FulltextThesis 2

Optimal Allocation of FACTS Devices
in Power Networks Using Imperialist

Competitive Algorithm (ICA)
A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
By
Mohammad Shahrazad
Supervised by Dr. Ahmed F Zobaa
College of Engineering, Design and Physical Sciences

Brunel University London
September 2015
ABSTRACT
Due to the high energy consumption demand and restrictions in the installation of new
transmission lines, using Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) devices is inevitable. In
power system analysis, transferring high-quality power is essential. In fact, one of the
important factors that has a special role in terms of efficiency and operation is maximum
power transfer capability. FACTS devices are used for controlling the voltage, stability,
power flow and security of transmission lines. However, it is necessary to find the optimal
location for these devices in power networks. Many optimization techniques have been
deployed to find the optimal location for FACTS devices in power networks.
There are several varieties of FACTS devices with different characteristics that are
used for different purposes. The imperialist competitive algorithm (ICA) is a recently
developed optimization technique that is used widely in power systems. This study presents
an approach to find the optimal location and size of FACTS devices in power networks using
the imperialist competitive algorithm technique. This technique is based on human social
evolution. ICA technique is a new heuristic algorithm for global optimization searches that is
based on the concept of imperialistic competition. This algorithm is used for mathematical
issues; it can be categorized on the same level as Genetic Algorithm (GA) and Particle
Swarm Optimization (PSO) techniques. Also, in this study, the enhancement of voltage
profile, stability and loss reduction and increasing of load-ability were investigated and
carried out. In this case, to apply FACTS devices in power networks, the MATLAB program
was used. Indeed, in this program all power network parameters were defined and analysed.
IEEE 30-bus and IEEE 68-bus with 16 machine systems are used as a case study. All the
simulation results, including voltage profile improvement and convergence characteristics,
have been illustrated. The results show the advantages of the imperialist competitive
algorithm technique over the conventional approaches.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my utmost gratitude to Dr. Ahmed Zobaa for initiating this
research and for his guidance and encouragement throughout the duration of my research into
this topic.
I gratefully acknowledge my brother who supported me financially during my course.
I would like to thank my lovely fiancée for all her support and love.
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DECLARATION
The work described in this thesis has not been previously submitted for a degree at
this or any other university and unless otherwise referenced it is the author’s own work.
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To my:
Dad & Mum
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STATEMENT OF COPYRIGHT
The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No parts from it should be published
without his prior written consent, and information derived from it should be acknowledged.
©COPYRIGHT Mohammad Shahrazad
All Rights Reserved
LIST OF JOURNAL PUBLICATIONS
1. Mohammad Shahrazad, Ahmed Zobaa, “Optimal Allocation of FACTS Devices in
Distribution Networks Using Imperialist Competitive Algorithm”, International
Review of Electrical Engineering (I.R.E.E.), 2013, Vol. 8, No. 5
2. Mohammad Shahrazad, Amirhessam Alikhanzadeh, “Application of Imperialist
Competitive Optimization Algorithm in Power Industry”, International Journal of
Industrial Engineering Computations, 2015, Vol. 6, No. 1
3. Mohammad Khodapanah, Mohammad Shahrazad, “Combination of Energy Storage
and Wind Turbine with Conventional Generation Using Scheduling Technique”,
International Journal of Electronics and Electrical Engineering, 2015, Vol. 3, No. 6
4. Yaminidhar Reddy Bhavanam, Mohammad Shahrazad, “Impact of Increased
Distributed Generation on Fault Levels and the Network Equipment”, Journal of
Electrical Systems, 2014, Vol. 10, No. 2
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Contents
Abstract .................................................................................................................................................................. i
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................................... ii
Declaration ........................................................................................................................................................... iii
Statement of Copyright ........................................................................................................................................ v
List of Journal Publications ................................................................................................................................. v
List of Figures ....................................................................................................................................................... x
List of Tables ...................................................................................................................................................... xiii
List of Symbols .................................................................................................................................................... xv
List of Abbreviations ......................................................................................................................................... xvi
1.Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 2
1.1.Power Systems Environment .......................................................................................... 2
1.2.FACTS Devices ...................................................................................................................... 2
1.3.Power Networks ..................................................................................................................... 3
1.4.Research Aim and Objectives ........................................................................................ 3
1.5.Principle Contribution to Knowledge ........................................................................ 4
1.6.Research Methodology ....................................................................................................... 4
1.7.Thesis Outline .......................................................................................................................... 5
2.FACTS Devices ................................................................................................................................. 8

2.1.FACTS Background............................................................................................................. 8
2.2.Available transfer capability ........................................................................................... 9
