Foreign Exchange Hedging and

Profit Making Strategy

using Leveraged Spot Contracts

CHING HSUEH LIU

Victoria Graduate School of Business

Faculty of Business and Law

A thesis submitted to the Victoria University

in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of

Doctor of Business Administration

March 2007
 Declaration

I, Ching Hsueh LIU, declare that the DBA thesis entitled “Foreign

Exchange Hedging and Profit Making Strategy using Leveraged Spot

Contracts” is no more than 65,000 words in length, exclusive of tables,

figures, appendices, references and footnotes. This thesis contains no

material that has been submitted previously, in whole or in part, for the

award of any other academic degree or diploma. Except where

otherwise indicated, this thesis is my own work.

…………………………….

Ching Hsueh LIU

Victoria Graduate School of Business

Victoria University

March 2007

i
 Acknowledgments

Successful completion of this dissertation would not have been possible

without the invaluable advice and assistance of many people. First and

foremost, I would like to express my utmost gratitude to my principle

supervisor – Prof. Geoffrey George – for all the guidance and support that he

has given me through the course of this project. His suggestions regarding the

framework and review of the thesis have been greatly appreciated and

acknowledged. I truly appreciate his efforts in spending valuable time reading

and correcting the numerous drafts of this thesis.

I would also like to thank my co-supervisor Dr. Nicholas Billington for his

supervision, especially his suggestions regarding the methodology of this

thesis. His effort in spending valuable time examining my methodology despite

his heavy workload is much appreciated.

I would also like to express my deepest gratitude to Prof. Bharat Hazari,

Adjunct Professor, City University of Hong Kong and Joint Editor of the Journal

of International Trade and Economic Development, for his valuable guidance

and endless support throughout this project. His extensive and professional

knowledge of the field of Economics provided this thesis with a solid backbone.

His continuous encouragement and tireless teaching made it possible for this

thesis to blossom.

I extend my sincere appreciation to Dr. Vijay Mohan, senior lecturer from the

Deakin University, Melbourne Business School. His expertise in the field of

ii
Economics and Finance is greatly acknowledged and admired. Throughout the

course of this project he has provided continuous support regarding the

methodology presented here. His knowledge of the mechanism of the foreign

exchange markets and the use of financial derivatives allowed him to provide

fitting supervision of this thesis. His extensive academic advice and comments

also ensured the quality of the research.

Finally, I would like to thank my doctorate colleague and friend Alex Manzoni.

His help in the final stages, and in the submission of this work was

instrumental in helping me achieve deadlines which would otherwise have

lapsed. His encouragement and assistance cannot be underestimated.

iii
 Abstract

Australia currently adopts the floating exchange rate system; therefore the

value of the Australian dollar is subject to volatility due to the influence of

changing domestic and international economic circumstances. This volatility of

the Australian exchange rate system is an issue that affects the majority of

Australian businesses. With over fifty percent of Australian trading invoiced in

foreign currencies, movements in the value of the Australian dollar can

potentially improve or worsen Australian companies’ financial performance,

and consequently, affect the national economic indicators. The importance of

managing these currency risks not only stimulates countless studies

attempting to capture a set of factors that are most relevant in contributing to

the volatility of the Australian exchange rate system, but also encourages

research attempting to develop an optimal hedging model that can assist

Australian businesses to manage foreign exchange risk.

From the review of existing literature, there appears to be a noticeable gap

between theory and practice. Indeed, there exists a vast literature that looks at

traditional financial derivatives such as options, futures, forward, and swaps-

for example, the Black-Scholes model is used for options pricings in the share

and foreign exchange market. However, there is a paucity of research focusing

on the leveraged spot market, both from an empirical and theoretical point of

view. This thesis aims to minimize this omission by developing a model of

speculation as well as a model of hedging, providing a theoretical framework

and empirical simulations.

iv
Our model of speculation, developed in Chapter 3, adapts Krugman’s (1991)

model of target zones, in order to theoretically determine the optimal number

of leveraged spot contracts taken by a speculator. Moreover, using historical

data on interest rates and spot rates, we conduct a simulation to provide

insights into how changing economic factors affects the speculator’s position in

the real world. In Chapter 4, we extend this model to show how speculation

gains can be hedged with forward contracts. Traditional hedging methods

involve the use of money markets and forward contracts; however, in Chapter

4, we describe how leveraged spot contracts can be used for hedging

purposes. Moreover, we show that under some circumstances, the leveraged

spot contract hedge outperforms these traditional hedging methods.

v
 Table of Contents

Declaration ..................................................................................................................i

Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................ii

Abstract .....................................................................................................................iv

Table of Contents ......................................................................................................vi

List of Tables ..............................................................................................................x

List of Figures ........................................................................................................... xii

List of Graphs .......................................................................................................... xiii

Abbreviations ............................................................................................................iv

Chapter 1 Introduction 1

1.1 Context of Thesis ……………………………………………………….……1

1.2 Limitations of Existing Literature and Aims of the Research ………………..3

1.3 Research Contributions ………………………………………………………….4

1.4 Methodology ………………………………………………………5

1.5 Data Collection …………………………………………………………………….5

1.6 Structure of the Thesis …………………………………………………………..6

Chapter 2 Literature Review 8

2.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………8

2.2 Hedging ……………………………………………………………………………11

2.2.1 Hedging and Australian International Businesses ……………………….14

2.2.2 Fundamental Philosophy behind Hedging ………………………………..15

2.2.3 Hedging with Financial Derivatives ……………………………………….24

2.2.3.1 Financial Derivatives Markets …………………………………………24

2.2.3.2 Types of Players in Derivatives Markets …………………………….27

vi
 2.2.3.3 Non-financial Tools Hedge (Natural Hedge) …………………………31

2.2.4 Hedging Tools and Techniques ……………………………………………32

2.2.4.1 Contemporary Financial Derivatives ………………………………..34

2.2.4.2 Forward Contracts ………………………………………………………38

2.2.4.3 Futures Markets ……………………………………………………….39

2.2.4.4 Options Markets …………………………………………………………43

2.2.4.5 Swaps ……………………………………………………………………48

2.2.4.6 Money Markets ………………………………………………………..51

2.2.4.7 Leveraged Spot Market ……………………………………………….53

2.2.5 Determinants of Derivative Selection …………………………………….54

2.2.6 Financial Models ……………………………………………………………59

2.3 Exchange Rate Volatility …………………………………………………………62

2.3.1 Exchange Rate Determination, Dynamics and Responses ……………63

2.3.1.1 Parity Relationships ……………………………………………………64

2.3.1.2 Balance of Payments (BOP) Flow Model ……………………………66

2.3.1.3 Portfolio Balance Model (PBM) ………………………………………67

2.3.1.4 Covered Interest Arbitrage (CIA) ……………………………………68

2.3.2 Government Policies …………………………………………………….69

2.3.2.1 Reserve Bank of Australia Intervention Techniques since 1983

…………………………………………………………………………..69

2.3.2.2 Effectiveness of Government Intervention ………………………..72

2.4 Summary and Conclusion …………………………………………………….74

Chapter 3 Speculation Using the Leveraged Spot Market 77

3.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………77

3.2 Methodology …………………………………………………………………….78

vii
 3.2.1 Finite Horizon, Discrete Time Compounding Version …………………78

3.2.2 Infinite Horizon, Continuous Compounding Version …………………..83

3.2.3 Comparative Static ……………………………………………………….85

3.2.4 Exchange Rate Behaviour ………………………………………………88

3.3 Model Simulation ………………………………………………………………94

Chapter 4 Hedging Model 97

4.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………97

4.2 Hedging the Returns from Speculation in the Leveraged Spot Market …..99

4.3 Hedging Exposure using the Leveraged Spot Market …………………….110

4.3.1 Hypothetical Scenario One ………………………………………………112

4.3.1.1 Forward Contract Hedging ………………………………………….113

4.3.1.2 Leveraged Spot Hedging Model …………………………………..116

4.3.2 Hypothetical Scenario Two ……………………………………………….124

4.3.2.1 Forward Contract Hedging ………………………………………….124

4.3.2.2 Leveraged Spot Hedging Model ……………………………………126

4.4 Comparison between Forward, Leveraged Spot, and Money Markets……134

4.4.1 Comparison of Forward and Leveraged Spot ……………………….134

4.4.2 Comparison of Money Market and Leveraged Spot ………………..135

Chapter 5 Summary and Conclusion 139

5.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………….139

5.2 Major Findings and Implications ……………………………………………..139

5.2.1 Speculating Model ………………………………………………………..139

5.2.2 Hedging Model …………………………………………………………….140

5.3 Significance ……………………………………………………………………142

viii
 5.4 Recommendations …………………………………………………………….142

5.5 Limitations …………………………………………………………………….143

5.6 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………143

References 145

Appendices 163

Appendix A 163

Appendix A1 Origin of Hedging ………………………………………………………..163

Appendix A2 The Role of Gold in Hedging ……………………………………………165

Appendix A3 Consequences of Imprudent Hedging …………………………………167

Appendix A4 Benefits of Hedging ……………………………………………………..181

Appendix A5 International Financial Markets ………………………………………..187

Appendix A6 Data from the 2005 Australian Bureau of Statistics Survey …………191

Appendix A7 Mechanisms of Financial Instruments ………………………………….194

Appendix A7.1 Forward Contracts ………………………………………………….194

Appendix A7.2 Futures Contracts ……………………………………………………197

Appendix A7.3 Options Contracts ……………………………………………………200

Appendix A7.4 SWAPs ………………………………………………………………..204

Appendix A7.5 Money Markets ……………………………………………………….207

Appendix A8 Parity Relationships ………………………………………………………212

Appendix A8.1 Interest Rate Parity (IRP) …………………………………………….212

Appendix A8.2 Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) ……………………………………213

Appendix A8.3 Fisher Effect ………………………………………………………….213

ix
 Appendix A8.4 International Fisher Effect (IFE) ……………………………………..214

Appendix 9 Government Intervention ………………………………………………….215

Appendix 9.1 Direct Intervention (Sterilized and Non-Sterilized) ………………….215

Appendix 9.2 Indirect Intervention ……………………………………………………217

Appendix B 218

Appendix C 220

x
 List of Tables

Table 2.1 Global OTC Derivative Market Turnover 1995-2004 …………………..26

Table 2.2 Global Foreign Exchange Market Turnover 1989-2004…………………30

Table 2.3 Financial Derivatives Usage by Australian Companies …………………37

Table 2.4 Major Differences between Forward and Futures Contracts …………..40

Table 2.5 Futures Contracts Specifications ………………………………………….42

Table 2.6 Call Options Rights and Obligations ……………………………………..45

Table 2.7 Put Options Rights and Obligations ………………………………………45

Table 2.8 Features of Exchange Traded Currency Options Contracts ……………47

Table 2.9 Commonly Used Money Market Instruments ……………………………52

Table 2.10 Frequency of Use of Derivative Instruments by Size and Industry ……55

Table 2.11 Summary Statistic on Reserve Bank of Australia Foreign

Exchange Market Operations (January 1984 – December 2001) …….71

Table 3.1 Operation in Leveraged Spot Market …………………………………..79

Table 3.2 Simulation for K * ………………………………………………….……….96

Table 4.1a Arbitrage from Interest Change in Leveraged Spot Market

(one day) …………………………………………………………………..101

Table 4.1b Different Currency Movement in Leveraged Spot Market

(360 days) ……………………………………………….………..………..103

Table 4.2 US Interest Rate Changes ………………………………….…………..107

Table 4.3 Interest Differential and Gain …………………………………………..108

Table 4.4 Scenario One Hedging in Leveraged Spot …………………………….117

Table 4.5a Scenario One Hedging Results Comparison …………………………119

xi
Table 4.5b Adjusted Scenario One Hedging Results …………………………….120

Table 4.6 Australia Interest Rate Changes ……………………………………….121

Table 4.7 Interest Differential and Gain in Scenario One ……………………….121

Table 4.8 Comparison of Hedging Results in Scenario One …………………..122

Table 4.9 Scenario Two Hedging Model in Leveraged Spot ……………………127

Table 4.10a Scenario Two Hedging Results Comparison ………………………….129

Table 4.10b Adjusted Scenario Two Hedging Results ……………………………..129

Table 4.11 Interest Differential and Loss in Scenario Two ……………………….131

Table 4.12 Comparison of Hedging Results in Scenario Two ……………………132

xii
 List of Figures

Figure 2.1 Trade Invoice Currencies …………………………………………………15

Figure 2.2 Generic Hedging Decision Tree ………………………………..…………19

Figure 2.3 Customized Hedging Decision Tree ……………………………………..23

Figure 2.4 Reported Global Average Daily Turnover in OTC Derivatives

Market by Instrument ………………………………………………………36

Figure 2.5 Foreign Exchange Derivatives Turnover …………………………………37

Figure 2.6 Typical Example of Currency Swaps ……………………………………50

Figure 2.7 Preference among FX Derivative Instruments ………………………….59

Figure 2.8 Parity Relationships Model ………………………………………………..65

Figure 3.1 Optimal Number of Contracts in Leveraged Spot ……………………….88

Figure 3.2 Effects of a Target Zone on Exchange Rate Behavior …………………91

Figure 3.3 S-Curve of Exchange Rate Behaviour …………………………………..92

Figure 4.1 Covered Interest Arbitrage ……………………………………………….115

Figure 4.2 Comparison of Hedging Outcomes in Scenario One ……………….…123

Figure 4.3 Comparison of Hedging Outcomes in Scenario Two ………………….133

xiii
 Abbreviations

ABS Australian Bureau of Statistics

ACH Australian Clearing House Pty Ltd

AFMA Australian Financial Markets Association

ASX Australian Stock Exchange

AUD Australian Dollardollar

BIS Bank for International Settlements

CME Chicago Mercantile Exchange

ETOs Exchange Traded Options

ISDA International Swaps and Derivatives Association

JPY Japanese Yen

MNCs Multinational Corporations

NYMEX New York Mercantile Exchange

OTC Over-the-Counter

PHLX Philadelphia Stock Exchange

RBA Reserve Bank of Australia

SIMEX Singapore Mercantile Exchange

USD US Dollardollar

xiv
 Chapter One

Introduction

1.1 Context of the Thesis

The foreign exchange market is characterized by volatility, which creates

uncertainty in the market and makes predictions regarding future exchange

rates difficult, both in the short and long term. However, it is these constant

fluctuations in the foreign exchange market that make it possible for

companies or individuals to take advantage of the movements in exchange

rates through speculative activities. These fluctuations also pose a threat for

any importer/exporter trading in the global marketplace as international

businesses are naturally exposed to currency risk. This necessitates the

adoption of hedging strategies to mitigate risk. The volatility in the foreign

exchange market needs to be dealt with in a proper, prudent and timely

manner. Otherwise, adverse currency fluctuations can inflict painful lessons on

a company or individual. Later in this thesis we will investigate in detail the

volatility of the foreign exchange market and the potential risk exposure faced

by all market participants.

People enter into the foreign exchange market for various reasons and the

abovementioned potential for profit is a very important motivation. Indeed,

some traders who come with the intention of making profit by taking advantage

of market fluctuations engage in speculative activities in the foreign exchange

market and accept the risks involved, while others attempt to protect

themselves from volatility by engaging in hedging activities. Traders in this first

category are commonly known as speculators, whereas the latter are known

as hedgers. Speculators enter the market, in effect, by placing their “bets” on

1
the currency movements. Should their prediction come true, they make profits;

if their predictions are not realized, they suffer losses. Hedgers enter the

market with the intention of insuring themselves against any adverse currency

movements they may encounter in their business operation. Hedging involves

the creation of a position that offsets an open position occurring in their

business operations; so that the gain in the business (hedge) position will

offset the loss of the hedging (business) position. Chapter Two of this thesis

will analyze these players in the foreign exchange market using the Expected

Utility Theorem of Aliprantis and Chakrabarti (2000).

There are various financial instruments used for trading in the foreign

exchange market. The most common are spot contracts, forward, futures,

options, swaps and various money market instruments. Forward, futures,

options and swaps are derivatives instruments. Commonly used instruments in

the money market include (but are not limited to): (1) Treasury bills, (2) Eurodollar, (3)

Euroyen, (4) certificate of deposit (CD), and (5) Commercial paper. In fact, the

money market represents most of the financial instruments that have less than

twelve months maturity. A leveraged spot contract is in essence the same as

the spot contract, except that in the former, a trader is allowed to trade on a

margin specified by the financial institutions. This margin is also known as the

leverage ratio and can range from twenty to two hundred, depending on the

financial institutions involved. If the given leverage ratio is twenty, the trader

using a leveraged spot contract can have access to a credit line twenty times

larger than his/her initial margin (collateral). Clearly, the leveraged ratio allows

traders (both speculators and hedgers) to trade at a significantly lower capital

requirement when compared to the spot market.

2
The general mechanism of each of these markets (forward, futures, options,

swaps and money markets) will be explained in detail in Chapter Two.

Nevertheless, it is essential for us to provide a brief explanation of the

leveraged spot market as we introduce the context of this thesis in this chapter.

This is mainly because leveraged spot contracts are not as commonly used

financial instruments as are the forward, futures, swaps, options and spot

contracts. Moreover, the fundamental motivation for this thesis is to develop a

model for using the leveraged spot market (contract) for both speculative and

hedging purposes. The thesis not only illustrates how to use leveraged spot

contracts as both a speculative and hedging technique (like the forward,

futures, swaps, options and spot contracts), but also shows that under specific

circumstances, the leveraged spot contract is superior to these traditional

financial tools.

1.2 Limitations of Existing Literature and Aims of the Research

According to our review of the available literature, there appears to be a

significant gap between theory and practice. Indeed, most popular models,

such as the Black-Scholes, Merton and Whaley Option Pricing Models, have

the same assumption that the volatility of the underlying asset is constant. This

assumption is obviously not realistic. With the aim to close this gap between

theory and practice, a new model is developed in this thesis using the

assumptions that the interest rate definitely changes according to economic

conditions or policies and that the exchange rate movement follows the pattern

of a random walk, which is a stochastic process. Moreover, during the course

of our research, we did not encounter any literature that dealt with leveraged

spot contracts as both speculative and hedging instruments. It is obvious that

3
the leveraged spot market is relatively less commonly used by financial

derivatives traders, compared to traditional instruments such as forward,

futures, options, swaps, and the money market. Our objective is therefore to

develop a model using leveraged spot contracts as an effective financial

instrument that can be used for both speculative and hedging purposes.

1.3 Research Contributions

The completion of this thesis contributes to the studies of global finance and

economics in two ways. Firstly, we demonstrate here how the leveraged spot

market can be used for speculating and hedging purposes, and that under

certain circumstances, the leveraged spot contract can generate risk-free profit.

Secondly, we show that under those circumstances, the leveraged spot

contract is a better hedging tool than traditional financial instruments used for

this purpose, such as the forward and money market hedges.

Chapter Three and Four will illustrate how the leveraged spot market allows

speculators and hedgers to gain additional interest as their risk-free profit from

a transaction. This is a distinctive feature which is absent when using

traditional financial tools. The opportunity of obtaining risk free interest profit

helps to lower the risk of trading (both speculating and hedging) in the foreign

exchange market. This feature of the leveraged spot market allows traders

(both hedgers and speculators) to achieve a specific expected return at a lower

risk or a higher expected return for a given level of risk. This makes the

leveraged spot market suitable for both risk averse and risk neutral individuals.

While our hedging model using the leveraged spot market can yield superior

4
results when compared to forward and money market hedges, it is vital to

understand that the effectiveness of this technique can be reduced under

certain circumstances. In fact, the potential of this model is dependant on the

leverage ratio and the interest rate differentials. In other words, the higher the

leverage ratio and interest rate differentials between nations, the greater the

return our methodology can secure using leveraged spot contracts.

1.4 Methodology

The methodology for this research will involve primarily quantitative data

analysis and mathematic modeling. The methodology is designed to:

• illustrate how the leveraged spot market can be utilized both as a

speculating as well as a hedging tool;

• derive insights into how real world data will affect the optimal number of

contracts that a trader should trade (or invest) at any given time;

• present a simulation model for speculation using leveraged spot

contracts based on Krugman’s (1991) model of exchange rate dynamics

within a target zone;

• demonstrate how a trader can hedge an open position in the leveraged

spot market with a simultaneous position in the forward market to

generate profit; and

• explain how a hedger can hedge an existing business transaction

exposure using the leveraged spot.

1.5 Data Collection

The data collected for this research are secondary data. They consist of real

world data on interest rates for Australia, the United States (US), and Japan,

5
and historical spot rates of the Australian dollar, the US dollar, and the

Japanese yen. The sources of these data include (but are not limited to) the

Reserve Bank of Australia, the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, the Bank of

Japan, and the Australian Bureau of Statistics. Information regarding derivative

contracts specifications and features was mainly gathered from the Australian

Stock Exchange (ASX), the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME), the

Philadelphia Stock Exchange (PHLX), the New York Mercantile Exchange

(NYMEX) and the International Swaps and Derivatives Association (ISDA).

1.6 Structure of the Thesis

This thesis is organized into five chapters. The first chapter is an introduction

to the thesis. Chapter Two provides a review of previous literature on hedging

and the volatility of the foreign exchange market. This second chapter is

divided into two parts: the first part covers a background of hedging and

explores the common applications and techniques of hedging; and the second

part covers the volatility of foreign exchange movements, providing a brief

background on the economic fundamentals of exchange rate determination

and dynamics, exchange rate systems, international financial markets, and

government policies affecting exchange rate systems.

Chapter Three analyses how the leveraged spot market can be used as a

speculating tool. We adapt Krugman’s (1991) model of exchange rate

dynamics within a target zone Based on Krugman, we assume that the

exchange rate movement follows the pattern of a random walk and we develop

a model showing how the leveraged spot contract can be used as a superior

financial tool when compared to forward and spot contracts under certain

6
circumstances. However, before developing this model Chapter Three

illustrates the mechanism of trading in the leveraged spot market with a

numerical example.

Chapter Four describes how to eliminate the risk which arises from speculative

leveraged spot transactions using a forward contract. Moreover, several

numerical examples are used to illustrate how companies can utilize leveraged

spot contracts as a hedging tool. We show in this chapter that the leveraged

spot contract, when used in conjunction with a forward contract, can indeed

derive risk free profits for its users. The effectiveness and profit generated from

using leveraged spot contracts depends on the leverage ratio and the interest

rate differential between the home and foreign countries.

Chapter Five ends this thesis with some concluding remarks on its

contributions. Appendix A provides information regarding: (1) the history of

hedging; (2) the cost and benefits of hedging; (3) the international financial

market and exchange rate system; and (4) data gathered from the 2005 ABS

survey on currency exposure and hedging practices of Australian international

businesses. Appendix B provides a background on the calculation of currency

variance used in the model simulation.

7
 Chapter Two

Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

The financial world has witnessed several major catastrophes in the last dozen

years. The first catastrophe was the collapse of Barings Bank in Britain in 1995

(Stonham, 1996a, 1996b). The bank’s collapse was a direct result of Nick

Leeson’s aggressive trading in the futures and options markets. Between 1992

and 1995, the self proclaimed “Rogue Trader”1 accumulated losses of over

£800million. In February 1995, the 233 year-old Barings Bank was unable to

meet the Singapore Mercantile Exchange’s (SIMEX) margin call. The bank

was declared bankrupt and was bought by the Dutch Bank, ING, for only £1.

The second catastrophe was the Asian financial crisis in 1997. Much literature

had been written about the crisis as the financial world tries to understand what

went wrong that led to the crisis. Some authors claimed that the crisis was

triggered by the run of panic investors on those economies as well as

depositor on banks which led to the burst of a bubble economy; while others

blamed the crisis on the moral hazard in the Asian banking (financing) systems

(Radelet and Sachs, 1998; Stiglitz, 1998; Krugman, 1998). We believe that the

Asian financial crisis was due mainly (but not limited) to the structural

imbalance in the region, caused by large current account deficits, high external

debt burden, and the failure of governments to stabilize their national

currencies. These problems were worsen by the poor prudential regulation of

1
Nick Leeson wrote an autobiography called “Rogue Trader” detailing his role in the Barings
scandal while imprisoned.

8
the Asian financial system during the 1990s. The combination of these factors

contributed to the long-term accumulation of problems in fundamentals, such

as large amount of ‘over-lending’ and bad loans in banking systems which led

to the bankruptcies of large firms/banks in the economy, and eventually

destroyed the confidence of investors and triggered the panic run of both

investors and depositors of the Asian financial system (Kornai, 1980;

Dewatripont and Maskin, 1995; Corsetti and Roubini, 1998; Aghevli, 1999;

Huang and Xu, 1999; Corsetti, Pesenti and Roubini, 1999; Lane, 1999; RBA,

2002; Homaifar, 2004, pp.68-69). As part of their efforts, governments tried

entering the derivative markets to stabilize their currencies. The Thai

Government, for instance, utilized the forward market. However, as the world

witnessed the collapse of several Asian currencies during the course of the

1997 financial crisis (including the Thai Baht), it was obvious that these

stabilizing efforts were not successful.

As the Asian countries continued their recovery efforts, Enron collapsed in

2001 as a result of imprudent use of financial derivatives (Wilson and

Campbell, 2003). It had been reported that Enron’s management engaged in

questionable transactions in the options market, in an attempt to keep the true

economic losses of various investments off Enron’s financial statements and to

try to conceal the actual financial situation of the company (Aghevli, 1999;

Wilson and Campbell, 2003). The consequences of these catastrophes were

devastating. They impacted not only on the governments and companies

directly involved in the events, but also their stakeholders, such as

shareholders, employees and ordinary citizens. Many studies examining

international financial markets have been designed to prevent the future

9
occurrence of a similar catastrophe. Most of these studies are still attempting

to learn from past mistakes through analyzing what exactly triggered such

catastrophic events. Amongst those many studies, some have been

undertaken to assist companies to minimize their exposure to fluctuations in

the currency market, and to implement better techniques and supervision of

corporate risk and management (RBA, 2002). As a result, topics such as

currency exposure, hedging strategies and prudent, ethical company practices

have become mainstream issues in international financial markets.

This thesis is concerned with hedging techniques in relation to the risk faced

by Australian companies and individuals of currency fluctuations. We will point

out the limitations and strengths of common hedging techniques and then

derive a new technique for hedging. This new model aims to minimize or

eliminate the limitations of existing hedging techniques. The importance of

understanding the underlying economic and financial fundamentals, which

were possibly responsible for the 1997 Asian financial crisis, is noted. These

underlying issues are peripheral to the main theme of this thesis. Nevertheless,

they do need to be addressed.

This chapter begins with a background discussion of hedging and explores the

common applications and techniques of hedging. It continues by addressing

exchange rate volatility through providing a brief background of the economic

fundamentals of exchange rate determination and dynamics, and government

policies. Information regarding the history of hedging, and the cost and

benefits of hedging are provided in Appendix A1 to A4; information on the

international financial market and exchange rate system can be found in

10
Appendix A5. Appendix A6 consists of data from the 2005 Australian Bureau of

Statistics Survey; while Appendix A7 includes brief discussions on the

mechanisms of the common financial instruments. Discussions regarding the

parity relationships and government intervention in the financial markets are

included in Appendix A8 and Appendix A9.

2.2 Hedging

Hedging is a preventive strategy used by individual investors or companies to

protect their portfolio from adverse currency, interest rate, or price movements

and is aimed specifically at reducing any uncertainty in the market. The hedge

ratio is explained as the percentage of the position in an asset that is hedged

using derivatives. Some see hedgers as risk averse individuals. However, we

see hedgers as risk neutral individuals as they choose their hedging strategy

based on the expected value (return) of any given strategy. To better justify our

view of hedgers being risk neutral individuals, we need to further address risk

aversion.

Risk aversion, also known as attitude towards risk, refers to our tolerance for

risk and normally affects the way we make our decisions under uncertainty.

Aliprantis and Chakrabarti (2000) characterized an individual’s risk taking

tendency by the nature of their utility function u : [0, ∞ ) → R , and the utility

generated by wealth w is written as u(w ) . The utility function over

wealth, u(w ) , is intrinsic to the individual and represents the individual’s

preferences over different levels of wealth. If the utility function is linear in

wealth, that is, u(w ) = aw + b , then, we say the individual is risk neutral. If the

utility function is strictly concave, then the individual is risk averse. If the utility

11
function is strictly convex, then the individual is risk seeking.

Hedging involves taking an opposite position in a derivative in an attempt to

offset or balance any gains or losses of the initial portfolio. The ideal result for a

hedge would be to cause a “seesaw effect” where one effect will cancel out

another. For example, assume a transportation company for which oil is one of

the main inputs (costs). With the current volatile oil price, the company

believes the oil price may increase substantially in the near future. This may

severely affect their operation cost and reduce any potential profit. In order to

protect itself from this uncertainty, the company could enter into a six-month

futures contract in oil. By doing this, if oil price increases by 10%, the futures

contract will lock in a price with profit that will offset the loss which the company

experiences in their daily business operations. Note that by hedging, the

company is not only protected from any losses (if the oil price increase by

10%), but also restricted from any gains (if the oil price falls by 10%).

In general, there are two main categories of hedging, interest rate hedge and

currency movement hedge. Investors or companies can use an interest rate

hedge when they are involved in substantial borrowings. An interest rate hedge

allows hedgers to minimize the cost of borrowing through transferring risks of

any expected, unfavorable interest rate movements. Currency movement

hedge, on the other hand, is used by international companies or investors that

hold an international portfolio. A currency movement hedge allows hedgers to

manage and minimize their exposure to any adverse exchange rate movement.

Note that it is only the currency movement hedge that will be the focus of this

thesis. We aim to develop a new hedging method that will assist any investor

or international company to manage and minimize their exposure to adverse

12
exchange rate movements.

International businesses are naturally exposed to currency risk. With the rapid

integration of the global economy, many efforts have been directed to study

those risks associated with exchange rate. Transaction risk and translation risk

are the two most commonly discussed currency risks for international

businesses.Transaction risk can be defined as the impact of unexpected

changes in the exchange rate on the cash flow arising from all contractual

relationships.

On the other hand, translation risk refers to the risks which arise from the

translation of the value of an asset from a foreign currency to the domestic

currency (Solnik and McLeavey, 2004, p.578). Authors, such as Mannino and

Milani (1992), Hollein (2002), and Homaifar (2004, p.217), also defined

translation risk as the change in book value of assets and liabilities, excluding

stockholders’ equity as residuals, due to changes in the foreign exchange rate.

International companies that trade and receive revenue in foreign currencies

would incur translation risk. The most common cases of companies

experiencing translation risk are when overseas subsidiaries translate the

subsidiaries’ balance sheet and income statements into the functional currency

of the parent companies for consolidation and reporting purposes as required

by legislations. During this translation process, movement in the exchange rate

can produce accounting gains or losses that are posted to the stockholders’

equity.

13
2.2.1 Hedging and Australian International Businesses

The financial world has experienced a rather long yet continuous evolution in

global hedging mechanisms. However, the importance of managing currency

risks among Australian international businesses only surfaced in Australia after

it adopted the floating currency system in 1983 (Batten et al., 1993; Becker

and Fabbro, 2006). Regarding the risk exposure to Australian international

businesses, hedging can be a worthwhile practice because the Australian

dollar is allowed to appreciate or depreciate freely against other currencies.

This volatility affects all importers and exporters by exposing them to exchange

rate risk. Indeed, according to the Bureau of Industry Economics in 1986, the

Australian manufacturing industry reported an increase in the hedging of

foreign currency risk during 1984-86 in response to the depreciating Australian

dollar and the increased volatility of the Australian exchange rate movement

against other currencies (Batten et al., 1993).

Australian businesses are highly exposed to foreign currency risk as over 70%

of Australian trade has been invoiced in foreign currencies (Becker and Fabbro,

2006). Figure 2.1 shows Australia’s trade which has been invoiced in foreign

currencies from 1998 to 2005, the main foreign currency exposure for

Australian enterprises is to the US dollar. In fact, in a 2005 survey on hedging

practices, the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) showed that the US dollar

constituted at least 50% of the private sector foreign currency exposure, with

the Euro accounting for around 15% (ABS, 2001, 2005; RBA, 2005a; Becker

and Fabbro, 2006). Other currencies such as the British pound, Japanese yen,

and Swiss franc played a noticeable but relatively smaller role when compared

to the US dollar and the Euro (See also Appendix A6).

14
Figure 2.1: Trade Invoice Currencies

Source: ABS (2005).

There has been a significant increase in attention on practicing prudent

corporate hedging programs after the recent high-profile derivatives trading

disasters and corporate finance scandals, both abroad and amongst Australian

companies. This down-side of derivative trading can be seen in Appendix A3.

2.2.2 Fundamental Philosophy behind Hedging

We now proceed to address the fundamental philosophy behind hedging. The

commonly accepted views on the facets of hedging fall into two general groups,

firstly, as insurance for companies facing foreign exchange risk in any sense,

and secondly as a value-enhancing tool for management that can secure a

less volatile and well-managed corporate revenue.

Anac and Gozen (2003) claim that hedging is the basic function of any

commodity market, such as the London Metal Exchange in England and the

15
Australian Stock Exchange (ASX) in Australia. They also suggest that the

fundamental idea behind hedging ‘is to take it as a form of insurance against

volatile market movements’ (p.132). Dawson and Rodney (1994), for

example, support this view claiming that the main purpose for corporate

hedging activities is to ‘match assets with liabilities’ and avoid losses that may

be caused by uncovered exchange rate movements. It is based on the

fundamental principal that hedging is not to be considered as a gambling or

speculative activity for corporations. We found that many multinational

corporations involved in hedging tend to include clauses or statements in their

annual reports declaring that they do not use financial instruments/derivatives

for trading or speculative purposes. However, despite their declarations and

signs of supporting (on hedging as insurance for the company), throughout our

research we have found examples where companies are involved in

questionable hedging activities (See Appendix 3). It is indisputable that

imprudent or speculative attitudes towards hedging can be potentially harmful

instead of helpful to companies. These examples of bad hedging practices

often come to light when the company involved got into irreversible financial

damage, as witnessed in the case of Enron (Wilson and Campbell, 2003).

The second group views hedging as a value-enhancing tool for management.

Several authors, including Nance, Smith and Smithson (1993) and Geczy, et al.

(1997), have expressed their views on hedging as a value-enhancing exercise.

According to these authors, the function of hedging is especially obvious when

multinational companies are faced with taxes, financial distress, investment

costs and agency costs (cited in Nguyen and Faff, 2002).

16
We have presented that authors embrace hedging as insurance, and hedging

as a value-enhancing tool. We believe the common view of hedging can be

summarized as follows.

(1) Hedging is one of the three most fundamental reasons for the existence of

the financial market, alongside speculative and arbitrage activities (Jüttner,

2000, p.32).

(2) The hedging industry is evolving just like the rest of the business world. In

fact, there is no definite set of tools or technique that can define hedging. As

the world changes, new hedging mechanisms are derived; and as time passes,

these mechanisms are refined and evolve into something new that can be

better applied to the contemporary commercial marketplace (Batten et al, 1993;

Faff and Chan, 1998; Alster, 2003; ASX, 2005d; and CME, 2005a, 2005b).

(3) Hedging is not a way of making money, but to assist management in better

managing corporate revenue through reducing the corporate exposure to

volatility in the foreign currency markets (Nguyen and Faff, 2002, 2003a; Anac

and Gozen, 2003; Alster, 2003; De Roon et al., 2003; and Dinwoodie and

Morris 2003).

(4) When used prudently, hedging can be effective insurance as well as a

value-enhancing exercise for corporations. Effective hedging programs have

been proven to allow corporations to minimize or transfer their foreign currency

exposure. The diminished exposure to foreign currency fluctuations allows

more stable and predictable cash-flows, notably in terms of revenue. As a

result, firms are then capable of making more comprehensive financial plans,

including more reliable estimations on tax, income after tax and dividends

payable to shareholders. It is believed that a dividend payout is often of

significant appeal to long-term, current or prospective shareholders (Nguyen

17
and Faff, 2002, 2003b; Alster, 2003; Anac and Gozen, 2003; De Roon et al.,

2003; and Dinwoodie and Morris, 2003).

Having reviewed these commonly held views, we now proceed with our view.

Hedging is the preventive strategy used by investors or companies to protect

their portfolio from adverse currency, interest rate or price movements. It

involves taking an opposite position in a derivative in an attempt to offset or

balance any gains or losses of the initial portfolio. The ideal result for a hedge

would be to cause a “seesaw effect” where one effect will cancel out another.

