In
the SI engine, the detonation occurs near the end of combustion where as in the CI engine
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detonation occurs near the beginning of combustion as shown in fig. 6.10. 2. The detonation in
the SI engine is of a homogeneous charge causing very high rate of pressure rise and very high
maximum pressure. In the CI engine the fuel and air are in perfectly mixed and hence the rate of
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pressure rise is normally lower than that in the detonating part of the charge in the SI engine. 3.
Since in the CI engine the fuel is injected in to the cylinder only at the end of the compression
stroke there is no question of pre ignition or pre mature ignition as in the SI engine. 4. In the SI
engine it is relatively easy to distinguish between knocking and non- knocking operation as the
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human ear easily find the distinction. However, in the case of the CI engine the normal ignition
is itself by auto ignition and hence no CI engines have a sufficiently high rate of pressure rise per
degree crank angle to cause audible noise. When such noise becomes excessive or there is
excessive vibration in engine structure, in the opinion of the observer, the engine is sending to
knock. It is clear that personal judgment is involved here. Thus in the CI engine there is no

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definite distinction between normal and knocking combustion. The maximum rate of pressure
rise in the CI engine may reach as high as 10bar per crank degree angle.
It is most important to note that factors that tend to reduce detonation in the SI engine increase
knocking in CI engine and vice versa because of the following reason. The detonation of
knocking in the SI engine is due to simultaneous auto ignition of the last part of the charge. To

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eliminate detonation in the SI engine we want to prevent all together the auto ignition of the last
part of the charge and therefore desire a long delay period and high self ignition temperature of
the fuel. To eliminate knocking the CI engine we want to achieve auto ignitions early as possible
therefore desire a short delay period and low self ignition temperature of the fuel. Table 6.2 gives
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the factors which reduce knocking in the SI and CI engines
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Table 2.2: Factors tending to reduce knocking in SI and CI engine

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It is also clear from the table and discussion that a good CI engine fuel is a bad SI engine fuel
and a good SI engine is bad CI engine fuel. In other words diesel oil has low self ignition
temperature and short time lag where as petrol have high self ignition temperature and a long
ignition lag. In terms of fuel rating diesel oil has high cetane number (40 60) and low octane

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number (about 30) and petrol has high octane number (80 90) and low cetane number (18).

2.9 Ignition System:

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Basically Convectional Ignition systems are of 2 types : (a) Battery or Coil
Ignition System, and (b) Magneto Ignition System. Both these conventional, ignition systems
work on mutual electromagnetic induction principle. Battery ignition system was generally used
in 4-wheelers, but now-a-days it is more commonly used in 2-wheelers also (i.e. Button start, 2-
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wheelers like Pulsar, Kinetic Honda; Honda-Activa, Scooty, Fiero, etc.). In this case 6 V or 12 V
batteries will supply necessary current in the primary winding. Magneto ignition system is
mainly used in 2-wheelers, kick start engines. (Example, Bajaj Scooters, Boxer, Victor,
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Splendor, Passion, etc.). In this case magneto will produce and supply current to the primary
winding. So in magneto ignition system magneto replaces the battery. Battery or Coil Ignition
System Figure shows line diagram of battery ignition system for a 4-cylinder petrol engine. It
mainly consists of a 6 or 12 volt battery, ammeter, ignition switch, auto-transformer (step up
transformer), contact breaker, capacitor, distributor rotor, distributor contact points, spark plugs,
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etc. Note that the Figure 4.1 shows the ignition system for 4-cylinder petrol engine, here there
are 4-spark plugs and contact breaker cam has 4-corners. (If it is for 6-cylinder engine it will
have 6-spark plugs and contact breaker cam will be a hexagon).
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The ignition system is divided into 2-circuits:

i. Primary Circuit :

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a. It consists of 6 or 12 V battery, ammeter, ignition switch, primary winding it has
200-300 turns of 20 SWG (Sharps Wire Gauge) gauge wire, contact breaker,
capacitor.