2.3.Importance of FACTS....................................................................................................... 12
2.4.FACTS Device Investment ............................................................................................ 14
2.5.Category and Types of FACTS ................................................................................... 16
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2.5.1.Parallel Device Compensator ................................................................................................ 17
2.5.1.1.Static Var Compensator .......................................................................................... 17
2.5.1.1.1.Thyristor Controlled Reactor ............................................................................... 19
2.5.1.1.2.Thyristor switched Reactor .................................................................................. 20
2.5.1.1.3.Thyristor Switched Capacitor .............................................................................. 21
2.5.1.2.Static Synchronous Compensator ........................................................................... 22
2.5.2.Series Device Compensator .................................................................................................. 24
2.5.2.1.Thyristor Switched Series Capacitor ....................................................................... 24
2.5.2.2.Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor .................................................................... 25
2.5.2.3.GTO Controlled Series Capacitor ........................................................................... 28
2.5.2.4.Static Synchronous Series Compensator ................................................................. 29
2.5.3.Series-Series Device Compensators ...................................................................................... 29
2.5.3.1.Inter Line Power Flow Controller ........................................................................... 29
2.5.4.Series-Parallel Device Compensators ................................................................................... 30
2.5.4.1.Unified Power Flow Controller ............................................................................... 30
2.5.4.1.1.UPFC Structure .................................................................................................... 31
2.5.4.1.2.Operation of UPFC .............................................................................................. 32
2.5.4.1.3.Physical Operation of UPFC ................................................................................ 33
2.5.4.1.4.UPFC Control Modes .......................................................................................... 34
2.5.4.1.4.1.Parallel Converter ............................................................................................. 35
2.5.4.1.4.2.Series Converter ................................................................................................ 35
2.5.4.1.5.UPFC Constraints ................................................................................................ 36
2.5.4.2.Thyristor Controlled Phase Shifting Transformer ................................................... 37
2.5.5.Advantages of SVC and UPFC in Power Networks.............................................................. 38
2.6.Summary of the Chapter .................................................................................................. 40
3.Literature Review ........................................................................................................................... 43

3.1.Genetic Algorithm ............................................................................................................... 84
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3.2.Particle Swarm Optimization ........................................................................................ 85
3.3.Bees Algorithm ..................................................................................................................... 85
3.4.Imperialist Competitive Algorithm ........................................................................... 86
4.Imperialist Competitive Algorithm................................................................................. 88

4.1.Optimization Overview .................................................................................................... 88
4.2.Types of Optimization Problems ................................................................................ 90
4.2.1.Trial and Error Optimization ...................................................................................... 90
4.2.2.Single- and Multiple-Dimension Optimizations.................................................................... 91
4.2.3.Dynamic and Static Optimizations ........................................................................................ 91
4.2.4.Discrete and Continuous Optimization ................................................................................. 91
4.2.5.Constrained and Unconstrained Optimization....................................................................... 92
4.2.6.Minimum-Seeking and Random Optimization ..................................................................... 92
4.2.7.Optimization Outline ............................................................................................................. 92
4.3.Imperialist Competitive Algorithm Background............................................... 93
4.3.1.Imperialist Competitive Algorithm .......................................................................... 93
4.3.2.Performing Initial Empires ......................................................................................... 96
4.3.3.Assimilation and Moving Colonies towards the Empires.................................. 98
4.3.4.Swapping the Positions of the Colony with the Imperialist .............................. 99
4.3.5.Total Power of Imperialist ........................................................................................ 100
4.3.6.Imperialist Competition ............................................................................................. 100
4.3.7.Weak Empires Collapse ............................................................................................. 103
4.4.Summary of the Chapter ................................................................................................ 106
5.Optimization problem ............................................................................................................... 108

5.1.IEEE 30-Bus System ....................................................................................................... 108
5.1.1.Total Transfer Capability .......................................................................................... 109
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5.1.2.Objective Functions and Constraints ..................................................................... 110