Because of this “seesaw effect”, hedging not only protects companies from any

losses that may occur due to an adverse market, but also restricts companies

from any gains if the market goes in favor of the companies. The three main

questions surrounding hedging: when, what and how to hedge are shown in

Figure 2.2 below as a decision tree.

18
Figure 2.2: Generic Hedging Decision Tree

What to How to
Hedge? Hedge?
Hedge Ratio
z10%
Financial Tools
z50%
When to 1. Forward
Hedge z100%
Hedge? 2. SWAP
OR
3. Money
zAny ratio
Market
between
4. Futures
Under 0.1%-99.9%
5. Options
Currency
6. Leveraged
Risk
Spot
Exposure

Non-Financial
Fully
Tools
participating
No 1. Leading
market
Hedge 2. Lagging
movements

19
The following example illustrates the above Figure 2.2. Assume that Company

A is an Australian company that imports photocopy machines from Japan. The

chief financial officer of Company A has just concluded a negotiation to

purchase 100 photocopy machines from Company J, a Japanese photocopy

manufacturer. The contract is for JPY10,000,000 and is signed in March with

payment due three months later in June. Since the account is payable in

Japanese yen, Company A (the Australian company) is faced with a currency

exposure problem. Company A would be very happy if the Australian dollar

appreciated versus the Japanese yen. Concerns will rise if the Japanese yen

becomes stronger against the Australian dollar.

As the chief financial officer decides on the hedging strategy that can minimize

the company’s currency exposure, he/she typically faces three questions: (1)

when to hedge, (2) what to hedge, and (3) how to hedge. The first question

(“when to hedge”) depends on the estimation of the future currency

movements. For our example, if Company A expects the Japanese yen to

become stronger against the Australian dollar at the end of June, then the

company should prepare a hedging strategy that can minimize the currency

exposure due to the expected adverse currency movements. Otherwise, if

Company A expects the Australian dollar to appreciate against the Japanese

yen, then there is no need for the company to hedge. In fact, Company A can

benefit from the favorable currency movement by using less Australian dollars

to pay off the Japanese yen account.

The second question (“what to hedge”) refers to the portfolio or account in

which the company will hedge, including the amount and the currency to be

20
hedged. For our example, the currency to be hedged is the Japanese yen. The

decision on the amount to be hedged can be affected by the hedger’s

tolerance to risks. Depending on the chief financial officer’s risk tolerance,

he/she can decide to hedge 100% of the JPY10,000,000, 50%, or 10%. In fact,

technically, the hedge ratio can be any ratio between 0.1% and 99.9%. If the

chief financial officer of Company A decided to not hedge their account, then

the company is fully participating in the currency movement. If the decision is

to hedge the account, then there are several alternatives available to Company

A to manage this currency exposure. The company can hedge using financial

tools and non-financial tools. Since our purpose in this thesis is to derive a

contemporary hedging model using leveraged spot contracts, we focus our

discussion on those hedging alternatives that use financial tools.

The third question (“how to hedge”) refers to the mechanism of hedging. It

involves choosing from those currently available financial tools, such as

forward, futures, options, swaps, money market, and leveraged spot contracts.

Indeed, once Company A decides to hedge their account, a decision then will

be made regarding which financial tool(s) will be used to best manage the

currency exposure. The company can use a plain single financial tool or a

combination of several.

The value created by hedging strategies depends on the answers to the above

questions. The following Figure 2.3 is a customized hedging decision tree for

the example. As shown in the figure, if Company A chooses not to hedge, then

the result will be fully dependant on market movement, the interaction between

the Australian dollar and the Japanese yen. If Company A chooses to hedge,

21
the value created by their strategies will depend on their hedge ratio as well as

the financial tools they select. If the hedge ratio is less than 100%, the

company will be faced with a portion of exposed hedge and a portion of

covered hedge. For instance, if the hedge ratio is 50%, then the company will

be faced with 50% uncovered and 50% covered hedge. The uncovered portion

will be exposed to currency risk and fully dependant on the market movements.

If the hedge ratio is 100%, then the company will be fully covered for any

currency risk. Note that as we mentioned earlier in this chapter, by hedging

(notably when hedging 100%), Company A is not only protected from losses

caused by adverse currency movement, but is also denied any gains from

favorable currency movement.

22
Figure 2.3: Customized Hedging Decision Tree
(h)
(f) Uncovered
What to
Hedge Hedge
Hedge? How to
Ratio <
Hedge?
100% (i)
(d)
When to (b) Covered (k)
Hedge
Hedge? Hedge Hedge Financial Tools
Ratio
(g) ¾ Forward
Hedge ¾ SWAP
(a) Ratio = (j) ¾ Money
JPY10,000,000 100% Fully Market
Under Covered ¾ Futures
Currency Risk Hedge ¾ Options
Exposure ¾ Leveraged
Spot

(e)
(c) Fully
No participating
Hedge currency
movements

23
2.2.3 Hedging with Financial Derivatives

The mechanism of hedging is actually accomplished through the utilization of

financial derivative contracts, such as forward, futures, options, and money

market instruments. Hence, it is important to understand that in order to

formulate effective strategies, hedgers must not only be fully aware of the

surrounding economics/business environment, but must also gain sufficient

knowledge on each of those currently available financial instruments and the

operating mechanism of the financial markets to be fully equipped to choose

the most efficient tools that will best fit the company’s profile. Based on this

reasoning, we must discuss the background of financial derivatives markets

and what are those non-financial instrument alternatives that firms can choose

as risk minimizing tools. Further we discuss:

(1) what are those financial tools that are currently available;

(2) why do firms choose one derivative over another;

(3) what are the strengths and weaknesses of those currently available

derivatives, especially when compared to the proposed Leveraged Spot

technique;

(4) what are those commonly adopted financial models; and

(5) the limitations of these classical financial models.

2.2.3.1 Financial Derivatives Markets

With the ever increasing total notional value of derivative contracts outstanding

worldwide, it is little wonder that there has been continuous interest in

unlocking the “mystery” of hedging using financial derivatives. Studies have

shown that in 1994, the total value of hedging was USD 18 trillion (Nguyen and

Faff, 2002; Hughes and MacDonald, 2002, p.153). This is more than the

24
combined total value of shares listed on the New York Stock Exchange and the

Tokyo Stock Exchange. The amount exceeded USD 55 trillion in 1996, and in

1998, the figure had already reached USD 70 trillion, which is almost four

times more than in 1994. Moreover, according to BIS (2005), from 1995 to

1998, spot foreign exchange transactions increased by 15%, reaching a total

of USD 600 billion-a day, while over-the-counter currency options doubled to a

total outstanding daily value of USD 141 billion. According to the Triennial

Central Bank Survey 20042, the average daily turnover in foreign exchange

derivatives contracts rose to $1,292 billion in April 2004 compared to only $853

billion in April 2001 (BIS, 2005). Table 2.1 shows that outright forward and

foreign exchange swaps hold the record as the most popular derivatives

traded over the counter. As such figures continue to climb strongly, it is

important to understand the mechanism of the foreign exchange derivatives

markets, including what motivates companies to enter the market, and how

corporations utilize the market as a hedging mechanism.

2 The 2004 survey is the sixth global survey since April 1989 of foreign exchange market
activity and the fourth survey since March/April 1995 covering also the over-the-counter (OTC)
derivatives market activity. The survey includes information on global foreign exchange market
turnover and the final statistics on OTC derivatives market turnover and amounts outstanding.

25
Table 2.1: Global OTC Derivative Market Turnover, 1995-2004
Daily averages in April, in billions of US dollars
1995 1998 2001 2004
Foreign exchange power 688 959 853 1,292
Outright forwards and foreign exchange swaps 643 862 786 1,152
Currency swaps 4 10 7 21
Options 41 87 60 117
Other 1 0 0 2
Interest rate turnover 151 265 489 1,025
FRAs 66 74 129 233
Swaps 63 155 331 621
Options 21 36 29 171
Other 2 0 0 0
2
Total derivatives turnover 880 1,265 1,385 2,410

Memo:
Turnover at April 2004 exchange rates 825 1,350 1,600 2,410
3
Exchange-traded derivatives 1,221 1,382 2,180 4,657
Currency contracts 17 11 10 23
Interest rate contracts 1,204 1,371 2,170 4,634
1 2
Adjusted for local and cross-border double-counting. Including estimates for gaps in reporting.
3
Sources: FOW TRADEdata; Futures Industry Association; various futures and options exchanges.

Reported monthly data were converted into daily averages on the assumption of 18.5 trading days in

1995, 20.5 days in 1998, 19.5 days in 2001 and 20 days in 2004 Table C.2

Source: Bank for International Settlements (BIS), 2005.

According to Robert W. Kolb, “a derivative is a financial instrument based upon

another more elementary financial instrument. The value of the financial

derivative depends upon, or derives from the more basic instrument. The base

instrument is usually a cash market financial instrument, such as a bond or a

share of stock” (Hughes and MacDonald, 2002, p.153). The underlying

instrument can also be based on movements of financial markets, interest

rates, the market index, commodities, or a combination of these (Dinwoodie

and Morris, 2003). For example, consider the derivative value of oil, which

26
indicates that the price of an oil futures contract would be derived from the

market price of oil, reflecting supply and demand for the commodity. In fact, as

oil prices rise, so does the associated futures contract. It is noted that in order

for the derivative market to be operational, the underlying asset prices have to

be sufficiently volatile. This is because derivatives are risk management tools.

Hence, if there is no risk in the market, there would be no need for the

existence of any risk management tool. In other words, without manageable

risk, the use of derivatives would be meaningless.

Derivatives commonly used as hedging instruments include the foundational

form of: (1) forward contracts, (2) futures contracts, (3) options contracts, and

(4) swaps, which involve a combination of forward and spot contracts or two

forward contracts. However, with the rapidly changing business environment,

many hedgers have also given increasing attention to other more sophisticated

and “exotic” derivatives which evolved from these basic contracts and often

consist of a combined use of two or more foundational contracts, such as

Options Futures (Hull, 2006, p.199, p.529).

2.2.3.2 Types of Players in Derivatives Markets

There are three categories of players in a functioning derivatives market: (1)

hedgers, (2) speculators, and (3) arbitrageurs. While each of these players use

the market with varying intention, their combined and balanced influence

ensure the market liquidity and volatility that allows the derivatives market to

operate. It is easy yet important to differentiate the varying motives of these

players. In terms of their level of risk aversion, arbitrageurs are by definition

highly risk intolerant (risk averse individuals) who only trade in risk-free

27
transactions; whereas speculators are on the other side of the spectrum

(risk-seeking individuals), as they make profit by taking risk; hedgers are risk

neutral individuals, as they choose their strategies by ranking the expected

value of any given strategy (Dinwoodie and Morris, 2003; Jüttner, 2000, p.35,

pp.302-303; Homaifar, 2004, p.82; Hallwood and MacDonald, 2000).

Based on their varying attitude towards risk these players tend to engage in

the derivatives market with very different transaction patterns. More specifically,

an arbitrageur who seeks risk-free profits will simultaneously take up a position

in two or more markets, for instance, simultaneously buy spot and sell forward

the Australian dollar, in an attempt to exploit mis-pricings due to a market that

is not in equilibrium. However, according to Dinwoodie and Morris (2003), such

price differentials are almost non-existent in a well-functioning market, mainly

because supply and demand tend to rapidly restore market equilibrium. As

opposed to the arbitrageur, a speculator seeks profit by taking risk. For

example, speculators who anticipate an appreciating Australian dollar will put

their “bets” on the rising Australian dollar. They can do so by buying the

Australian dollar at a lower value, and then selling it when the value is higher

should the prediction come true. A hedger enters derivatives markets mainly

with intention to insure against price volatility beyond their control. Based on

this intention, it is not surprising that hedgers are mostly acting on behalf of

corporations. The mechanism of hedging mainly transfers risk to others who

are willing to accept the risk. Indeed, the risk is never nullified but merely

transferred from one party to another. In most cases, speculators are those

who absorb the risks transferred by hedgers. It is perhaps due to these notions

that some have referred to the derivatives market as the ‘zero-sum game

28
market, where the gain of one party is exactly equal to loss of another party’

(Dinwoodie and Morris, 2003; Jüttner, 2000, p.35, pp.302-303; Homaifar, 2004,

p.82; Hallwood and MacDonald, 2000, p.32).

Over the last decades, the foreign exchange markets have experienced

explosive growth. Indeed, according to the Triennial Central Bank Survey 2004,

the average daily turnover in traditional foreign exchange markets rose to $US

1,880 billion in April 2004 compared to $US 1,200 billion in April 2001 (BIS,

2005; see Table 2.2). Certain authors, including Hughes and MacDonald (2002,

pp.209-210), believe that the partial reason for the rapid growth of the foreign

exchange market is due to the entrance of new players – institutional investors

with huge portfolios of assets and capital. These institutional investors include

hedge funds, pension funds, insurance companies and other participants. As

these funds are generally unregulated and operate primarily by taking highly

leveraged, speculative positions, they are generating much greater transaction

flow than those traditional players, such as large international banks, securities

houses, corporate treasurers and central banks, which are heavily regulated

and closely observed by stock analysts and shareholders (Hughes and

MacDonald, 2002, p.212; Hull, 2006, p.9). According to Hughes and

MacDonald (2002, p.212), there are 3000 hedge funds actively operating

around the globe currency, with a combined capital (money from investors)

estimated at USD400 billion. Further insights into the operation of hedge funds

can be found in Hull (2006, chap. 1).

29
Table 2.2: Global Foreign Exchange Market Turnover 1989-2004
Daily averages in April, in billions of US dollars
1989 1992 1995 1998 2001 2004
Spot Transactions 317 394 494 568 387 621
Outright forwards 27 58 97 128 131 208
Foreign exchange swaps 190 324 546 734 656 944
Estimated gaps in reporting 56 44 53 60 26 107
Total “traditional” turnover 590 820 1,190 1,490 1,200 1,880
Memo: Turnover at April 2004 Exchange 650 840 1,120 1,590 1,380 1,880
rates2
1 2
Adjusted for local and cross-border double-counting. Non-US dollar legs of foreign currency

transactions were converted from current US dollar amounts into original currency amounts at average

exchange rates for April of each survey year and then reconverted into US dollar amounts at average

April 2004 exchange rates. Table B.1

Source: Bank for International Settlements (BIS), 2005.

Despite the name “hedge funds”, these funds are infamous for their

speculative activities in the foreign exchange markets. George Soros’s

Quantum Fund topped the chart of money market speculators when the fund

speculatively attacked the Bank of England in 1992 by betting against the

British pound and won approximately $US1 billion (Hughes and MacDonald,

2002, pp.211-212). It is perhaps such speculative incidents that trigger

constant debates over the role of these new players in the currency markets.

Indeed, these hedge funds sometimes have the power to destabilize and even

break a nation’s currency, especially those of emerging market countries.

However, most of those victimized countries normally reform their economies

and adopt more sensible economic and financial policies, in turn rectifying the

market inefficiencies. The continuous debates about the possible good and evil

role of these speculative newcomers appear similar to those concerning the

role of hedging. Indeed, while the fundamental principal of hedging is to assist

30
hedgers in minimizing their risk exposure in the currency market, imprudent

and unethical usage can nonetheless be financially fatal.

2.2.3.3 Non-financial Tools Hedge (Natural Hedge)

It is perhaps due to these conflicting aspects of hedging that, despite its

fundamental function of transferring hedgers’ unwanted risks to those who are

willing to absorb them, not all corporate treasurers are fond of using financial

derivatives as risk management alternatives. Their reluctance is

understandable especially in the wake of those failed hedging attempts (see

Appendix A3).

As an alternative to hedging using financial derivatives, some treasurers

choose to tighten up receivable policies, that is, limiting the outstanding period

to an average of 30 days (Alster, 2003). According to Chew, the Chief Financial

Officer of National Semiconductor Corporation, this method has been useful in

minimizing the company’s vulnerability to currency fluctuations. However,

during the uncovered period, the company is still exposed to currency

fluctuations. Therefore, we believe that such methods, even if executed very

efficiently, can only partially offset the company’s currency exposure.

Huffman and Makar (2004) have reported that multinational corporations

(MNCs) in the United States generally use foreign-denominated debt as their

alternative to hedging with financial derivatives. The MNCs also matched their

foreign sales and foreign assets as an attempt to naturally minimize their

companies’ foreign currency risks (Huffman and Makar, 2004; Becker and

Fabbro, 2006). Another alternative to hedging using financial derivatives is to

31
control the currency risk exposure by modifying the company’s capital

structure and maintaining a low level of debt. Nonetheless, this risk

management alternative is claimed to rarely be used in reality, due mainly to

the significant transaction costs involved (Nguyen and Faff, 2002).

Despite the higher transaction costs, authors like Chowdhry (1995) and Nance

et al. (1993) generally remained supportive of the use of the abovementioned

natural hedging techniques. Indeed, they highlighted that the benefits of

natural hedging is especially noticeable when future currency movements and

the associated exposure to changing exchange rates are unknown. These

methods are also particularly cost efficient when dealing with long-term

exposure, mainly because most derivatives contracts tend to be limited by their

contractual terms and amount (Huffman and Makar, 2004). The limitations of

common financial tools will be further discussed in subsequent sections.

2.2.4 Hedging Tools and Techniques

We continue the discussion on hedging to cover:

(1) what are the financial tools currently available;

(2) why do firms choose one instrument over another;

(3) what are the strengths and weaknesses of currently available derivatives,

especially when compared to the proposed leveraged spot technique;

(4) what are the commonly adopted financial models; and

(5) the limitations of these classical financial models.

There are mainly five types of transactions in the foreign exchange derivatives

markets, namely: (1) forward, (2) futures, (3) options, (4) swaps, and (5)

32
money (spot) market. However, most hedging transactions occur in the forward

and swaps3. In both their 2001 and 2005 study of Australian hedging practices,

the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) found that forward and swaps

contracts continue to be the most popular hedging instruments for

non-financial4 Australian companies. Similar surveys of non-financial

companies across the United States, Germany, Switzerland, Sweden and

Korea also found that forward contracts are the clear preference for these

companies (Bodnar et al, 1996; Bodnar et al, 1998; Bodnar and Gebhardt,

1999; Loderer and Pichler, 2000; Pramborg, 2005; Becker and Fabbro, 2006).

The popularity of the forward contracts is perhaps due to their longer existence

when compared to other derivatives.

We have not come across any previous literature that had been written on

leveraged spot contracts. This comes as a surprise, as leveraged spot

contracts have been widely adopted in overseas markets, such as Hong Kong

and China. We therefore believe that limited (if any) effort has been invested in

exploring the leveraged spot market, let alone utilizing leveraged spot

contracts to implement corporate hedging strategies.

3 A conclusion drawn from Batten et al. (1993), Dawson and Rodney (1994), Hallwood and
MacDonald (2000), Kawaller (2001), Kyte (2002), Hughes and MacDonald (2002), Anac and
Gozen, (2003), Alster (@003), Huffman and Makar (2004), Homaifar (2004), ABS (2005), BIS
(2005) and Hull (2006).
4 Non-financial companies refer to corporations and governments, whereas financial
companies refer to financial institutions including commercial and investment banks, securities
houses, mutual funds, pension funds, hedge funds, currency funds, money market funds,
building societies, leasing companies, insurance companies, other financial subsidiaries of
corporate firms and central banks.

33
In the following sections, we will discuss all of these contemporary financial

derivatives, including forward, futures, options, swaps and money market

instruments, and introduce the mechanism of the leveraged spot market.

2.2.4.1 Contemporary Financial Derivatives

Financial derivatives, also known as financial instruments, tools or techniques,

exist to serve three main groups of players, (1) hedgers, (2) speculators and (3)

arbitragers. Our research also identified forward, futures, options, money

market instruments, and swaps as the key financial derivatives5. Many authors,

for example Kyte (2002) and Hull (2006, p.611), recognize the interest rate as

one of the derivatives commonly used. However, since this thesis aims to

derive a hedging mechanism specifically for assisting corporations to minimize

their currency risk exposure, the discussion on contemporary financial

derivatives will not concern interest rates.

The abovementioned key financial derivatives are sometimes referred to as

the plain vanilla contracts. As the commercial trading market continues to

evolve, many “exotic” contracts are being derived from these plain vanilla

contracts. These exotic contracts normally refer to the combined use of two or

more financial instruments (Kawaller, 2001). The use of these “exotic”

contracts have increased; nevertheless, many authors in the financial field still

acknowledge forward contracts as the most extensively used empirical

hedging instrument (See, for example, Batten et al., 1993).

5 Refer to Dawson and Rodney (1994), Hallwood and MacDonald (2000), Hughes and
MacDonald (2002), Anac and Gozen (2003), Alster (2003), Huffman and Makar (2004),
Homaifar (2004), ABS (2005), and BIS (2005).

34
Forward contracts are undeniably the most commonly used hedging

instrument. In 1992, forward contracts accounted for 47% of the total derivative

trading in London. This is significant especially if we compare it to the mere 3%

of total trading of futures and options contracts in the same year (Hallwood and

MacDonald, 2000, p.14). In a 2002 study of 469 Australian companies also

found a significant distribution difference between the usage of forward and

other financial derivatives as hedging instruments. In their findings, Nguyen

and Faff (2002) showed that out of the 469 Australian companies, 264

companies reportedly used forward/futures contracts as hedging instruments.

They also showed that 263 companies adopted swaps and 127 companies

utilized options contracts as hedging instruments. In other words, from the 469

Australian companies reportedly using financial derivatives as hedging

instruments, almost 76% claimed that they used forward/futures contracts,

about 75% used swaps and only 36% utilized options contracts. The findings

of this research have been summarized in the following Table 2.3. Similar

findings from ABS (2005), BIS (2005) and Becker and Fabbro (2006) are

shown in Figures 2.4 and 2.5.

Our research found that many authors documented the functions of these

financial instruments in assisting hedgers to reduce risk as well as

supplementing profits generated by traditional banking activities. Indeed,

financial derivatives allow hedgers to “lock in” exchange rates, for instance,

using a forward contract to lock in a specified exchange rate for a specified

amount of currency to be delivered by a specified date. Hence, for these

financial derivatives to perform their function, it is important that hedgers have

the sound judgment and knowledge on the surrounding environment (such as

35
expected future currency movements as well as the economic and financial

circumstances), in order to accurately “lock in” the correct exchange rate

direction. Otherwise, locking in the wrong exchange rate due to bad estimation

on the currency movement can be fatal to any corporation (Kyte, 2002;

Huffman and Makar, 2004). Furthermore, it is also vital for hedgers to

understand the strengths and weaknesses of the selected financial tool(s), as

their unique characters generate different responses to a given set of contract

parameters (such as contract size, maturity, and transaction cost) and can

either help amplify the benefits of hedging or expose the company to even

more risk. The following section will discuss the most commonly used financial

tools of financial derivatives traders.

Figure 2.4: Reported Global Average Daily Turnover in OTC Derivatives

Market by Instrument

Source: BIS (2005).

36
Figure 2.5: Foreign Exchange Derivatives Turnover

Source: ABS (2005) and Becker and Fabro (2006).

Table 2.3: Financial Derivatives Usage by Australian Companies

Descriptive Statistics for Derivative Users and Non-users

Derivative Use by Type of Instruments

Absolute Value Percentage

Total Sample 469 100.00

Derivative Users 348 74.20
Non-users 121 25.80

Derivative Users 348 100.00

Interest Rate Derivative Users 239 68.68
Foreign Currency Derivative Users 291 83.62
Commodity Derivative Users 124 35.63

Swap Users 263 75.57

Option Users 127 36.50
Future/Forward Users 264 75.86
Source: Nguyen and Faff (2002).

37
2.2.4.2 Forward Contracts

In 1982, Mathur conducted a study based on the random sampling of the

Fortune 500 companies (cited in Batten et al., 1993). In that study, Mathur

(1982) found extensive adoption of forward contracts amongst Fortune 500

companies that were involved in currency hedging, it is by far the most

commonly adopted hedging instruments. This popularity is perhaps due to the

long history of usage, dating back to the early days of civilization and the

trading of crop producers. Forward contracts were the first financial derivatives

derived from those early “buy now but pay and deliver later” agreements.

In contemporary business world, forward contracts are commonly known as

over-the-counter transactions between two or more parties where both buyer

and seller enter into an agreement for future delivery of specified amount of

currency at an exchange rate agreed today. They are generally privately

negotiated between two parties, not necessarily having standardized contract

size and maturity. Both parties in the forward contracts are obligated to perform

according to the terms and conditions as negotiated in the contracts even if the

parties’ circumstances have changed. In other words, once a forward contract

has been negotiated, both parties have to wait for the delivery date to realize

the profit or loss on their positions. Nothing happens between the contracting

date and delivery date. Indeed, a forward contract cannot be resold or marked

to market (where all potential profits and losses are immediately realized),

because there is no secondary market for a forward contract (Solnik and

McLeavey, 2004, p.509; Hallwood and MacDonald, 2000, p.13). Although,

technically, the forward contract can be re-negotiated with the original

counterparty, it is usually practically too costly to proceed with. In fact, the

38
counterparty is not obliged to proceed with the renegotiation.

Forward contracts have one obvious limitation: they lack flexibility, and

therefore do not allow companies to react in a timely manner to favorable

market movements. This disadvantage is widely acknowledged and often

criticism by authors and hedgers. So, why are forward contracts still the most

popular hedging instrument? We believe this is mainly because forward

contracts allow the hedging of large volumes of transactions with extremely

low costs. Indeed, the parties involved in negotiating a forward contract are

typically companies that are exposed to currency risk and their nominated

banks. The nominated bank typically charges a service fee, of less than 1% of

the face value of the hedge amount, for acting as the counter-party in the

transaction. So it is the nominal service fee that is the low cost (Alster, 2003).

Appendix A7.1 provides further discussion on the calculation of forward rates

for a currency as well as example of typical forward transaction.

2.2.4.3 Futures Markets

Futures contracts are the first descendant of forward contracts. Futures

contracts were derived, based on the fundamental of forward contracts, but

with standardized quality, quantity, time (maturity), as well as place for delivery.

Like other financial derivatives, futures contracts were initially designed for

commodity trading, but as commercial trading continually evolved, the initial

definition of “commodity” broadened to include floating world currencies. In

1972, the Chicago Mercantile Exchange pioneered the industry by introducing

the first currency futures contract. Today, currency futures contracts are

common financial derivatives available to all global investors (CME, 2005a,

39
2005b).

Futures contracts inherited many significant traits of forward contracts, in that

futures transactions are also commitments to purchase or deliver a specified

amount of currency on a specified date at a price (exchange rate) agreed when

the contract is negotiated (Dawson and Rodney, 1994; Hallwood and

MacDonald, 2000, p.13; Hughes and MacDonald, 2002, p.355, pp.407-408;

Homaifar, 2004, pp.231-232). However, the futures contracts also possess

certain traits which are absent in forward contracts and are thought to promote

more efficient trading. In fact, unlike forward contracts, futures contracts are

seldom used to take physical delivery. These futures contracts are commonly

used by both speculators and hedgers. It allows the traders to take advantage

of price movements. Table 2.4 provides a clearer summary of the major

differences between forward and futures contracts.

Table 2.4: Major Differences between Forward and Futures Contracts

Forward Contracts Futures Contracts

Customized contracts in terms of size Standardized contracts in terms of

and delivery dates size and delivery dates
Private contracts between two parties Standardized contracts between a
customer and a clearinghouse
Difficult to reverse a contract Contract may be freely traded on the
market
Profit and loss on a position is All contracts are marked to market –
realized only on the delivery date the profit and loss are realized
immediately
No explicit collateral, but standard Collateral (margins) must be
bank relationship necessary maintained to reflect price movements
Delivery or final cash settlement Contract is usually closed out prior to

40
usually takes place maturity
Source: Hull (2006, p.6, pp.40-41), Moffett et al. (2006, p.6, p.177) and Solnik and McLeavey
(2004, p.4, p.510).

The integrity of futures markets is safeguarded by clearinghouses, which are

created by member participants of the organized exchanges (such as the New

York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX), the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME),

and the Sydney Future Exchange). These clearinghouses handle both sides of

the transactions, acting as the middlemen for both buyers and sellers of futures

contracts. To eliminate the counterparty risk, the clearinghouses exercise

marked-to-market practices, that is, to mark individual transactions to market

on a daily basis, which then requires transfer of value from one individual to

another individual in a zero-sum game. In other words, as the spot rate of that

currency changes daily, the profit/loss is recognized and is posted to an

individual account by the clearinghouse. These daily profits or losses are then

added (or subtracted) to the contract holder’s margin account (Hallwood and

MacDonald, 2000, p.13; Homaifar, 2004, p.9; Hull, 2006, pp.29-30).

There are two kinds of players in the futures markets, hedgers and speculators

(CME, 2005b). Hedgers open a position to protect themselves against adverse

changes in the underlying asset price that may negatively impact on their

business. Speculators, on the other hand, accept these price risks that

hedgers wish to avoid. In order to trade a futures contract, there has to be two

parties opening the exact opposing positions with their resulting contracts

registered with the Australian Clearing House (ACH) (ASX, 2005c). For more

information on the mechanism of futures markets, please refer to Appendix

41
A7.2.

Futures contract holders do not pay or receive the full value of the contract

when it is first established. Indeed, contract holders only pay a small initial

margin, and over the life of the contract, buyers/sellers (of the contract) will

either pay or receive variation margins as the price of the futures contract

varies (Dawson and Rodney, 1994; ASX, 2005b, 2005c). The profit or loss on

the futures contract is determined by the difference between the price of the

opening position and the price at which the position is closed. As futures

contracts are legal contracts that obligate the contract holder to deliver at a

specified time and price, contracts holders have to settle the positions at

maturity regardless of the profit/loss status (Hallwood and MacDonald, 2000,

p.13; Hughes and MacDonald, 2002, p.355; Homaifar, 2004, p.9). However, as

an alternative to settling the position at maturity, contract holders can close out

the position prior to maturity. For instance, if the holder bought futures, then

he/she can close out the position by selling futures with the same maturity date,

and vice-versa. Such closing out activity will effectively cancel the opened

positions. Table 2.5 includes some of those specifications of futures contracts

as traded in the Australian Stock Exchange.

Table 2.5: Futures Contracts Specifications

Name ASX Mini Index Futures
Underlying Index Contracts are over the S&P/ASX200 Index, the S&P/ASX 50
Index and the S&P/ASX 200 Property Trusts Index.
Contract Code The futures contract code is a five character code. The first three
letters are the ASX code of the underlying index. The fourth
character is a number designating the year of maturity and the
fifth character represents the maturity month.

42
Contract Multiplier Valued at AUD$10 per index point.
Quotation/Tick Prices quoted as the number of points, with a minimum price
Size movement of 1 index point = AUD$10.
Contract Months March, June, September, December cycle.
Expiry Day The third Thursday of the contract month, unless otherwise
specified by ASX.
Last Trading Day Trading will cease at 12 noon on expiry Thursday.
Trading Hours 6.00 am to 5.00 pm and 5.30 pm to 8.00 pm (Sydney time)
Cash Settlement Cash settlement is based on the opening prices of the stock in
the Underlying Index on expiry morning. An index calculation
(the Opening Price Index Calculation (OPIC)) is made using
these opening prices. This means trading will continue after the
settlement price has been determined.
Settlement Method The cash settlement amount is calculated by the calculation
agent (Standard and Poors) and forwarded to the Australian
Clearing House (ACH). The settlement amount is then paid to
receive net of margins on the next business day.
Initial Margin Initial margins for both buyers and sellers are determined by
ACH according to the volatility of the underlying index and are
reviewed regularly.
Daily Variation Futures options for both buyers and sellers are settled to market
Margin each day and subject to variation margins. An intro-day margin
call may also be made by ACH.
Margin Cover Settlement to market margin obligation must be settled daily by
the payment of cash. Initial margin can be cash or collateral
covered.
Source: ASX (2005a).

2.2.4.4 Options Markets

Similar to futures markets, options markets provide impersonal transactions

between two participants in an organized, orderly and cost-efficient open

outcry auction market (Homaifar, 2004, p.8). Examples of these markets are

the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME), the New York Mercantile Exchange

(NYMEX) and the Australian Stock Exchange (ASX). An options contract gives

43
the contract holder the right but not obligation to buy or sell an asset at a will be

specific price and delivery date6. For a currency options contract, that asset will

be a currency. The contract holder is also known as the options buyer. The

counterparty of a contract holder is known as the contract writer or contract

seller, who is obligated to respond to the contract holder. In other words, if the

contract holder chooses to exercise the contract, the writer is obligated to

respond. Table 2.6 and 2.7 are provided in an attempt to clearly differentiate

the rights and obligations of options buyer (holder) and seller (writer).

6 Refer to Batten et al. (1993), Dawson and Rodney (1994), Hallwood and MacDonald (2000),
Kawaller (2001), Kyte (2002), Hughes and MacDonald (2002), Anac and Gozen (2003), Alster
(2003), Huffman and Makar (2004), Homaifar (2004), ABS (2005), BIS (2005), Hull (2006).

44
Table 2.6: Call Options Rights and Obligations
Buyer (holder) Seller (writer)
Has the right to buy a futures contract at a Grants right to buyer, so has obligation to
predetermined price on or before a sell futures at a predetermined price at
defined date. buyer’s sole option.
Expectation: Rising prices Expectation: Neutral or falling prices

Source: NYMEX (2005).

Table 2.7: Put Options Rights and Obligations

Buyer (holder) Seller (writer)
Has the right to sell a futures contract at a Grants right to buyer, so has obligation to
predetermined price on or before a buy futures at a predetermined price at
defined date. buyer’s sole option.
Expectation: Falling prices Expectation: Neutral or rising prices

Source: NYMEX (2005).

The Options markets offer two styles of contracts: the American and the

European. The style of an options contract dictates when it can be exercised.

The American options contract gives the buyer (holder) the right to exercise

the option at any time between the date of writing and the expiry date; the

European options contract, on the other hand, can only be exercised on its

expiration date, but not before the expiry date (Moffett et al., 2006, p.178).

Further information on how to quote a currency options contract and the

factors affecting the pricing of options contracts can be found in Appendix

A7.3.

45
In Australia, the Australian Stock Exchange (ASX) only offers standardized

options contracts. However, overseas options markets do offer options

contracts in two forms: customized and standardized. The customized options

contracts are also known as the over-the-counter (OTC) options. It is usually

written by banks for US dollars against the British pound sterling, Swiss francs,

Japanese yen, Canadian dollars and the euro. These customized options

contracts can be tailored to suit individual needs, in terms of delivery dates,

contract size and strike price. Moffett et al. (2006, pp.178-179) claimed that the

contract size of these over-the-counter options contracts can reach $1 million

or more with maturity of up to one or two years. The standardized options

contracts are also known as exchange traded options (ETOs). These

standardized options contracts were first introduced in the United States by the

Philadelphia Stock Exchange (PHLX) in December 1982. Other markets such

as the Chicago Mercantile Exchange later followed suit. Like the futures

contracts, these exchange traded options are settled through a clearinghouse.

The clearinghouse acts as the middleman and handles both sides of an

options transaction. Acting as the counterparty of all options contracts, the

clearinghouse guarantees the fulfillment of these contracts.

Until this time, currency options contracts are still not available for trading

through the Australian Stock Exchange. In fact, the Australian Stock Exchange

only offers equity options and index options. For traders wanting to speculate

or hedge using currency options contracts, they can utilize overseas options

markets that offer currency options contracts, for example the Philadelphia

Stock Exchange (PHLX). The exchange traded currency options offer

standardized features such as expiration months and contract size. The

46
 following Table 2.8 consists of some of the standardized features of an

exchange traded currency options contract as listed by the Philadelphia Stock

Exchange (PHLX).

Table 2.8: Features of Exchange Traded Currency Options Contracts

Australian British Canadian Japanese Swiss
Euro
Dollar Pound Dollar Yen Franc
Contract
50,000 31,250 50,000 62,500 6,250,000 62,500
Size
Position
and
200,000 200,000 200,000 200,000 200,000 200,000
Exercise
Limits
Base
USD USD USD USD USD USD
Currency
Underlying
AUD GBP CAD EUR JPY CHF
Currency
Exercise
Price
Intervals
1￠ 1￠ 0.5￠ 1￠ 0.005￠ 0.5￠
(for 3
nearest
months)
Exercise
Price
Intervals
1￠ 2￠ 0.5￠ 1￠ 0.01￠ 1￠
(for 6, 9 or
12
months)
Premium Hundredths
Cents per Cents per Cents per Cents per Cents per
Quotations of cents per
unit unit unit unit unit
unit
Minimum $.(00)01 $.(00)01 $.(00)01 $.(00)01 $.(00)01 $.(00)01
Premium per unit = per unit = per unit = per unit = per unit = per unit =
Change $5.00 $3.125 $5.00 $6.25 $6.25 $6.25

47
Expiration March, March, March, March, March, March,
Months June, June, June, June, June, June,
September, September, September, September, September, September,
December December December December December December
+ two + two + two + two + two + two
near-term near-term near-term near-term near-term near-term
months months months months months months
Exercise American American American American American American
Style and and and and and and
European European European European European European
Source: PHLX (2005b).