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(ii) Secondary Circuit:

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It consists of secondary winding. Secondary Ignition Systems winding

consists of about 21000 turns of 40 (S WG) gauge wire. Bottom end of which is connected to
bottom end of primary and top end of secondary winding is connected to centre of distributor
rotor. Distributor rotors rotate and make contacts with contact points and are connected to spark
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plugs which are fitted in cylinder heads (engine earth). (iii) Working : When the ignition switch
is closed and engine in cranked, as soon as the contact breaker closes, a low voltage current will
flow through the primary winding. It is also to be noted that the contact beaker cam opens and

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closes the circuit 4-times (for 4 cylinders) in one revolution. When the contact breaker opens the
contact, the magnetic field begins to collapse. Because of this collapsing magnetic field, current
will be induced in the secondary winding. And because of more turns (@ 21000 turns) of
secondary, voltage goes unto 28000-30000 volts. This high voltage current is brought to centre
of the distributor rotor. Distributor rotor rotates and supplies this high voltage current to proper

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stark plug depending upon the engine firing order. When the high voltage current jumps the
spark plug gap, it produces the spark and the charge is ignited-combustion starts-products of
combustion expand and produce power. Magneto Ignition System In this case magneto will
produce and supply the required current to the primary winding. In this case as shown, we can
have rotating magneto with fixed coil or rotating coil with fixed magneto for producing and

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supplying current to primary, remaining arrangement is same as that of a battery ignition system.
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2.10 Comparison between Battery and Magneto Ignition System:

Table 2.3 Comparison between Battery and Magneto Ignition System

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2.11 Lubrication System:
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2.11.1 Splash:
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The splash system is no longer used in automotive engines. It is widely used in
small four-cycle engines for lawn mowers, outboard marine operation, and so on. In the splash
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lubricating system , oil is splashed up from the oil pan or oil trays in the lower part of the
crankcase. The oil is thrown upward as droplets or fine mist and provides adequate lubrication to
valve mechanisms, piston pins, cylinder walls, and piston rings. In the engine, dippers on the
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connecting-rod bearing caps enter the oil pan with each crankshaft revolution to produce the oil
splash. A passage is drilled in each connecting rod from the dipper to the bearing to ensure
lubrication. This system is too uncertain for automotive applications. One reason is that the level
of oil in the crankcase will vary greatly the amount of lubrication received by the engine. A high
level results in excess lubrication and oil consumption and a slightly low level results in
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inadequate lubrication and failure of the engine.

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2.11.2 Combination Splash and Force Feed:

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In a combination splash and force feed , oil is delivered to some parts by means
of splashing and other parts through oil passages under pressure from the oil pump. The oil from
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the pump enters the oil galleries. From the oil galleries, it flows to the main bearings and
camshaft bearings. The main bearings have oil-feed holes or grooves that feed oil into drilled
passages in the crankshaft. The oil flows through these passages to the connecting rod bearings.
From there, on some engines, it flows through holes drilled in the connecting rods to the piston-
pin bearings. Cylinder walls are lubricated by splashing oil thrown off from the connecting-rod
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bearings. Some engines use small troughs under each connecting rod that are kept full by small
nozzles which deliver oil under pressure from the oil pump. These oil nozzles deliver an
increasingly heavy stream as speed increases. At very high speeds these oil streams are powerful
enough to strike the dippers directly. This causes a much heavier splash so that adequate
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lubrication of the pistons and the connecting-rod bearings is provided at higher speeds. If a
combination system is used on an overhead valve engine, the upper valve train is lubricated by
pressure from the pump.