5.1.2.1.UPFC Modeling........................................................................................................ 111
5.2.IEEE 68-Bus System ....................................................................................................... 115
5.2.1.Objective Functions and Constraints ..................................................................... 115
6.Results and Discussions .......................................................................................................... 119

6.1.IEEE-30 Bus System without FACTS .................................................................. 120
6.1.1.P-V Curves .................................................................................................................... 127
6.2.IEEE 30-Bus System with Static Var Compensator ..................................... 131
6.3.IEEE 30-Bus System with Unified Power Flow Controller ..................... 145
6.4.Results Comparison.......................................................................................................... 152
6.5.IEEE 68-Bus System ....................................................................................................... 157
6.5.1.Allocation of SVC in the Study Case .................................................................... 157
7.Conclusions ........................................................................................................................................ 165

7.1.Future Work .......................................................................................................................... 166
References ................................................................................................................................................... 168
Appendix A................................................................................................................................................. 180
Appendix B ................................................................................................................................................. 184
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2. 1 Investment cost curves ....................................................................................................................... 16
Figure 2. 2 Injected current schematic by SVC .................................................................................................... 18
Figure 2. 3 Ideal static reactive compensator........................................................................................................ 19
Figure 2. 4 Schematic diagram of TCR ................................................................................................................ 19
Figure 2. 5 Schematic diagram of TSR ................................................................................................................. 21
Figure 2. 6 Schematic diagram of TSC ................................................................................................................. 21
Figure 2. 7 Schematic diagram of STATCOM ..................................................................................................... 23
Figure 2. 8 Schematic diagram of TSSC .............................................................................................................. 24
Figure 2. 9 Schematic diagram of TCSC .............................................................................................................. 25
Figure 2. 10 Injected current schematic by TCSC ................................................................................................ 26
Figure 2. 11 Schematic diagram of GCSC ........................................................................................................... 28
Figure 2. 12 Schematic diagram of SSSC ............................................................................................................. 29
Figure 2. 13 Schematic diagram of IPFC ............................................................................................................. 30
Figure 2. 14 Diagram of UPFC and its two converters ......................................................................................... 31
Figure 2. 15 UPFC injects voltage ........................................................................................................................ 32
Figure 2. 16 𝑽𝒙 variation when 𝑽𝒅𝒒is chenged ................................................................................................... 32
Figure 2. 17 creation of 𝜹𝟏 ................................................................................................................................... 33
Figure 2. 18 creation of 𝜹𝟐. .................................................................................................................................. 33
Figure 2. 19 Schematic of UPFC .......................................................................................................................... 33
Figure 2. 20 UPFC Connection to the network..................................................................................................... 34
Figure 2. 21 Schematic diagram of TCPST .......................................................................................................... 38
Figure 4. 1 Optimization process .......................................................................................................................... 88
Figure 4. 2 Transportation problem ...................................................................................................................... 90
Figure 4. 3 Flowchart of the imperialist competitive algorithm ........................................................................... 95
Figure 4. 4 Characteristics of function variables during the optimisation ............................................................ 96
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Figure 4. 5 Initial creation of the empires ............................................................................................................. 97
Figure 4. 6 Movement process .............................................................................................................................. 98
Figure 4. 7 Movement of colony towards the empire with angle ......................................................................... 99
Figure 4. 8 Swapping of colony and empire ....................................................................................................... 100
Figure 4. 9 Schematic of imperialist competition ............................................................................................... 101
Figure 4. 10 Collapse of the weaker empires ...................................................................................................... 103
Figure 4. 11 Whole schematic diagram of the imperialist competitive algorithm .............................................. 105