2.2.4.5 Swaps

First introduced in the early 1980s, swaps have grown to become one of the

mainstream financial instruments in the world (Moffett et al., 2006, p.155;

Solnik and McLeavey, 2004, p.528). In 2001, the Australian Bureau of

Statistics (ABS) conducted a survey which showed that swaps were the

second most popular derivative amongst Australian companies involved in

hedging (ABS, 2001).

Swaps are not exchange-traded derivatives (ISDA, 2002; Moffett et al., 2006,

p.155; Solnik and McLeavey, 2004, p.528). They are over-the-counter

transactions; the main participants include major commercial and investment

banks, which belong to the International Swaps and Derivatives Association

(ISDA). This association has pioneered efforts in identifying and reducing risk

associated with using swaps. Chartered in 1985, their work actually began in

1984 when a group of 18 swap dealers and their counsel started to develop

standard terms of interest rate swaps (ISDA, 2006). Today, the ISDA

represents 725 member institutions from 50 countries on six continents. It is

48
the largest global financial trade association, in terms of number of member

firms. These member institutions range from the world’s major institutions that

deal in privately negotiated derivatives to end users that rely on

over-the-counter derivatives to efficiently manage their exposure to financial

risk. For further information regarding the role of ISDA, please refer to

Appendix A7.4.

Companies adopt swaps to manage their long-term exposure to currency and

interest rate risk (Solnik and McLeavey, 2004, p.528; Hull, 2006, p.149).

Currency swaps can be negotiated for a wide range of maturities for up to ten

years (Hughes and MacDonald, 2002, p.211). If funds are more expensive in

one country than another, a fee may be required to compensate for the interest

differential.

There are several types of swaps available in the swaps market. Currency

swaps, interest rate swaps, and currency-interest rate swaps are amongst the

most popular swap transactions (Hughes and MacDonald, 2002, pp.357-358;

Kyte, 2002; Moffett et al., 2006, p.365; Solnik and McLeavey, 2004, p.529;

Homaifar, 2004, p.178; BIS, 2005; Becker and Fabbro, 2006; Hull, 2006, p.149,

p.173). Other swaps include (but are not limited to) commodity swaps, equity

swaps, bullion swaps, and total return swaps (ISDA, 2002). As the focus of this

thesis is on the foreign exchange market, it is only logical for our following

discussion to be on currency swaps. Figure 2.6 provides an example of a

typical currency swap transaction while further discussion regarding the

mechanism of currency swaps are included in Appendix A7.4.

49
Figure 2.6: Typical Example of Currency Swaps

Pay yen Pay yen

Japanese U.S.
Corporate Swap Dealer Corporate
Pay Dollars Pay Dollars

A typical currency swap first requires two firms to borrow funds in the markets and
currencies in which they are best known. For example, a Japanese firm would
typically borrow yen on a regular basis in its home market. If the Japanese firms
were exporting to the United States and earning U.S. dollars, however, it might
wish to construct a natural hedge that would allow it to use the U.S. dollar earned
to make regular debt service payments on U.S. dollar debt. If the Japanese firm is
not well known in the U.S. financial markets, though, it may have no ready access
to U.S. dollar debt. Thus, it could participate in a currency swap. The Japanese
corporate could swap its yen-denominated debt service payments with another
firm that has U.S. dollar debt service payments. The Japanese corporate would
then have dollar debt service without actually borrowing U.S. dollar. The swap
agreement can be arranged by professional swap dealer who will generally search
out matching currency exposures, in terms of currency, amount, and timing. In
other words, the swap dealer plays the role of middleman, providing a valuable
currency management service for both firms.

Source: Hughes, and MacDonald (2002, p.211) and Moffett, et al. (2006, p.250).

One of the limitations of using swaps is that, just like the forward contracts,

there is no organized secondary market for swaps transactions. Solnik and

McLeavey (2004, p.529) claim that there are however three alternatives for

companies to exit a swaps contract. The first alternative is a voluntary

termination with the original counterparty. This is a popular choice, as it is

simple and implies only a lum-sum payment to reflect the changes in market

conditions. A condition for this alternative is that it requires the consent of the

other party. The second alternative is to write a mirror swap with the original

50
counterparty, that is, to write an opposite (mirror) swap with the same maturity

and amount but at a current condition. This alternative is different from the first

alternative in that the settlement is paid over the remaining maturity of the

swap instead of a lum-sum payment. Moreover, for the second alternative,

some credit risk tends to remain on the differential interest rate payment. The

third alternative of exiting of a swap contract is to write a reverse swap in the

market with a new counterparty. It is the easiest way amongst these three

alternatives. However, it also had two main disadvantages. Firstly, it is difficult

and expensive to find a new counterparty that can offset the exact amount of

the previous swap contract; secondly, engaging in two swaps at the same time

exposes the company to even more credit risk (Solnik and McLeavey, 2004,

p.529).

2.2.4.6 Money Markets

Money markets refer to financial markets in which short-term funds are bought

and sold. The maturity of these money market instruments normally are less

than twelve months. There are two major money markets: the local money

markets and the Eurocurrency markets (Eng et al., 1998, pp.325-327). Each

currency sector has its own interest rate pattern that is usually linked to the

interest rates in its country of origin. For example, the Eurodollar interest rate

tends to follow the interest rate movement in the United States. In this market,

the commodities traded are mostly term-deposits with short-term maturities.

Table 2.9 provides a list of commonly used money market instruments.

51
Table 2.9: Commonly Used Money Market Instruments
Instruments Descriptions
Bankers’ Acceptance A draft or bill of exchange accepted by a bank to
guarantee payment of the bill.
Certificate of Deposit A time deposit with a specific maturity date shown on a
certificate; large-denomination certificates of deposit can
be sold before maturity.
Commercial Paper An unsecured promissory note with a fixed maturity of
one to 270 days; usually it is sold at a discount from face
value.
Eurodollar Deposit Deposits made in US dollars at a bank or bank branch
located outside the United States.
Federal Agency Short-term securities issued by government sponsored
Short-term Securities enterprises such as the Farm Credit System, the Federal
Home Loan Banks and the Federal National Mortgage
Association.
Federal Funds (in the Interest-bearing deposits held by banks and other
US) depository institutions at the Federal Reserve; these are
immediately available funds that institutions borrow or
lend, usually on an overnight basis. They are lent at the
federal funds rate.
Municipal Notes (in the Short-term notes issued by municipalities in anticipation
US) of tax receipts or other revenues.
Repurchase Short-term loans, normally for less than two weeks and
Agreements frequently for one day, arranged by selling securities to
an investor with an agreement to repurchase them at a
fixed price on a fixed date.
Treasury Bills (T-Bills) Short-term debt obligations of a national government that
are issued to mature in 3 to 12months.

Source: Eng et al., 1998, pp.325-327

The trading of money market instruments requires international banks to

operate an international money trading desk (Eng et al., 1998, p.325-327). In

some cases, these trading desks are filled with dozens of dealers, each

specialized in particular money market instruments, such as Treasury Bills,

52
foreign currencies or Eurocurrencies. These trading desks are scattered

around the globe. It is because of this wide distribution of trading desks that

investors in the money markets have access to around-the-clock trading. The

need for sophisticated computer and telecommunications hardware and

software (required for effective handling of each dealing position) means that

these dealing room operations generally represent substantial investments for

banks and financial institutes.

The money market and forward market are identical because interest rate

parity holds. So hedging in the money market is like hedging in the forward

market. A money market hedge also includes a contract and a source of funds

to fulfill the contract. Those hedgers who use money market hedges borrow in

one currency and convert the borrowing into another currency. We have

included a discussion on the mechanism of hedging using the money market in

Appendix A7.5.

2.2.4.7 Leveraged Spot Market

The leveraged spot contract is fundamentally the same as a spot contract.

Indeed, the mechanism of trading a leveraged spot contract involves borrowing

a certain amount of money from a country, say, Japan, for a specific period at a

specific interest rate, then converting the amount of Japanese yen into another

currency, say, the Australian dollar, at the existing spot rate and investing the

Australian dollar in the Australian money market at the Australian interest rate,

and finally converting the Australian dollar back to Japanese yen to repay the

Japanese yen borrowing.

53
The only difference between the leveraged spot contract and a spot contract is

the leverage ratio available in all leveraged spot contracts. The leverage ratio

can range from twenty (1:20) to two hundred (1:200), and is specified by the

trading financial institutions. This leverage ratio is a powerful feature of the

leveraged spot contracts. Indeed, if the leverage ratio is twenty (1:20), this

means that the leveraged spot contract trader will have access to a credit line

twenty times larger than his/her initial collateral. It is obvious that this distinct

feature of the leveraged spot contracts will allow traders to trade at a

significantly lower capital requirement when compared to the spot market. In

the following chapters, we will illustrate in further detail regarding the

mechanism of leveraged spot market and how the leveraged spot contract can

be utilized as an effective speculative and hedging financial instrument.

2.2.5 Determinants of Derivative Selection

A survey based on four hundred and sixty nine (469) Australian firms found

that the industry in which a company operates can influence their attitude and

usage of financial derivatives (Nguyen and Faff, 2002). For example, the use

of derivatives is most prevalent among firms in the following industries: (1)

other metals; (2) diversified resources; (3) alcohol and tobacco; (4) transport;

and (5) insurance; whereas firms operating in the telecommunication industry

are seemingly less attracted to using financial derivatives, with less than 50%

of the sample telecommunication firms reporting derivative usage. Table 2.10

provides a snapshot of the use of derivatives by 372 Fortune 500 companies.

54
Table 2.10: Frequency of Use of Derivative Instruments by Size and
Industry
Frequency of use of derivative instruments by 372 large US firms for fiscal year-end 1991 that have foreign exchange

rate exposure as of fiscal year-end 1990. Companies are among the 500 largest firms (by sales) in the Fortune 500. A

firm has foreign exchange rate exposure if it has nonzero foreign pretax income, positive foreign sales or debt, or is in

the upper quartile of the sample firms on the basis of imports as a percentage of total industry sales. Currency

Derivatives include currency swaps and foreign exchange forwards, futures, and options. Any Derivatives include

interest rate, commodity, and currency derivatives. All data on derivatives use are from annual reports and 10-K

disclosures. The 1st quartile for firm size includes the smallest firms based on 1990 sales; the 4th quartile includes the

largest firms.

N Currency derivatives Any derivatives

All Firms 372 41.4% 59.1%

Panel A: By Firm Size (by 1990 sales)

4th quartile 93 75.3 90.3
rd
3 quartile 93 38.7 64.5

2nd quartile 93 34.4 48.4

st
1 quartile 93 17.2 33.3

Panel B: By Fortune’s Industry Grouping

Consumer Goods 47 66.0% 78.7%

Beverages 6 83.3 100.0

Food 22 59.1 81.8

Pharmaceuticals 14 85.7 85.7

Tobacco 5 20.0 20.0

Electronics 71 56.3% 63.4%

Computers, office equipment 18 83.3 88.9

Electronics, electrical equipment 35 42.9 48.6

Scientific, photographic and 18 55.6 66.7

control equipment

Energy 32 34.4% 68.8%

Mining, crude oil production 12 8.3 58.3

Petroleum refining 20 50.0 75.0

Metals 32 21.9% 50.0%

Jewelry, silverware 1 0.0 0.0

Metal products 19 21.1 47.4

Metals 12 25.0 58.3

Nondurable consumer products 35 28.6% 42.8%

Apparel 11 27.3 36.4

Furniture 5 0.0 20.0

55
 Soaps, cosmetics 11 36.4 36.4

Textiles 6 16.7 16.7

Toys, sporting goods 2 100.0 100.0

Paper 41 17.1% 39.0%

Forest and paper products 27 18.5 44.4

Publishing, printing 14 14.3 28.6

Production materials 50 44.0% 62.0%

Building materials, glass 7 57.1 100.0

Chemicals 33 42.4 57.6

Rubber and plastic products 10 40.0 50.0

Transportation 64 40.6% 59.4%

Aerospace 16 12.5 43.8

Industrial and farm equipment 32 53.1 65.6

Motor vehicles and parts 13 38.5 53.8

Transportation equipment 3 66.7 100.0

Source: Geczy, et al. (1997).

Research also found that the nationality of the company can influence attitudes

toward financial derivatives. In fact, varying economic circumstances, taxation

systems, derivative usage reporting systems, as well as other legal and

legislation systems can affect the choice of derivatives adopted by companies.

For instance, when compared to the US firms, the New Zealand and German

firms are more likely to adopt foreign currency hedges. This is because both

New Zealand and Germany are relatively smaller open economies compared

to the United States, leading to greater exposure of the New Zealand and

German firms to financial price risk (Berkman et al., 1997; Bodnar and

Gebhardt, 1999). Moreover, US companies generally enjoy a much larger

single-currency home market when compared to companies from other

countries; therefore, US companies typically face less exposure, which can

further reduce their motivation for hedging.

56
Batten et al. (1993), Bodnar and Gebhardt (1999), and Nguyen and Faff (2002,

2003a, 2003b) also identified three other factors that tend to influence the

company’s derivative selection: (1) leverage level; (2) liquidity level; and (3)

company size (in terms of financial distress and setup costs and foreign

exchange turnover). According to their observations, currency derivatives are

more likely to be used by large companies that have more debt within their

capital structure; whereas interest rate derivatives are more likely used by

large companies that are more levered, more liquid and pay higher dividends.

Furthermore, currency derivatives are more likely to be utilized by

smaller-sized companies that pay higher dividends and have more debt. The

authors also found that the high fixed cost of a hedging program can make

derivative usage uneconomic for smaller-sized companies, in turns

discouraging their usage of derivative.

In terms of financial instruments selection, a survey on derivative usage and

financial risk management in New Zealand found that currency forward is the

most popular derivative for hedgers (Chan et al., 2003). Figure 2.7 shows that

a similar preference for over-the-counter (OTC) forward contracts is also found

amongst US and German firms (Bodnar and Gebhardt, 1999). The popularity

of forward contracts and swaps is definitely also shared among Australian

businesses. Indeed, Reserve Bank of Australia reported in 2002 that Australian

international businesses predominantly utilize forward foreign exchange

contracts to manage their foreign currency exposure with the second most

used derivative contracts being cross-currency interest rate swaps. Data

gathered from the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) revealed that in 2005

the total principal value of outstanding bought derivative contracts (of both

57
forward and cross currency interest rate swaps) was $1080 billion; whereas

the total principal value of outstanding sold derivative contract was $950.9

billions7. More data from the 2005 ABS survey is included in Appendix A6.

7 In 2001, data gathered from the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) showed that the
combined value of the usage of these two derivatives contracts only accounted from almost
$935 billions of the total notional sum of outstanding bought and sold derivative contracts.

58
Figure 2.7: Preference among FX Derivative Instruments

Source: Bodnar and Gebhardt (1999).

2.2.6 Financial Models

Much literature have been written on financial models, with the most commonly

available discussions surrounding models such as Black-Scholes, Black,

Merton, Cox-Ross-Rubinstein (commonly known as the Binomial Model) and

Garman-Kohlhagen (Black and Scholes, 1973; Merton, 1973; Cox and Ross,

1976; Cox, Ross and Rubinstein, 1979; Garman and Kohlhagen, 1983; Hull

and White, 1987, 1988, 1993; Rubinstein, 1994). Others had either derived

models as extension of those classic models, for example the Ekvall et al.

(1997) model is a revision of the Garman-Kohlhagen currency option pricing

model, or proposed their own models based on studies and research

conducted on corporate hedging strategies, such as Brown and Toft (2002).

The following section will point out differences, in terms of application and

intention, between these models and our model.

59
According to the Australian Stock Exchange (ASX) (2005), the Australian

market adopted two main models for pricing equity options: (1) the

Black-Scholes model and (2) the Cox-Ross-Rubinstein model (the Binomial

option pricing model) (ASX, 2005j). The Black-Scholes model, which was first

proposed by Fischer Black and Myron Scholes in 1973, is considered to be a

revolutionary step in option pricing theory originally formulated in the early

1900s (Merton, 1973; Cox and Rubinstein, 1985; Cox et al., 1979). The

fundamental principal behind the Black-Scholes model is that ‘if options are

correctly priced in the market, it should not be possible to make profits by

creating portfolios of long and short positions in options and their underlying

stocks’ (Black and Scholes, 1973, p. 637). In their original paper, Black and

Scholes claimed that their model is applicable to valuation of common stock,

corporate bonds and warrants (Black and Scholes, 1973). However, in practice,

this model is commonly recognised as an analytic solution to pricing the

European options (ASX, 2005j).

As the marketplace evolved, many researchers attempted to derive financial

models capable of enabling corporations in making better hedging decisions.

However, studies have revealed certain feelings of disenchantment among

currency traders with the performance of these models. This may be due to the

fact that majority of the existing models (especially those classical models

mentioned above) had been derived based on the original Black-Scholes

Option Pricing Model; being descendents, these models also inherited many

traits and flaws of the Black-Scholes model (Ekvall et al., 1997). For instance,

the Black, the Binomial, and the Garman-Kohlhagen models all suffer the

same weakness as the Black-Scholes, where they all assume that the volatility

60
and interest rate will remain constant during the option’s lifetime (Black and

Scholes, 1973; Black, 1976; Kohlhagen, 1978; Cox et al., 1979; Ekvall et al.,

1997). This assumption is decidedly unrealistic and has resulted in the

underpricing of many options. Moreover, like the Black-Scholes model, the

Garman-Kohlhagen model also assumes that transaction cost and taxes are

zero (Ekvall et al., 1997; Jüttner, 2000, p.353). These assumptions are also far

from being realistic as taxes are an implied part of our daily life, and

transaction costs are unavoidable in most, if not all, transactions.

Moreover, amongst those models mentioned above, the Garman-Kohlhagen

model is the only one designed to be applicable in the foreign exchange

market, while the others are focused on the share markets. It is also interesting

to note that all models mentioned above are option pricing models; in this

implies, they were all developed to enable hedgers to make judgments on

“when to hedge”, but not “how to hedge optimally”. According to these models,

mathematical formulae can assist corporations or traders in valuing the prices

of any commodity options (or currency options in the case of the

Garman-Kohlhagen model), in turn ruling out any arbitrage opportunities. In

simpler terms, these option pricing models enable hedgers to calculate the

theoretical ‘fair value on an option to get an indication of whether the current

market price is higher or lower than fair value’, this in turn, allows hedgers to

make judgment on trading of the particular options contract (ASX, 2005c). This

is a major difference between these classical models and our model, as our

model is intended to assist companies and individuals to deal with the “how to

hedge” facet of hedging, but not “when to hedge”. Our model will be designed

and developed specifically for the trading of foreign currency using leveraged

61
spot markets. We also aimed to develop a more realistic model for currency

traders (both speculators and hedgers); by taking into account currency

volatility among other things.

2.3 Exchange Rate Volatility

Since Australia adopted the free-floating currency system in 1983, countless

researches, such as Edison et al (2003), Sheen (1989) and Aruman and

Dungey (2003), has been conducted to better understand the volatility of the

Australian exchange rate movement against other currencies and its effects on

Australian international businesses. Authors such as Dawson and Rodney

(1994) and Hunter and Timme (1992) claim that Australian companies which

trade internationally would almost inevitably expose themselves to changes in

value of currencies. More specifically, these companies are more likely to face

large fluctuations on their annual profit statement. The effects of these

currency exposures will be most apparent if the company is operating without a

proper currency risk management mechanism such as proper a hedging

strategy. Note that the currency risk exposure applies to Australian importers

and exporters, as well as Australian companies with foreign subsidiaries

because these Australian headquarters will, at some point of time, exchange

cash flow or funds in foreign currency with their foreign subsidiary.

International businesses are exposed to currency risk because of exchange

rate volatility. In fact, the higher exchange rate volatility, the higher currency

risk for companies. In order to manage the currency risk, it is important that

companies understand the underlying economic and financial fundamentals.

As we mentioned earlier, these issues are peripheral to the main theme of this

62
thesis, however, they do need to be addressed. Therefore, in the following

section, we will commence with a brief background of the economic and other

fundamentals that determine the value of the Australian dollar as well as the

risk to it is exposed to in the international market. We will discuss the

intervention of the Reserve Bank of Australia since Australia adopted the

free-floating system in 1983. For those interested in the background of the

international monetary system, please refer to Appendix A5. We note in

passing that this thesis will mainly focus on the Australian exchange rate

system. For more insights into the international exchange rate system

including exchange rate volatility and dynamics, see, for example, Stockman

(1980) for exchange rate determination, Stockman (1988a) for the roles of the

international financial markets, Obstfeld and Rogoff (1996) for the foundation

of international macroeconomics, and Obstfeld and Stockman (1985) for

exchange rate dynamics.

2.3.1 Exchange Rate Determination, Dynamics and Responses

Researchers including the Reserve Bank of Australia (RBA) have been

attempting to model and explain the volatility of the Australian dollar (AUD)

(Sheen, 1989; Aruman and Dungey, 2003; Edison et al., 2003). For example,

Simpson and Evans (2003) attempted to verify the importance of the

relationship between the nominal Australia/US exchange rate and an index of

commodity prices. The authors concluded that Australia is a commodity rich

country; therefore, movements in commodity prices are reflected the volatility

of the exchange rate. The authors also concluded that their study found

evidence that commodity price changes can lead to movements in the

Australian dollar versus US dollar exchange rate. An earlier study by Karfakis

63
and Kim (1995) investigated the effects of the status of the Australian current

account on the Australian dollar and interest rates. The authors concluded the

study by claiming that before the easing of monetary policy in January 1990,

‘interest rate may not have been allowed to rise in response to a larger deficit

announcement, and so the effects of the current account news on exchange

rates and interest rates were insignificant’ (Karfakis and Kim, 1995, p.593). In

their paper, Aruman and Dungey (2003) devoted their efforts to examining the

‘ancestral development of the current model of the Australian Trade Weighted

Index used at the RBA’. The authors suggested that the one aspect of the

Australian dollar which differentiates it from other floating currencies is ‘the

observed strong relationship between the value of the currency and the terms

of trade, particularly over longer time horizons’ (pp.56-57).

Having identified some of the previous research done in an attempt to model

and explain the volatility of the Australian dollar, we now continue to examine

the following factors that are important in analyzing the volatility in the

movement of the exchange rate:

1. parity relationships;

2. flow of balance of payment model;

3. portfolio balance model; and

4. covered interest arbitrage (CIA).

2.3.1.1 Parity Relationships

The parity condition in international finance attempts to establish relationships

that explain inflation, exchange rates and interest rate movements (Eng et al,

1998, pp.98-102; Madura, 2003, p.235). As Figure 2.8 shows, there are four

parity relationship, including (1) interest rate parity (IRP), (2) international

64
Fisher effect, (3) the Fisher effect, and (4) the purchasing power parity (PPP).

These form the basis for a simple model of the international monetary

environment. A brief discussion on these four parity relationship is provided in

Appendix A8.

Figure 2.8: Parity Relationships Model

Interest Rate Parity (IRP)

Forward Rate Discount or Premium

Fisher Effect
Interest Rate Differential Inflation Rate Differential

PPP
International Fisher Effect (IFE)
Exchange Rate Expectations

Source: Madura, (2003, p.256).

65
2.3.1.2 Balance of Payments (BOP) Flow Model

The balance of international payments presents a summarized accounting

statement of international economic transactions between the reporting

country and the rest of the world during a given time period (Kim, 1993; Kim

and Kim, 2006, p.57). If a nation sends more currency abroad than it receives,

it will have a deficit in its balance of payments, and vice versa.

There are three major components of balance of payment: the first component

is the current account that records imports, exports and income flows; the

second component is the capital account that records financial flows that

involve: (1) banking transactions, (2) transactions by foreigners in Australian

securities such as shares or government bonds, and (3) overseas borrowing

by Australian companies; and the third component is official settlement

(reserves) account, which measures changes in the so-called balancing items,

as well as holdings of gold and foreign currencies (reserve assets) by the

nation’s official monetary institutions. In Australia, this official monetary

institution refers to the RBA.

The balance of payments flow model basically presents the importance of

capital inflows and outflows in foreign exchange markets. It reflects the

sensitivity of the value of the Australian dollar with respect to interest rate

differentials, financial deregulation, or terms of trade, etc. (Rankin, 2004;

Blundell-Wignall et al., 1993; Kearns and Rigobon, 2002). We can also say

that the balance of payment model represents the capital inflow and outflow

with regard to government policies, financial deregulation and changes in

economic fundamentals. These in turn determine the Australian dollar

66
exchange rate from a national perspective.

There are broader implications within the balance of payment flow model. For

instance, current account deficits triggered hot debates due to public concerns

(Pitchford, 1989; Corden, 1991; Steward, 1994). Research found that

unexpected current account deficit news leads to exchange rate depreciation

as well as increases interest rates. Therefore, as a policy decision, the effects

of raising interest rates tend to be considered irrespective of whether it was

consistent with monetary policy from 1985 to 1992 in Australia. However, after

1990, the news of account deficits lost its effects on both exchange rates and

interest rates (Karfakis and Kim, 1995).

2.3.1.3 Portfolio Balance Model (PBM)

The portfolio balance model suggests that the exchange rate is the relative

price of bonds denominated in different currencies (Eng et al., 1998, p.104). In

other words, the exchange rate can be determined by the supply and demand

of financial assets that are denominated in different currencies. Under the

portfolio balance model, these assets should include not only domestic and

foreign currency and bonds, but also equities and other securities (Jüttner,

2000, p.418). This is different from other model, as most models restrict the

term “asset” to include only domestic and foreign currency and bonds. Due to

the behavior of the portfolio balance model, there may be a positive

relationship between exchange rate changes and interest rate differentials

across countries. For instance, the capital movement from country to country in

seeking the highest return on investment (ROI) is actually seen as a large

source of foreign exchange transactions (Conway and Franulovich, 2002).

67
The portfolio balance model also includes people’s expectations of those

economic fundamentals across countries. Note that this model is based on

maximizing the return on investment in those assets that mostly account for

bonds, and domestic and foreign currencies. According to Karfakis and Kim

(1995), the portfolio balance model assumes imperfect substitutability and

attributes changes in exchange rates to a change in the relative supplies of

money and bonds at home and overseas.

2.3.1.4 Covered Interest Arbitrage (CIA)

With the constantly changing supply and demand, the spot and forward

currency markets are not always in a state of equilibrium. When the markets

are imbalanced, the potential for “risk-free” or arbitrage profit exists.

Arbitrageurs that recognise the disequilibrium will take advantage of such

imbalance by investing in whichever currency that offers the higher return on a

covered basis. This mechanism is known as the covered interest arbitrage

(CIA), or the covered interest rate parity (Hughes and MacDonald, 2002,

pp.209-210; Moffett et al., 2006, pp.104-106).

The potential of covered interest arbitrage would be subject to the following:

(1) the status of equilibrium or in-equilibrium of international money markets; in

other words, it relies on the conditions of IRP, and

(2) transaction cost: in practice, this would be the main problem of covered

interest arbitrage. Indeed, there are many opportunities of covered interest

arbitrage for speculators within one minute travel time from international

money markets. However, transaction cost has become a major technical

68
barrier of covered interest arbitrage for speculators.

2.3.2 Government Policies

Since Australia adopted a free-floating exchange rate, the Reserve Bank of

Australia has devoted considerable effort into not only understanding the

movement of the Australian dollar, but also applying that relevant knowledge to

its intervention and impact on the value of the Australian dollar (Aruman and

Dungey, 2003; Edison et al., 2003; Macfarlane, 1993; Rankin, 2004). Indeed,

according to the Reserve Bank of Australia, it can intervene in the foreign

exchange market, using either direct or indirect intervention (for further

discussion on governments’ direct and indirect intervention, please refer to

Appendix 9), to influence the Australian dollar exchange rate for the following

reasons:

(1) to reverse an apparent overshoot, in either direction, in the exchange rate;

(2) to calm markets threatening to become disorderly; and

(3) to give monetary policy greater room for maneuver (Kearns and Rigobon,

2002, 2005; Kim and Sheen, 2002).

According to the International Monetary Fund, the Reserve Bank of Australia

also tended to intervene when the central bank wanted to maintain an

inventory of net foreign currency assets; that is, reserve building can also

motivate the Reserve Bank of Australia to intervene in currency markets

(Edison et al., 2003).

2.3.2.1 Reserve Bank of Australia Intervention Techniques since 1983

In practice, the Reserve Bank of Australia (RBA) tends to sterilize all its

69
operations and conduct all of its interventions in the spot market versus the US

dollar (Edison et al., 2003). In recent years, the RBA has made substantial

changes in the way it conducts its foreign currency operations. Historically, the

central bank used open market transactions in Australian government

securities to sterilize its operation. However, the rapid growth of foreign

exchange markets and the dwindling supply of Australian government

securities have induced the central bank to change its practices For instance,

during the Russian financial crisis and the collapse of Long Term Capital

Management in 1998, the RBA purchased call options on the Australian dollar,

which gave the central bank the right to buy Australian dollar at a

predetermined price, rather than buying the Australian dollar outright. As a

result, dealers who sold the options wanted to hedge their position against the

possibility that the options would be exercised. The intervention, therefore,

encouraged significant market demand for Australian dollars (Edison et al.,

2003).

The changes in the method in which the RBA intervenes are not limited to their

operation mechanism, but also their operation motivation. Indeed, concurrent

intervention seems to aim more at supporting the Australian dollar. Moreover,

the RBA also seems to have reduced their intervention frequency, a common

trends amongst OECD nations. According to data, between July 1995 to

December 2001, the RBA only intervened 0.26% of all trading days, compared

to its intervention on 67% of all trading days between July 1986-September

1991 (Edison et al., 2003). Table 2.11 provides a more comprehensive

comparison and understanding of the changes in the RBA’s intervention.

70
 Table 2.11: Summary Statistic on Reserve Bank of Australia Foreign Exchange Market Operations

(January 1984 – December 2001)

January July 1986- October 1991- December July 1995 –
January 1984-
1984-Decem- September November 1993- June December
June 1986
ber 2001 1991 1993 1995 2001
Number of trading days 4696 651 1370 566 413 1696
Number of intervention days 1817 322 923 131 0 441
Probability of intervention 0.39 0.49 0.67 0.23 0 0.26
Average absolute value of transactions, $Am 57 14 63 144 0 51
Number of purchases of foreign currency 1283 99 780 15 0 389
Average value of purchases of foreign
47 9 56 35 0 37
currency, $Am
Number of sales of foreign currency 534 223 143 116 0 52
Average value of sales of foreign currency,
83 16 100 159 0 158
$Am
Maximum daily sale of foreign currency, $Am 1305 90 1026 1305 0 1189
Maximum daily purchase of foreign currency,
661 44 661 150 0 286
$Am
Source: Edison et al. (2003).

71
2.3.2.2 Effectiveness of Government Intervention

From Table 2.14, we can clearly see that the RBA has been actively

intervening in the foreign exchange market since the Australian dollar began

floating in December 1983. So, how effective have those intervention been?

Amongst the literature written on government intervention, there are generally

three main divisions on the effectiveness of the central banks’ efforts: (1) those

who discredit the intervention, arguing that not only is the intervention

ineffective, but also counterproductive since it increases the volatility within the

market; (2) those who stand by the intervention, supporting that the central

banks’ intervention can effectively calm disorderly markets, and thereby

reduce market volatility; and (3) those who are in between, claiming that

government intervention is of little significance in affecting the market

movement (Dominguez and Frankel, 1993; Edison, 1993; Kaminsky and Lewis,

1996; Chang and Taylor, 1998; Neely, 2000; Sarno and Taylor, 2001; Edison et

al, 2003; Kearns and Rigobon, 2005; Kim and Pham, 2006).

Makin and Shaw (1997), and Rogers and Siklos (2003) belong to the first

group who discredit the intervention as they concluded that the RBA

intervention between the 1980s and 1990s had been rather insignificant in

influencing the direction of the exchange rate or smoothing exchange rate

volatility. Kim and Pham (2006), Kearns and Rigobon (2002, 2005), Kim and

Sheen (2002), and Kim, Kortian, and Sheen (2000) belong to the second

group of authors that support the effectiveness of government intervention.

Kearns and Rigobon (2002) claimed that over the period 1986-93, ‘Reserve

Bank of Australia intervention did have an economically significant

contemporaneous effect in moving the level of exchange rate’; while Kim and

72
Sheen (2002) and Kim et al. (2000) used daily data covering the 1983-97

period, and gave credit to the RBA’s intervention efforts by claiming that the

central bank was prudent in choosing its timing for intervention, and their

interventions were typically capable of stabilizing the exchange rate volatility

(cited in Edison et al., 2003, p. 4). Kim and Pham (2006) also found that during

1986-2003, the effects of RBA intervention are especially noticeable when the

central bank executed large and cumulative interventions.

According to the RBA (2006), their interventions are frequent as they attempt

to manipulate the trend of the Australian dollar to be in alignment with

monetary policy. This statement seemingly gives readers an impression that

on-going central bank intervention has been successful in controlling the

movement of the Australian dollar. However, this impression is not widely

shared (Kearns and Rigobon, 2005). In fact, in the International Monetary

Fund study of the effectiveness of RBA intervention, Edison et al. (2003)

concluded that the effects of this intervention are actually quite modest in

influencing the level as well as volatility of the Australian dollar exchange rate.

While government intervention is seen as one of the determinants of the

Australian dollar, we recognize that questions of the effectiveness of RBA

intervention in controlling the Australian Dollar will always remain. There is no

doubt that the effectiveness of government intervention can be increased with

collaboration between nations, for example, between the G7 nations.

Nevertheless, no single factor, including government intervention, is capable of

dominating the value of currencies in the long term.

73
2.4 Summary and Conclusion

In this chapter, we have discussed hedging and exchange rate volatility. In the

first part of this chapter, we provided a background to hedging and the

common applications and techniques of hedging, such as the forward, futures,

options, swaps, and money market instruments. Note that in this thesis, we

focus on currency movement hedges, not interest rate hedges. In the second

part of this chapter, we addressed exchange rate volatility by discussing the

economic fundamentals of exchange rate determination and the dynamics and

government interventions for the Australian dollar.

Guided by Aliprantis and Chakrabarti’s theorem on Expected Utility Theorem

(Aliprantis and Chakrabarti, 2000, pp.26-38), we identified three different types

of individuals based on their tolerance to risk. These three types are risk

neutral, risk averse or risk seeking (risk loving). We also explained that

because hedgers typically choose their hedging strategies by ranking the

expected results according to their expected values, they are acting in a risk

neutral manner and therefore, in this thesis, we see hedgers as risk neutral

individuals. We utilized the “seesaw effect” to illustrate the ideal result for a

hedge, where one effect will cancel out another. We mentioned that because of

the “seesaw effect”, companies or individuals can protect their proceeds from

any adverse currency movements; however, they are also blocked from any

potential profits when the currency movement moves in their favor. Therefore,

we recommend a pre-requisite for entering the financial markets to perform

hedging activities is that the company or individual foresees or expects the

currency to move against their favor.

74
Following a review of the available literature, there appears to be a noticeable

gap between theory and practice. The limitations of existing classical financial

models, such as Black-Scholes, Black, Merton, Cox-Ross-Rubinstein (which is

also commonly known as the Binomial Model) and Garman-Kohlhagen, is that

these models are mainly designed for stocks, indexes or bonds options

pricings. These models assume that during the options’ life-time, volatility and

interest rates are constant, and transaction costs are set at zero. The model of

Garman and Kohlhagen (1983) was developed for evaluating currency options;

however, this model also inherited many of the deficiencies of the

Black-Scholes model. It is obvious that, given the above assumptions, these

classical financial models are inadequate to reflect volatile movements in

foreign currency markets.

Having gone through the background, mechanism and features of these

traditional financial instruments and models, it is clear to us that the leveraged

spot market possesses certain competitive advantages when compared to

traditional methods. These competitive advantages are the leveraging ratio

and the opportunity to earn risk-free interest. Taken individually, these two

features are not unique to the leveraged spot markets; indeed, in the futures or

options markets, traders are only required to pay a small amount of premium

(which is similar in function to the leverage ratio), and in the money market,

traders can earn risk-free interest by investing in a treasury bill (T-Bill).