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2.11.3 Force Feed :

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A somewhat more complete pressurization of lubrication is achieved in the force-feed

lubrication system. Oil is forced by the oil pump from the crankcase to the main bearings and the
camshaft bearings. Unlike the combination system the connecting-rod bearings are also fed oil
under pressure from the pump.
Oil passages are drilled in the crankshaft to lead oil to the connecting-rod bearings. The passages
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deliver oil from the main bearing journals to the rod bearing journals. In some engines, these

opening are holes that line up once for every crankshaft revolution. In other engines, there are
annular grooves in the main bearings through which oil can feed constantly into the hole in the
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crankshaft. The pressurized oil that lubricates the connecting-rod bearings goes on to lubricate
the pistons and walls by squirting out through strategically drilled holes. This lubrication system
is used in virtually all engines that are equipped with semi floating piston pins.

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2.11.4 Full Force Feed:
In a full force-feed lubrication system, the main bearings, rod bearings, camshaft
bearings, and the complete valve mechanism are lubricated by oil under pressure. In addition, the
full force-feed lubrication system provides lubrication under pressure to the pistons and the
piston pins. This is accomplished by holes drilled the length of the connecting rod, creating an oil

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passage from the connecting rod bearing to the piston pin bearing. This passage not only feeds
the piston pin bearings but also provides lubrication for the pistons and cylinder walls. This
system is used in virtually all engines that are equipped with full-floating piston pins.

2.12 Cooling System:

2.12.1 Air Cooled System:

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Air cooled system is generally used in small engines say up to 15-20 Kw and in aero
plane engines. In this system fins or extended surfaces are provided on the cylinder walls,
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cylinder head, etc. Heat generated due to combustion in the engine cylinder will be conducted to
the fins and when the air flows over the fins, heat will be dissipated to air. The amount of heat
dissipated to air depends upon : (a) Amount of air flowing through the fins. (b) Fin surface area. I
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Thermal conductivity of metal used for fins.

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Advantages of Air Cooled System Following are the advantages of air cooled system: (a)
Radiator/pump is absent hence the system is light. (b) In case of water cooling system there are
leakages, but in this case there are no leakages. I Coolant and antifreeze solutions are not
required. (d) This system can be used in cold climates, where if water is used it may freeze.
Disadvantages of Air Cooled System (a) Comparatively it is less efficient. (b) It is used only in

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aero planes and motorcycle engines where the engines are exposed to air directly.

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2.12.2 Water Cooling System:

In this method, cooling water jackets are provided around the cylinder, cylinder
head, valve seats etc. The water when circulated through the jackets, it absorbs heat of
combustion. This hot water will then be cooling in the radiator partially by a fan and partially by
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the flow developed by the forward motion of the vehicle. The cooled water is again recirculated
through the water jackets

Thermo Siphon System: In this system the circulation of water is due to difference in
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temperature (i.e. difference in densities) of water. So in this system pump is not required but
water is circulated because of density difference only.
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Pump Circulation System: In this system circulation of water is obtained by a pump. This
pump is driven by means of engine output shaft through V-belts.
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Performance Calculation: Engine performance is an indication of the degree of success of the

engine performs its assigned task, i.e. the conversion of the chemical energy contained in the fuel
into the useful mechanical work. The performance of an engine is evaluated on the basis of the

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following : (a) Specific Fuel Consumption. (b) Brake Mean Effective Pressure. I Specific Power
Output. (d) Specific Weight. (e) Exhaust Smoke and Other Emissions. The particular application
of the engine decides the relative importance of these performance parameters. For Example :
For an aircraft engine specific weight is more important whereas for an industrial engine specific
fuel consumption is more important. For the evaluation of an engine performance few more

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parameters are chosen and the effect of various operating conditions, design concepts and
modifications on these parameters are studied. The basic performance parameters are the
following : (a) Power and Mechanical Efficiency. (b) Mean Effective Pressure and Torque. I
Specific Output. (d) Volumetric Efficiency. (e) Fuel-air Ratio. (f) Specific Fuel Consumption. (g)
Thermal Efficiency and Heat Balance. (h) Exhaust Smoke and Other Emissions. (i) Specific