Figure 5. 1 Single diagram of IEEE 30 bus system ............................................................................................ 108
Figure 5. 2 Basic diagram of UPFC .................................................................................................................... 112
Figure 5. 3 Single diagram of IEEE 68 bus system ............................................................................................ 115
Figure 6. 1 Speed of convergence ....................................................................................................................... 123
Figure 6. 2 Level of voltage before optimization ............................................................................................... 124
Figure 6. 3 P-V curve at bus 20 .......................................................................................................................... 128
Figure 6. 8 Level of voltage after replacing the SVC by GA & PSO techniques ............................................... 134
Figure 6. 9 Level of voltage after replacing the SVC at bus 24 & 20 ................................................................. 134
Figure 6. 10 Convergence characteristics after replacing SVC by ICA.............................................................. 135
Figure 6. 11 Level of the losses with different scenarios .................................................................................... 153
Figure 6. 12 Comparison of convergence time ................................................................................................... 154
Figure 6. 13 Average of bus voltage using one UPFC ....................................................................................... 155
Figure 6. 14 Average of bus voltage using two UPFCs ...................................................................................... 155
Figure 6. 15 Average of bus voltage using three UPFCs .................................................................................... 156
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Figure 6. 16 Convergence characteristics after 100 iterations ............................................................................ 158
Figure 6. 17 Convergence characteristics after 150 iterations ............................................................................ 158
Figure 6. 18 Level of voltage before replacing SVC .......................................................................................... 159
Figure 6. 19 Level of voltage after replacing SVC ............................................................................................. 160
Figure 6. 20 P-V curve at bus 47 ........................................................................................................................ 161
Figure 6. 21 P-V curve at bus 48 ........................................................................................................................ 161
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2. 1 Advantages and features of various FACTS devices ........................................................................... 40
Table 6. 1 Simulation of IEEE 30 bus system line flow ..................................................................................... 122
Table 6. 2 Imperialist competitive algorithm basic parameters .......................................................................... 131
Table 6. 3 Comparison with other published techniques .................................................................................... 132
Table 6. 4 IEEE 30-bus power flow simulation after allocating SVC at bus 30 ................................................. 137
Table 6. 5 IEEE 30-bus line flow simulation after allocating SVC at bus 30 ..................................................... 138
Table 6. 6 IEEE 30-bus power flow simulation after allocating SVC at bus 26 ................................................. 139
Table 6. 8 IEEE -30 bus power flow simulation after allocating SVC at bus 24 ................................................ 141
Table 6. 10 IEEE 30-bus power flow simulation after allocating SVC at bus 20 ............................................... 143
Table 6. 11 IEEE 30-bus line flow simulation after allocating SVC at bus 20 ................................................... 144
Table 6. 12 IEEE 30-bus system using UPFC .................................................................................................... 146
Table 6. 13 Level of the voltage profile after replacing one UPFC in the network ............................................ 148
Table 6. 14 Level of the voltage profile after replacing two UPFCs in the network .......................................... 149
Table 6. 15 Level of the voltage profile after replacing three UPFCs in the network ........................................ 150
Table 6. 16 Summary of the losses Using SVC with different algorithms ......................................................... 152
Table 6. 17 Summary of the results with allocating of SVC .............................................................................. 159
Table A. 1 Simulation of IEEE 30 bus system power flow ................................................................................ 180
Table A. 2 Simulation of IEEE 30 bus system bus data ..................................................................................... 181
Table A. 3 Simulation of IEEE 30 bus system generator data ............................................................................ 182
Table A. 4 Simulation of IEEE 30 bus system branch data ................................................................................ 183
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Table B. 1 Simulation of IEEE 68 bus system power flow (Bus 1-34) .............................................................. 184
Table B. 2 Simulation of IEEE 68 bus system power flow (Bus 35-68) ............................................................ 185
Table B. 3 Simulation of IEEE 68 bus system load bus data .............................................................................. 186
Table B. 4 Simulation of IEEE 68 bus system machine bus data ....................................................................... 187
Table B. 5 Simulation of IEEE 68 bus system load line data ............................................................................. 188
Table B. 6 Simulation of IEEE 68 bus system load line data (continued) .......................................................... 189
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LIST OF SYMBOLS
Vmax Maximum voltage magnitude
Vmin Minimum voltage magnitude
VM Voltage Magnitude
VA Voltage Angle (Degrees)
VG Voltage magnitude set-point
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ATC Available Transfer Capability
B Shunt Susceptance (MVar injected at V = 1.0 p. u.)
Base_KV Base Voltage (kv)
BFA Bacterial Swarming Algorithm
BR_Status Initial branch status, 1 = in-service, 0 = out-of- service
BT Total Line Charging Susceptance (p. u.)