However, the leveraged spot market is unique in that it possesses the

combination of both features, and traders in this market will, firstly, have

access to a credit line that can range from twenty to two hundred times larger

than their own collateral, and secondly, have the opportunity to yield risk-free

75
interest on their “amplified” collateral. It is obvious that as their collateral has

been amplified, the interest earned on their collateral will also be magnified.

These combined advantages have not been seen in the forward, futures,

options, swaps, or money market instruments.

Similar to these traditional financial instruments, the leveraged spot contracts

can be used as both speculating and hedging tools. In fact, this financial tool

has been widely adopted in financial markets such as Hong Kong, China, the

United States and Europe. However, as we noted earlier, following the review

of available literature we did not come across any literature written on the use

of leveraged spot contracts as a hedging instrument. Therefore, in the

following chapters, we will present a model which is developed to illustrate how

to fully explore the superiority of the leveraged spot market as a powerful

speculating and hedging instrument. We aimed to take a more realistic

approach in our model by taking into account exchange rate volatility and

interest rate movement; in fact, we assumed that the exchange rate

movements follow a stochastic process.

76
 Chapter Three

Speculation Using the Leveraged Spot Market

3.1 Introduction

With the increasing popularity of foreign exchange trading in the global

financial system, the volumes of daily turnover as of April 2004 rose to $1.9

trillion from $1.2 trillion in April 2001 (Federal Reserve Bank of New York,

2006). Popular financial instruments commonly used for speculating in

currency markets have included forward, futures, options and swaps. However,

speculating via a 100% spot transaction (spot market) has not been a

recommended practice (Das, 2004, p.1286; Hollein, 2002). This chapter

describes how the leveraged spot market can be used for speculative activities

in the foreign exchange market. The receipt of a risk free income based on

interest rate differentials between countries distinguishes this method from

traditional speculation using the spot market.

The description of the procedure for speculation using the leveraged spot

market in this chapter is developed in two stages. Firstly, to clarify the intuition

behind the procedure, a numerical example is presented. Secondly, this

example is translated into a rigorous mathematical model. The possibility of

obtaining risk free interest income lowers the riskiness of speculating in the

foreign exchange market relative to an unleveraged spot market transaction;

this can allow a speculator to achieve a specific expected return at a lower risk,

or a higher expected return at a given level of risk. This feature makes

speculation using the leveraged spot market an attractive proposition for risk

neutral as well as risk averse individuals.

77
3.2 Methodology

3.2.1 Finite Horizon, Discrete Time Compounding Version

Suppose the investor borrows K contracts in Japanese yen (JPY), where the

size of each contract is JPY V. The amount of yen borrowed is, therefore,

KV. In reality, let’s say the value of one contract in the leveraged spot market

equals JPY12,500,000. So, for example, if the investor borrows three contracts,

the amount of yen borrowed is JPY37,500,000. The next step in the procedure

is to convert the Japanese currency borrowed into US dollars. To illustrate how

the leveraged spot market works, consider a simple example when an investor

borrows one contract. This is shown in the first column of Table 3.1, when the

investor borrows JPY12,500,000 (KV) from a bank at the borrowing interest

rate of 2% per annum. To convert Japanese yen into US dollars, we have to

⎛ JPY ⎞
use the spot rate. The spot rate, denoted by S = ⎜ ⎟ is assumed to be equal
⎝ USD ⎠
to 115, that is, one US dollar exchanges for 115 Japanese yen in the spot

market. Thus, the amount of Japanese yen borrowed translates to

KV
USD108,695,65 (notationally, BUSD = = 108,695.65 ); this is shown in the
S
first column of Table 3.1. Borrowing one contract in Japanese yen requires

collateral, or in other words, an initial margin. The fraction of the amount

borrowed that is required as collateral is denoted by δ . Therefore, C L = δKV ,

where C L shows the Japanese yen value of the collateral. As shown in Table

3.1, we assume that δ is 5%, that is, δ = 0.05. The collateral (initial margin)
δKV
in US dollars is then C LUS = = USD5,434.78 (see column 1 of Table 3.1).
S

78
Table 3.1: Operation in Leveraged Spot Market

Source: Author’s calculations.

Assuming a Japanese yen borrowing rate of 2%, the daily interest repayment

on the amount borrowing of JPY12,500,000 is JPY684.93. If the amount

borrowed in Japanese yen is converted to USD108,695.65 and invested in the

US money market where it earns 5% per annum, the daily interest earnings in

US dollars are USD14.89. Thus, the interest rate differential between

Japanese yen and US dollars on a daily basis is USD8.93, which converts to

JPY1,026.95 at the spot rate of 115JPY/USD. This part of the procedure yields

the certain risk free interest differential return for one day on this contract:

⎛ 1 ⎞
E r = (rUS − r J )KV = (5% − 2%) × ⎜ ⎟ × 108,695.65 = US$8.93
⎝ 365 ⎠
where E r is the net interest rate earned for one day on the amount borrowed

(KV). An important feature of this contract is that an initial margin of 5%, allows

us to leverage interest earnings by a factor of 20, which is known as the

leveraging ratio. Suppose the spot exchange rate S1 changes to S2 within the

79
day, from 115 to 115.80. The profit/loss resulting from this currency movement

is,
⎛ KV KV ⎞
Em = ⎜ − ⎟ = US$750.92
⎝ S1 S 2 ⎠

where E m is the profit of currency movement earned for one day on the

amount borrowed (KV). The total profit/loss in this numerical example involves

two parts: the first arises from the interest differential between the money

market in Japan and the United States, while the second arises from the

exchange rate movements. In this example, the currency movement is

favourable for the investor; the total daily profit is therefore USD759.85. It is

easily seen, however, that if the currency movement were unfavourable, then

the differential interest income would mitigate the extent of the loss.

We now proceed to develop a mathematical model based on the leveraged

spot technique. To begin with, consider the case where an investor has a

one-year fixed term investment opportunity, where interest is compounded

annually. Suppose the investor borrows K contracts in Japanese yen, where

the size of each contract is JPY V. The amount of Japanese yen borrowed is

therefore KV. If the interest rate on the amount borrowed is rJ , the amount

that has to be repaid at the end of the year is:

(3.1) JPY KV (1 + r J )

In order to borrow this amount of funds, the investor is required to put forward

some collateral, or margin, which is a certain percentage of the funds borrowed.

Let this margin be denoted δ . The cost to the investor c of borrowing funds,

80
is a function c(δKV ) , which depends on the volume of funds borrowed (KV),

and the margin percentage ( δ ). If the only cost to the investor of this

collateral were the interest rate foregone, then we would expect a simple linear

function to describe c(.) . Typically, however, the opportunity cost of acquiring

funds for the speculative activity that we are considering is significantly greater

than just the nominal value of interest foregone. For example, a small

investor may need to sacrifice a stream of consumption with marginal benefits

that exceed the interest rate. To allow for this sort of situation, we allow for

the cost function to be convex in K. Indeed, if the cost function is linear in K,

then the optimum will involve a corner solution, rather than the interior one we

derive below. However, please refer to Appendix C for the details of the corner

solution if we choose different cost function. For analytical tractability, we

assume a simple form for this cost function:

1
(3.2) c(δKV ) = δVK 2
2

The next step to this investment activity involves converting the Japanese yen

funds borrowed into US dollars at the existing spot rate of S, where the spot

rate is described as the price of 1 USD in terms of JPY. The funds borrowed
KV
thus yield USD . This is then invested in the United States at interest rate
S
rUS . The US dollar amount that is received at the end of the year is,

therefore:
KV
(3.3) USD (1 + rUS )
S

To compare this with the Japanese yen amount that must be repaid, the

investor has to anticipate the Japanese yen value of the US dollars receipts in

81
(3.3). Assuming that the expected future spot rate is denoted S e , the

expected returns in Japanese yen is:

KV
(3.4) JPY (1 + rUS )S e
S

Se − S
Letting the expected change in the spot rate be E (S& ) = , it follows that
S

Se
= 1+ E(S& ) . Subsituting this back into (3.4), we get that the receipt
S

denominated in Japanese yen is:

(3.5) KV (1 + rUS )(1 + E (S& ))

The expected gross profits denominated in Japanese yen π is:

(3.6) π = KV (1 + rUS )(1 + E (S& )) − KV (1 + rJ ) = KV [(rUS − r J ) + (1 + rUS )E (S& )]

If uncovered interest parity holds, the expected rate of depreciation of the US

dollars will (approximately) equal the interest rate differential, that is,

E (S& ) = r J − rUS . In this case, approximately, π = KV (rUS E (S& )) ≅ 0 , and the

gross profits are expected to be very small. However, despite being one of

the core topics in the studies of international finance, the validity of the

uncovered interest parity remains a question. In fact, as Flood and Rose (2001)

stated, there has been a strong consensus among existing literature that the

uncovered interest parity works poorly in practice. Other literature, such as

Bilson (1981), Longworth (1981), Meese and Rogoff (1983), Chinn and

Meredith (2004) and Moosa (2004, pp.296-305) also question the empirical

validity of the uncovered interest parity. Chinn and Meredith (2004) actually

82
concluded in their 2004 paper that the uncovered interest parity is useless in

predicting short-term exchange rate movements. Given that the evidence on

uncovered interest parity holding in spot markets is less than convincing, there

is reason to believe that the scheme described above will yield non-trivial gross

profits. The expected net profit denominated in Japanese yen π is:

1
(3.7) Π = KV [(rus − rJ ) + (1 + rUS ) E ( S& )] − δVK 2
2

The investor will choose K in order to maximize π, which yields the first order

condition:
∂Π
(3.8) = V [(rus − r J ) + (1 + rUS )E (S& )] − δVK ∗ = 0
∂K

The optimal number of contracts is:

(rUS − r J ) + (1 + rUS )E (S& )

(3.9) K F* =
δ

Here the subscript ‘F’ denotes the fact that the optimal contract has been

derived for the finite horizon case.

3.2.2 Infinite Horizon, Continuous Compounding Version

Now consider the case where the investment can be made over an infinite time

horizon and interest rates are compounded continuously. Given the infinite

horizon of the investment, the rate at which future profits are discounted

becomes important, and we let the (subjective) discount rate of the investor

be ρ . In order to get an interior solution, we require that ρ > max{rUS , r J } . If

this is not the case, then the investor will arrive at a corner solution where the

investor will speculate all available funds in this investment strategy. In what

83
follows, we assume that ρ > max{rUS , r J } .

The change to an infinite horizon, continuous compounding model entails the

following changes to (3.1) and (3.5):

∞
(3.1’) KV ∫ e ( rJ − ρ )t dt
0

∞
(3.5’) KV (1 + E (S& ))∫ e ( rus − ρ )t dt
0

Note that E (S& ) is the expected appreciation or depreciation of the US dollars

over the entire, infinite horizon. We note in passing that while it may seem

difficult to estimate the expected rate of appreciation or depreciation over an

infinite horizon, the theoretical model we present in the Section 3.2.4 involves

bands on the exchange rate, which makes this equation less problematic.

The expected gross profit is:

∞ ∞
(3.6’) π = KV (1 + E (S& ))∫ e ( r us − ρ )t
dt − KV ∫ e ( rJ − ρ )t dt
0 0

∞ ∞ ∞
= KV [ ∫ e −( ρ −rus )t dt − ∫ e −( ρ −rJ )t dt + E (S& )∫ e −( ρ −rus )t dt ]
0 0 0

1 1 E (S& )
= KV [ − + ]
( ρ − rus ) ( ρ − r J ) ( ρ − rus )

84
The expected net profit is:

(rus − r J ) E (S& ) 1
(3.7’) Π = KV [ + ] − δVK 2
( ρ − rus )( ρ − r j ) ( ρ − rus ) 2

Maximizing ∏ with respect to K, we get:

1 (rus − rJ ) E (S& )
(3.8’) K I* = [ + ]
δ ( ρ − rus )( ρ − r j ) ( ρ − rus )

Here the subscript ‘I’ denotes the fact that the optimal contract has been

derived for the finite horizon case.

3.2.3 Comparative Static

In this section, we derive some comparative static results to see how the size

of the optimal contract responds to changes in parameter values. The main

⎛.⎞
parameters in our model are rUS,rJ , δ and ρ . We treat E ⎜ S ⎟ as an
⎝ ⎠
exogenous variable to begin with in this section; subsequently, in Section 3.2.4,

we will explicitly model the behaviour of the exchange rates.

Taking the partial derivatives of K F* and K I* with respect to the parameters,

and checking the signs, we get:

85
∂K F* 1 ⎡ ⎛ . ⎞⎤ ⎛.⎞
= ⎢1 + E ⎜ S ⎟⎥ ≥ 0 , since E ⎜ S ⎟ ∈ [− 1,1]
∂rUS δ ⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦ ⎝ ⎠
∂K F* 1
=− <0
∂rJ δ
⎡ ⎛ . ⎞⎤
⎢ (r − r ) + (1 + r )E ⎜S ⎟⎥
∂K * US J US
⎝ ⎠⎥ ≤ 0
F
= −⎢
∂δ ⎢ δ 2
⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
∂K F* (1 + rUS )
= >0
⎛ ⎞
.
δ
∂E ⎜ S ⎟
⎝ ⎠

∂K I* ⎡ ⎛ . ⎞⎤ ⎛.⎞
⎜ S ⎟ ∈ [− 1,1]
1
= ⎢1 + E ⎜ S ⎟ ⎥ ≥ 0 since E
∂rUS δ (ρ − rUS )2 ⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦ ⎝ ⎠

∂K I* 1⎡ 1 ⎤
=− ⎢ 2 ⎥
<0
∂rJ δ ⎢⎣ (ρ − rJ ) ⎥⎦
⎡ ⎛.⎞ ⎤
E ⎜S⎟ ⎥
∂K I* 1 ⎢ (rUS − rJ ) ⎝ ⎠ ⎥<0
=− 2 ⎢ +
∂δ δ ⎢ (ρ − rUS )(ρ − rJ ) (ρ − rUS )⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
∂K I* 1⎡ 1 ⎤
= ⎢ ⎥>0
⎛ . ⎞ δ ⎣ (ρ − rUS ) ⎦
∂E ⎜ S ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎡ ⎛.⎞ ⎤
E⎜ S ⎟ ⎥
∂K I
*
1 (r − rJ )[(ρ − rUS ) + (ρ − rJ )]
⎢
⎝ ⎠ ⎥<0
= − ⎢ US +
∂ρ δ⎢ (ρ − rUS ) (ρ − rJ )
2 2
(ρ − rUS )2 ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦

Intuitively, the comparative static results provide the basis for determining how

to alter the size of the contract as exogenous variables, such as interest rates,

change. The comparative static results above indicate that, ceteris paribus,

irrespective of whether the time horizon is finite or infinite, the size of the

optimal contract increases when rUS increases and decreases when rJ

86
increases. An increase in the expected appreciation of the US dollar also

results in an increase in the size of the optimal contract. Moreover, an increase

in the margin requirement, δ , reduces the size of the optimal contract. Finally,

for the infinite horizon case, an increase in the discount factor ( ρ ) will reduce

the size of the optimal contract.

Figure 3.1 below describes how these changes in the optimal size of the

contract come about. Consider the finite horizon case. Equation (3.8) indicates

the rule for optimization behaviour:

∂∏ ⎡ ⎛ . ⎞⎤
= V ⎢(rUS − r J ) + (1 + rUS )E ⎜ S ⎟⎥ − δVK * = 0
∂K ⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦

⎡ ⎛ . ⎞⎤
⇒ V ⎢(rUS − r J ) + (1 + rUS )E ⎜ S ⎟⎥ = δVK *
⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦

⎡ ⎛ . ⎞⎤
Recognising that V ⎢(rUS − r J ) + (1 + rUS )E ⎜ S ⎟⎥ is the expected marginal
⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦
revenue from a small increment in the size of the contract and δVK is the

marginal cost from this increment, equation (3.8) gives the familiar rule for

optimization that the marginal revenue equals the marginal cost at the optimal

contract size K * . Figure 3.1 below shows the marginal revenue and cost as

the contract size varies. The initial marginal revenue is MR1 ; this is a flat line

(since the marginal revenue is independent of K) with the vertical intercept

⎡ ⎛ . ⎞⎤
equal to V ⎢(rUS − r J ) + (1 + rUS )E ⎜ S ⎟⎥ . The marginal cost ( δVK ) is a straight
⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦
line passing through the origin with slope δV . The initial marginal cost is

represented by MC1 . At the optimum, K 1* is the size of the contract that

87
maximizes profits, and is identified graphically by the point of intersection of

MR1 with MC1 . Now suppose some parameters change, for example, the

interest rate in the US rises. This results in an upward shift of the marginal

revenue line to MR 2 ; correspondingly, the optimal contract size rises to K 2* .

The other comparative static results can be depicted graphically in a similar

manner.

Figure 3.1: The Optimal Number of Contracts in Leveraged Spot

MR
MC
MC1

MR2

MR1

K 1* K 2* K

3.2.4 Exchange Rate Behaviour

In this section, we present a model of exchange rate behaviour based on

Krugman’s (1991) model of exchange rate dynamics within a target zone.

Following Krugman (1991) we assume that the exchange rate movement

follows the pattern of a random walk. It is a stochastic process (random

function), which is used to model a series of successive movements that occur

88
in random directions. The random walk model is commonly used in economics

and finance, so we do not elaborate on the techniques of this modelling

framework. (see, for example, Dixit and Pindyck (1994) for an application of

random walk processes in economics and Hull (1993) for its application in

finance.) The variation in the exchange rate S is assumed to follow the

pattern of a random walk. Krugman (1991) employs the following equation for

the spot exchange rate:

⎛ dS ⎞
(3.10) S = m + v + γE ⎜ ⎟
⎝ dt ⎠

where S denotes the log of the spot rate for foreign exchange, m the domestic

money supply, v a shift term representing velocity shocks, and the last term

is the expected rate change in the spot rate. Krugman’s model assumes the

existence of an explicit or implicit target zone for the exchange rate. The

presence of a target zone provides a lower and upper bound on the movement

in the exchange rate. Intuitively, it can be seen that the target zone also

provides a bounding mechanism on profit and loss that can arise in our model

of speculation using the leveraged spot market.

The stochastic nature of the spot rate arises from the fact that v follows a

random walk process:

(3.11) dv = σdz

As v evolves randomly over time, the spot rate fluctuates stochastically

89
within the target zone. This elegant model involving random walk processes

allows us to obtain a neat solution to the problem of analysing the volatility of

the foreign exchange market.

Before we proceed to provide the formal solution for the process of a random

walk, it is important to highlight the intuition behind the process captured in the

above equation. In Figure 3.2, the horizontal axis represents the values of v

and the vertical axis the values of the spot rate S . The upper bound on S

− −
(denoted by S ) is shown by the horizontal line drawn from S in the first and

second quadrant in Figure 3.2. The lower bound of the target zone is shown in

the third and fourth quadrant with the horizontal line denoted S .
−

In Figure 3.2, the solid line A-B (which is a reference line) shows the

relationship between v and S. This line has the slope of 45o. At the end

points, it merges with the bounds. On the 45o line, the movement in volatility is

matched exactly by the movement in the spot rate, as shown by a’ b’, and a’’ b’’.

However, in a target zone model the relation between v and S does not follow

the pattern of the 45oline. Following Krugman (1991), consider the situation at

point b. Supposed v falls from this point, then the exchange rate will also fall

along the 45oline. However, this is not the case for a rise in v as the monetary

authority would like to defend the target zone. Hence, the exchange rate will

move to a point like c. This implies an asymmetric outcome where a fall in v

reduces S more than a rise in v increases S . This drags down a point such

as b to a lower point. The same process will occur in quadrant Ⅲ. This will lead

90
to a S-shape curve which is concave in quadrant Ⅰ and convex in quadrant Ⅲ. It

should be noted that in a model in which there are no target zones, v and S

will always move along the 45oline. It is important to note that the S-shape

curve is flatter than the 45oline.

Therefore, any shocks to the velocity have a smaller effect on the exchange

rate in the target zone model in comparison with a model where the exchange

rate is allowed to move freely. This is a very important point in our analysis as it

limits the volatility of the exchange rates.

Figure 3.2: Effects of a Target Zone on Exchange Rate Behavior

b’’ . . B

a’’ .a
b
Quadrant Ⅰ
V
a’ b’
Quadrant Ⅲ
A
S

Source: Author’s calculations

91
Figure 3.3: S-Curve of Exchange Rate Behaviour

S
S

Quadrant Ⅰ

Quadrant Ⅲ

Source: Author’s calculations

Following Krugman (1991), we can express S as a function of money supply,

velocity, upper bound and lower bound of the exchange rate. Let this function

be given by:
−
(3.12) S = g (m,v , S, S )
−

It should be noted that the S curve in Figure 3.3 represents a relation between

v and S for a given value of m.

If we assume that the money supply is held constant within the bands of the

target zone, this implies that when S belongs to the interior of the band (that

is Sε ]B[ ), the only source for changes in the spot rate is caused by variation

in v . Therefore, by applying the rules of stochastic calculus, Krugman (1991)

92
arrives at the following equation to describe the exchange rate behaviour

within the target zone:

⎡ dS ⎤ σ
2
(3.13) E⎢ ⎥ = g vv
⎣ dt ⎦ 2

In Section 3.3, we will simulate the value of g vv based on real exchange rate

data.

By putting the above equation for the expected change in the spot rate in

equation (3.8’), we obtain:

1 (rus − rJ ) 1 σ2
(3.14) K* = [ + g vv ]
δ ( ρ − rus )( ρ − r j ) ( ρ − rus ) 2

Equation (3.14) shows that K ∗ is an increasing function of the interest rate

differential and a decreasing function of exchange rate volatility for g vv < 0 . A

profit maximizing agent would take both these considerations into account in

choosing the optimal amount of K ∗ . In equation (3.14), we do not know the

value of the second derivative of the spot function, that is, g vv . As mentioned

before, we will use certain simulation techniques to obtain a value for g vv ; we

turn to this next. The values of the other parameters can be easily obtained

from the historical data set of interest rates and exchange rates.

93
3.3 Model Simulation

Testing this model empirically in a rigorous manner would require sophisticated

econometric techniques; however, by using a simple simulation we can derive

insight into how real world data will affect the optimal number of contracts.

We can obtain real world data for interest rate, and historical spot rates.

However, for the subjective discount rate ρ and the calculation of the function

g vv real world data are difficult, if not impossible, to obtain. Therefore, in order

to perform the simulation, we will assume various different values for ρ and

g vv , and use historical data for interest rates and spot rates, to obtain the

( )
optimal number of contracts K * .

The S-shape curve in Figure 3.3 represents a relation between v and S for a

given value of m, and describes the function g (⋅) in Krugman’s model. It is

important to note in Figure 3.3 that the portion of the g (⋅) curve which is

concave in quadrant Ⅰ, means g vv < 0 , and the portion of the g vv curve which

is convex in quadrant Ⅲ, indicates g vv > 0 .

In order to obtain the optimal number of contracts (K )

*
in this model

simulation, the spot rate is described by the number of JPY trading in USD
⎛ JPY ⎞
⎜ ⎟ . The model simulation requires the following data: (1) interest rates of
⎝ USD ⎠
Japanese yen and US dollars; (2) leveraged ratio; (3) variance of spot rate; (4)

discount factor; and (5) the value of g vv .

From historical data, we get a borrowing interest rate of 2% per annum for the

94
Japanese yen, a saving interest rate of 5.25% per annum for the US dollar, and

a leverage ratio of 5%. Appendix B describes how the variance of historical

spot rates is calculated. The discount factor is assumed to be 0.7. Moreover,

we choose the concave portion of the g vv function in quadrant Ⅰ of Figure 3.3

by assuming that g vv can take values of -0.01, -0.03, -0.05, and -0.1 for the

model simulation.

We now calculate the optimal number of contracts K * ( ) based on the data

given below:

(1) Japanese yen borrowing interest rate rJ : 2%;

(2) US dollars saving interest rate rUS : 5.25%;

(3) leveraged ratio δ : 0.05 (5%), which implies that the investor must provide
KV
an initial margin equal to , where KV is the principal borrowed in
20
Japanese yen (recall that K is the number of contracts and V is the size

of a contract in Japanese yen);

(4) discount factor ρ : 0.7;

(5) variance σ 2 : 0.342041;

1 (rus − rJ ) 1 σ2
The equation (3.14), K * = [ + g vv ] , gives the
δ ( ρ − rus )( ρ − r j ) ( ρ − rus ) 2

optimal number of contracts. (1) to (5) above provide us with values for

rUS , rJ , ρ , δ , and σ 2 , leaving g vv the only unknown independent variable.

By assuming various different values of g vv , and calculating the value of K * ,

we obtain Table 3.2 which shows how K * varies due to changes in g vv .

95
Table 3.2: Simulation for K *

Values of g vv (K )
*

-0.01 0.66

-0.03 0.62

-0.05 0.57

-0.1 0.46

It is worth reiterating that testing this model empirically in a rigorous manner

would require sophisticated econometric techniques. However, the thesis

applies this simple ‘rule of thumb’ method described above to derive the

optimal number of leveraged spot contracts.

96
 Chapter Four

Hedging Model

4.1 Introduction

In this chapter, we focus on two issues related to the hedging of open positions.

The first issue deals with how an investor can hedge an open position in the

leveraged spot market with a simultaneous position in the forward market. In

this case, we will see that as interest rates change, the leveraged spot market

position can yield substantial income. The second issue relates to how an

existing transaction exposure can be hedged using the leveraged spot market.

We will show that in some circumstances, hedging the transaction exposure

with the leveraged spot contract can be superior to traditional methods such as

forward and money market hedges.

A trader’s attitude towards risk is also known as his/her risk aversion. As

mentioned in the previous chapter, there are three categories of players in a

functioning derivative market: hedgers, speculators and arbitrageurs; and each

of these players use the market with varying intention, due mainly to their

different risk aversion level (Dinwoodie and Morris, 2003; Jüttner, 2000, p.35;

Hallwood and MacDonald, 2000, p.32). Arbitrageurs are by definition highly

risk intolerant (risk averse individuals), and they only trade in risk-free

transactions; whereas speculators are on the other side of the spectrum (risk

takers), as they make profit by taking risk; hedgers are in between the low and

high risk averse groups, with their tolerance to risks determining the amount to

which they hedge, also known as the hedge ratio (Dinwoodie and Morris, 2003;

Homaifar, 2004, p.93).

97
It is based on their varying attitude towards risk that these players tend to

engage in the derivative market with very different transaction patterns. More

specifically, an arbitrageur who seeks risk-free profits will simultaneously take

up a position in two or more markets, for instance, and simultaneously buy spot

and sell forward Australian dollars, in an attempt to exploit mis-pricings due to

a market that is not in equilibrium. However, according to Dinwoodie and

Morris (2003), such price differentials are almost non-existent in a

well-functioning market, mainly because supply and demand tend to rapidly

restore market equilibrium.

As opposed to an arbitrageur, a speculator seeks profit by taking risk

(Dinwoodie and Morris, 2003; Jüttner, 2000, p.35; Hallwood and MacDonald,

2000, p.32). In other words, speculators who anticipate an appreciating

Australian dollar will put their “bets” on the rising Australian dollar by buying it

at a lower value, then selling when the value is higher should the prediction

come true (otherwise, the speculator will lose all his/her bets on the Australian

dollar movement).

Hedgers enter the derivative markets mainly with the intention to insure

against price volatility beyond their control. Based on this intention, it is not

surprising that hedgers are mostly acting on behalf of corporations. The

mechanism of hedging mainly transfers risk to others who are willing to accept

that risk. Indeed, the risk is never nullified but merely transferred from one

party to another. In most cases, speculators are those who absorb the risks

transferred by hedgers (Dinwoodie and Morris, 2003; Hallwood and

MacDonald, 2000, p.32). It is perhaps due to these notions that some have

98
referred to the derivative market as the zero-sum game market, where the gain

of one party is exactly equal to loss of another party (Homaifar, 2004, p.75).

In the following sections, we shall first construct a numerical example to show

the working of the hedging model as a new method of making profit from a

favourable interest rate movement. Secondly, we show how an existing

transaction exposure can be hedged using the leveraged spot market,

providing a new hedging method that can be superior to traditional methods

such as forward and money market hedges, under some circumstances. It is

noted that due mainly to the unpredictable nature of the currency market, the

effectiveness of this new technique can be reduced under certain

unforeseeable circumstances.

4.2 Hedging the Returns from Speculation in the Leveraged Spot Market

In Chapter 3, we introduced a model to show how the leveraged spot market

can be used for speculation. To summarize the procedure: first, a certain

amount of Japanese yen (JPY) is borrowed, say for a year, at an interest rate

of rJ ; next, these Japanese yen are converted to US dollars (USD) at the

existing spot rate of S(JPY/USD); the US dollars amount obtained is then

invested in the US money markets at an interest rate of rUS ; finally, the

Japanese yen amount borrowed is repaid (with interest) at the end of the year.

As Chapter 3 showed, this procedure yields a risk free income determined by

the interest rate differential rUS − r J ; however, the fact that the spot market is

utilised to convert US dollars to Japanese yen at the end of the year introduces

an element of risk arising from changes in the exchange rate over the course

of the year.

99
In this section, we show how the risk can be eliminated using a forward

contract. Indeed, if covered interest parity holds, and interest rates in Japan

and the United States do not change over the course of the year, using the

forward contract to hedge the speculation will eliminate any profit. However, if

interest rates do change favourably, this procedure can yield significant profits.

The extent of the profits depends on the leverage ratio, the higher the leverage

ratio the higher the profit will be from interest rate changes.

We illustrate these ideas using a simple example, where one contract is

borrowed and the length of speculation is 360 days. Suppose, for instance,

that the contract begins on 5th January 2005 and expires at the end of 2005. In

reality, this period was characterised by an unchanging Japanese yen interest

rate, while the US dollar interest rate increased steadily. For the purpose of our

example, it is assumed that the Japanese yen borrowing interest rate is 2%. To

begin with, we assume that the US dollar interest rate for saving is constant at

2.25%. Finally, we assume that the leverage ratio is 5%, which implies that the
KV
investor must provide an initial margin equal to , where KV is the
20
principal borrowed in Japanese yen (recall that K is the number of contracts

and V is the size of a contract in Japanese yen). In our example, K = 1 and

V = JPY 12,500,000 .

100
Table 4.1a: Arbitrage from Interest Change in Leveraged Spot Market

(one day)

Source: Author’s calculations

Table 4.1a and b illustrate the procedure. We assume that the spot exchange

rate on 5th January 2005 stood at 103.80 Japanese yen for 1 US dollar. At this

exchange rate, the collateral denominated in US dollars is equal to

KV × 0.05
= US$6021.19 , and the total principal denominated in US dollars
103.80
equals USD120,423.89 (refer to Table 4.1a).

On the amount borrowed of JPY12,500,000 at borrowing interest of 2%, the

daily interest paid equals to JPY684.93. The borrowed Japanese yen amount

is converted into USD120,423.89 and invested in the US money market where

it earns 2.25% per annum. Hence, the daily interest earnings in US dollars

equal to USD7.42. Thus, the net earnings due to the interest rate differential

between the US dollars and Japanese yen on a daily basis is USD0.82, which

converts to JPY85.62 at the spot rate of 103.80 JPY/USD (see Table 4.1a); for

101
the course of 360 days the net earnings equals USD 296.94 or JPY30821.92

at the spot rate of 103.80 JPY/USD(see Table 4.1b). This corresponds to

equation (3.7) in Chapter 3, where KV [(rus − r J ) represent the certain income

due to the interest rate differential rUS − r J . This part of the exercise may be

written as the certain return on this contract:

⎛ 360 ⎞
(4.1 E = (rUS − r J )KV = (2.25% − 2%) × ⎜ ⎟ × 12,500,000 = JPY 30,821.92
⎝ 365 ⎠
where E is the net earnings due to the interest rate differential denominated

in Japanese yen over 360 days on the amount borrowed KV . At the spot rate

of 103.80JPY/USD, this translates to USD296.94 (Table 4.1b).

We now proceed to analyse the risky part of this contract which arises from the

volatility of the exchange rate. At the time we decide to close the contract (in

our example, this is the 31st December 2005), the amount equal to

JPY12,500,000 has to be repaid. If the currency moves in/against our favour

then we make a capital gain/loss at the time we liquidate the contract. We now

show how to eliminate the risk arising from interest rate volatility and still make

substantial profit from the interest rate differential.

102
Table 4.1b: Different Currency Movement in Leveraged Spot Market (360

days)

Source: Author’s calculations

Consider, first, the impact of exchange rate volatility on the overall profit or loss

experienced by the investor. As Table 4.1b shows, the ending spot rate on

December 31st is assumed to be 117.90 JPY/USD. On January 5th the investor

borrowed JPY12,500,000. Converting to US dollars at the spot rate existing on

that day (103.80), this translates to USD120,423.89. At the end of the year, the
12,500,000
investor requires USD = USD106,022.05 . This implies an overall
117.90
profit of USD14,401.84 from the leveraged spot contract which arises entirely

due to the fact the investor holds US dollars, which have appreciated in the

spot market.

Suppose, instead, that on December 31st, the spot rate is 92.73 JPY/USD.
12,500,000
Then the investor would require USD = USD 134,799.96 in order
92.73
to repay the principal. In this case, the investor experiences a loss of

103
USD14,376.06 due to adverse currency movements (see Table 4.1b).

The investor can protect himself from exchange rate volatility by employing a

forward contract. The link between the spot rate and the forward rate is

generally provided by IRP theory, which states that at equilibrium:

S 1+ r
(4.2) =
F 1+ r *
where:

r = interest rate in the home country (assumed to be the US);

r* = interest rate in the foreign country (assumed to be Japan);

S = spot exchange rate (described as the number of foreign currency

units/domestic currency units); and

F = forward exchange rate (described as the number of foreign currency

units/domestic currency units)

1+ r *
thus, F= S
1+ r

If spot rate of Japanese yen for 1 US dollar is 103.80, and the Japanese yen

and US dollar interest rates are 2% and 2.25% respectively, thus, the forward

rate of Japanese yen for 1 US dollar for 360 days becomes:

⎡⎛ 360 ⎞ ⎤
1 + ⎢⎜ ⎟ × 2%⎥
(4.3) F= ⎣⎝ 365 ⎠ ⎦ 103.80 = 103.55
⎡⎛ 360 ⎞ ⎤
1 + ⎢⎜ ⎟ × 2.25%⎥
⎣⎝ 365 ⎠ ⎦

The IRP condition is an equilibrium condition; if it holds, then there exist no

possibility for an investor to make arbitrage profits. If it does not hold, then

104
there exists a covered interest arbitrage, which implies that investors can take

advantage of financial market anomalies to make risk free arbitrage profits.

1+ r *
The IRP condition that F = S , therefore, represents a no-arbitrage
1+ r
condition: when the spot rate, forward rate and interest rates are aligned in a

manner described by this condition, arbitrage opportunities are non-existent. In

our example, if F = 103.55 , then no arbitrage is possible, whereas, if

F ≠ 103.55 , arbitrage opportunities exist.

Assuming then that IRP holds, the forward rate offered in the market will equal

F = 103.55 . In order to hedge the leveraged spot market position, the investor

can purchase JPY12,500,000 in the forward market for delivery on December

31st.

We now consider how the forward contract eliminates the possibility of profits;

in doing so, we also summarize the procedure. On January 5th, the investor

borrows KV = JPY 12,500,000 . At an interest rate of rJ = 2% , this requires

repaying KV (1 + r J ) = JPY 12,500,000(1.02) = JPY 12,750,000 , of which

JPY12,500,000 is the principal and JPY250,000 is the interest payment. Next,

the investor converts KV in Japanese yen into US dollars using the spot rate
KV
S = 103.80 . This yields USD = USD120,423.89 .
S

This is then invested in the US money market at rUS = 2.25% . Thus, at the

end of the year the investor has USD

KV
(1 + rUS ) = USD123,096.31 (360 days). If
S
the investor takes out a forward contract to sell this US dollars amount at the

forward rate of F = 103.55 , the investor will have

105
FKV
(1 + rUS ) = JPY 12,750,000 (approximately) . This is exactly equal to the
S
Japanese yen amount that must be repaid, so the investor makes zero profit.

Mathematically, it can be seen that:

FKV
(4.4) KV (1 + rJ ) = (1 + rUS )
S
F
⇒ (1 + r J ) = (1 + rUS ) ,
S
which is the condition for IRP.

Even though profits are eliminated by taking a forward contract when IRP

holds, this assumes that interest rates are assumed to be constant. In reality

however, interest rates vary over time, and this is when the leveraged spot

market speculation can yield substantial profits.