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Weight. Power and Mechanical Efficiency The main purpose of running an engine is to obtain
mechanical power. Power is defined as the rate of doing work and is equal to the product of
force and linear velocity or the product of torque and angular velocity. Thus, the measurement
of power involves the measurement of force (or torque) as well as speed. The force or torque is
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measured with the help of a dynamometer and the speed by a tachometer. The power developed
by an engine and measured at the output shaft is called the brake power (bp) and is given by
bp=2nt/60 where, T is torque in N-m and N is the rotational speed in revolutions per minute.
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The total power developed by combustion of fuel in the combustion chamber is, however, more
than the bp and is called indicated power (ip). Of the power developed by the engine, i.e. ip,
some power is consumed in overcoming the friction between moving parts, some in the process
of inducting the air and removing the products of combustion from the engine combustion
chamber.
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Indicated Power: It is the power developed in the cylinder and thus, forms the basis of
evaluation of combustion efficiency or the heat release in the cylinder. Where, I.P= PmLANK/60
pm = Mean effective pressure, N/m2, L = Length of the stroke, m, A = Area of the piston, m2, N
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= Rotational speed of the engine, rpm (It is N/2 for four stroke engine), and k = Number of
cylinders. Thus, we see that for a given engine the power output can be measured in terms of
mean effective pressure. The difference between the ip and bp is the indication of the power lost

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in the mechanical components of the engine (due to friction) and forms the basis of mechanical
efficiency; which is defined as follows : Mechanical efficiency=bp/ip The difference between ip
and bp is called friction power (fp). Fp = ip bp Mechanical efficiency= b.p/(bp+fp)

Mean Effective Pressure and Torque: Mean effective pressure is defined as a

hypothetical/average pressure which is assumed to be acting on the piston throughout the power

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stroke. Therefore, Pm=60Xi.P/LANk where, Pm = Mean effective pressure, N/m2, Ip =
Indicated power, Watt, L = Length of the stroke, m, A = Area of the piston, m2, N = Rotational
speed of the engine, rpm (It is N/2 for four stroke engine), and k = Number of cylinders. If the
mean effective pressure is based on bp it is called the brake mean effective pressure( Pm), and if

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based on ihp it is called indicated mean effective pressure (imep). Similarly, the friction mean
effective pressure (fmep) can be defined as, fmep = imep bmep

The torque is related to mean effective pressure by the relation B.P=2nt/60 I.P=PmLANk/60
2nt/60=[bmep.A.L.(Nk/60)] or, T=(bmep.A.L.k)/2
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Thus, the torque and the mean effective pressure are related by the engine size. A large engine
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produces more torque for the same mean effective pressure. For this reason, torque is not the
measure of the ability of an engine to utilize its displacement for producing power from fuel. It is
the mean effective pressure which gives an indication of engine displacement utilization for this
conversion. Higher the mean effective pressure, higher will be the power developed by the
engine for a given displacement. Again we see that the power of an engine is dependent on its
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size and speed. Therefore, it is not possible to compare engines on the basis of either power or
torque. Mean effective pressure is the true indication of the relative performance of different
engines.
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Specific Output: Specific output of an engine is defined as the brake power (output) per unit of
piston displacement and is given by, Specific output=B.P/A.L Constant = bmep rpm The
specific output consists of two elements the bmep (force) available to work and the speed with

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which it is working. Therefore, for the same piston displacement and bmep an engine operating

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at higher speed will give more output. It is clear that the output of an engine can be increased
by increasing either speed or bmep. Increasing speed involves increase in the mechanical stress
of various engine parts whereas increasing bmep requires better heat release and more load on
engine cylinder.