Bus_Area Area number (positive integer)
Bus_I Bus number (positive integer)
Bus_Type Bus Type (1 = PQ, 2 = PV, 3 = ref, )
CBM Capacity Benefit Margin
CDF Cumulative Distribution Function
DE Differential Evolution
F_Bus ‘‘from’’ Bus Number
FACTS Flexible Alternating Current Transmission System
G Shunt Conductance (MVar demand at V = 1.0 p. u. )
G/G Generation/Generation
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GA Genetic Algorithm
Gen_Status Machine status > 0 = machine in service ≤ 0 = machine out-of-service
ICA Imperialist competitive Algorithm
IPFC Interline Power Flow Controller
L/G Load/Generation
Mbase Total MVA base of machine
N Bus number
PD Real Power Demand (MW)
PDF Probability Density Function
PG Real power output (MW)
Pmax Maximum real power output (MW)
Pmin Minimum real power output (MW)
PSO Particle Swarm Optimization
PTC Power Transfer Capability
QD Reactive Power Demand (MVar)
QG Reactive power output (MVar)
Qmax Maximum reactive power output (MVar)
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Qmin Minimum reactive power output (MVar)
R Resistance (p. u.)
RW Roulette Wheel
SE MVA Rating C (emergency rating)
SLT MVA Rating A (long term rating)
SSSC Static Synchronous Series Compensator
SST MVA Rating B (short term rating)
STATCOM Static Synchronous Compensator
SVC Static Var Compensator
T_Bus ‘‘to’’ Bus Number
Tap Transformer off nominal turns ratio
TCR Thyristor Controlled Reactor
TCSC Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor
TRM Transfer Reliability Margin
TSC Thyristor Switched Capacitor
TSR Thyristor Switched Reactor
TSSC Thyristor Switched Series Capacitor
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TTC Total Transfer Capability
UPFC Unified Power Flow Controller
X Reactance (p. u.)
Zone Loss zone
𝜹 Transformer phase shift angle (degree)
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Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 1
Introduction
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1. Introduction
1.1. Power Systems Environment
Flexible Alternating Current Transmission System (FACTS) devices are used to
enhance the controllability of power systems and improve all the restricted conditions in the
structure of transmission lines to create smooth power transfer between areas. This leads to
improvement in power system operation and an increase in power transfer capability. Easy
access to the power market depends on the competition between companies. In this case, it is
desirable to consider the parameters and transfer power in different areas. Increasing demand
requires extra transmission lines to deliver the necessary power. In this case, many researches
have issued the challenge to introduce new technology and methods to compensate for the
power with other physical components such as FACTS devices. In addition, the quality of
transferred power is extremely important in the power market [1]. In the study of power
systems, transmission networks have been introduced as a structure of power systems [2].
1.2. FACTS Devices
Rapid development in the FACTS area has seen the introduction of different types of
this component for different purposes. These devices are flexible and help systems to
improve power transfer and stability. In terms of the high competition in the power market,
using FACTS devices is essential to achieve the maximum transferable power. In this case,
the amount and type of FACTS devices should be computed to reach the maximum efficiency
with a stable network. There are advantages to using FACTS devices in power networks,
including: controlling power transfer, controlling the stability and certain capabilities of the
network and preventing voltage collapse, improving power quality and power factor and
voltage profile, improving dynamic stability, enhancing the load-ability of the transmission
lines, and decreasing reactive power losses and as a result increasing active power transfer.
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1.3. Power Networks
In recent years, power network design engineers have decided to create a large power
network without having connections with other networks to minimize the difficulties and
increase the efficiency, controllability and security of the systems. Due to the growing
demand, these parameters are developing and every year new technology and methods are
released to minimize the losses and increase the quality of the power networks. Basically, a
power system can transfer the maximum capability of the power if the network can be
controlled properly. So in this case there are different ways to enhance the transfer capability
in power systems, which is important. One of the most important and useful components in a
power system is FACTS.
1.4. Research Aim and Objectives
This study mainly focused on optimization of the power networks. The objective was
stabling the level of the voltage and reducing the losses and increasing the efficiency and
power quality. To achieve that point basically FACTS devices such as SVC and UPFC were
used in the network. Indeed, optimal size and place of those devices were the objectives.