To see the impact of interest rate changes, consider how the US interest rate

has changed over time. These changes are undertaken by the Federal

Reserve Bank of New York. Table 4.2 below shows that between 30th June

2004 and 29th June 2006, there were several interest rate increases initiated

by the Federal Reserve. Each rise increased rUS by 25 basis points; overall, the

interest rate increased from 1.25% on 30th June, 2004, to 5.25% on 29th June,

2006. at the same time, the discount rate set by the Bank of Japan remained

unchanged at 0.1% in 2005. Together, these imply constant increases

in (rUS − r J ) , which allow the investor to earn risk free profits from rising interest

rate differentials.

106
Table 4.2: US Interest Rate Changes
FEDERAL FUNDS
DISCOUNT RATE
RATE
DATE
NEW LEVEL* NEW
CHANGE 1 2
CHANGE
PRIMARY SECONDARY LEVEL
2006
Jun 29 +0.25 6.25 6.75 +0.25 5.25
May 10 +0.25 6.00 6.50 +0.25 5.00
Mar 28 +0.25 5.75 6.25 +0.25 4.75
Jan 31 +0.25 5.50 6.00 +0.25 4.50
2005
Dec 13 +0.25 5.25 5.75 +0.25 4.25
Nov 1 +0.25 5.00 5.50 +0.25 4.00
Sep 20 +0.25 4.75 5.25 +0.25 3.75
Aug 9 +0.25 4.50 5.00 +0.25 3.50
Jun 30 +0.25 4.25 4.75 +0.25 3.25
May 3 +0.25 4.00 4.50 +0.25 3.00
Mar 22 +0.25 3.75 4.25 +0.25 2.75
Feb 2 +0.25 3.50 4.00 +0.25 2.50
2004
Dec 14 +0.25 3.25 3.75 +0.25 2.25
Nov 10 +0.25 3.00 3.50 +0.25 2.00
Sep 21 +0.25 2.75 3.25 +0.25 1.75
Aug 10 +0.25 2.50 3.00 +0.25 1.50
Jun 30 +0.25 2.25 2.75 +0.25 1.25
Source: Federal Reserve Bank of New York (2006)

Table 4.3 below shows the impact of these interest rate changes for the

investor engaged in speculation using the leveraged spot market along with a

hedging strategy involving a forward contract in the manner described earlier

in this section.

107
Table 4.3: Interest Differential and Gain
US Interest No. of Days in
Interest
Date Changes between Extra Interest Gained
Rate
from 2.25% Changes
5-Jan-05 2.25% 120431.32
2-Feb-05 2.50% 0.25% 48 39.59
22-Mar-05 2.75% 0.50% 42 69.29
3-May-05 3.00% 0.75% 58 143.53
30-Jun-05 3.25% 1.00% 40 131.98
9-Aug-05 3.50% 1.25% 42 173.22
20-Sep-05 3.75% 1.50% 42 207.87
1-Nov-05 4.00% 1.75% 42 242.51
13-Dec-05 4.25% 2.00% 18 118.78
31-Dec-05 4.25% 2.00%
332 days Total gain:US$1,126.78

Source: Author’s calculations.

Assuming that these interest rate rises had occurred, in order to calculate the

impact of the changes in the interest rate on the income generated we have to

calculate the number of days between interest rate changes in each

successive period, for example between 2nd February, 2005 and 22nd March

2005. There are 48 days and as shown in Table 4.3, the United States interest

rate increased by 25 basis points. There are a total of 332 days influenced by

changing interest rate within the 360 days. The extra interest gained for this

period is given by the following expression:

⎛ no. of days in between changes ⎞
(4.5) Δinterest rate × principal × ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 365 ⎠

Based on the above expression 4.5, the extra interest gain equals USD39.59.

It is very important to note that the extra income generated from the interest

108
rate changes is not eliminated even when IRP holds. According to the IRP

theory, as the Federal Reserve raises interest rates between January 5th and

December 31st, the forward rate and spot rate adjust to ensure that IRP holds.

However, in our example, the investor has entered into a forward contract on

January 5th for the delivering of Japanese yen on December 31st at the fixed

forward rate existing on January 5th. The investor is, therefore, immune to

changes in the forward rate after January 5th. Thus, even though IRP implies

zero profits when the investor opens a simultaneous leveraged spot position

and offsetting forward position on January 5th and interest rates do not change,

the investor can indeed make profits when interest rates change after these

positions have been opened.

The combined operation of leveraged spot and forward contracts shows that a

collateral of approximately USD6021 creates net earnings of USD1,126.78

with zero risk; even a risk averse individual would find this an attractive

proposition. The amount of collateral on the leveraged spot position is

determined by the leveraging ratio. In our example, the leveraging ratio is 20:1.

The individual who wishes to operate in this leveraged spot market can find

leveraging ratios which vary from 20:1 to 200:1. Thus, each individual investor

has a choice of using a higher or lower leveraging ratio. This leveraging ratio

has an important impact on the rate of return which each investor earns from

this procedure.

The higher the leveraging ratio, the greater is the return for our methodology. If

the leveraging ratio is 20:1, the annual rate of return is 16.46% given the

movement in the interest rate. If this leveraging ratio is changed to 50:1

109
(leverage provided by some providers in the leveraged spot market), the

annual rate of return derived would be 44.53% for the period under

consideration. Note that in all these examples, the earnings are completely risk

free and are contingent only upon a favourable movement of interest rates.

Conversely, it is significant to understand that if positive interest rate differential

(rUS − rJ ) is reduced after investor opened leveraged spot and forward

contracts, this would lead the investor to encounter a loss in this portfolio.

4.3 Hedging Exposure using the Leveraged Spot Market

In the previous section, we examined how an open position in the leveraged

spot market can be hedged using a forward contract. In this section, we

highlight how the leveraged spot contract itself can be used as a hedging

instrument to remove uncertainty from an existing open position. In other

words, we investigate how the leveraged spot contract can substitute for a

forward contract (or other traditional hedging methods) to reduce transaction

exposure.

In general, there are two categories of hedging: (1) an interest rate hedge

which aims to transfer away from the speculator, risks involved in any expected

unfavourable interest rate movements – financial techniques, such as interest

rate swap and cross currency swap are commonly used for this purpose and (2)

a currency movement hedge which aims to reduce risks arising from expected

unfavourable foreign currency movements – financial instruments such as

forward contract, money market securities and options are commonly used to

hedge currency movements. The method developed in this section is designed

to assist hedgers (companies or individuals) who wish to hedge against any

110
expected unfavourable currency movements mentioned in (2) above. Note that

a pre-requisite exists for deciding to hedge against unfavourable currency

movements, namely, the hedger must expect to encounter unfavourable

currency movements in future, and must place a value on reducing the risk

through a hedging mechanism over and above the costs of employing a

hedge.

According to a survey from the Australian Bureau of Statistics (2001, 2005),

among the available financial techniques, the forward hedge is the most

commonly used in Australia and New Zealand, and interest rate swaps and

option contracts are less popular (ABS, 2001; Chan et al., 2003; RBA, 2002).

Evidence suggests that forward and swaps derivatives accounted for almost

$935 billion of the total notional sum of outstanding bought and sold financial

derivative contracts, with forward contracts accounting for 72% ($731.1 billion),

and cross currency interest rate swaps making up 20% ($203.9 billion) (ABS,

2001; RBA, 2002).

To illustrate the subsequent analysis, consider a situation where an exporter

(say, from the United States) is due to receive payment from a Japanese

importer some time in the future. Suppose the currency of the invoice is

Japanese yen. In this case, the exporter is exposed to foreign currency risk

due to fluctuations in the JPY/USD exchange rate between the time the

agreement is struck and the time when payment takes place for the export

order.

To avoid foreign exchange risk, the exporter may well choose to hedge the

111
accounts receivable. To illustrate the hedging process, we will focus on a

comparison between the leveraged spot contract and the forward contract as

hedging instruments; other traditional hedging mechanisms like the money

market hedge are not included for the time being. At the end of this section, we

will compare the leveraged spot market hedge with the money market hedge.

Our analysis suggests that hedging with the leveraged spot market can be

superior to standard hedging methods, such as the forward contract. We will

show this proposition using numerical simulations where hypothetical

scenarios of export/import transactions are constructed. The simulations,

however involve actual empirical data for JPY/AUD and USD/AUD exchange

rates during the period 2003 to 2005. For an Australian company engaging in

international transactions, any foreign currency revenue is normally converted

into Australian dollars (AUD) and retrieved back to Australia at the end of

financial year. Hence, fluctuations in the value of the Australian dollar against

foreign currencies such as the US dollar and Japanese yen can have

significant impact on earnings before interest and tax (EBITA) accruing to the

Australian firm.

4.3.1 Hypothetical Scenario One

Consider the case where an Australia exporter is due to receive payment in

Japanese yen from a Japanese importer in one year. The following elements

will be required for constructing the hedging scenario:

• Sale revenue: JPY75,000,000

• Hedging period: 365 days from 13th October 2003 to 12th October 2004

112
 • Interest rates on the Japanese yen and the Australian dollar are

denoted as: rJ and r AU respectively

• Spot currency rate; and

• Forward currency rate for Japanese yen against the Australian dollar

From the Australian company’s perspective, the sale revenue increases when

either the Japanese yen strengthens or the Australian dollar weakens, and

conversely the sale revenue erodes when either the Japanese yen weakens or

the Australian dollar strengthens. Therefore, this Australian company’s

Hedging Account must establish a position(s) to absorb unfavourable currency

movements away from the sale revenue.

4.3.1.1 Forward Contract Hedging

Let us begin the hedging process with the Australian company signing a

forward contract to hedge their sale revenue in Japanese yen. It is helpful to

review IRP if we need to sign a forward contract over the counter from the

bank. According to IRP:

S 1+ r
(4.6) =
F 1+ r *
where:

r = interest rate in the home country

r* = interest rate in the foreign country

S = spot exchange rate

F = forward exchange rate

1+ r *
thus, F= S
1+ r

113
On 13th October 2003, the spot rate of Japanese yen for 1 Australian dollar

was 74.83, and the Japanese yen borrowing and the Australian dollar saving

interest rates were 2% and 4.75% per annum respectively. Then, the forward

rate of Japanese yen for 1 Australian dollar for 365 days becomes
1 + 2%
(4.7) F= 74.83 = 72.87
1 + 4.75%
According to IRP, in our example, if

forward rate > 72.87 the so-called covered interest arbitrage occurs;

forward rate = 72.87 presents the equilibrium of IRP;

forward rate < 72.87 discount (loss).

Therefore, on 13th October 2003 the forward rate of Japanese yen for 1

Australian dollar should not be greater than 72.87, otherwise the so-called

covered interest arbitrage (CIA) would occur via the following steps:

(1) borrowing JPY, for example JPY1,000,000 and exchanging to the

Australian dollar, yields AUD13,363.62, at spot rate 74.83;

(2) by doing this, Japanese yen borrowing principal and interest payment for 1

year are JPY1,020,000 at interest rate 2% per annum;

(3) simultaneously, signing a forward contract for 365 days at forward rate of

say 72.96 (if greater than 72.87)

(4) the Australian dollar converted from Japanese yen with received interest

income for 1 year is AUD13,998.40 at interest rate 4.75% per annum;

(5) the forward contract allows the AUD13,998.40 converting back to Japanese

yen at 72.96 a year later, which are JPY1,021,323; and

(6) therefore, the covered interest arbitrage (CIA) occurs with profits in sum of

JPY1,323 (as shown in the following Figure 4.1).

114
Figure 4.1: Covered Interest Arbitrage

JPY1,000,000 2% p.a. JPY1,020,000

JPY1,021,323

spot 74.83 Cover interest arbitrage: JPY1,323

forward 72.96

AUD13,363.62 AUD13,998.40
4.75% p.a.

Assuming that on 13th October 2003 this Australian company can only obtain a

Japanese yen forward contract with the amount of JPY75,000,000 exchanged

to Australian dollars at 72.87, and being delivered on 12th October 2004.

This Australian company using a forward contract to hedging the sale revenue

JPY75,000,000 can firmly get sales revenue in Australian dollars,

AUD1,029,230.14, regardless of the spot exchange rate on 12th October 2004.

We now confirm the hedging result via the following steps. On 12th October

2004, the spot rate of Japanese yen for 1 Australian dollar was 80.30. Thus:

• Sales revenue JPY75,000,000 exchanged to the Australian dollar

becomes:

JPY75,000,000/80.30 = AUD933,997.51………………………………...(4a)

• The Australian company’s hedging account signed the forward contract,

so this company would be able to exchange JPY75,000,000 to the

115
 Australian dollar at the agreed rate of 72.87 on the delivery day of this

forward contract. We then, can get a hedging gain:

JPY 75,000,000 JPY 75,000,000
− = A$95,232.63……………….…….(4b)
72.87 80.30
Consequently, the sales revenue eroded by either a weaker Japanese yen or a

stronger Australian dollar (equation (4a)) can be compensated by a hedging

gain in equation (4b), that is, sales revenue can firmly be locked in the amount

of (4a) + (4b) = AUD1,029,230.14 without any impact of currency movement.

This is the hedging mechanism via the forward contract technique which

shows the Japanese yen sale revenue has been locked in via the utilization of

the forward contract at the Australian dollar amount of AUD1,029,230.14,

regardless of any fluctuation in the currency movement.

4.3.1.2 Leveraged Spot Hedging Model

We now demonstrate the leveraged spot hedging method for the sale revenue

of the Australian company. For our illustrative purpose, we can open a position

between the Australian dollar and Japanese yen for the amount of

JPY75,000,000 from the leveraged spot market at the spot rate of 74.83

Japanese yen for 1 Australian dollar on 13th October. 2003. As we know by

doing this, the hedger is able to receive the positive interest rate differential

( r AU − rJ = 4.75% - 2% = 2.75%) on a daily basis from the second day the

hedger opened the position until the end of this position on day 365.

116
Table 4.4: Scenario One Hedging in Leveraged Spot

Source: Author’s calculations.

In Table 4.4, we summarized this hedging operation we borrowed

JPY75,000,000 from the bank and converted to AUD1,002,271.82 at the spot

rate of 74.83 on 13th October 2003. The positive interest rate differential of

2.75% can be received daily basis. On the day 12th October 2004, the

Japanese yen spot rate for 1 Australian dollar was 80.30. Thus, according to

equation (3.7), the profit for this currency movement and the interest

differential gain are as listed below:

(1) profit from currency movement is AUD68,274.31; and

(2) profit from interest gain accumulated for 365 days is AUD27,562.47.

The total hedging profit in this leveraged spot market is AUD95,836.78.

We should mention here that the profit from the interest gain (item (2)) must be

readjusted later if we compare the hedging results with the forward contracts

technique because item (2) is calculated daily according to the market closing

price. We actually converted the interest gain based on the entry price of this

117
position, which is 74.83 Japanese yen for 1 Australian dollar. Again, we can

re-confirm the hedging result via the following steps. On 12th October 2004, the

spot rate of Japanese yen for 1 Australian dollar was 80.30. Thus:

• Sale revenue JPY75,000,000 exchanged to the Australian dollar

became:

JPY75,000,000/80.30 = $933,997.51…………………………………….(4c)

• in this Australian company’s hedging account, they opened a leveraged

spot contract at 74.83 Japanese yen for 1 Australian dollar, so if the

position is closed at 80.30 Japanese yen for 1 Australian dollar (Table

4.4) this Australian company can obtain the hedging profit as below:

(1) profit from currency movement is AUD68,274.31

(2) profit from interest gain accumulated for 365 days is AUD27,562.47

The total profit in this leveraged spot market is

AUD95,836.78…………………………………………………………...(4d)

Consequently, the sale revenue eroded by either the Japanese yen weakening

or the Australian dollar strengthening in equation (4c) can be compensated by

a hedging gain in equation (4d), that is, sale revenue is now locked at the

amount of AUD1,029,834.29 ((4c)+(4d)).

This is hedging via the leveraged spot contract technique and shows how the

Japanese yen sale revenue has been locked in at the Australian dollar amount

of AUD1,029,834.29, regardless of any fluctuation of currency movement.

Let us summarize the hedging results between the forward and leverage spot

techniques as follows in table 4.5a.

118
Table 4.5a: Scenario One Hedging Results Comparison
(1) (2) (3)= (1)+(2)
Sale revenue Hedging account
JPY75,000,000 (hedging gain/loss) Hedge results
converted to AUD (equity)
on day 365
Forward contract AUD933,997.51 AUD95,232.63 AUD1,029,230.14
Leveraged spot
AUD933,997.51 AUD95,836.78 AUD1,029,834.29
contract

Source: Author’s calculations.

We mentioned earlier that we should re-adjust the hedging gain from the

leveraged spot contract because the calculation of daily interest gain is

actually based on the every-day closing price within 365 days. For illustrative

purpose, we use 74.83 Japanese yen for 1 Australian dollar for this calculation.

According to IRP theory, the hedging gain of using a leveraged spot contract

should not be better than a gain obtained using a forward contract. Thus, we

now simplify and readjust the hedging result from the leveraged spot contract

to be as the same as the forward contract so that we can simply compare the

results between the forward and leveraged spot contracts. The re-adjusted

hedging result is then listed in Table 4.5b as below.

119
Table 4.5b: Adjusted Scenario One Hedging Results

(1) (2) (3)= (1)+(2)

Sale revenue Hedging account
JPY75,000,000 (hedging gain/loss) Hedge results
converted to AUD (equity)
on day 365
Forward contract AUD933,997.51 AUD95,232.63 AUD1,029,230.14
Leveraged spot
AUD933,997.51 AUD95,232.63 AUD1,029,230.14
contract

Source: Author’s calculations.

We now proceed to show how the leveraged spot technique will be superior to

the forward technique, as Table 4.5b shows there is no difference for hedging

results between forward and leveraged spot markets. From the part of interest

rate differential (r AU − rJ ) in the leveraged spot contract, the discount rate of

Japanese yen set by the Bank of Japan changed by only 0.1% from 19th

September 2001 to 13th July 2006. If there is an expected upward movement in

the Australian dollar interest rate, this hedging model can generate extra

hedging gain from this interest rate movement.

It is critical to show how the interest rate in Australia has been changed over

time by the Reserve Bank of Australia (RBA).

Table 4.6 below shows the interest rate changes from 8th May 2002 to 2nd

August 2006. Each rise was 25 basis points and the interest rate has

increased from 4.50% on 8th May 2002, to 6% on 2nd August 2006.

120
Table 4.6: Australia Interest Rate Changes
CASH RATE TARGET
Change in case rate New cash rate target
Released
(Per cent) (per cent)
2 Aug 2006 +0.25 6.00
3 May 2006 +0.25 5.75
2 Mar 2005 +0.25 5.50
3 Dec 2003 +0.25 5.25
5 Nov 2003 +0.25 5.00
5 June 2002 +0.25 4.75
8 May 2002 +0.25 4.50

Source: RBA (2006).

Table 4.7: Interest Differential and Gain in Scenario One

Interest changes No. of days in
Interest
Date between Extra interest gained
rate from 4.75%
changes
13-Oct-03 4.75% 1,002,271.82
5-Nov-03 5.00% 0.25% 28 192.22
3-Dec-03 5.25% 0.50% 314 4311.14
12-Oct-04 5.25% 0.50%
342 days Total gain: AUD4,503.36

Source: Author’s calculations.

In Table 4.7, we calculate the additional interest hedging gained from the

changes of differential interest rate. We have to calculate the number of days

in each successive period between the interest rate changes, for example

between 5th November 2003 and 3rd December 2003. There are 28 days in this

period and as shown in Table 4.7, Australia’s interest rate increased by 25

basis points. There are a total of 342 days influenced by changing interest rate

within the 365 days. The extra interest gained for this period is given by the

121
following expression:
⎛ no. of days in between changes ⎞
(4.8) Δinterest rate × hedging amount × ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 365 ⎠

Based on the above expression (4.8), the extra interest gain equals

AUD192.22 in the first period of 28 days. As shown in Table 4.7, the extra total

hedging gained is AUD4,503.36. This additional hedging gain is realised

because the Australian interest rate changed after the leveraged spot hedging

position opened.

We now compare the hedging results between forward and leveraged spot

contracts. The details of the comparison are listed in Table 4.8 below.

Table 4.8: Comparison of Hedging Results in Scenario One

(1)
(3)= (1)+(2)
Sale revenue (2)
JPY75,000,000 Hedging account
Hedge results
converted to AUD (hedging gain/loss)
(equity)
on day 365
Forward contract AUD933,997.51 AUD95,232.63 AUD1,029,230.14
AUD95,232.63 plus
Leveraged spot
AUD933,997.51 extra AUD1,033,733.49
contract
gain:AUD4,503.36

Source: Author’s calculations.

122
In scenario one the Australian company decided to hedge for minimizing either

a weakening Japanese yen or strengthening Australian dollar. Clearly, the

hedging outcomes for forward and leveraged spot markets have revealed that

using the leveraged spot hedging technique is superior to using the forward

contract, given the sales revenues of JPY75,000,000 and hedging period from

13th October 2003 to 12th October 2004. In this scenario use of the leveraged

spot can internalise an extra AUD4,503.14 of hedging gain mainly due to the

RBA having twice increased the interest rate during this hedging period.

Figure 4.2 demonstrates that using a leveraged spot for hedging can

additionally derive approximately AUD4500 hedging gain compared with a

forward contract.

Figure 4.2: Comparison of Hedging Outcomes in Scenario One

AUD Hedging profit

314 days
Extra gain of using leveraged spot contract
28 days

AUD 933,997.51

Using forward contract for hedging

13 October 2003 12 October 2004

365 days
Time for hedging period

Source: Author’s calculations

123
4.3.2 Hypothetical Scenario Two

Scenario two simulates hedging for companies either in the United States or

Australia because the currencies involved is the Australian dollar against the

US dollar. The scenario will demonstrate how interest rate changes influence

hedging outcomes utilizing leveraged spot components, for the Australian

company. For illustrative purposes, we consider the following example for

simulation, by assuming:

• Sale revenue: US$500,000

• Hedging period: 500 days from 3rd August 2004 to 16th December 2005

• Interest rates on the Australian dollar and the US dollar are denoted as

r AU and rUS respectively

• Spot currency rate

• Forward currency rate for the Australian dollar against the US dollar.

4.3.2.1 Forward Contract Hedging

Let us begin the hedging process with the signing of a forward contract where

the Australian company chooses a forward contract to hedge their sales

revenue in US dollars. It is important to consider interest rate parity if we need

to sign a forward contract between the Australian and US dollars over the

counter from the bank.

On the 3rd August 2004, the spot rate of the US dollar for 1 Australian dollar

was 0.7013, and the US dollar borrowing and the Australian dollar saving

interest rates were 3.25% and 5.25% respectively. Therefore, the forward rate

of the US dollar for 1 Australian dollar for the hedging period of 500 days

becomes:

124
 ⎡⎛ 500 ⎞ ⎤
1 + ⎢⎜ ⎟ ∗ 3.25%⎥
(4.9) F= ⎣⎝ 365 ⎠ ⎦ 0.7013 = 0.6834
⎡⎛ 500 ⎞ ⎤
1 + ⎢⎜ ⎟ ∗ 5.25%⎥
⎣⎝ 365 ⎠ ⎦
According to IRP, in our simulation, if

forward rate > 0.6834 the so-called covered interest arbitrage

occurs;

forward rate = 0.6834 presents the equilibrium of IRP; and

forward rate < 0.6834 discount (loss).

Therefore, on the 3rd August 2004 the forward rate of the US dollar for 1

Australian dollar should not be greater than 0.6834, otherwise the so-called

covered interest arbitrage can occur (refer to Figure 4.1).

Assuming that in keeping with the equilibrium IRP condition on 3rd August 2004

this Australian company can only obtain an Australian dollar forward contract

for the amount of USD500,000 exchanged to the Australian dollar at a rate of

0.6834, and being delivered on 16th December 2005.

This Australian company using the forward contract to hedge the sales

revenue of USD500,000 can firmly get sales revenue of AUD731,635.94,

regardless of the spot exchange rate on 16th December 2005. We confirm

the hedging result via the following steps. On 16th December 2005, the spot

rate of the US dollar for 1 Australian dollar was 0.7454. Thus,

• Sale revenue USD500,000 exchanged to the Australian dollar became

USD500,000/ 0.7454= AUD670,780.79…………………..………….(4aa)

• In this Australian company’s hedging account, they signed the forward

contract, so they would be able to exchange USD500,000 to the

125
 Australian dollar at the agreed rate of 0.6834 on the delivery day of this

forward contract. The hedging gain can be obtained by:

USD500,000 USD500,000
− = AUD60,855.15………………..…….….(4bb)
0.6834 0.7454

Consequently, the sales revenue eroded by either the US dollar weakening or

the Australian dollar strengthening (equation (4aa)) can be compensated by

the hedging gain (equation (4bb)), that is, sales revenue can firmly be locked in

the amount of (4aa) + (4bb) = AUD731,635.94 without any impact from

currency movement.

This is the hedging mechanism via the forward contract technique which

shows the US dollar sale revenue has been locked via the utilization of the

forward contract at AUD731,635.94, regardless of any fluctuation of currency

movement.

4.3.2.2 Leveraged Spot Hedging Model

We now show the leveraged spot hedging method for sales revenue of the

Australian company. For this illustrative example, we sign contracts between

the US and Australian dollar to the amount of USD500,000 from the leveraged

spot market at 0.7013 the spot rate of the US dollar for 1 Australian dollar on

3rd August 2004. That is, we opened a position of buying USD/AUD at 0.7013

on 3rd August 2004 from the leveraged spot market for hedging purposes. As

we know by doing this, the hedger is able to receive the positive interest rate

differential ( r AU − rUS = 5.25% - 3.25% = 2%) on a daily basis from the second

day the hedger opened the position until the end of this position, day 500.

126
In Table 4.9, we summarized this hedging operation discussed as below. We

borrowed USD500,000 from the bank and converted it to AUD712,961.64 at

the spot rate 0.7013 on 3rd August 2004. The positive interest rate differential

2% can be received on a daily base. On 16th December 2005, the US dollar

spot rate for 1 Australian dollar was 0.7454. Thus, according to equation (3.7),

the profit for this currency movement and the interest differential gain on the

day of the 16th December 2005 are listed below:

Table 4.9: Scenario Two Hedging Model in Leveraged Spot Market

Source: Author’s calculations.

(1) profit from currency movement is AUD42,180.85, and

(2) profit from interest gain accumulated for 500 days is AUD19,533.20.

The total profit in this leveraged spot market is AUD61,714.05 We should

mention here again that item (2), profit from interest gain, must be readjusted

later if we compare these hedging results with the forward technique because

this interest gain is calculated daily according to the market closing price. We

127
actually converted the interest gain based on the entry price of this position,

which is 0.7013 US dollar for 1 Australian dollar.

Again, we can re-confirm the hedging result via the following steps. On 16th

December 2005, the spot rate of the US dollar for 1 Australian dollar was

0.7454. Thus:

• Sale revenue USD500,000 exchanged to Australian dollar becomes

USD500,000/ 0.7454= AUD670,780.79…………………………………(4cc)

• In this American company’s hedging account, they opened a leveraged

spot contract on 3rd Aug. 2004 and closed the contract on 16th

December 2005 at spot rate US dollar 0.7454 for 1 Australian dollar, so

this Australian company can obtain the hedging profit as below:

(1) profit from currency movement is AUD42,180.85

(2) profit from interest gain accumulated for 500 days is AUD19,533.20

The total profit in this leveraged spot market is AUD61,714.05…..…….….(4dd)

Consequently, the sale revenue eroded by either a weaker US dollar or

stronger Australian dollar (equation (4cc)) can be compensated by the hedging

gain (equation (4dd)), that is, (4cc) + (4dd) = AUD732,494.84.

This is the hedging mechanism using the leveraged spot technique to show the

US dollar sale revenue has been locked via the spot contract at the Australian

dollar amount of AUD732,494.84, regardless of any fluctuation of currency

movement.

128
Table 4.10a: Scenario Two Hedging Results Comparison
(1) (2) (3)= (1)+(2)
Sale revenue Hedging account
USD500,000 (hedging gain/loss) Hedge results
converted to AUD (equity)
on day 500
Forward contract AUD670,780.79 AUD60,855.15 AUD731,635.94
Leveraged spot
AUD670,780.79 AUD61,714.05 AUD732,494.84
contract

Source: Author’s calculations.

We mentioned earlier that we should re-adjust the hedging gain from the

leveraged spot in Table 4.10a, because the calculation of daily interest gain

from the leveraged spot is actually carried out on a daily basis using the

closing price for each 500 days. According to IRP theory, the hedging gain

using the leveraged spot contract should not be more than obtained using a

forward contract. Thus, we now simplify and readjust the hedging result from

the leveraged spot contract to be the same as a forward contract. The

re-adjusted hedging result is listed in Table 4.10b.

Table 4.10b: Adjusted Scenario Two Hedging Results

(1) (2) (3)= (1)+(2)
Sale revenue Hedging account
USD500,000 (hedging gain/loss) Hedge results
converted to AUD (equity)
on day 500
Forward contract AUD670,780.79 AUD60,855.15 AUD731,635.94
Leveraged spot
AUD670,780.79 AUD60,855.15 AUD731,635.94
contract

Source: Author’s calculations.

129
We now proceed to show how the leveraged spot technique will not always be

superior to the forward technique in this simulation, as Table 4.10b shows that

it is possible to have no difference for hedging results between forward and

leveraged spot markets. It is critical to show how the interest rates changed

between the US and Australia. There were numerous consecutive interest rate

increases undertaken by the Federal Reserve Bank of New York (refer to Table

4.2) from 30th June 2004 to 29th June 2006. Each rise was 25 basis points, so

the interest rate increased from 1.25% on 30th June 2004, to 5.25% on 29th

June 2006. Meanwhile, RBA increased the interest rate by 0.25% on 2nd March

2005 from 5.25% to 5.50% (refer to Table 4.6). The interaction of the interest

rate differential between the US and Australia will be examined below, as it

influenced the hedging result in this scenario two.

Initially, the interest differential between the US dollar and Australian dollar was

2% ( r AU − rUS =5.25%-3.25%=2%) when we opened the position in the

leveraged spot market. Table 4.11 shows US interest rate changes during the

hedging period, which directly affected the borrowing cost of the US dollar in

the operation of leveraged spot market. In contrast, there was only one interest

rate increase on the Australian dollar during the hedging period, influencing the

interest gain of the Australian dollar in the leveraged spot market.

Consequently, Table 4.11 is presented to show that the borrowing cost of the

US dollar kept increasing, and the interest gain of the Australian dollar only

increased once during the hedging period. That is, the initial positive interest

differential was soon reversed because the US interest rate increased far more

than the Australia rate increased during the hedging period in the leveraged

130
spot market.

Table 4.11: Interest Differential and Loss in Scenario Two

RBA
interest No. of days
US US interest Interest
rate in Extra interest
Date interest changes rate
changes between paid
rate from 1.25% differential
from changes
5.25%
3-Aug-04 1.25% 712961.64
10-Aug-04 1.50% 0.25% 0.25% 42 205.10
21-Sep-04 1.75% 0.50% 0.50% 50 488.33
10-Nov-04 2.00% 0.75% 0.75% 34 498.10
14-Dec-04 2.25% 1.00% 1.00% 50 976.66
2-Feb-05 2.50% 1.25% 1.25% 28 683.66
2-Mar-05 0.25% 1.00% 20 390.66
22-Mar-05 2.75% 1.50% 1.25% 42 1025.49
3-May-05 3.00% 1.75% 1.50% 58 1699.39
30-Jun-05 3.25% 2.00% 1.75% 40 1367.32
9-Aug-05 3.50% 2.25% 2.00% 42 1640.79
20-Sep-05 3.75% 2.50% 2.25% 42 1845.89
1-Nov-05 4.00% 2.75% 2.50% 42 2050.99
13-Dec-05 4.25% 3.00% 2.75% 3 161.15
16-Dec-05 4.25%
493 days AUD13,033.52

Source: Author’s calculations.

In Table 4.11, we calculate the changes of interest rate and the number of days

in each successive period between interest rate changes. For example,

between 10th August 2004 to 21st September 2004, the US interest rate

increased by 25 basis points and there were 42 days in this period. There are a

total of 493 days influenced by changing interest rate within the hedging

period – 500 days. The extra interest cost calculation for this period is given by

131
expression (4.8) above. Based on this expression, the extra interest loss for 42

days equals AUD205.10. As shown in Table 4.11, the total additional hedging

cost (loss) from the interest rate differential is AUD13,033.52. The reason for

the occurrence of this additional hedging loss is due to the fact that the US

interest rate rose far faster than the Australian rate after the leveraged spot

hedging position opened.

We now compare the hedging results between forward and leveraged spot

contracts in this scenario two. The details of the comparison are listed in Table

4.12 below:

Table 4.12: Comparison of Hedging Results in Scenario Two

(1) (2) (3)= (1)+(2)
Sale revenue Hedging account
USD500,000 (hedging gain/loss) Hedge results
converted to AUD (equity)
on Day-500
Forward contract AUD670,780.79 AUD60,855.15 AUD731,635.94
AUD60,855.15
Leveraged spot
AUD670,780.79 less AUD718,602.41
contract
AUD13,033.52

Source: Author’s calculations

In scenario two, the Australian company decided to hedge for minimizing either

a weaker US dollar or stronger Australian dollar. Indeed, the hedging outcomes

between forward and leveraged spot markets reveal that using the leveraged

spot hedging technique is not always superior to using the forward contract as

shown in Table 4.12. In scenario two the use of a leveraged spot can also

internalise an extra US dollar borrowing cost to the sum of AUD13,033.52. This

132
hedging loss is mainly due to the Federal Reserve Bank of New York rapidly

increasing the interest rate during the hedging period. Figure 4.3 shows how

the 12 US and single Australian interest rate increases (each of 0.25%) led the

leveraged spot hedging to additionally derive AUD13,033.52 hedging cost

(loss) compared with a forward contract in scenario two.

Figure 4.3: Comparison of Hedging Outcomes in Scenario Two

AUD Hedging Profit

AUD 731,635.94

42 days
50
34
50
28 20
42
58
40
42
42
42
3

3 August 2004 500 days 16 December 2005

Time for hedging period

Source: Author’s calculations

133
4.4 Comparison between Forward, Leveraged Spot, and Money Markets

4.4.1 Comparison of Forward and Leveraged Spot

In terms of hedging, we have gone through the simulations with two pairs of

currencies in an attempt to demonstrate the difference between forward and

leveraged spot techniques. In our simulation outcomes of scenario one, we

show that the leveraged spot hedging is superior to the forward technique only

if the interest rate differential increases after the hedging position was opened.

Conversely, the simulation of hedging scenario two shows that use of the

leveraged spot for hedging is inferior to the forward technique only if the

interest rate differential decreases after the hedging position was opened.

Looking at our net profit function for the leveraged spot market, (see equation
1
(3.7) in Chapter 3), Π = KV [( rus − rJ ) + (1 + rUS )E (S& )] − δVK 2 , we can make
2
some conclusions about its use for hedging purposes. Let us break down

equation (3.7) into three components, which are listed below:

(1) KV (rus − rJ ) shows the profit (loss) due to the interest rate differential and

generates interest gain (payment) if the interest rate differential is positive

(negative).

(2) KV (1 + rUS )E (S& ) shows the movement in the spot exchange rate and is the

volatility of the leveraged spot contract.

1
(3) δVK 2 is the cost function of operating in the leveraged spot market.
2

From the hedging perspective, the use of the leveraged spot contract is

superior to a forward contract because (1) KV (rus − rJ ) will be internalizing

the additional interest gain if (rus − r J )t is greater than (rus − r J ) t −1 during the

134
hedging period. Our simulations in hedging scenario one demonstrated this

situation.

Conversely, use of the leveraged spot contract is not superior to the forward

contract when the KV (rus − r J ) term is losing the additional interest gain

because (rus − rJ ) t is less than (rus − r J ) t −1 during the hedging period, i.e.

Δ(rUS − rJ ) < 0 . Scenario two reflects this hedging result. Having compared the

feasibility of forward and leveraged spot techniques for hedging, we conclude

that using the leveraged spot is superior to the forward only if the interest rate

differential (rus − rJ ) t is greater than (rus − r J ) t −1 within the hedging period, .i.e.

Δ(rUS − rJ ) > 0 .