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Volumetric Efficiency: Volumetric efficiency of an engine is an indication of the measure of the
degree to which the engine fills its swept volume. It is defined as the ratio of the mass of air
inducted into the engine cylinder during the suction stroke to the mass of the air corresponding to
the swept volume of the engine at atmospheric pressure and temperature. Alternatively, it can be

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defined as the ratio of the actual volume inhaled during suction stroke measured at intake
conditions to the swept volume of the piston. Volumetric efficiency, hv = Mass of charge
actually sucked in Mass of charge corresponding to the cylinder intake The amount of air taken
inside the cylinder is dependent on the volumetric efficiency of an engine and hence puts a limit
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on the amount of fuel which can be efficiently burned and the power output. For supercharged
engine the volumetric efficiency has no meaning as it comes out to be more than unity.

Fuel-Air Ratio (F/A): Fuel-air ratio (F/A) is the ratio of the mass of fuel to the mass of air in the
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fuel-air mixture. Air-fuel ratio (A/F) is reciprocal of fuel-air ratio. Fuel-air ratio of the mixture
affects the combustion phenomenon in that it determines the flame propagation velocity, the heat
release in the combustion chamber, the maximum temperature and the completeness of combustion.
Relative fuel-air ratio is defined as the ratio of the actual fuel-air ratio to that of the stoichiometric fuel-
air ratio required to burn the fuel supplied. Stoichiometric fuel-air ratio is the ratio of fuel to air is one in
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which case fuel is completely burned due to minimum quantity of air supplied. Relative fuel-air ratio,
=(Actual Fuel- Air ratio)/(Stoichiometric fuel-Air ratio)

Brake Specific Fuel Consumption: Specific fuel consumption is defined as the amount of fuel
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consumed for each unit of brake power developed per hour. It is a clear indication of the
efficiency with which the engine develops power from fuel. B.S.F.C= Relative fuel-air ratio,
=(Actual Fuel- Air ratio)/(Stoichiometric fuel-Air ratio) This parameter is widely used to
compare the performance of different engines.
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Thermal Efficiency and Heat Balance: Thermal efficiency of an engine is defined as the ratio
of the output to that of the chemical energy input in the form of fuel supply. It may be based on
brake or indicated output. It is the true indication of the efficiency with which the chemical
energy of fuel (input) is converted into mechanical work. Thermal efficiency also accounts for
combustion efficiency, i.e., for the fact that whole of the chemical energy of the fuel is not

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converted into heat energy during combustion. Brake thermal efficiency = B.P/mf* Cv where,
Cv = Calorific value of fuel, Kj/kg, and mf = Mass of fuel supplied, kg/sec. The energy input to
the engine goes out in various forms a part is in the form of brake output, a part into exhaust,
and the rest is taken by cooling water and the lubricating oil. The break-up of the total energy
input into these different parts is called the heat balance. The main components in a heat

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balance are brake output, coolant losses, heat going to exhaust, radiation and other losses.
Preparation of heat balance sheet gives us an idea about the amount of energy wasted in various
parts and allows us to think of methods to reduce the losses so incurred.
Exhaust Smoke and Other Emissions: Smoke and other exhaust emissions such as oxides of
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nitrogen, unburned hydrocarbons, etc. are nuisance for the public environment. With increasing
emphasis on air pollution control all efforts are being made to keep them as minimum as it could
be. Smoke is an indication of incomplete combustion. It limits the output of an engine if air
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pollution control is the consideration.

Emission Formation Mechanisms: (S.I) This section discusses the formation of HC, CO, Nox,
CO2, and aldehydes and explains the effects of design parameters.
Hydrocarbon Emissions:
HC emissions are various compounds of hydrogen, carbon, and sometimes
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oxygen. They are burned or partially burned fuel and/or oil. HC emissions contribute to
photochemical smog, ozone, and eye irritation. There are several formation mechanisms for HC,
and it is convenient to think about ways HC can avoid combustion and ways HC can be
removed; we will discuss each below. Of course, most of the HC input is fuel, and most of it is
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burned during normal combustion. However, some HC avoids oxidation during this process.
The processes by which fuel compounds escape burning during normal S.I. combustion are:

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1. Fuel vapor-air mixture is compressed into the combustion chamber crevice volumes. 2. Fuel
compounds are absorbed into oil layers on the cylinder liner. 3. Fuel is absorbed by and/or
contained within deposits on the piston head and piston crown. 4. Quench layers on the
combustion chamber wall are left as the flame extinguishes close to the walls. 5. Fuel vapor-air
mixture can be left unburned if the flame extinguishes before reaching the walls. 6. Liquid fuel

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within the cylinder may not evaporate and mix with sufficient air to burn prior to the end of
combustion. 7. The mixture may leak through the exhaust valve seat. (ii) Carbon Monoxide
Formation of CO is well established. Under some conditions, there is not enough O2 available
for complete oxidation and some of the carbon in the fuel ends up as CO. The amount of CO, for
a range of fuel composition and C/H ratios, is a function of the relative air-fuel ratio. Even when

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enough oxygen is present, high peak temperatures can cause dissociation chemical combustion
reactions in which carbon dioxide and water vapor separate into CO, H2, and O2. Conversion of
CO to CO2 is governed by reaction CO + OH CO2 + H Dissociated CO may freeze during
the expansion stroke. (iii) Oxides of Nitrogen Nox is a generic term for the compounds NO and
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NO2. Both are present to some degree in the exhaust, and NO oxidizes to NO2 in the
atmosphere. Nox contributes to acid rain and photochemical smog; it is also thought to cause
respiratory health problems at atmospheric concentrations found in some parts of the world. To
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understand Nox formation, we must recognize several factors that affect Nox equilibrium.
Remember that all chemical reactions proceed toward equilibrium at some reaction rate.
Equilibrium NO (which comprises most of the Nox formation) is formed at a rate that varies
strongly with temperature and equivalence ratio. (iv) Carbon Dioxide While not normally
considered a pollutant, CO2 may contribute to the greenhouse effect. Proposals to reduce CO2
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emissions have been made. CO2 controls strongly influence fuel economy requirements. (v)
Aldehydes Aldehydes are the result of partial oxidation of alcohols. They are not usually present
in significant quantities in gasoline-fueled engines, but they are an issue when alcohol fuels are
used. Aldehydes are thought to cause lung problems. So far, little information of engine
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calibration effects on aldehyde formation is available.

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2.13 Emission Formation in C.I. Engine:

For many years, diesel engines have had a reputation of giving poor
performance and producing black smoke, an unpleasant odor, and considerable noise. However,

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it would find it difficult to distinguish todays modern diesel car from its gasoline counterpart.
For diesel engines the emphasis is to reduce emissions of Nox and particulates, where these
emissions are typically higher than those from equivalent port injected gasoline engines equipped
with three-way catalysts. Catalyst of diesel exhaust remains a problem insofar as researchhas not
yet been able to come up with an effective converter that eliminates both particulate matter (PM)

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and oxide of nitrogen (Nox).

2.14 Principle C.I. Engine Exhaust Constituents: For many years, diesel engines have had a
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reputation of giving poor performance and producing black smoke, an unpleasant odor, and
considerable noise. However, it would find it difficult to distinguish today s modern diesel car
from its gasoline counterpart. Concerning CO and HC emissions, diesel engines have an inherent
advantages, therefore the emphasis is to reduce emissions of Nox and particulates, where these
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emissions are typically higher than those from equivalent port injected gasoline engines equipped
with three-way catalysts. Catalyst of diesel exhaust remains a problem insofar as research has not
yet been able to come up with an effective converter that eliminates both particulate matter (PM)
and oxide of nitrogen (Nox). In the same manner as with SI engines, the air/fuel ratio of the
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diesel engine has a significant impact on the level of pollutant concentrations but this parameter
is not freely available for minimizing pollution. Problems: To determine Brake power, Indicated
Power, Frictional Power, Brake Thermal Efficiency, Indicated Thermal Efficiency, Mechanical
Efficiency, Relative Efficiency, Volumetric Efficiency, Brake Specific Fuel Consumption,
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Indicated Specific Fuel Consumption, Indicated mean effective pressure, Brake mean effective
pressure.