4.4.2 Comparison of the Money Market and Leveraged Spot

Hedging in the money market is like hedging in the forward market, as both

include a contract and a source of funds to fulfill the contract. For example

those hedgers who are seeking a money market hedge to borrow in one

currency and exchange the proceeds for another currency, will need to have a

loan agreement. This loan agreement can be repaid from business operations,

such as an account receivable within 180 days. Indeed, in an efficient market

the forward market and money market are actually identical because the IRP

holds. The difference is that the cost of a money market hedge is determined

by the differential interest rate, while the cost of a forward hedge is a function

of the forward rate quotation. Therefore, the money market can rapidly adapt to

the interest rate differential as the interest rate changes.

The financial tools available in the money market are commonly known as:

135
treasury bills, eurodollar, euroyen, certificate of deposit (CD) and commercial

paper. Indeed, interest rates on these money market tools are generally an

accurate reflection of interest rate movements. The easiest way to hedge in

mitigating currency movement exposure using the money market is to

establish a loan agreement. Using loan credit to borrow one currency and

convert to another in the money market for hedging purposes will be exactly

the same as using the leveraged spot. Basically, the only difference between

the leveraged spot and money market is that while the leveraged spot

transaction is completed within two business days, the transaction in the

money market is completed in months (normally less than 12), such as the

T-bill, eurodollar, and euroyen in money market. Generally, the characteristics

of the leveraged spot are very similar to the characteristics of financial tools in

the money market. The following is presented to show the major differences.

In terms of hedging, there are only a few significant differences between a loan

agreement from the money market and the leveraged spot market. These

differences are listed below:

(1) Leverage ratio –

• Depending on the financial providers, the leveraging ratio can vary from

20 to 200 so the leverages spot can access a credit line between 20 and

200 times the initial margin (collateral). This is practically the most

significant difference.

• A loan agreement can only be accessed based on the credit limit as

given.

(2) Currency availability

136
 • A leveraged spot can trade across many currencies and depends

on the financial provider, for instance, the Bank of America can

trade up to 12 currencies (Australian dollar, British pound,

Canadian dollar, The euro, Japanese yen, New Zealand dollar,

Swiss franc, U.S. dollar, Danish krone, Norwegian krone, Swedish

krona and Hong Kong dollar), providing a larger selection of

currencies for hedging purposes.

• A loan agreement depends on the regulations of the market where

the loan is contracted.

(3) Flexibility and trading hours

• A leveraged spot market can be traded in a 24 hour service pattern.

That is, a position it can be opened without time constraint and held

permanently if the holder wants, or liquidated within few minutes.

• A loan agreement normally can only be accessed within office

hours from 8:00 am to 5:00 pm.

(4) Liquidity

• A leveraged spot contract can be liquidated within a very short time

manner, normally, a trading position in leveraged spot market can

be opened and closed within quite a few minutes at any time if

trader wants.

• A loan agreement is normally less flexible than leveraged spot

market. It takes perhaps two business days to complete a

transaction.

(5) Counterparty default

• A leveraged spot contract can normally be provided by either

financial institutions or banks. It is obvious to note that a

137
 counterparty default risk of financial institution would be greater

than banks.

• A loan agreement is well known as the service is normally provided

by banks.

Indeed, foreign exchange market is usually extremely volatile and the currency

movement can dramatically change from one minute to the next. Therefore,

the lack of time constraint for opening or closing a position in the market can

be critical. The leveraged spot can simply complete a transaction by opening a

position and closing the position within a few minutes, by the click of a mouse

button over the internet. In contrast, there is little flexibility in a loan facility.

138
 Chapter Five

Summary and Conclusion

5.1 Introduction

In the existing literature, the most commonly used financial tools for

speculating and hedging include forward, swaps, options, futures and money

market instruments. When hedging, these financial tools are actually used to

insure against unfavourable movements of interest rates and currencies. The

hedging model in this thesis is only developed for covering unfavourable

currency movement from a hedger’s perspective, while the speculating model

can be a profitable speculative method.

5.2 Major Findings and Implications

This research has produced results relevant to speculating and hedging

activities in the leveraged spot market. The major findings and their

implications are summarised below.

5.2.1 Speculating Model

The income received from speculating in the leveraged spot market can be

divided into two conceptually distinct parts: the first relates to the positive,

risk-free income differential between the borrowings and investing currencies;

the second is dependent on favourable currency movements and is the risky

portion of the speculative activity. However, the possibility of obtaining risk-free

interest income lowers the riskiness of speculating in the foreign exchange

market relative to an unleveraged spot market transaction. This can allow a

speculator to achieve a specific desired return at a lower risk, or a higher

expected return at a given level of risk, which makes speculation using the

139
leveraged spot market an attractive proposition for risk neutral as well as risk

averse individuals.

5.2.2 Hedging Model

The thesis also examined the use of the leveraged spot market as part of an

overall hedging strategy. In Chapter 3 (3.7),

1
Π = KV [( rus − rJ ) + (1 + rUS )E (S& )] − δVK 2 , we can make some conclusions
2
about its use for hedging purposes. There are three components in equation

(3.7):

(1) KV (rus − rJ ) shows the profit (loss) due to the interest rate differential and

generates interest gain (payment) if the interest rate differential is positive

(negative).

(2) KV (1 + rUS )E (S& ) shows the movement in the spot exchange rate and is the

volatility of the leveraged spot contract.

1
(3) δVK 2 is the cost function of operating in the leveraged spot market.
2

According to equation (3.7), the role of hedging was investigated in two

different ways. First, extending the earlier results on speculation, the thesis

analysed how an open, speculative position in the leveraged market can be

hedged using a forward contract. In essence, the forward contract can be used

to eliminate the risk involved with an open leveraged spot position. Indeed, if

covered interest parity holds, and interest rates, for example, in Japan and the

United States do not change over the term of the contract, using the forward

contract to hedge the speculation will eliminate any profit. However, if interest

rates do change favourably, this procedure can yield significant profits. The

140
extent of the profits depends on the leverage ratio, the higher the leverage

ratio the higher the profit will be from interest rate changes.

Second, the thesis examines how the leveraged spot market can serve as a

hedging instrument to eliminate, or mitigate, transaction exposure. Moreover,

we show that under certain circumstances, hedging with the leveraged spot

market can yield superior results compared to traditional hedging mechanisms

including forward contracts and money market instruments.

From the hedging perspective, the use of the leveraged spot contract is

superior to a forward contract because (1) KV (rus − rJ ) will be internalizing

the additional interest gain if (rus − r J )t is greater than (rus − r J ) t −1 during the

hedging period. Our simulations in hedging scenario one demonstrated this

situation.

Conversely, use of the leveraged spot contract is not superior to the forward

contract when the KV (rus − r J ) term is losing the additional interest gain

because (rus − rJ ) t is less than (rus − r J ) t −1 during the hedging period, i.e.

Δ(rUS − rJ ) < 0 . Scenario two reflects this hedging result. Having compared the

feasibility of forward and leveraged spot techniques for hedging, we conclude

that using the leveraged spot is superior to the forward only if the interest rate

differential (rus − rJ ) t is greater than (rus − r J ) t −1 within the hedging period, .i.e.

Δ(rUS − rJ ) > 0 .

141
5.3 Significance

The thesis has developed a new speculating and hedging approach in the

foreign exchange market using leveraged spot markets, an application which

has received scant attention in the literature. Speculators can have a broader

range of financial alternatives that allow them to take advantage of favourable

currency movement, while at the same time reducing the riskiness of

speculation by receiving risk-free income from a positive interest rate

differential between two countries. From a hedger’s perspective, hedging using

the leveraged spot market can yield a superior outcome when compared to

traditional hedging tools such as unleveraged forward contracts.

5.4 Recommendations

As discussed in Chapter 3, the model for speculation can be a very profitable

financial model when used with the selective trading recommendations which

are listed below.

1. According to equation (3.7), we can maximise the risk-free profit from an

interest differential by choosing the largest possible interest rate differential, for

example, borrowing Japanese yen at 2% per annum, and investing the

borrowed amount into the US money market which earns 5.25% per annum.

This yields a differential interest rate given by:

rUS − r J = 5.25% − 2% = 3.25%

2. Concern will arise if the exchange rate movement goes against the trader.

The trader (hedgers and speculators) can still profit in this transaction if the

maintenance margin is sufficient to meet the demands arising from volatility in

142
the market movement.

3. Liquidate the position only if currency movement is in a favourable status.

The total proceeds for this transaction will be the sum of profits due to the

interest rate differential and movements in the currency market.

5.5 Limitations

In reality, not all currencies are available to be traded in the leveraged spot

market. The leveraged spot market mainly offers trading in the Australian dollar,

British pound sterling, Canadian dollar, euro, Japanese yen, New Zealand

dollar, Swiss franc, U.S. dollar, Danish krone, Norwegian krone, Swedish krona

and Hong Kong dollar. The availability of a currency for trade will thus depend

on financial providers.

In developing a model which uses the leveraged spot market for speculation,

the thesis examined the effect of different values of g vv . A more rigorous

approach would require the use of sophisticated econometric techniques for

establishing model variables and testing their efficacy.

5.6 Conclusion

The completion of this thesis contributes to the studies of global finance and

economics in two ways. Firstly, we showed here that the leveraged spot

market can be used for both speculating and hedging purposes, and under

certain circumstances, the leveraged spot contract can generate risk-free profit.

Secondly, we showed that the leveraged spot contract is a better hedging tool

than traditional financial instruments, such as the forward and money market

hedges. Its use is viable under the specific condition that the interest rate

143
differential at time t must be greater than the differential at time t-1.

144
 LIST OF REFERENCES

Aghevli, B.B., 1999, ‘The Asian Crisis: Causes and Remedies’, Finance &
Development, Vol. 36, No. 2, June, International Monetary Fund
<http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/1999/06/aghevli.htm>
[Accessed on 29th November, 2005]

Aliprantis, C.D., and Chakrabarti, S.K., 2000, Games and Decision Making,
Oxford University Press, United States of America

Alster, N., 2003, ‘Hedging Your Bets’, Electronic Business¸ March.

<http://www.eb-mag.com> [Accessed on 10th July, 2005]

Anac, S., and Gozen, M., 2003, ‘An Analytical Approach to Develop Hedging
Strategies for Mining Companies’, Mining Technology: Transactions of
the Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Section A, Vol. 112, No. 2,
August, pp. 131-134

Antonopoulos, R., 1999, ‘A Classical Approach to Real Exchange Rate

Determination with an Application for the Case of Greece’, Review of
Radical Political Economics, Vol. 31, No. 3, pp. 53-65. [Accessed on
20th May, 2004]

Aruman, S., and Dungey, M., 2003, ‘A Perspective on Modeling the Australian
Real Trade Weighted Index Since the Float’, Australian Economic
Papers, March, pp.56-76

Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), 2001, ‘Measuring Australia’s Foreign

Currency Exposure’, Balance of Payments and International
Investment Position, Australia (Cat no. 5302.0), ABS, Australia,
December

Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), 2005, ‘Foreign Currency Exposure,

Australia’, Cat no. 5308.0, ABS, Australia, March
<http://www.ausstats.abs.gov.au/ausstats/subscriber.nsf/0/EFD8D11A
197B53B2CA2570C0007B57BE/$File/53080_mar%202005.pdf>

145
 [Accessed on 20th July, 2006]

Australian Stock Exchange (ASX), 2003, ‘Review of Operations and Activities:

Listing Rule 4.10.17’, ASX
<http://www.asx.com.au/ListingRules/guidance/GuidanceNote10.pdf>
[Accessed on 19th December, 2005]

Australian Stock Exchange (ASX), 2005(a), ‘Futures: Futures Contract

Specifications’, ASX
<http://www.asx.com.au/investor/futures/trading_information/contract
_specifications.htm> [Accessed on 5th December, 2005]

Australian Stock Exchange (ASX), 2005(b), ‘Futures: Risks of Trading Futures’,

ASX <http://www.asx.com.au/investor/futures/about/risks.htm>
[Accessed on 5th December, 2005]

Australian Stock Exchange (ASX), 2005(c), ‘Futures: How Futures are Traded’,
ASX <http://www.asx.com.au/investor/futures/trading.htm> [Accessed
on 5th December, 2005]

Australian Stock Exchange (ASX), 2005(d), ‘Investing in the Gold Sector’, ASX
<http://www.asx.com.au/investor/industry/mining/gold.htm>
[Accessed on 19th December, 2005]

Australian Stock Exchange (ASX), 2005(e), ‘Futures: Futures Margins’, ASX

<http://www.asx.com.au/investor/futures/about/margins.htm>
[Accessed on 5th December, 2005]

Australian Stock Exchange (ASX), 2005(f), ‘Options: Eligible Collateral’, ASX

<http://www.asx.com.au/investor/options/trading_information/eligible_
collateral.htm > [Accessed on 5th December, 2005]

Australian Stock Exchange (ASX), 2005(g), ‘Options: Getting Started: What

are Exchange Traded Options?’, ASX
<http://www.asx.com.au/investor/options/getting_started/what_are_et
os.htm> [Accessed on 19th December, 2005]

146
Australian Stock Exchange (ASX), 2005(h), ‘Options: Getting Started: How
Options are Valued’, ASX
<http://www.asx.com.au/investor/options/getting_started/valuation.ht
m> [Accessed on 19th December, 2005]

Australian Stock Exchange (ASX), 2005(i), ‘Options: Getting Started: Option

Features’, ASX
<http://www.asx.com.au/investor/options/getting_started/features.htm
> [Accessed on 19th December, 2005]

Australian Stock Exchange (ASX), 2005(j), ‘Options Pricing Models Used In

The Australian Market’, ASX
<http://www.asx.com.au/investor/options/getting_started/pricing_mod
els.htm> [Accessed on 19th December, 2005]

Bank for International Settlements (BIS), 1998, ‘Central Bank Survey of

Foreign Exchange and Derivatives Market Activity in April 1998:
Preliminary Global Data’, Press Release, Bank for International
Settlements

Bank for International Settlements (BIS), 2005, ‘Triennial Central Bank Survey:
Foreign Exchange and Derivatives Market Activity in 2004’, Press
Release, Bank for International Settlements
<http://www.bis.org/publ/rpfx05t.pdf> [Accessed on 19th December,
2006]

Batten, J., Mellor, R., and Wan, V., 1993, ‘Foreign Exchange Risk
Management Practices and Products Used by Australian Firms’,
Journal of International Business Studies, Vol. 24, No. 3, pp. 557-573

Becker, C., and Fabbro, D., 2006, ‘Limiting Foreign Exchange Exposure
through Hedging: The Australian Experience’, Research Discussion
Paper 2006-09, Reserve Bank of Australia
<http://www.rba.gov.au/rdp/RDP2006-09.pdf> [Accessed on 20th
November, 2006]

Berkman, H., Bradbury, M.E., and Magan, S., 1997, ‘An International

147
 Comparison of Derivatives Use’, Financial Management, Vol. 26, No.
4, Winter, pp. 69-73
<http://0-pdfserve.galegroup.com.library.vu.edu.au/pdfserve/get_item/
1/Sc27698w5_1/SB344_01.pdf> [Accessed on 20th November, 2006]

Bilson, J., 1981, ‘The Speculative Efficiency Hypothesis’, Journal of Business,

Vol. 54, June, pp. 433–51

Black, F., 1976, ‘The Pricing of Commodity Contracts’, Journal of Financial

Economics, Vol. 3, No. 1/2, January-March, pp.167-179

Black, F., and Scholes, M., 1973, ‘The Pricing of Options and Corporate
Liabilities’, Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 81, No. 3, May/June,
p.637

Blundell-Wignall, A., Fahrer, J., and Heath, A., 1993, ‘Major Influences on the
Australian Dollar Exchange Rate’, Reserve Bank of Australia (RBA)
<http://www.rba.gov.au/PublicationsAndResearch/Conferences/1993/
WignallFahrerHeath.pdf> [accessed on 20th May, 2004]

Brailsford, T., and Heaney, R., 1998, Investments: Concepts and Applications
in Australia, Thomson, Australia

Bodnar, G.M., and Gebhardt, G., 1999, ‘Derivatives Usage in Risk

Management by US and German Non-Financial Firms: A Comparative
Survey’, Journal of International Financial Management and
Accounting, Vol. 10, No. 3, Autumn, pp. 153-187

Bodnar, G.M., Hayt, G.S., and Marston, R.C., 1996, ‘1995 Wharton Survey of
Financial Risk Management by US Non-Financial Firms’, Financial
Management, Vol. 25, No. 4, pp. 113-133

Bodnar, G.M., Hayt, G.S., and Marston, R.C., 1998, ‘1998 Wharton Survey of
Financial Risk Management by US Non-Financial Firms’, Financial
Management, Vol. 27, No. 4, pp. 70-91

Brown, C., and Ma, J., 2006, ‘The Collapse of Pasminco: Misjudgment,

148
 Misfortune and Miscalculation’, Working Paper, SSRN
th
<http://ssrn.com/abstract=911510> [Accessed on 10 January 2008]

Brown, G.W., and Toft, K.B., 2002, ‘How Firms Should Hedge’, Review of
Financial Studies, Vol. 15, No. 4, September, pp.1283-1324

Callinan, M., 2004, ‘Currency Hedging Key to Fixed Interest’, Money

Management, August 26, pg. 21

Chan, K.F., Gan, C., and McGraw, P.A., 2003, ‘A Hedging Strategy for New
Zealand’s Exporters in Transaction Exposure to Currency Risk’,
Multinational Finance Journal, Vol. 7, No. 1/2, p.25

Chang, Y., Taylor, S.J., 1998, ‘Intraday Effects of Foreign Exchange

Intervention by the Bank of Japan’, Journal of International Money and
Finance, Vol. 17, No. 1, pp. 191-210

Cheung, Y.W., and Chinn, M.D., 2001, ‘Currency Traders and Exchange Rate
Dynamics: A Survey of the US Market’, Journal of International Money
and Finance, Vol. 20, No. 4, pp. 439-471

Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME), 2005(a), ‘About Futures: History of

Futures’, CME
<http://www.cme.com/edu/course/intro/futrhist9696.html> [Accessed
on 20th December, 2005]

Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME), 2005(b), ‘Trading CME FX Futures: How

CME FX Futures Work’, CME
<http://www.cme.com/edu/fx/tradingfx/howfxwrks1568.html>
[Accessed on 20th December, 2005]

Chinn, M.D., and Meredith, G., 2004, ‘Monetary Policy and Long-Horizon
Uncovered Interest Parity’, IMF Staff Papers, Vol. 51, No. 3,
International Monetary Fund

Chowdhry, B., 1995, ‘Corporate Hedging of Exchange Risk When Foreign

Currency Cash Flow is Uncertain’, Management Science, Vol. 41,

149
 pp.1083-1090

Conway, P., and Franulovich, 2002, ‘Explaining the NZ-Australian Exchange

Rate: Occasional Paper’, Westpac Institutional Bank
<http://www.westpactrust.co.nz/olcontent/olcontent.nsf/content/FM_O
ccasional_Papers_20020411/$FILE/Explaining%20the%20NZ-Austral
ian%20exchange%20rate.pdf> [Accessed on 15th May, 2004]

Corden, W.M., 1991, ‘Does the Currenct Account Matter: The Old View and
The New’, Economic Papers, Vol. 10, pp. 1-19

Corsetti, G., and Roubini, N., 1998, ‘What Caused the Asian Currency and
Financial Crisis?’, Yale University, January

Corsetti, G., Pesenti, P., and Roubini, N., 1999, ‘What Caused the Asian
Currency and Financial Crisis’, Japan and the World Economy, Vol. 11,
pp.305-373

Cox, J.C., Ross, S.A., 1976, ‘The Valuation of Options for Alternative
Stochastic Processes’, Journal of Financial Economics, Vol. 3, March,
pp. 145-166

Cox, J.C., Ross, S.A., and Rubinstein, M., 1979, ‘Option Pricing: A Simplified
Approach’, Journal of Financial Economics, Vol. 7, No. 3, September,
pp.229-263

Cox, J.C., and Rubinstein, M., 1985, Options Markets¸ Prentice Hall, New
Jersey

Das, S., 2004, Swaps/ Financial Derivatives: Products, Pricing, Applications

and Risk Management, 3rd edn, John Wiley & Sons (Asia), Singapore

Davis, J.H., 2004, ‘Currency Risk and the U.S. Dollar’, Journal of Financial
Planning, Vol. 17, No. 3, pp.48

Dawson, A.J.D., and Rodney, W.H., 1994, ‘The Use of Exchange-Rate

150
 Hedging Techniques by UK Property Companies’, Journal of Property
Finance, Vol. 5, No. 4, pp. 56-67

De Roon, F.A., Nijman, T.E., and Werker, B.J.M., 2003, ‘Currency hedging for
international stock portfolios: The usefulness of mean-variance
analysis’, Journal of Banking & Finance, No. 27, pp. 327-349

Dewatripont, M., and Maskin, E., 1995, ‘Credit and Efficiency in Centralized
and Decentralized Economies’, Review of Economic Studies, Vol. 62,
No. 4, pp. 541-555

Dinwoodie, J., and Morris, J., 2003, ‘Tanker forward freight agreements: the
future for freight futures?’, Maritime Policy & Management, Vol. 30,
No.1 , pp. 45-58

Dixit, A.K., and Pindyck, R.S., 1994, Investment under Uncertainty, Princeton
Universit Press, USA

Dominguez, K.M., and Frankel, J.A., 1993, ‘Foreign Exchange Intervention: An

Empirical Assessment’, In: Frankel, J.A., (Ed.), On Exchange Rate,
MIT Press, Cambridge, pp. 327-345

Edison, H.J., 1993, ‘The Effectiveness of Central Bank Intervention: A Survey

of the Literature after 1982’, Special Paper on International Economics
18, Princeton University

Edison, H., Cashin, P. and Liang, H., 2003, ‘Foreign Exchange Intervention
and the Australian Dollar: Has it Mattered?’, IMF Working Paper,
International Monetary Fund

Ekvall, N., Jennergren, L.P., and Näslund, B., 1997, ‘Currency Option Pricing

with Mean Reversion and Uncovered Interest Parity: A Revision of the

Garman-Kohlhagen Model’, European Journal of Operational
Research, Vol. 100, No. 1, pp. 41-59

151
Eng, M.V., Lees, F.A., and Mauer, L.J., 1998, Global Finance, 2nd edition,
Addison-Wesley, USA

Faff, R., and Chan, H., 1998, ‘A Test of the Intertemporal CAPM in the
Australian Equity Market’, Journal of International Financial Markets,
Institutions and Money¸ Vol. 8, pp. 175-188

Federal Reserve Bank of New York, 2006

<http://www.newyorkfed.org/markets/statistics/dlyrates/fedrate.html>
[Accessed on 19th September 2006]

Flood, R., and Rose, A., 2001, ‘Uncovered Interest Parity in Crisis: The Interest
Rate Defense in the 1990s’, IMF Working Paper WP/01/207,
December

Garman, M., 1976, ‘A General Theory of Asset Valuation Under Diffusion State
Processes’, Working Paper 50, University of California, Berkeley

Garman, M.B., and Kohlhagen, S.W., 1983, ‘Foreign Currency Option Values’,
Journal of International Money and Finance, Vol. 2, December, pp.
231-237

Geczy, C., Minton, B.A., and Schrand, C., 1997, ‘Why Firms Use Currency
Derivatives’, Journal of Finance, Vol. 52, No. 4, pp. 1323-1354

Hallwood, C.P., and MacDonald, R., 2000, International Money and Finance,
3rd edition, Blackwell Publishers, Great Britain

Henry, O.T., and Olekalns, N., 2002, ‘Does the Australian Dollar Real
Exchange Rate Display Mean Reversion’, Journal of International
Money and Finance, Vol. 21, No. 5, pp. 651-666

Hollein, M.N., 2002, ‘Pricing in Foreign Currency vs. U.S. dollars – how is your
company managing currency risk?’, AFP Exchange, Vol. 22, No. 6,
pg.112

152
Homaifar, G., 2004, Managing Global Financial and Foreign Exchange Rate
Risk, Wiley Finance, USA

Hooper, N., 2001, ‘Pasminco Put into Voluntary Administration’, ABC AM

Archive, ABC <http://www.abc.net.au/am/stories/s371301.htm>
th
[Accessed on 29 December, 2005]

Huang, H., and Xu, C., 1999, ‘Financial Institutions and the Financial Crisis in
East Asia – Growth, Repression, and Liberalisation’, European
Economic Review, Vol. 43, pp.903-914

Huffman, S.P. and Makar, S.D., 2004, ‘The Effectiveness of Currency-Hedging

Techniques over Multiple Return Horizons for Foreign-Denominated
Debt Issuers’, Journal of Multinational Financial Management, Vol. 15,
pp. 105-115

Hughes, J.E., and MacDonald, 2002, International Banking: Text and Cases,
Addison Wesley, Boston

Hull, J., 1989, Options, Futures, and Other Derivative Securities, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall

Hull, J.C., 2006, Options, Futures, and Other Derivatives, 6th edition,
Prentice-Hall USA

Hull, J.C., and White, A., 1987, ‘The Pricing of Options on Assets with
Stochastic Volatilities’, Journal of Finance, Vol. 42, June, pp. 281-300

Hull, J.C., and White, A., 1988, ‘An Analysis of the Bias in Option Pricing
Caused by a stochastic Volatility’, Advances in Futures and Options
Research, Vol. 3, pp. 27-61

Hull, J., and White, A., 1993, ‘Efficient Procedures for Valuing European and
American Path-Dependent Options’, Journal of Derivatives, Vol. 1, No.
1, Fall, pp. 21-31

153
Hunter, W.C., and Timme, S.G., 1992, ‘A Stochastic Dominance Approach to
Evaluating Foreign Exchange Hedging Strategies’, Financial
Management, Autumn, pp. 104-112

International Swaps and Derivatives Association (ISDA), 2002, An Introduction

to the Documentation of OTC Derivatives by Allen and Overy, ISDA
<http://www.isda.org/educat/pdf/documentation_of_derivatives.pdf>
[Accessed on 6th February, 2006]

International Swaps and Derivatives Association (ISDA), 2003, ‘Over 90%of

the World’s 500 Largest Companies Use Derivatives to Help Manage
Their Risks, According to New ISDA Survey’, Surveys & Market
Statistics, ISDA <http://www.isda.org/> [Accessed on 6th February,
2006]

International Swaps and Derivatives Association (ISDA), 2006, About ISDA,

ISDA <http://www.isda.org/index.html> [Accessed on 6th February,
2006]

Jüttner, D.J., 2000, International Finance and Global Investments, 4th edition,
Longman, Malaysia

Kaminsky, G.L., and Lewis, K.K., 1996, ‘Does Foreign Exchange Intervention
Signal Future Monetary Policy?’, Journal of Monetary Economics, Vol.
37, No. 2, pp. 285-312

Karfakis, C., and Kim, S.J., 1995, ‘Exchange rates, interest rates and current
account news: some evidence from Australia’, Journal of International
Money and Finance, Vol. 14, No. 4, August pp. 575-595

Kawaller, I.G., 2001, ‘Risk Management – Getting Started’, AFP Exchange,

November/December

Kearns, J., and Rigobon, R., 2002, ‘Identifying the Efficacy of Central Bank
Interventions: The Australian Case’, NBER Working Paper No. 9062,
National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, Massachusetts

154
Kearns, J., and Rigobon, R., 2005, ‘Identifying the Efficacy of Central Bank
Interventions: Evidence from Australia and Japan’, Journal of
International Economics, Vol. 66, No. 1, pp.31-48

Kim, T., 1993, International Money and Banking, Routledge, London

Kim, S.H., and Kim, S.H., 2006, Global Corporate Finance: Text and Cases, 6th
edition, Blackwell, Malder, Mass

Kim, S-J, Kortian, T., and Sheen, J., 2000, ‘Central Bank Intervention and
Exchange Rate Volatility – Australian Evidence’, Journal of
International Financial Markets, Institutions and Money, Vol. 10, pp.
381-405

Kim, S-J., and Sheen, J., 2002, ‘The Determinants of Foreign Exchange
Intervention by Central Banks: Evidence from Australia’, Journal of
International Money and Finance, Vol. 21, pp. 619-649

Kim, S-J., and Pham, C., 2006, ‘Is Foreign Exchange Intervention by Central
Banks Bad News for Debt Markets?: A Case of Reserve Bank of
Australia’s Interventions 1986-2003’, Journal of International Financial
Markets, Vol.16, pp.446-467

Kohlhagen, S.W., 1978, ‘A Model of Optimal Foreign Exchange Hedging

Without Exchange Rate Projections’, Journal of International Business
Studies, Vol. 9, No. 2, Fall, pp.9-19

Kornai, J., 1980, Economics of Shortage, North-Holland, Amsterdam

Krugman, P.R., 1991, ‘Target Zones and Exchange Rate Dynamics’, The
Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 106, No. 3, MIT Press, August,
pp. 669-682

Krugman, P., 1998, ‘What Happened to Asia?’, Mimeo, MIT Press, Cambridge,
MA

155
Kyte, 2002, ‘The Hedging Imperative: Making the Choices’, Balance Sheet, Vol.
10, No. 2, pp.32-40 <www.Emeraldinsight.com/0965-7967.htm>
[Accessed on 10th December, 2004]

Lalancette, S., Leclerc, F., and Turcotte, D., 2004, ‘Selective Hedging with
Market Views and Risk Limits: The Case of Hydro-Quebec’, The
Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance, Vol. 44, No. 5,
December, pp.710-726

Lane, T., 1999, ‘The Asian Financial Crisis: What Have We Learned?’, Finance
& Development, Vol. 36, No. 3, September, International Monetary
Fund <http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/1999/09/lane.htm>
[Accessed on 26th November, 2005]

Loderer, C., and Pichler, K., 2000, ‘Firms, Do You Know Your Currency Risk
Exposure? Survey Results’, Journal of Empirical Finance, Vol. 7, No.
3-4, pp. 317-344

Longworth, D., 1981, ‘Testing the Efficiency of the Canadian–U.S. Exchange

Market under the Assumption of No Risk Premium’, Journal of
Finance, Vol. 36, No. 1, pp. 43–9

Macfarlane, I.J., 1993, ‘The Exchange Rate, Monetary Policy, and Intervention’,
Reserve Bank of Australia Bulletin, Dec., pp.16-25

Madura, J., 2003, International Financial Management, 7th edition,

South-Western College Publishing, Cincinnati, Ohio

Makin, A.J., and Shaw, J., 1997, ‘The Ineffectiveness of Foreign Exchange
Market Intervention in Australia’, Asian Economics, Vol. 26, pp. 82-96

Mannino, P.V., Milani, K., 1992, ‘Budgeting for an International Business’,

Management Accounting, Vol. 73, No. 8, pp. 36

Mathur, I., 1982, ‘Managing Foreign Exchange Risk Profitability’, Columbia

Journal of World Business, Winter, pp.23-30

156
Meese, R., and Rogoff, K., 1983, ‘Empirical Exchange Rate Models of the
Seventies’, Journal of International Economics, Vol. 14, February, pp.
3–24

Merton, R.C., 1973, ‘Theory of Rational Option Pricing’, Bell Journal of

Economics and Management Science, Vol. 4, Spring, pp. 141-183

Merton, R.C., 1976, ‘Option Pricing When Underlying Stock Returns Are
Discontinuous’, Journal of Financial Economics, Vol. 3, March, pp.
125-144

Mishkin, F.S., and Simon, J., 1995, ‘An empirical examination of the Fisher
effect in Australia’, Economic Record

Moffett, M.H., Stonehill, A.I., and Eiteman, D.K., 2006, Fundamentals of

Multinational Finance, 2nd edition, Addison Wesley, United States of
America

Moosa, I.A., 2004, International Finance, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill, Australia

Murray, R.D., 2004, ‘Keeping up with World Currencies’, CMA Management,

Vol. 78, No. 8, pg. 17

Nance, D., Smith, C.W., and Smithson, C.W., 1993, ‘On the Determinants of
Corporate Hedging’, The Journal of Finance, Vol. 48, No. 1, pp.
267-84, March

Neely, C.J., 2000, ‘The Practice of Central Bank Intervention: Looking Under
the Hood’, Working Paper 2000-028A, Federal Reserve Bank of St.
Louis <http://research.stlouisfed.org/wp/2000/2000-028.pdf>
th
[Accessed on 5 January 2006]

Newcrest Mining Limited, 2005, ‘Five Year Summary’, Newcrest Mining Limited
Concise Annual Report 2005, Newcrest Mining Limited
<http://www.newcrest.com.au/upload/reports/2005AnnualHTML/07_fi
nancials/summary.html> [Accessed on 6th January, 2006]

157
New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX), 2005, ‘All about Options: Options
Information: What is an Options Contract?’, NYMEX
<http://www.nymex.com/option_info.aspx?pg=0> [Accessed on 20th
December, 2005]

Nguyen, H., and Faff, R., 2002, ‘On the Determinants of Derivative Usage by
Australian Companies’, Australian Journal of Management¸ Vol. 27,
No. 1, June, pp. 1-24

Nguyen, H. and Faff, R., 2003(a), ‘Can the Use of Foreign Currency
Derivatives Explain Variations in Foreign Exchange Exposure?
Evidence from Australian Companies’, Journal of Multinational
Financial Management, Vol. 13, No. 3, pp. 193-215

Nguyen, H. and Faff, R., 2003(b), ‘Further Evidence on the Corporate Use of
Derivatives in Australia: The Case of Foreign Currency and Interest
Rate Instruments’, Australian Journal of Management, Vol. 28, No. 3,
December, p. 307

Obstfeld, M., and Rogoff, K., 1996, Foundations of International

Macroeconomics, MIT Press, Cambridge

Obstfeld, M., and Stockman, A., 1985, ‘Exchange-Rate Dynamics’, R. Jones

and P. Kenen (eds.), Handbook of International Economics, Vol. II,
Amsterdam: North-Holland

O’Leary, C., 2004, ‘A Currency Player in the Heartland’, Feature: Corporate

Strategies, Investment Dealers’ Digest, February 23, pp. 24-26

Pasminco Limited, 2001, Annual Report 2001, Pasminco Limited

<http://www.pasminco.com.au/resources/uploads/annual2001.pdf>
[Accessed on 6th January, 2006]

Pasminco Limited, 2002, Annual Report 2002, Pasminco Limited

<http://www.pasminco.com.au/resources/uploads/annual2002.pdf>
[Accessed on 6th January, 2006]

158
Philadelphia Stock Exchange (PHLX), 2005(a), ‘A Users’ Guide to Currency
Options’, PHLX <http://www.phlx.com/products/currency/cug.pdf>
[Accessed on 20th December, 2005]

Philadelphia Stock Exchange (PHLX), 2005(b), ‘Standardized Currency

Options’, PHLX
<http://www.phlx.com/products/currency/standard.html> [Accessed on
20th December, 2005]

Pitchford, J., 1989, ‘Does Austalia Really Have A Current Account Problem’,
Economic Papers, Vol. 8, pp.25-32

Pramborg, B., 2005, ‘Foreign Exchange Risk Management by Swedish and

Korean Non-Financial Firms: A Comparative Survey’, Pacific-Basin
Finance Journal, Vol. 13, No. 3, pp. 343-366

Radelet, S., and Sachs, J., 1998, ‘The East Asian Financial Crisis: Diagnosis,
Remedies, Prospects’, Mimeo., Harvard University, Cambridge, MA

Rankin, B., 2004, ‘The Exchange Rate and the Reserve Bank’s Role in the
Foreign Exchange Market’, Reserve Bank of Australia
<http://www.rba.gov.au/Education/exchange_rate.html> [Accessed on
19th May, 2004]

Reserve Bank of Australia (RBA), 2000, ‘Foreign Currency Exposures of

Australian Banks’, Reserve Bank of Australia Bulletin, August, pp.
43-49
<http://www.rba.gov.au/PublicationsAndResearch/Bulletin/bu_aug00/
bu_0800_2.pdf> [Accessed on 10th Sept, 2006]

Reserve Bank of Australia (RBA), 2002, ‘Australia’s Foreign Currency

Exposure and Hedging Practices’, Reserve Bank of Australia Bulletin,
August
<http://www.rba.gov.au/PublicationsAndResearch/Bulletin/bu_aug02/
bu_0802_2.pdf> [Accessed on 10th Sept, 2004]

Reserve Bank of Australia (RBA), 2005(a), ‘Australia’s Foreign Currency

159
 Exposure and Hedging Practices’, Reserve Bank of Australia Bulletin,
December, pp. 1-8
<http://www.rba.gov.au/PublicationsAndResearch/Bulletin/bu_dec05/
bu_1205_1.pdf> [Accessed on 13th Sept, 2006]

Reserve Bank of Australia (RBA), 2005(b), Statistics: Exchange Rates since

1983, Reserve Bank of Australia, Australia
<http://www.rba.gov.au/Statistics/HistoricalExchangeRates/1999to200
2.xls> [Accessed on 9th June, 2005]

Reserve Bank of Australia (RBA), 2006, ‘Reserve Bank of Australia – Monetary

Policy Changes’, Reserve Bank of Australia
<http://www.rba.gov.au/Statistics/cashrate_target.html> [Assessed
th
28 August 2006]

Rogers, J.M., and Siklos, P.L., 2003, ‘Foreign Exchange Market Intervention in
Two Small Open Economies: The Canadian and Australian
Experience’, Journal of International Money and Finance, Vol. 22, No.
3, pp.393-416.