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2.15 Sample problems:
1. Following data relates to 4 cylinder, single stroke petrol engine. A/F ratio by weight 16:1.
Calorific value of the fuel= 45200 Kj/kg, mechanical efficiency=82%.Air standard
efficiency=52%, relative efficiency=70%, volumetric efficiency=78%, L/D=1.25, suction
condition=1 bar,250C. Speed=2400 rpm and power at brakes=72kw. Calculate

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1. Compression ratio
2. Indicated Thermal Efficiency
3. Brake specific fuel consumption
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4. Bore and Stroke.

2. A six cylinder, 4 stroke SI engine having a piston displacement of 700cm3 per cylinder
developed 78Kw at 3200 rpm and consumed 27 kg of petrol per hour. The calorific value of the
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fuel is 44MJ/kg. Estimate 1.The volumetric efficiency of the engine if the air-fuel ratio is 12 and
intake air is at 0.9bar, 32oC. 2. Brake thermal efficiency and brake torque. For air R=0.287
KJkgK.
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2.16 Solved Problems:

1. A trial carried out in a four stroke single cylinder gas engine gave the following results.

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Cylinder dia=300mm, Engine stroke=500mm, Clearance volume=6750cc, Explosions per
minute=100 Net work load on the brake=190kg Brake dia=1.5m Rope
dia=25mm, Speed of the engine=240rpm, Gas used=30 , Calorific value of gas=20515
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KJ/ . Determine compression ratio,mechanical efficiency,indicated thermal efficiency,air
standard efficiency,relative efficiency,assume
GIVEN DATA:-
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Dia of cylinder (d)=300mm=0.3m

Engine stroke(l)=500mm=0.5m

Clearance volume(vc)=6750/1003=6.75 m3
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Explosions per minute(n)=100/minute=i.67/sec

Pmin=765 KN/m2

Brake drum dia(D1)=1.5m

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Rope dia(d1)=0.025m

Work load on the brake(w)=190kg=1.86KN

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TO FIND:-

Compression ratio (r)

Mechanical efficiency (mech)

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Indicated thermal efficiency (it)

Air standard efficiency (air)

Relative efficiency (rel)

SOLUTION:-
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(1).Compression Ratio (r):-
me

+1
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(r) = 6.23
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(2).Air Standard Efficiency (air):-

air =

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=51.89%

(3).Indicated Thermal Efficiency (it):-

(it)=

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Here, indicated power (IP)=

=765

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=45.09KW

Therefore,
ch
=24.03%

(4).Relative Efficiency (rel):-

(rel)=
me

=46.30%
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(5).Mechanical Efficiency (mech):-

(mech)=
ww

=79.02%

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2. The following observations are recorded during a test on a four-stroke petrol engine, F.C =
3000 of fuel in 12sec, speed of the engine is 2500rpm, B.P = 20KW, Air intake orifice diameter
= 35mm,Pressure across the orifice = 140mm of water coefficient of discharge of orifice = 0.6,
piston diameter = 150mm, stroke length = 100mm, Density of the fuel = 0.85gm/cc , r=6.5, Cv of
fuel = 42000KJ/Kg, Barometric pressure = 760mm of Hg , Room temperature = 24oc

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Determine:

(i) Volumetric efficiency on the air basis alone

(ii) Air-fuel ratio
(iii) The brake mean effective pressure
(iv)

Given data:
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The relative efficiency on the brake thermal efficiency
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Fuel consumption = 30cc in 12sec =

Speed (N) = 2500/60 rps

Brake power = 20KW
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Orifice diameter (do) = 0.035m

Pressure across the orifice (Po) = 140mm of water
Coefficient of discharge (Cd) = 0.6
Piston diameter (d) = 150mm = 0.15m
Stroke length (l) = 0.1m
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Density of fuel () = 0.85gm/cc