Rubinstein, M. (a), 1994, ‘Implied Binomial Trees’, Journal of Finance, Vol. 49,
No. 3, July, pp. 771-818

Sarno, L., and Taylor, M., 2001, ‘Official Intervention in the Foreign Exchange
Market: Is It Effective and, If So, How Does It Work?’, Journal of
Economic Literature XXXIX, Vol. 3, pp. 839-868

Sarno, L., and Taylor, M.P., 2002, ‘Purchasing Power Parity and the Real
Exchange Rate’, IMF Staff Papers, Vol. 49, No.1, p.65

Sheen, J., 1989, ‘Modeling the Floating Australian Dollar: Can the Random
Walk be Encompassed by A Model Using A Permanent Decomposition
of Money and Output?’, Journal of International Money and Finance,
Vol. 8, pp.253-276

160
Simpson, J.L., and Evans, J., 2003, ‘Commodity Exporting Countries and
Exchange Rates: Australian Evidence’, Derivatives Use, Trading &
Regulation, Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 70-84

Smith, A., 1982, A Mathematical Introduction to Economics, Oxford, Blackwell,

United Kingdom

Solnik, B., and McLeavey, 2004, International Investments, 5th edition, Pearson
Addison Wesley, Boston

Stewart, M., 1994, ‘Should We Concern Ourselves with Foreign Debt’,

Economic Papers, Vol. 13, pp.114-121

Stiglitz, J., 1998, ‘Sound Finance and Sustainable Development in Asia.

Keynote Address to the Asia Development Forum’, The World Bank
<http://econ.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/EXTRESE
ARCH/EXTPROGRAMS/EXTTRADERESEARCH/0,,contentMDK:20
025728~menuPK:64001880~pagePK:210083~piPK:152538~theSite
PK:544849,00.html> [Accessed on 5th January 2008]

Stockman, A.C., 1980, ‘A Theory of Exchange Rate Determination’, Journal of

Political Economy Vol. 88, pp. 673-698

Stockman, A.C., 1988(a), ‘On the Roles of International Financial Markets and
Their Relevance for Economic Policy’, Journal of Money, Credit, and
Banking 20, Vol. 3, August, pp. 531-549

Stockman, A.C., 1988(b), ‘Real Exchange Rate Variability under Pegged and
Floating Nominal Exchange Rate Systems: An Equilibrium Theory’, in
K. Brunner and A.H. Meltzer (eds.), Carnegie-Rochester Conference
Series on Public Policy Vol. 29, Autumn, pp. 259-294

Stonham, P., 1996(a), ‘Whatever Happened at Barings? Part One: The Lure of
Derivatives and Collapse’, European Management Journal, Vol. 14,
No.2, April, pp. 167-175

Stonham, P., 1996(b), ‘Whatever Happened at Barings? Part Two:

161
 Unauthorized Trading and the Failure of Controls’, European
Management Journal, Vol. 14, No.3, June, pp. 269-278

Tyndall, F., 2004, ‘Prices And Volumes Take A Dive’, Australian Financial
Review, Thursday, 27th. May, Australia

Whyte, J., 2001, ‘Currency Hedges Hit Earnings in Australia’, The Northern
Miner, Vol. 87, No. 29, Toronto, pg.1

Wilson, A., and Campbell, W., 2003, ‘Enron’s hedging scheme: what went
wrong?’, Balance Sheet, Vol. 11, No. 1, pp.27-31

Wong, K.P., 2003, ‘Currency Hedging with Options and Futures’, European
Economic Review, Vol. 47, pp. 833-839

162
 Appendices

Appendix A

Appendix A1 Origin of Hedging

We now proceed with a brief history of hedging. The recent flaws in corporate

governance, particularly the 1997 Asian financial crisis, the collapse of the

London Barings Bank and the fall of Enron, have highlighted the importance of

good hedging practices.

Information collected from the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME) has

unveiled the long history of hedging, which could be traced back to early

agrarian societies. At the beginning of commodity markets where producers

and buyers of agricultural goods began meeting in a common place to trade,

the often volatile and mismatched supply and demand generally lead to

unpredictable commodity prices. Hence, in an attempt to allow more efficient

and predictable trading, producers and buyers in the agrarian societies began

using agreements in which they were allowed to “buy now, but pay and deliver

later” (CME, 2005a). These agreements were individually dictated with details

of established prices and delivery terms agreed between the buyer and

producer (seller). These agreements were the origin of hedging. They were the

beginning of forward contracts and ancestor to other currently available

hedging techniques, such as the futures contracts, options contracts and

swaps. In the seventeenth century, the use of “forward agreements” was

recorded in the Japanese rice markets (CME, 2005a). It is now a common

belief that forward agreements are the “original” form of financial derivatives.

This long history may explain why forward contracts have been reported by the

163
Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) in 2001 to be the most commonly used

hedging tool (for further insight to this report, please refer to ABS 2001).

As our society continued to evolve, our trading marketplace became more

sophisticated. We started from the initial trading of solely agricultural

commodities, to the current expanded definition of “commodity” which includes

not only manufactured goods but also the floating world currencies, global

interest rates, and share market indexes (CME, 2005a, 2005b). We moved

from the individually negotiated contracts to internationally standardized

contracts as we try to streamline contract processing and delivery. It is no

wonder why authors such as, ABS (2001), Alster (2003), Anac and Gozen

(2003), Batten et al. (1993), CME (2005a, 2005b), Dawson and Rodney (1994),

Kyte (2002) and Murray (2004), have suggested that the continuous evolution

of trading is a reflection of how we try to improve the effectiveness of the

commercial marketplace.

164
Appendix A2 The Role of Gold in Hedging

Throughout the evolution of hedging, various tools have been utilized.

However, one ought not to overlook the important role of gold in acting as

insurance against inflation and political instability. Indeed, from the Pure Gold

Standard prior to World War I when all countries fixed an exchange rate

between national currencies and gold to establish currency cross rates, to the

post-1973 floating currency systems where Central Banks around the globe

held gold primarily as a hedge against the devaluation of reserves held in key

currencies, gold bullion has played a key role as a hedging tool (ASX, 2005d).

Throughout their history, Central Banks have used gold bullion as a reserve

during times when the nation’s currency had suffered extensive devaluation.

Indeed, using gold bullion as reserve has always been an essential monetary

policy for public confidence.

However, as our society evolved, our perception and utilization of gold as a

hedging tool has also changed. Some authors (such as Faff and Chan, 1998)

claim the change occurred during the 1970s when the floating system began,

whereas others (including the Australian Stock Exchange) suggest the change

occurred later during the late 1990s. Regardless of the different time frame

suggested, the diminishing role of gold as a hedging tool is undeniable. In fact,

during the latter part of the 1990s, Central Banks worldwide began selling their

gold reserves and investing the proceeds into foreign currency assets (Faff

and Chan, 1998; ASX, 2005d). Among them, the Reserve Bank of Australia

(RBA) sold 167 tonnes of gold in 1997, reducing its gold holdings from 247

tonnes to merely 80 tonnes (ASX, 2005d). The sales were triggered by the

costs associated with holding gold as an asset. These costs include but are not

165
limited to: (1) opportunity cost of interest foregone on the substitute currency

reserve, and (2) storing and transportation costs of gold bullion. The proceeds

of the 167 tonnes of gold sales were immediately invested in foreign currency

assets such as government securities denominated in US dollars, Japanese

yen, and German marks.

Gold has unquestionably had a historic role in the risk management industry as

it has long been regarded as essential insurance in the monetary system.

However, as our society evolves, our demand for gold bullion as a hedging tool

has also changed. It is these changing roles of various commodities (such as

agriculture, gold or currencies) that have allowed the continuous evolution in

corporate hedging. The changing commodity roles also reflect the changing

era in the financial markets as people continue their efforts in refining the

commercial marketplace through more effective and efficient hedging

mechanisms. Indeed, Alster (2003) suggested the unification of Europe by

adopting one single currency has simplified the normal mechanism of hedging

which corporate treasurers would generally endure when faced with

cross-nation trading. Such simplification not only indicates easier risk

management for corporate treasurers, but also more predictable corporate

revenue, and encourages a better managed corporation.

166
Appendix A3 Consequences of Imprudent Hedging

Hedging is not to be conducted in a gambling or speculative manner8.Indeed,

many companies that have been adopting hedging as a tool for minimizing

their currency exposure normally include statements proclaiming that the

company’s involvement in currency hedging activities is not for profit but is an

insurance against the volatile currency market. However, during the course of

research, we realized there has been no shortage of cases in which

companies misused the basic function of hedging. Amongst these cases,

almost no company survived without substantial loses; most actually suffered

irreversible financial damage. Cases of misusing hedging strategies are noted

in Australia as well as overseas. The collapse of Enron in the United States

and the fall of Pasminco in Australia are just two recent infamous cases (Brown

and Ma, 2006; Wilson and Campbell, 2003; Whyte, 2001).

It is the object of this thesis to derive a contemporary hedging model that will

assist any investor or international company to manage and minimize their

exposure to any adverse exchange rate movements. However, we recognize

that, in any successful hedging strategy, there are at least two key factors. The

first key success factor is a thorough understanding of the economic

fundamentals. Indeed, a lack of understanding of these economic

fundamentals will blur or even jeopardize judgment on the currency movement.

An imprecise estimation on the future currency trends will lead hedgers to

derive hedging strategies that are unfit to insure the currency exposure.
8 Anac and Gozen (2003), Alster (2003), Dawson and Rodney (1994), De Roon et al (2003),
Dinwoodie and Morris (2003), Lalancette et al. (2004), Nguyen and Faff (2002, 2003a), and
O’Leary (2004) are just some of those authors noting this view.

167
The result of any under-insured exposure can be disastrous. The second key

success factor relates to the attitude of the hedger. Indeed, some of those

failed hedging attempts are caused by imprudent, unethical or irresponsible

hedgers. Hedging attempts undertaken by irresponsible hedgers normally

create more currency exposure for the company as opposed to reducing risk

for the company. Likewise witnessed in the case of Enron, most damages

reported due to failed hedging attempts can involve large sums of money,

sometimes large enough to cause business failure. These irresponsible

activities certainly can discourage the use of hedging amongst ordinary

corporate treasurers. In the following section, we will reveal some of those

cases in which international companies, mainly Australian multinational

corporations, suffered losses as a result of their own hedging practices.

We now proceed with the costly consequences of imprudent hedging, with

Pasminco being the first case we will discuss in this section. In September

2001, Pasminco joined a string of big, failed Australian companies like HIH and

Ansett as the company filed for voluntary administration9. Pasminco insisted

that, after the appointment of John Spark and Peter McCluskey as the

Pasminco Group’s Voluntary Administrators, the company would continue their

mining business as usual in an attempt to trade out of the huge $2.6 billion

debt (Hooper, 2001; Pasminco, 2001; Whyte, 2001). In the company’s 2001

Annual Report, Pasminco claimed to incur a loss of AUD2,418.3 million after

tax compared to a profit of AUD23.4 million in 2000 (Brown and Ma, 2006;

Pasminco, 2001). The big tumble was regarded as a result of falling zinc prices

coupled with bad judgment (strategies) on its hedging of foreign currencies,

9
Refer to Hooper (2001), Pasminco (2001), and Whyte (2001) for more information.

168
which led to drastically falling share prices as well as crippling debts that at one

time reached a maximum of $2.8 billion.

Authors like Whyte (2001) later referred to the Australian lead and zinc

producer as the highest profile casualty of currency hedging, and this

statement comes as no surprise. Indeed, it has been disclosed that Pasminco

had a currency hedge book valued at negative AUD867 million that was sitting

on top of a AUD77.1 million losses resulting from the company’s bad-timing in

selling forward silver and silver swap contracts (Pasminco, 2001; Whyte, 2001).

This research unveiled that at the financial year-end in June 2000, the

currency hedge book included AUD3.5 billion in sold currency put options with

strike prices averaging near US64.4 cents, and AUD3.3 billion in bought call

options with strike prices averaging near US68.1 cent, (Whyte, 2001).

According to Whyte (2001), the hedging strategies were supposed to protect

revenue if the exchange rate rose above US68.1 cents. This protection came

at a cost of forgoing any revenue windfall if the exchange rate fell below

US64.4 cents. Unfortunately, as historical data from the Reserve Bank of

Australia (RBA) later unveiled, the Australian dollar fell to a low of US48.3

cents on 3rd April 2001 (RBA, 2005). By then, one can only imagine the total

currency losses experienced by Pasminco (Whyte, 2001). In reality, at the end

of 2000, Pasminco had already reported foreign exchange losses of negative

AUD42 million. Hence, it is no wonder that a few months later when the AUD

bottomed out, the losses in the options market not only swallowed the whole

operating profit of AUD88 million, but, presented Pasminco with an interim net

loss of AUD37.3 million (Whyte, 2001; RBA, 2005). These losses in the

financial markets unquestionably played a significant part in the ill-fated

169
Pasminco’s road to voluntary administration. After the collapse of Pasminco,

numerous researches were conducted surrounding the financial operations of

this company. Authors, such as Brown and Ma (2006), suggested that the use

of quantitative models for risk measurement could have assisted the

management of Pasminco to better calculate and quantify the real risk of

insolvency that the company faced, in turns, made better judgment with

regards to their currency hedge strategy. However, the findings of their

research can only be a valuable lessons and reference for other companies.

Having examined the hedging strategy adopted by Pasminco, it seems that the

company’s hedge committee (those who designed and approved the hedging

strategies for Pasminco) must have been very confident in their own ability to

predict the movement of the Australian dollar. In fact, they executed such an

aggressive strategy despite the obvious embedded risk. Amongst all those

risks, the imbalance between the amount hedged and those needed to be

hedged was almost impossible to go unnoticed. It is based on such obvious

risk embedded in the strategy that we began questioning the true intention of

Pasminco’s utilization of financial derivatives. The company certainly declared

in their Annual Report that Pasminco was not involved in speculative derivative

usage. However, we remained unconvinced and the following explains why.

In a very simplified sense, we see that the basic function of hedging is like

sitting on the seesaw. When companies create a hedge account, the first and

foremost intention is to use any revenue gained from this hedge account to

offset and make up for the losses encountered in their daily operational

revenue. In other words, when the company’s revenue is estimated to suffer

170
due to a rising Australian dollar, the correct move will be to open a hedge

position predicting the Australian dollar to appreciate, which in options

market’s terms, is to either buy a call option or sell a put option. In doing so,

should the prediction of a rising Australian dollar come true, the company will

be able to offset the operational loss using the hedge gain (vice versa if the

prediction is not realized). It is vital to note that in order for the seesaw effect

mentioned earlier to work, the amount opened on the options positions ought

to equal the expected earning intended to be hedged. Otherwise, in the case of

Pasminco where the hedge (AUD3.3 billion in bought call options and AUD3.5

billion in sold options, using an average exchange rate in June 2000 of US60

cents the sum is equal to nearly US$4 billion) exceeded the intended earning

(nearly US$2.3 billion as estimated in the year ending 30 June 2000), the

seesaw will become imbalanced and it takes no genius to figure out what

happens next to a combination of an imbalanced seesaw and poorly built

(financial) foundation – the person sitting on top of the seesaw falls, which in

this case means the company faces losses.

Having said the above, we also acknowledge, unquestionably, that the

so-called “cap and floor strategy” adopted by Pasminco would have been a

brilliant strategy, not only as hedging mechanism, but also as an opportunity

for the company to earn an extra windfall from the derivative market, if their

prediction on the Australian dollar movement had been correct. Sadly, as

history unfolded, their prediction went horribly wrong. Indeed, the excessive

hedge ratio most certainly exposed Pasminco to even more volatility in the

currency market, creating a vicious cycle for the company’s already unfit

financial wellbeing, and undeniably distorted the basic function of hedging as

171
insurance for corporate earnings. Moreover, it is possible that the use of the

cap and floor strategy was mainly due to the strategy’s ability to: (1) reduce the

cost (the amount of premium required to open the options positions) by paying

the premium for their bought call options by using the premium paid to them in

their sold put options; and (2) double the hedge gain should Pasminco’s

Australian prediction came true. The possibility of this being their motivation for

using the cap and floor strategy is disturbing. Indeed, a person’s hunger for

cost reduction and greed for speculative gain in the financial market can never

justify putting the well-being of a multinational company on the line. It is based

on the above analysis that we maintain our suspicion as to the true intention of

Pasminco’s so-called currency hedge strategy during that period.

It is an unfortunate reality that bad currency hedge books were not problems

unique to Pasminco. In fact, research unveiled that bad currency hedge books

were also the main motivation on that kindled merger talks between another

two Australian mining companies, Delta Gold and Goldfields (Whyte, 2001).

For the purpose of this thesis, Delta Gold will be referred as DG from here

onwards. It is reported that at the end of March 2001 (before the Australian

dollar reached a low of USD48.3cents in April 2001), DG reported a currency

hedge book with mark-to-market value AUD-111 million (Whyte, 2001; RBA,

2005). The figure was coupled with AUD-121 million recorded for the gold

miner’s wrongly judged gold hedge (Whyte, 2001; RBA, 2005). These losses

resulted from the company’s wrongly designed hedge strategies and cost DG

dearly. Indeed, with reported revenue of AUD416 million in the year ending

June 2001, DG only recorded earnings of fifty two million Australian Dollars

(AUD52million). The year-2001 losses were regrettably even worse than the

172
previous year, in which DG lost AUD115 million on revenue of AUD327 million

(Whyte, 2001).

Goldfields is a gold producer in which the South African house Harmony Gold

hold a 23% interest. Compared to DG, Goldfields had done slightly better in the

financial markets. Goldfields reported an AUD87 million liability from a

currency hedge, compared to DG’s AUD111 million liability from their currency

hedge (Whyte, 2001). Goldfields also reported a better result in their gold

hedge. In fact, the company reported positive mark-to-market gold hedges

when DG reported a AUD121 million loss in their gold hedges (Whyte, 2001).

Goldfields managed to report an increased profit of AUD26 million in year 2001

despite its losses in the currency hedges. It is almost devastating that these

two gold producers had reported a combined whopping AUD198 million loss in

their currency hedges. The sum is obviously much less than the incurred on

the Pasminco Group’s hedge book. Nevertheless, AUD198 million is still a

substantial loss in the financial market, especially if it is caused by bad

strategic calls by their risk management committee.

In addition to the above mentioned international Australian mining companies,

Newcrest Mining joined the group as another victim of the falling AUD in April

2001. However, unlike Pasminco or Delta Gold, Newcrest Mining survived. In

fact, Newcrest Mining is still trading without having to go through voluntary

administration or merger talks. According to Whyte (2001), Newcrest Mining

reported total losses of AUD694 million for the year ending June 2001, which

was more than the combined losses of both DG and Goldfields. The total loss

included a mark-to-market currency hedge book value of AUD436 million, and

173
a further AUD173 million and AUD85 million as recorded for the company’s

failed gold and copper hedges (Whyte, 2001). Having gone through the

company’s five-year financial summary, we believe that Newcrest Mining was

more resistant toward this huge deduction to their book’s balance, mainly

because the company’s financial structure was otherwise healthy, especially

compared to the Pasminco Group as recorded in Pasminco’s annual reports10

(Newcrest Mining, 2005; Pasminco, 2001; Pasminco, 2002). Indeed, the

annual report showed that Newcrest’s return on capital employed remained

positive during 2001-2005, and their total assets and liabilities normally have a

2:1 proportion (Newcrest Mining, 2005). Hence, despite their enormous hedge

loss that was a few times larger than that of Delta Gold (DG), Newcrest Mining

was not only able to avoid any merger talks like occurred between DG and

Goldfields, but also to re-bound declaring a profit after tax of AUD92 million in

2003 following a meager earning of AUD38 million in 2001, and a low negative

earning of AUD53 million in 2002 (Newcrest Mining, 2005).

So far in this section we have unveiled some of those most talked-about cases

of failed currency hedging strategies in Australia. It is indisputable that these

Australian mining companies have had quite a bumpy ride on the road of

currency hedging with their combined hedging loses in 2001 estimated at a

total of AUD15.01 billion, and this amount only accounts for their

“not-so-successful” currency hedges and does not include other hedge losses

encountered in the commodity markets. The failures of the disastrous hedging

attempts discussed above were mainly due to: (1) bad judgment on the

10
Pasminco’s Annual Report 2001 and 2002.

174
movement of the Australian dollar before it hit US48.3 cents in April 2001; and

(2) the irresponsible and aggressive hedging tactics of the hedgers. We

classify them as classic failed hedging attempts are caused by lack of a clear

understanding of the surrounding economic fundamentals. We believe the

cases discussed here did not involve questionable hedging intentions like we

witnessed with Enron before the energy company collapsed in 2001. We refer

to Enron’s hedging intention as “questionable”, mainly because we see the

function of hedging as insurance for companies exposed to risks. We share

this view with Nguyen and Faff (2002), Alster (2003), Anac and Gozen (2003),

De Roon et al. (2003), Dinwoodie and Morris (2003), and other authors in the

financial field. We believe that hedging should be used to assist companies in

minimizing their earning exposure and stabilizing their income level. We

oppose the use of hedging as a technique to conceal any additional debt faced

by the company. In fact, hedging is most definitely not a tool to be applied by

ethical management in keeping true economic losses off their company’s

financial statements. We now address how Enron’s management had utilized

the financial markets in ways which led to the questioning of their true

intention.

We mentioned earlier in this chapter that hedging is sometimes taken as a

form of value-adding exercise for a company. However, we think that Enron’s

management had perhaps taken this idea a bit too far. Indeed, the

management seemingly believed that keeping the true economic losses of the

company’s investments off Enron’s financial statements, would buy them time

to settle those debts or at least figure out another strategy to keep them under

the carpet (Wilson and Campbell, 2003). Unfortunately for them, this is not

175
what hedging is about, and most certainly not what ethical corporate

governance is about. With every action there are consequences. In fact, with

such an unethical management style, the collapse of Enron was unfortunate

but almost inevitable. For the purpose of this thesis, we will not go into more

detail regarding Enron’s hedging scheme, mainly because Enron’s hedging

strategies were aimed at the stock market (by hedging its own stock using

options) (Wilson and Campbell, 2003). With the focus of this thesis is set on

hedging the currency market, one ought to understand the varying arena

between Enron’s hedging scheme and the intended focus of this thesis. For

more information on Enron’s hedging scheme, refer to Wilson and Campbell

(2003).

The Pasminco Group, Delta Gold, Goldfields, NewCrest Mining and Enron are

sadly not the only companies reported to have suffered in the financial markets.

In January 1985, Lufthansa, the German airline, entered a contract with

Boeing to purchase 20 aircrafts for USD500 million (Homaifar, 2004, p.11,

p.238). At that time, the US was experiencing high real interest rates, triggered

by the tight monetary policy of Volker (the chairman of the Federal Reserve at

that time). Faced with such a volatile economy, Lufthansa feared this would

increase their cost of the aircraft in Deutsche marks. Hence, the German

airline purchased US dollars using a forward contract. However, as history

revealed, the value of the US dollar fell sharply, notably after the September

1985 Plaza Agreement in New York. This agreement was signed the Group of

Five Central Banks, which include the US, Japan, Germany, France and the

United Kingdom. The purpose of this agreement was to put downward

pressure on the value of the US dollar by selling reserves of the US dollar to

176
buy other foreign currencies. Lufthansa’s initial fear suddenly became a costly

reality. Indeed, as the US dollar devalued against the Deutsche mark, the

forward contracts instead of reducing the cost of purchase increased it by

USD140 million to USD160 million (Homaifar, 2004, p.11, p.238). There are

many lessons to be learned from the Lufthansa case. We believe the most

significant message is that hedging using the financial market is not always the

only or best solution for companies trying to minimize their currency risks. In

fact, as witnessed in this case, the company would have unquestionably been

much better off adopting the so-called “do nothing” hedging approach. In the

“do nothing” approach, Lufthansa could have simply waited and purchased the

currency on the spot market, and benefited from the September 1985 Plaza

Agreement in New York.

So far, we have discussed a number of cases in which the misuse of hedging

exposed users to even more risk, as opposed to reducing the risk exposure.

It is regrettable that the above mentioned cases, both Australian and overseas

multinational corporations (MNCs), are just the tip of the iceberg of companies’

failed battles in the foreign exchange market. In Table A1, we list some of

those multinational corporations that also encountered foreign exchange

losses during the 1990s. See Hull (2006, p.11) for more examples of

companies experiencing losses in derivative markets.

177
Table A1: Foreign Exchange Losses

Company Transaction-inducing Date Approximate Description

(Home Loss Loss
Country)

Kashima Oil Speculative losses

(Japan) Futures 1993 USD1.5 billion stemming from loss of
internal control

Bank Negara Foreign exchange Speculative loss in

1993 USD2.1 billion
(Malaysia) futures foreign currency futures

Allied Lyons Speculative loss from

Foreign exchange USD219
(U.K.) 1991 unauthorized option
options million
hedging

Showa Shell Affiliate of Shell

Foreign exchange USD1.54
(Japan) 1993 conceals FX loss for
futures billion
years

Source: Hull, (2006, p. 11).

In this section, we have identified some of the consequence which imprudent

hedging practices can bring to companies. Nonetheless, it is noted that the real

extent of hedging damage is often only made evident through its interaction

with other facets of the company’s financial structure. In fact, the damage

caused by hedging can either be intensified or off-set by this interaction, which

mostly explains why Newcrest Mining survived the US48.3 cent per Australian

dollar ordeal in year 2001, whereas Pasminco remains under voluntary

administration, and Delta Gold and Goldfields entered into merger talks (Whyte,

2001).

178
Lessons learned from the above empirical cases of failed currency hedging

have convinced us to firmly align ourselves to the group of authors11 that

criticize the wrongful use of hedging strategies. There has been evidence that

indicates hedging using financial tools (such as forward, futures, options,

money market, and leveraged spot) is not always the best solution. In fact,

under certain circumstances companies are better off adopting the “do nothing”

strategy (e.g. Lufthansa in 1985). However, having said that, it is vital that

when companies do hedge, they use hedging as tool of managing currency

risk but not as a speculative tool for additional revenue, and most definitely not

as a tactic for unethical management to cover up company losses. In this

section, we have presented several cases in which the basic function of

hedging has been distorted.

It is unfortunate that the cases we present are likely to be just the tip of the

iceberg. There are still many unexposed cases in which bad hedging

strategies have practiced. Batten et al. (1993) claimed that amongst those

many firms involved in hedging using financial tools, some contracts are done

without any proper management control (p.571). A proper management control

could be setting an internal foreign exchange dealing limit on contract taking.

Due to such lack of control, irresponsible hedgers sometimes trade more

contracts than they should, in turn, exposing the company to even more risk.

Batten et al. believed that these risk-bearing (instead of risk-minimizing)

practices are normally not disclosed to shareholders. Nonetheless, with the

11
Including Dawson and Rodney (1994), Kawaller (2001), Nguyen and Faff (2002), Alster
(2003), Anac and Gozen (2003), De Roon et al (2003), Dinwoodie and Morris (2003),
Lalancette et al. (2004), and O’Leary (2004).

179
introduction of derivative guidelines, such as the FAS 13312, government

authorities are stepping up the pressure on companies to disclose their

activities in the financial markets, in turn, allowing shareholders to make better

decisions with regard to their investments.

In order to not become just another casualty of the currency hedge, it is

absolutely critical that corporate treasurers constantly review and evaluate the

effectiveness of the company’s hedging strategies, as with any other corporate

strategies. Adjustment actions should be immediately implemented as soon as

circumstances change. Continuous monitoring of hedging strategies is to

become mandatory under the new accounting guidelines that apply specifically

to derivative transactions. These new guidelines include the FAS 133 for the

United States of America and the Listing Rule 4.10.17 as outlined by the ASX.

Under these guidelines, all listed entities should include assessment and

reporting of hedge effectiveness (gains and losses using financial tools) in their

annual reports (ASX, 2003).

12
The FAS 133, otherwise known as Statement No. 133, establishes the accounting and
reporting standard for derivative instruments and hedging activities. This Statement applies to
all entities in the United States and is effective for all fiscal quarters of fiscal years beginning
after June 14, 1999. For more information on this Statement, please refer to the Financial
Accounting Standards Board at URL: http://www.fasb.org/st/summary/stsum133.shtml.

180
Appendix A4 Benefits of Hedging

In the above section, we have presented some cases which showed the

negative side of hedging. We showed that companies had failed or been

forced into voluntary administration after adopting some imprudent hedging

practices. However, having said that, one should not undermine the potential

benefits which proper hedging can bring to companies. Indeed, companies that

hedge properly using financial instruments can expect reduction on their

currency risk exposure, and in turn, improvement on profit/revenue estimations.

The literature clearly asserts that unmanaged currency fluctuations are an

on-going threat for companies, regardless of whether these companies are

multinational companies acting as importer/exporter, or head-quarters with

foreign subsidiaries13.

So, should a company hedge using financial instruments to manage their

currency risks? If the answer is yes, then how and by how much should the

company hedge their currency risks? The contradictions between those that

suffered losses from hedging attempts and those companies that suffered

losses by their unhedged currency accounts has triggered constant debate

with regard to the adoption of hedging using financial instruments (such as

forward, futures, options, swap, money market and leveraged spot). Hence,

having presented the negative stories of hedging failure, we now proceed to

show the other side of hedging – the positive benefits of hedging, as

documented by previous literature.

13
Dawson and Rodney (1994), Kawaller (2001), Nguyen and Faff (2002), Alster (2003), Anac
and Gozen (2003), De Roon et al. (2003), Dinwoodie and Morris (2003), Lalancette et al.
(2004), and O’Leary (2004) are some of those authors that shared this view.

181
We believe that the benefits of hedging are best appreciated by a company

that has been on the wrong side of a sudden currency fluctuation. Indeed, it is

typically after those harsh lessons that companies change their attitudes

towards currency risk management, and begin responding to the foreign

exchange market with conservative yet comprehensive hedging strategies

(Alster, 2003). Amongst those companies that have learned the benefits of

hedging the hard way, J.D. Edwards & Co. is one documented in past literature.

According to Alster (2003), the Denver-based enterprise software firm lost

more than USD6 million in 1996-1998 due to an unmanaged (unhedged)

currency account. Since then, the company changed their currency

management policy to hedging 100% with over USD1 billion of transactions a

year in their attempts to avoid becoming just another victim in the ever

fluctuating foreign exchange market. Like other companies which utilize

hedging as a tool for minimizing the effects of currency movements, J.D.

Edwards asserts that the company is not involved in speculative activities,

instead, the company’s hedging policy is aimed at ensuring stable earnings

(Alster, 2003).

The most commonly documented benefit of hedging is that it is an effective

tool for companies to manage any price risk expected during the course of

business14. More specifically, Anac and Gozen (2003) and Alster (2003) claim

that for multinational companies that source components, assemble parts, test

and market products in various countries, a currency hedge can guard against

the currency movements that can swallow the company’s earnings. In fact, a

14
This idea is shared amongst authors such as Dawson and Rodney (1994), Kawaller (2001),
Nguyen and Faff (2002), Alster (2003), Anac and Gozen (2003), De Roon et al. (2003),
Dinwoodie and Morris (2003), Callinan (2004), Lalancette et al. (2004), and O’Leary (2004).

182
currency hedge can assure the company has a predictable cash flow which is

needed to run the business and allows the company to maintain more stable

products/services pricing. Nguyen and Faff (2002, 2003a, 2003b) supported

the aforementioned view. In fact, these authors claimed that Australian

companies with higher debt ratio and dividend payable are more likely than

others to be involved in currency hedging, mostly because of the added need

for a stable and predictable income (Nguyen and Faff, 2002, 2003a, 2003b).

In the previous section, we presented some imprudent hedging strategies that

can lead companies into trouble. However, carefully executed hedging

strategies can indisputably act as insurance for companies to guard their

earnings when currency goes against their favor. This statement has been

supported by various authors in the financial field15. Thus far, we have

mentioned countless times that a currency hedge can protect an international

company from adverse currency movements. So, what happens if the currency

is expected to go in their favor and because of hedging, the company is

restricted from gaining the extra windfall? This scenario is realistic and the

result can be disastrous as happened to Lufthansa in 1985. It is most certainly

true that companies can benefit by earning extra cash flow when a currency

change goes in their favor. Based on the “seesaw effect”, companies that

hedge are protected from losses due to adverse currency movements and

restricted from any gain due to favorable currency movements. Therefore, a

logical recommendation would be for companies to consider using a currency

15
Including authors such as Dawson and Rodney (1994), Kawaller (2001), Nguyen and Faff
(2002), Alster (2003), Anac and Gozen (2003), De Roon et al. (2003), Dinwoodie and Morris
(2003), Lalancette et al. (2004), and O’Leary (2004).

183
hedge with financial instruments only if they expect the currency to go against

them. Otherwise, companies should choose the “do nothing” strategy. However,

having said that, faced with the ever changing business environment, the

volatile international money market, tax responsibility and shareholders’

interest, responsible corporate hedgers normally (and logically) choose to

forego the chance of earning a few extra dollars at the risk of losing the entire

company’s legitimate earnings. We believe that to some extent, the decision of

to hedge or not to hedge also depends on the hedger’s tolerance toward risks.

So far, we have presented our view of whether or not a corporation should

adopt currency hedges as means of dealing with adverse currency movements.

The reality seems like any unhedged currency account is just as risky as a

100% hedged account. Indeed, unless the hedger can be absolutely precise

when judging the direction of currency movements, the company could well

end up just like Lufthansa in 1985. We know that the international money

market is anything but predictable. Therefore, companies are mostly being

confronted with equal chances of avoiding losses caused by adverse currency

movements with or without hedging. Authors such as Murray (2004) and Alster

(2003) suggested that companies should only hedge 50% while leaving the

other 50% subject to currency movements. These authors claimed that a

hedge of 50% will buy the company some time to react to any changes in the

money market should things go against them; meanwhile the other unhedged

50% will allow the company to gain should the currency move in their favor

(Murray, 2004; Alster, 2003). This is a way in which companies can gain

protection from their hedging tactics while keeping the window of opportunity

open for themselves. Murray (2004) and Alster (2003) claimed that the fifty-fifty

184
hedging policy is widely supported by hedgers, including Kawaller who is the

president of Kawaller Consulting in New York City. This is mainly because it

puts companies in a neutral opportunity cost position.

Having said that, we assert the hedge ratio should change as the

circumstances change in the money market or in the company’s operating

environment. In fact, during different phases of the business and economic

cycles, a company ought to be responsive and modify their generic hedge

strategies or make necessary adjustment to their existing hedge ratio, so to

prevent executing out-dated hedging strategies. As we discussed in the

previous section, improper hedging strategies can bring disastrous

consequences to companies. Dinwoodie and Morris (2003) suggested that the

management’s tolerance toward risks is also a significant contributing factor

when deciding hedge ratio. This tolerance for risk normally affects the way we

make our decisions under uncertainty. In fact, management with higher risk

aversion is most likely to take additional actions when dealing with their

exposure to any risk. Hence, it is no surprise that these authors suggested that

risk aversion is the fundamental motivation for corporate hedging. In fact, if a

company’s treasurer is a highly risk averse individual, then the company will

mostly have higher hedge ratios, as prudent hedging using financial

instruments can allow these treasurers to manage currency risk that is

sometimes beyond their control (Dinwoodie and Morris, 2003). Having said

that, it is important to note that in this thesis, we see hedgers as risk neutral

individuals as they tend to choose their hedging strategies based on the

expected value (return) of any given strategy. Therefore, instead of claiming

the company’s hedge ratio would increase according to the treasurer’s

185
(assuming treasurer is the corporate hedger) risk aversion, we would suggest

that the company’s hedge ratio would increase according to the expected

value of each given hedge ratio.

186
Appendix A5 International Financial Markets

In this section we describe the international monetary system (IMS) which has

been changing over time. A discussion of these changes is relevant to

determining the policy and other mechanisms that are used to evaluate the

Australian dollar.

The world is currently witnessing globalization which involves movements in

goods, services and factors of production across national boundaries. As this

globalization occurs a very large number of transactions are conducted which

required some order in the currency market. A chaotic currency market would

be disastrous for both globalization and world order.

The international monetary system has undergone enormous change as a

consequence of changing economic conditions and world trade. In the period

1879-1913, international currency markets were governed by the Gold

Standard. The history of using gold as a medium of exchange can be dated as

far back as to the Pharaohs in Egypt (about 3000 B.C.). In fact, the Greeks and

Romans used gold coins and passed on this tradition through the mercantile

era to the nineteenth century. The increase of trade during the late nineteenth

century led to a need for a more formalized system for settling international

trade balances. The “rules of the game” were then developed, in which one

country set a par value for its currency (paper or coin) in terms of gold. As an

example, the US declared the dollar to be convertible to gold at a rate of

$20.67 per ounce of gold, and the British pound was pegged at £4.2474 per

ounce of gold. Therefore, the dollar/pound exchange rate was: $4.8665/£. With

187
such simple “rules”, the gold standard gained acceptance as an international

monetary system in Western Europe in the 1870s. The US officially adopted

the system nine years later. During the gold standard era, was important for

governments to maintain adequate reserves of gold to back their currency’s

value. The system implicitly limited the rate at which any individual country

could change its money supply, mainly because any growth in the amount of

money was limited to the rate at which the government could acquire additional

gold. The gold standard worked adequately until the outbreak of World War I

interrupted trade flows and the free movement of gold. This caused the main

trading nations to suspend operation of the gold standard (Moffett et al., 2006,

p.38).

During World War I and the early 1920s, currencies were allowed to fluctuate

over fairly wide ranges in terms of gold and each other. In theory, a country’s

imports and exports caused moderate change in their exchange rate.

Unfortunately, growing numbers of international speculators threw the flexible

exchange rates into disequilibrium. These speculators sold the weak

currencies short, causing them to fall further in value than warranted by real

economic factors. The reverse happened with strong currencies. Fluctuations

in currency value could not be offset by the relatively illiquid forward exchange

market except at very high cost. As a result, the volume of world trade did not

grow in the 1920s in proportion to world gross national product but instead

declined to a very low level with the advent of the Great Depression in the

1930s. In 1934, the US dollar was devalued to $35 per ounce of gold from

$20.67 per ounce prior to World War I. In response to the devaluation, the US

government adopted a modified gold standard, in which the US treasury traded

188
gold only with foreign central banks but not private citizens. From 1934 to the

end of World War II, exchange rates were theoretically determined by each

currency’s value in terms of gold. However, with the chaos created by World

War II and its aftermath, most main trading currencies lost their convertibility

into other currencies, with the US being the only exceptional currency that

continued to be convertible (Moffett et al., 2006, p.38).

Throughout these evolutionary phases, one ought to note the significance of

the establishment of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) after Bretton

Woods. In 1944, as World War II drew to a close, the Allied Powers met at

Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, to create a new post war international

monetary system (Moffett et al., 2006, p.38). With the establishment of the

Bretton Woods Agreements, the world was faced with a US dollar-based

international monetary system and two new institutions, International Monetary

Fund (IMF) and the World Bank. The main purpose of the IMF is to aid

countries with balance of payments and exchange rate problems, whereas, the

World Bank (also known as the International Bank for Reconstruction and

Development) helped fund post war reconstruction and since then has

supported general economic development.

Between 1945 and 1973, as the world was faced with widely different national

policies, rates of inflations and various unexpected external shocks, the

Bretton Woods Agreements began to fail. The collapse was mainly due to: (1)

the lack of adjustment mechanisms in the Bretton Woods Agreement; (2) the

international liquidity problems associated with inadequate gold production;

and (3) the failure to maintain gold parity by not allowing the official gold price

189
to increase (Eng et al., 1998, p.32). The following Table A2 showed the

changing eras of the international monetary system.

Table A2: History of the International Monetary System

History of the IMS

The Gold Standard 1876-1913

The Inter-War Years and World War II 1914-1944

Bretton Woods and the International Monetary Fund 1944

Fixed Exchange Rates 1945-1973

Floating System 1973-Present

Source: Author.

190
Appendix A6 Data from the 2005 Australian Bureau of Statistics Survey

Table A3: Foreign Currency Exposure by Sector as at 31 March 2005

Source: ABS (2005).

191
Table A4: Types of Derivative Contracts

Source: ABS (2005).

192
Table A5: Value of Instrument, by Policy and Level of Hedging as at 31
March 2005

Source: ABS (2005).

193
Appendix A7 Mechanisms of Financial Instruments

Appendix A7.1 Forward Contracts

In this section, we continue to discuss the mechanism of calculating forward

rates for a currency. Research found that forward rates are a function of the

spot rate and the differential in the interest rates of the two currencies. It is

important to note that the forward rate is however not to be seen as a

projection of where the rates are headed; in fact, it is merely a reflection of the

current market conditions and government interest rate policies (Hallwood and

MacDonald, 2000, p.250; Hughes and MacDonald, 2002, p.208; Murray,

2004).

This brings the discussion back to the limitation of forward contract mentioned

earlier: the lack of flexibility over the duration of the agreement. As Murray

(2004) also pointed out, the forward rate is only a reflection of current market

circumstances and, after the forward contact is negotiated, the hedger cannot

pull their business out of a difficult situation once the market has moved

(unfavorably) (Kyte, 2002; Homaifar, 2004, p.8).

A forward contract is ‘when two sides agree today to buy/sell the foreign

exchange at some future date at a price that is agreed on today. The forward

currencies trade at a premium or discount relative to their spot rate’, which

reflects the interest rate differentials (Hughes and MacDonald, 2002, p. 207).

The following is a simplified example of a typical forward transaction. Figure A1

provides further insights regarding the mechanism of a forward contract. See

Hull (2006, chap. 5) for more information on the determination of forward

prices.

194
Let us suppose that Company B is an Australian company that imports

washing machines from Japan. The company had just concluded a negotiation

for the sales of 200 washing machines from Company H, a Japanese white

goods manufacturer. The contract is for JPY20,000,000 and is signed in June

with payment due six months later in December. Since the account is payable

in Japanese yen, Company B (the Australian company) is faced with a

currency exposure problem. Company B would be very happy if the Australian

dollar appreciated against the Japanese yen. Concerns will rise if the

Japanese yen becomes stronger against the Australian dollar. In order to

manage their currency risk, the company prepared a hedging strategy to

minimize the currency exposure to any adverse currency movements.

Company B therefore negotiated a forward contract with a nominated bank.

The forward contract was contracted on 1st June 2006 with maturities of six

months (180 days). That means, the delivery would take place on the 180th day,

nothing earlier or later than the 180th day. If the currency movement was in

favor of Company B on the 90th day, the company would still have to wait until

the 180th day for delivery.

195
Figure A1: Calculating the Forward Exchange Rate

30 days

USD 1000 =1002.47

+ Interest 2.47
@ 3% pa

+ Interest 4.40
CAD 1335 =1339.40
@ 4% pa

Spot Rate Forward Rate

1.3350 CAD/USA 1.3361 CAD/USA

A forward contract can be considered as a loan of the foreign currency converted

to the home currency at the market (spot) rate, with an agreed time at which the
loan will be repaid. The final exchange rate will be determined by the current
market exchange rate and the differentials in interest rate between the two
countries.

Source: Murray, (2004).

196
Appendix A7.2 Futures Contracts

A currency futures contract is a commitment to buy or sell the currency at a set

price on a specified future date. There is no money exchanged when the

contract is signed; however, a collateral or deposit of some form is required to

ensure that both parties fulfill their commitments to buy and sell the currency at

the set price on the specified future date (Solnik and McLeavey, 2004, p.508;

ASX, 2005e; ASX, 2005f). This deposit is normally referred to as the margin.

The margin is set by clearinghouses, and can be deposited in the form of cash

or interest bearing securities. The Australian Stock Exchange (ASX) also

accepts certain ASX traded securities and bank guarantees from their

approved banks, as eligible margin.

There are two types of margins for each contract (Solnik and McLeavey, 2004,

pp.508-509; ASX, 2005e, 2005f). The first type is the initial margin, which is

required when the investor first enters a futures contract. In Australia, the

Australian Clearing House Pty Ltd (ACH) sets the initial margin for futures

contracts traded according to the volatility of the underlying index. The second

type is the maintenance margin, which is the amount to be paid by an investor

to cover an unfavorable movement in their futures contract. The maintenance

margin varies daily. As all futures contracts are marked-to-market, each day

the futures contracts are revalued. If the position has moved to become

unfavorable since the previous day’s closing price, then the investor will be

required to pay the differences; if the position has moved to become favorable,

then the trader will receive the differential.

We now proceed to discuss the mechanism of futures markets. If the trader

197
expects the currency to appreciate in value, then he/she will want to lock in a

price at which they can buy the currency at price that is lower than the spot rate

on the specified future date. To lock in this price, the trader can take a “long”

position of the currency. By taking a “long” position, the trader is locking in on

the price at which they can buy that currency on the specified future date. If the

trader expects the currency to depreciate in value, then he/she will want to lock

in a price at which they can sell the currency on the specified future date. To

lock in this price, the trader can take a “short” position of the currency. By

taking a “short” position, the trader has locked in the right to sell the currency at

a set price on the specified future date (Moffett et al., 2006, pp.175-176).

We now use a simple example to illustrate the mechanism the futures markets.

Let us suppose that James is a hedger working for Company C. He believes

that the Australian dollar will appreciate in value against the US dollar by

December. He could take a long position on the Australian dollar futures. By

taking a long position, James locks in the right to buy AUD100,000 at a set

price. If the price of the Australian dollar does appreciate by the maturity date

as James had expected, then James has a contract to buy the Australian dollar

at a price below the spot rate. Hence, he reduces the potential currency losses

for Company C. If James believes that the Australian dollar will depreciate in

value against the US dollar by December. Then, he could take a short position

on the Australian dollar futures. By taking a short position, James locks in the

right to sell AUD100,000 at a set price. If the price of the Australian dollar does

depreciate by the maturity date as James had expected, then James has a

contract to sell the Australian dollar at a price below the spot rate. So, what

happens if James’ prediction on the movements of the Australian dollar turns

198
out to be inaccurate? James will undoubtedly make a loss in the financial

market. However, Company C will also make extra profit from their operating

account due to the favorable currency movements. Therefore, because James

is a hedger for Company C, the “seesaw” effect of hedging will come into play

where one effect will cancel out another. Note that the fundamental condition

for the “seesaw” effect to work is for the hedge account to be of equal size to

the business account. Needless to say, if James is not a hedger but a

speculator, he will not have a business account that can balance off his losses.

Therefore, if his prediction (as a speculator) on the currency movements turns

out to be inaccurate, he will have no choice but to bear the loss.

Having gone through the mechanism of futures markets, it is worth noting the

importance of market makers. Indeed, currency futures markets are operated

by these market makers, who can be either individuals or companies, which

‘compete against one another while trading on their own account and at their

own risk’. In overseas futures markets, some key market makers include those

on the Chicago International Money Market and the London International

Financial Futures Exchange. In Australia, according to the ASX, the Australian

market makers include Salomon Smith Barney and Timberhill SG Australia. In

order to ensure liquidity in the market as well as allow easier trading for fellow

futures contracts traders, these market makers are required to provide quotes

in the Mini Index Futures contracts listed on ASX (Hallwood and MacDonald,

2000, p.292; ASX, 2005c).

199
Appendix A7.3 Options Contracts

We can explain an options contract by analogy with a cricket game ticket. The

buyer of the game ticket has the right to attend the game, but is not obligated

to attend. If the buyer chooses to attend the cricket game, then the seller of the

ticket cannot refuse the buyer from attending the game. If the buyer chooses

not to attend the cricket game, then he/she can choose to resell to others who

wish to attend the game. Whether or not the buyer chooses to attend the

cricket game, he/she cannot lose more than what he/she paid for the ticket.

Similarly, the options holder cannot lose more than what he/she paid for the

options contract (Moffett et al., 2006, p.178; Solnik and McLeavey, 2004,

p.542). Hence, we can say that as an options holder, he/she is faced with

limited losses. As common knowledge, after the expiry date, any unused game

ticket will become worthless. The same logic applies to the options contracts. If

the contract holder chooses not to exercise the right, then the options contract

will become worthless after the expiry date.

In terms of quotations, a currency options contract may be quoted in two ways.

The first way to quote a currency options contract is by the American terms, in

which a currency is quoted in terms of the US dollar per unit of foreign currency

(PHLX, 2005a). An example of this type of quotation will be 0.7548 US dollar =

1.0021 Australian dollar. The second way to quote a currency options contract

is by the European-terms, in which the dollar is quoted in terms of units of

foreign currency per dollar (PHLX, 2005a). An example for the second type of

quotation will be 1.0021 Australian dollar = 0.7548 US dollars. These quotation

methods are used by the Philadelphia Stock Exchange.

200
There are two major components when pricing options, namely the intrinsic

value and the time value of the options (ASX, 2005h; PHLX, 2005a). Intrinsic

value of the options contract is simply the difference between the spot price

and the strike price. The spot price is the price of the underlying asset at the

close of trading day. The strike price is also known as the exercise price; it is

the price that must be paid if the options contract is exercised. For a put

options contract, if the spot price is below the option strike price, then this is

known as in-the-money; if the spot price is above the option strike price, then

this is known as out-of-the-money; the put options contract is at-the-money

when the spot price is the same as the strike price. For a call options contract,

if the spot price is below the option strike price, then we call it out-of-the-money;

if the spot price is above the strike price, then we call it in-the-money; if the

spot price and strike price are the same, then we call it at-the-money. These

concepts are shown in Table A6.

Table A6: Intrinsic Value of the Options Contracts

Strike Price < Strike Price = Strike Price >
Spot Price Spot Price Spot Price
Call Options In-the-money At-the-money Out-of-the-money
Put Options Out-of-the-money At-the-money In-the-money

Source: ASX (2005h).

There are several factors affecting the time value of an options contract: (1) the

price of the underlying asset; (2) the exercise price (also known as the strike

price); (3) the expiry date (which is the time remaining before options expiry);

(4) volatility of the underlying asset; and (5) interest rate (the risk-free rate of

201
return)16. The price of the options contract is valued as a function of these

factors. It is worth noting that while these features may change during the life

of the options contract. In Australia, such adjustment is often required to be

made in accordance with the ASX Market Rules (ASX, 2005h).

We now proceed to explain the abovementioned factors that affect the time

value of an options contract. The first factor is the price of the underlying asset.

The lower the price of the underlying asset, the lower the premium for a call

options contract (the higher for a put options contract). The second factor is the

exercise price which is also known as the strike price. It is the price at which

the option holder has the right to buy or sell the underlying asset. The third

factor is the expiry date of the contract. This refers to the date on which the

options will expire. As we explained earlier, options contracts are like a cricket

game ticket; therefore, if the contract holder chooses not to exercise the

options prior to its expiry day, then he/she will lose the right to exercise the

options, as the options contract itself no longer has any value after its expiry

date. For an exchange traded options contract, the expiry dates are fixed by

the options market. The fourth factor is the volatility of the underlying asset.

This refers to the tendency of the underlying asset’s price to fluctuate. The

volatility of the underlying asset reflects the magnitude of a price change (ASX,

2005g). This is a major factor in determining the options’ premium. Indeed, the

premium of an options contract increases if the volatility of the underlying asset

is high; this is because it is more likely for the options to move in-the-money

(ASX, 2005g). The fifth factor is the interest rate differential between nations.

16
See Brailsford and Heaney (1998, pp.680-681), ASX (2005g, 2005h), NYMEX (2005), PHLX
(2005a), and Hull (2006) for further explanation on these elements of options pricing.

202
More specifically, the Philadelphia Stock Exchange explained that this is the

difference in the risk-free rate of interest that can be earned by the two

currencies (PHLX, 2005a). The value of a call (put) options contract increases

with a higher domestic interest rate. This is because by taking a call currency

options contract, the contract holder is forgoing the opportunity to benefit from

the interest paid on the currency (ASX, 2005g; PHLX, 2005a).

203
Appendix A7.4 SWAPs

Before we discuss the mechanism of swaps, we need to address the role

played by the International Swaps and Derivatives Association (ISDA) in

governing the operation of swaps market. The ISDA have pioneered efforts in

identifying and reducing risk associated with using swaps. These risks include

the risk of default by participants of privately negotiated derivatives. One of

ISDA’s agendas has always been to prepare standard documentation for use

by participants in the over-the-counter derivatives markets (ISDA, 2002, 2003,

2006). The most recognized standard documentation is the ISDA Master

Agreements. In September 1990, the Australian Financial Markets Association

(AFMA) published a guide to use the 1987 ISDA Master Agreements under the

Australian law. As the 1987 Agreements have been reviewed and reintroduced

as the 1992 ISDA Master Agreements, the guide has also been updated to

incorporate new developments of derivative products. This guide ensures that

the swaps transactions are enforceable under Australian law.

Having gone through a brief background on the governing authority for swaps

markets participants, we now proceed to discuss the definition and mechanism

of swaps. The ISDA defined a basic swap as ‘a transaction in which one party

pays periodic amounts of a given currency based on a floating rate and the

other party pays periodic amounts of the same currency based on another

floating rate, with both rates reset periodically; all calculations are based on a

notional amount of the given currency’ (ISDA, 2002, p.9). Moreover, a currency

swap is defined as ‘a transaction in which one party pays fixed periodic amount

of one currency and the other party pays fixed periodic amount of another

204
currency. Payments are calculated on a notional amount. Such swaps may

involve initial and/or final payments that correspond to the notional amount17

(ISDA, 2002, p.10). In simpler terms, we can explain swaps as contracts that

involve two parties that agree to periodically exchange cash flow.

A swap transaction resembles a back-to-back loan. The main difference

between these two transactions is that a back-to-back loan involves two

separate loans whereas a swap transaction involves only a single contract. In

back-to-back loans, each party lends money to the other party for the same

initial amount, but in different currencies and at the respective local market

interest rate. A back-to-back loan is recorded in a company’s balance sheet. In

swaps, the transactions are not recorded in the company’s balance sheet as a

liability, but as a financial derivatives transaction. Typically, a currency swap

requires two different companies to borrow funds in the market and currencies

they are most familiar with. For instance, a Japanese company will borrow

Japanese yen from its home market; and a US company will borrow US dollars

from its home market. Each party in the swaps transaction is known as a “leg”

(Solnik and McLeavey, 2004, p.528).

We mentioned that swaps are privately negotiated agreements between two

parties. However, to set up a swap, companies typically go through a swap

dealer. These swap dealers then act as the middleman, providing swap rate

quotes and finding a matching arrangement for the company. In these, as in all

17
These definitions given by the association has been widely adopted by authors such as
Hughes and MacDonald (2002), Kyte (2002), Moffett et al. (2006), Solnik and McLeavey
(2004), Homaifar (2004), and Hull (2006).

205
exchanges, the swap dealers handle both sides of the transactions, so each

side of the swap arrangement sees the dealer as their counterparty. The risk of

default in swaps transactions can be considered as minimal (if not minimal, still

acceptable) since the swaps markets are dominated by major banks worldwide

(Hughes and MacDonald, 2002, p.211; Kyte, 2002; Moffett et al, 2006, p.381;

Homaifar, 2004, p.203).

A swap transaction in the “inter-bank” market is the simultaneous purchase

and sale of a given amount of foreign exchange for two different value dates

(Hughes and MacDonald, 2002, p.211; Kyte, 2002). Both purchase and sale

are conducted with the same counterparty. A common type of swap is a “spot

against forward”. The dealer buys a currency in the spot market and

simultaneously sells the same amount back to the same bank in the forward

market. Since this is executed as a single transaction with counterparty, the

dealer incurs no unexpected foreign exchange risk. Swap transactions and

outright forwards combined made up 57% of all foreign exchange market

activity in April 2001.

206
Appendix A7.5 Money Markets

We now proceed with the mechanism of hedging using money markets. The

money market and forward market are identical because interest rate parity

holds. So hedging in the money market is like hedging in the forward market. A

money market hedge also includes a contract and a source of funds to fulfill

the contract. Those hedgers who use money market hedges borrow in one

currency and convert the borrowing into another currency. To illustrate this idea,

let us use the following simple example.

Let us suppose that Company D is a Japanese company that imports wines

from Australia. The company had just concluded a negotiation for the sales of

2000 bottles of wines from Company M, an Australian winery. The contract is

for AUD50,000. The contract is signed in June with payment due six months

later in December. Since the account is payable in Australian dollars, Company

D (the Japanese company) is faced with a currency exposure problem.

Company D would be very happy if the Japanese yen appreciated against the

Australian dollar. Concerns will rise if the Japanese yen weakens or the

Australian dollar strengthens. In order to manage their currency risk, the

company prepared a hedging strategy to minimize the currency exposure due

to any adverse currency movements. Company D therefore enters into an

opposite position in the money market. In order to implement this money

market hedge, Company D can either use excess cash or borrow cash from a

bank to buy Australian dollars.

Let us suppose, again, that Company D chooses to borrow Japanese yen in

Japan and immediately converts the borrowed Japanese yen into Australian

207
dollars, and repays the Japanese yen loan in six months with the proceeds

from their sale. Company D will need to borrow just enough to repay both the

principal and interest with the sale proceeds. Let us suppose again that the

borrowing interest rate in Japan is set at 2% per annum, or 1% for six months,

and the interest rate in Australia is set at 6% per annum, or 3% for six months.
⎛ JPY ⎞
We also assume that the spot rate, denoted by S = ⎜ ⎟ is assumed to be
⎝ AUD ⎠
equal to 80.76, that is, one Australian dollar exchanges for 80.76 Japanese

yen in the spot market. The amount to borrow for repayment in six months can

be calculated as:
AUD50,000 JPY AUD50,000
× = × 80.76 = JPY 3,920,388.35
1 + r Australia AUD 1 + 0.03

(see column 1 in Table A7).

Table A7: Hedging in Money Markets with Unfavorable Currency

Movements
Hedging Account in Money Market
JPY JPY Profit/Loss from
3,920,388.35 1.00% 3,959,592.23 money market
Borrowing JPY AUD
$ 4,920,000.00 $ 960,407.77 $ 9,760.24
spot currency movement
80.76 98.40

AUD AUD
$ 48,543.69 3.00% $ 50,000.00

Business Transaction Account

Source of funding Profit/Loss from

JPY business account
4,038,000.00
spot currency movement AUD
80.76 98.40 $ 41,036.59

Source: Author’s calculations.

208
Therefore, to ensure that the company’s AUD50,000 account payable is free

from any adverse currency movement that may occur six months later,

Company D has to borrow JPY3,920,388.35 from the Japanese Bank and

covert the borrowed amount into AUD48,543.69 at the exchange rate of

80.76JPY/AUD.

Company D then invests the amount (AUD48,543.69) in the Australian money

market where it earns 6% per annum or 3% for six months. In this case, when

the account payable is due in December, the amount of funds available in the

hedging account for Company D would include principal plus interest earned

from the Australian money market, which is AUD 48,543.69 *1.03 = AUD50,000 .

When the contract is due in December, Company D will need to transfer this

amount of AUD50,000 into Japanese yen at the spot rate to repay the

Japanese yen principal of JPY3,920,388.35 plus interest of 2% per annum (1%

for six months). Depending on the exchange rate when the transfer happens,

Company D will yield profit or loss from their hedging account using the money

market. If the Japanese yen is weaker against the Australian dollar in

December, say, the exchange rate is 98.40JPY/AUD, then Company D will

gain from this hedging exercise. As shown in column 5, 6, and 7 of Table A7,
JPY JPY
when = 98.40 , AUD50,000 × 98.40 = JPY 4,920,000 . After
AUD AUD
deducting the principal and interest payable to the Japanese Bank, which is

equals to JPY3,959,592.23, the total profit generated from this hedging

exercise is calculated as:

JPY 4,920,000 − JYP 3,959,592.23 = JPY 960,407.77 , or

(JPY 4,920,000 − JYP 3,959,592.23 ) = AUD9,760.24 .
98.40

209
We mentioned earlier that a money market hedge includes a contract and a

source of funds to fulfill the contract. In this case, we make a reasonable

assumption that Company D has prepared an amount to pay off the

AUD50,000 account payable to their Australian wine supplier. The source of

funding is from their business operation (see ‘Business Transaction Account’ in

Table A7). Therefore, the amount is in Japanese yen. With the exchange rate

of 80.76JPY/AUD, this amount comes to JPY4,038,000 (refer to column 1 of

Table A7).

If the Japanese yen is weaker against the Australian dollar in December, say,

the exchange rate is 98.40JPY/AUD, Company D will lose from this business
JPY 4,038,000
account. Instead of = AUD50,000 , the fund
80.76
JPY 4,038,000
becomes = AUD 41,036.59 . There is a currency movement loss
98.40
of AUD8,963.41 for Company D’s business transaction account. We illustrated

earlier that the hedging account using the money market can yield profit of

AUD9,760.24 when the exchange rate changes from 80.76JPY/AUD to

98.40JPY/AUD in December. Therefore, even though Company D has

experienced an adverse currency movement, the company is protected from

losses, as they can use the profit generated from the money market hedge to

balance off the losses experienced in their business transaction account.

Let us also consider the hypothesis in which the Japanese yen has become

stronger against the Australian dollar. Let us suppose that the exchange rate

changes from 80.76JPY/AUD to 74.23JPY/AUD. This is a favorable currency

movement for the business account of Company D. As presented in Table A8,

210
Company D would incur a loss of AUD3,342.21 in their hedging account using

the money market, while gaining a profit of AUD4,398.49 in their business

transaction account. If this hypothesis realizes, Company D will not be able to

take advantage of the favorable currency movement. In fact, due to the

seesaw effect, Company D will have to use the profit from the business

transaction account to cover the loss from their hedging account.

Table A8: Hedging in Money Markets with Favorable Currency

Movements
Hedging Account in Money Market
JPY JPY Profit/Loss from
3,920,388.35 1.00% 3,959,592.23 money market
Borrowing JPY AUD
$ 3,711,500.00 -$ 248,092.23 -$ 3,342.21
spot currency movement
80.76 74.23

AUD AUD
$ 48,543.69 3.00% $ 50,000.00

Business Transaction Account

Source of funding Profit/Loss from

JPY business account
4,038,000.00
spot currency movement AUD
80.76 74.23 $ 54,398.49

Source: Author’s calculations.

211
Appendix A8 Parity Relationships

In this section, we include a brief discussion on the four parity relationships

that form the basis for a simple model of the international monetary

environment.

Appendix A8.1 Interest Rate Parity (IRP)

The interest rate differential holds the key to explaining exchange rate

movements in the short term. According to the interest rate parity (IRP) theory,

a discrepancy between the forward and spot rate of a currency is due to the

differentiation between interest rates in two countries. Interest arbitrage

creates short-term movement in the flow of money, and the forward rate

discount/premium eventually brings the currencies back to equilibrium (Eng et

al., 1998, p.101; Kim and Kim, 2006, p.133). For instance, let us suppose that

the Australian nominal interest rate is currently set at 5.5% and the US at

4.75%. Under the IRP model, the capital flow will cause an inflow of US dollars

into Australia because investors are seeking a higher return on investment

(ROI). In order to prevent the occurrence of the so-called covered interest

arbitrage (CIA), the difference of forward rate in these two currencies would

include the difference in interest rate. Nevertheless, while the IRP theory states

that discrepancies between interest rates in the two countries can cause

exchange rate movement, it is sometimes very difficult to clearly determinate

the causality of such movement in reality18.

18
This is a shared view by the Reserve Bank of Australia, as well as by numerous scholars,
including Conway and Franulovich (2002), Davis (2004), Mannino and Milani (1992), and
Rankin (2004).

212
Appendix A8.2 Purchasing Power Parity (PPP)

Purchasing power parity (PPP) theory provides a system for the determination

of the exchange rate. According to this theory, the exchanged value of a unit of

currency should be able to purchase the same quantity of goods/services

regardless of where (which country) the transaction takes place (Eng et al.,

1998, p.99; Kim and Kim, 2006, p.129). Hence, when there is a differentiation

in inflation rate between two countries, the exchange rate will adjust, providing

an equilibrium exchange rate that satisfies the PPP19. Evidence from studies

undertaken by the Reserve Bank of Australia has indicated that, indeed, when

the inflation rate in Australia is higher than its trading partners, the Australian

dollar tends to depreciate over time. However, as identified by many

researchers, such an effect does not take place immediately but with a lag.

This lag masks the true reliability of the PPP in explaining the exchange rate

trends. Antonopoulos (1999), Henry and Olekalns (2002) and Cheung and

Chinn (2001) are just some of those empirical analysis that questioned the

validity of the PPP in explaining exchange rate movements.

Appendix A8.3 Fisher Effect

The Fisher effect, named after the economist Irving Fisher, states that while

the inflation rate can be used as an indicator for the future direction of a

nation’s currency, the inflation rate itself could be predicted by comparing the

interest rates among the countries (Eng et al., 1998, p.100; Mishkin and Simon,

1995). In Australia, the Reserve Bank of Australia has identified that inflation

and the Australian dollar are inversely related to each other. When the inflation

19
See Sarno and Taylor (2002), Mannino and Milani (1992), Kim and Sheen (2002), Davis
(2004), and Conway and Franulovich (2002) for more explanation.

213
rate is higher than that of its trading partners, the Australian dollar tends to

depreciate, stimulating export activities. This preserves global competitiveness

by compensated for the high inflation rate. There is no evidence of a short-term

Fisher effect as changes in the interest rate affect the system with a lag.

However, in the long run, a change in interest rates indicates inflationary

expectation (Rankin, 2004; Mishkin and Simon, 1995).

Appendix A8.4 International Fisher Effect (IFE)

The international Fisher effect (IFE) suggests that an interest rate differential

between two countries results in a trend for the exchange rates to move in the

opposite directions (Eng et al., 1998, p.101; Kim and Kim, 2006, p.132). For

instance, when comparing Australia and the United States, a higher interest

rate in Australia will result in the long-term appreciation of the US dollar. More

importantly, the international Fisher effect also recognises that in the

short-term, countries with higher interest rates (in this case, Australia) will

experience an appreciation in their currency. A higher interest rate tends to

attract foreign capital inflow into the country, resulting in the appreciation of the

currency. This short-term effect has also been noted by the Reserve Bank of

Australia with evidence referenced to the upward movement of the Australian

dollar in 1998 immediately after the announcement of an increase in interest

rates (Rankin, 2004). Again, this is a crucial consideration in the short run

which differentiates from the international Fisher effect.

214
Appendix 9 Government Intervention

Appendix 9.1 Direct Intervention (Sterilized and Non-Sterilized)

In a direct intervention, the Reserve Bank of Australia tries to influence the

exchange rate by buying or selling the Australian dollar. For instance, if the

Reserve Bank of Australia wanted to improve the value of Australian dollar, it

would sell foreign exchange and buy Australian dollars, or vice-versa.

Intervention itself has implications for the domestic money market because

there would be a fall in the banking system money market. If the Reserve Bank

of Australia takes no further action, the money market would be short of cash

and the interest rate would tend to rise (Kearns and Rigobon, 2002; Rankin,

2004). This is an example of non-sterilized intervention.

In simpler terms, non-sterilized intervention occurs when the central bank

affects nominal exchange rates by changing monetary supply and domestic

interest rates (Kearns and Rigobon, 2002; Rankin, 2004; Edison et al., 2003).

These authors agree that this method is more effective than sterilized

intervention.

According to Edison et al. (2003), sterilized intervention is where the central

bank ‘takes action to offset the effects of a change in official foreign assets on

the domestic monetary base, leaving interest rates unchanged’ (pg. 3). In

sterilized intervention, the Reserve Bank of Australia alters the currency

composition of domestic and foreign assets through two channels: (1) ‘portfolio

balance channel, where a change in the reserve holdings of the central bank

induces private agents to revalue their portfolios of domestic and foreign

assets; and (2) the signaling channel, where the central bank uses foreign

215
exchange operation to signal forthcoming changes in monetary policy’ (Edison

et al., 2003, p. 3).

An example of sterilized intervention by the Reserve Bank of Australia

happened in 2004. At the start of 2004, we saw the Australian dollar

overshooting (by appreciation). The RBA therefore intended to intervene in the

foreign currency market, however, it needed to also consider the

circumstances in the property market (housing prices), which, according the

Australian Financial Review, had fallen by 7.5% in Sydney and 12.9% in

Melbourne during the March quarter. The central bank increased the interest

rate sequentially, causing a shortage of money. By sequentially increasing the

interest rates, the RBA’s ‘sterilized intervention’ devalued the Australian dollar

to alignment it with monetary policy, yet minimize the implications of such

action (Tyndall, 2004).

In terms of the effectiveness of these direct interventions by central banks, we

found there has been a division of opinion within existing literature on

government intervention. Having said that, it is important to note that

regardless of the mechanism (sterilized or non-sterilized intervention), the

action taken by the RBA should be consistent with current monetary policy, as

the public money (cash) market related to the interest rate can be sensitive

and critical towards changes in the monetary policy (Macfarlane, 1993; Kearns

and Rigobon, 2002; Rankin, 2004).

216
Appendix 9.2 Indirect Intervention

The Reserve Bank of Australia can affect the Australian dollar’s value by

indirectly influencing any of the factors that determine its exchange rate. For

instance, to boost the Australian dollar, the RBA could raise interest rates

because higher interest rates tend to attract foreign capital inflow, which raises

the demand for the Australian dollar and the subsequent value appreciation.

Other factors that influence the value of the Australian dollar include: inflation,

size of foreign debt, size of current account deficit or surplus and monetary

policy. If government monetary authorities targeted any of these factors, there

would be an indirect effect on the value of the Australian dollar20.

20
See Blundell-Wignall et al (1993), Karfakis and Kim (1995), Kearns and Rigobon (2002), and
Rankin (2004).

217
Appendix B

For model simulation, we use data of the spot Japanese yen exchange rate

against US dollars from 2001 to 2005. We take natural logs of the spot rate on

a daily basis (please refer to Table B2 for details of daily spot exchange rate)

as shown in the following Table B1 to obtain annual variance, which is a

measure of the annual volatility of spot rate.

The daily variance has been converted to annual variance using the formula:

~
V V
(B1.1) V = = = V * 250
t 1
250

Table B1: The calculation of annual variance

Year Average Daily Variance Annual variance
2001 121.51 0.000763 0.190677
2002 125.14 0.001897 0.474251
2003 115.84 0.001537 0.384203
2004 108.10 0.000637 0.159226
2005 110.15 0.002007 0.501850
01' - 05' 116.14 0.004473 0.342041
Source: Author’s calculations.

Since this is just a sample variance, we have calculated an estimation of the

population variance ( σ 2 ). This provides a range for the true population

variance based on our sample. To apply the formula of population variance

( σ 2 ), we choose the 99.5% of significance level within 5 years of the Japanese

yen spot rate for US dollars based on the formula (B1.2) below:

(n − 1)V (n − 1)V
~ ~

(B1.2) <σ <

2

X n2−1,α X n2−1,1−α
2 2

218
 ~
We substitute n = 5 and V = 0.342041, along with X .2005,4 = 14.860 and

X .2995,4 = 0.207, obtained from Chi Square Table, into the equation (B1.2).

We get:

4(0.342041) 2 4(0.342041) 2
< σ2 < , or
14.860 0.207

0.031492 < σ 2 < 2.260716

This gives the range to which the population variance lies given the sample

data, and a 99.5% confidence interval of α .

219
Appendix C

As we mentioned in section 3.2 in Chapter 3, if the cost function is linear in K,

then the K optimum will involve a corner solution that is illustrated as below:

However, if cost function is linear in K, for example,

1
(3.2’) c(δKV ) = δVK
2

The expected net profit denominated in Japanese yen π becomes:

1
(3.7a) Π = KV [(rus − rJ ) + (1 + rUS ) E ( S& )] − δVK
2

The investor will choose K in order to maximize π, then the first order condition

becomes the following situations:

∂Π 1
1. = V [(rus − rJ ) + (1 + rUS ) E ( S& )] − δVK > 0 ,
∂K 2
1
when V [(rus − rJ ) + (1 + rUS ) E ( S& )] > δVK , in this case, the investor would buy
2

as many contracts as he/she can afford, that is, the optimal K is infinity.

∂Π 1
2. = V [(rus − rJ ) + (1 + rUS ) E ( S& )] − δVK < 0 ,
∂K 2
1
when V [(rus − rJ ) + (1 + rUS ) E ( S& )] < δVK , in this case, no contract will be
2

opened, the optimal contract K is zero.

220