Compression ratio (r) = 6.5
Room temperature (Ta) = 297K
Barometric pressure = 760mm of Hg = 101.325KK/m2= 10.34m of water
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To find:

(i) Volumetric efficiency on the air basis alone

(ii) Air-fuel ratio
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(iii) The brake mean effective pressure
(iv) The relative efficiency on the brake thermal efficiency

Solution:

10.34m of water = 101.325KN/m2

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Pressure head

Po = 0.14m of water

Po = 1372N/m2

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Density of gas () = P/RT

= 1.1887Kg/m3
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Pressure head (h)

h = 117.6557m
Qair =
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= 0.02774 m3/sec
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No. of. Suction strokes per second

Air consumptions per stroke

= 0.001332m3
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Stroke volume (Vs) = m3

Volumetric efficiency (vol) =

vol = 75.382%

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volume of air consumed Vair = Qair = 0.02774m3/sec
= 0.02774 m3/hr
Mass of air consumed (ma) = = 99.864
= 118.71Kg/hr

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Fuel consumption = 9000cc/hr
Mass of the fuel consumed (mf) = 90000.85 = 7.65Kg/hr
Air fuel ratio

Brake power (B.P) = 20KW = Pmb l a n k

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Pmb

= 543.294KN/m2

Air standard efficiency (air) =

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=

= 52.703%
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Brake thermal efficiency (BT) = 22.4%

Relative efficiency on brake thermal efficiency basis (rel) = BT/ air

= 0.22409/0.52703
rel = 42.52%
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2.17 TWO MARK UNIVERSITY QUESTIONS:

1. Classify IC engine according to cycle of lubrication system and field of application.

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Types of lubrication system

2. List the various components of IC engines.

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3. Name the basic thermodynamic cycles of the two types of internal combustion reciprocating
engines.

4. Mention the important requites of liner material.

5. State the purpose of providing piston in IC engines.

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6. Define the terms as applied to reciprocating I.C. engines "Mean effective pressure" and
Compression ratio".

7. What is meant by highest useful compression ratio?

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8. What are the types of piston rings?

9. What is the use of connecting rod?

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10. What is the use of flywheel?
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2.18 UNIVERSITY ESSAY QUESTIONS

1. Explain full pressure lubrication system I.C Engine. (16)

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2. Explain the water cooling system in I.C Engine. (16)

3. Explain the 2 types of Ignition system In 5.1 Engine. (16)

4. Draw and explain the valve timing diagram of 4 strokes Diesel Engine. (16)

5. Draw and explain the port timing diagram of 2stroke Petrol Engine. (16)

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6. Explain with neat sketch the exhaust gas analysis. (16)

7. The following results refer to a test on a petrol engine Indicated power = 30 Kw, Brake power
= 26 Kw, Engine speed = 1000 rpm Fuel brake power/ hour = 0.35 kg Calorific value of fuel

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= 43900kj/kg .Calculate the indicated Thermal efficiency, the brake Thermal efficiency and
Mechanical efficiency (16)

8. A four cylinder 2 stroke cycle petrol engine develops 23.5 kw brake power at 2500 rpm. The
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mean effective pressure on each piston in 8. 5 bar and mechanical efficiency in 85% Calculate
the diameter and stroke of each cylinder assuming the length of stroke equal to 1.5 times the
diameter of cylinder. (16)
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9. The following data to a particular twin cylinder two stroke diesel engine. Bore 15 cm stroke.
20 cm. speed 400 rpm. Indicated mean effective pressure 4 bar, dead weight on the brake
drum 650 N. spring balance reading 25 N Diameter of the brake drum 1 m .Fuel consumption
0.075 kg/min and calorific value of the fuel is 44500 KJ/kg. Determine 1. Indicated Power 2.
Brake Power 3. Mechanical efficiency 4. Indicated thermal efficiency and 5. Brake thermal
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efficiency (16)
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