Evolutionary algorithms have been involved during the optimization. The aim of intelligent
methods is to find the optimal engineering response: for instance, how the engine is designed
with maximum output or how a robot’s arm works until reaching destination with the shortest
route. It should be noted that all of these are optimization problems. Classic mathematical
methods have got two main disadvantages [4]. Some of these methods consider local
optimum as a final answer to the problem and only some of them are also used for specific
problems. Allocating and estimating the type and size of FACTS devices are the most
important areas of the transmission network. Indeed, with the use of certain techniques,
maximum efficiency can be obtained from power networks without installing new generators
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[3]. For financial reasons, it is essential to install these FACTS devices in optimal locations.
For this purpose, initially a mathematical model of FACTS devices should be considered, and
then, by using an optimization technique, they can be placed in the optimal places. Allocating
FACTS devices is a combinatorial optimization in which the location and size of the devices
should be determined in order to achieve maximum savings in power systems. In this study,
the aim of the optimization is to find the best solution for the proposed problems. In this case,
there are many types of methods that can help to achieve the solution.
1.5. Principle Contribution to Knowledge
This study used different objective functions with various numbers of constraints to
discover the solution. Using different objective functions in the problems delivers different
solutions. This is because of the behaviour of the objective functions. In many cases, same
constraints were used. So it can be seen that those constraints are compulsory in the
optimization, such as voltage profile and FACTS compensator size. The imperialist
competitive algorithm basically proved that it is faster than other mentioned optimization
techniques such as the genetic algorithm and particle swarm optimization. And this algorithm
discovered the solution with fewer iterations. In this study, the IEEE-30 bus system was
analysed by imperialist competitive algorithm technique and the results were compared with
other optimization techniques.
1.6. Research Methodology
In this thesis, basically two case studies have been analysed with different
optimization methods. All the results are discussed in terms of convergence characteristics
and iterations in the results chapter. This study has focused on a new optimization method
that has recently been developed. The aim of this study was to implement imperialist
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competitive algorithm technique, and to compare the results with other different optimization
methods to find out the advantages and disadvantages in terms of speed characteristics and
cost. The proposed optimization algorithm is based on human evolution.
This algorithm starts with initial selections that are called “countries”. They can be the
answers to the proposed problem. These countries are the same as chromosomes in genetic
algorithms and particles in particle swarm optimization. All these countries are divided into
two main groups: imperialist and colony. After several steps the algorithm will converge and
obtain the optimum solution to the problem. This algorithm is based on human evolution
history. In this study, this algorithm was implemented in the two case studies and all related
results are presented in the results chapter. This algorithm is used for different purposes in
power systems. In this study, the imperialist competitive algorithm was used to allocate
FACTS devices in the power network.
1.7. Thesis Outline
Chapter 1 provides general knowledge about energy demand and the importance of
FACTS in power networks. Basically FACTS devices are used to enhance the quality of
power transfer. The aim of optimization is discussed and the role of algorithms is briefly
discussed. In this regard, the imperialist competitive algorithm is introduced and the main
role of this algorithm in this study is explained.
Chapter 2 demonstrates the effect of FACTS devices in power networks. FACTS devices
are used to enhance the constructability and security of the system, and in this case FACTS
devices are fully discussed. There are several types of FACTS devices in the power market
that are used for different purposes. The advantages and disadvantages of FACTS devices in
terms of power transfer capability are also mentioned. Different types of FACTS devices are
also discussed.
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Chapter 3 demonstrates the importance of optimization. In this case, 52 case studies are
demonstrated and analysed in terms of convergence characteristics, performance, objective
functions and constraints. The advantages and disadvantages of the algorithms based on the
case studies are illustrated.
Chapter 4 provides full information about the imperialist competitive algorithm, which is
a recent optimization algorithm used to find optimal solutions for problems. In this case, all
the algorithm steps are demonstrated and discussed. The structure of the imperialist
competitive algorithm is demonstrated in terms of convergence to the problem.
Chapter 5 presents the IEEE-30 and IEEE-68 bus system networks. In this case,
objective functions and constraints are illustrated.
Chapter 6 presents simulations and results in terms of convergence characteristics. In
this case, ICA is compared with other optimization techniques. Static Var Compensator
(SVR) and Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) are implemented in the IEEE test
systems. Losses and level of voltage profiles are also illustrated.
Chapter 7 summarizes the principal conclusions of the research work presented in this
thesis, highlighting its main achievements, contributions and potential for further
developments.
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Chapter 2: FACTS Devices
Chapter 2
FACTS Devices
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2. FACTS Devices
2.1. FACTS Background
In recent years, energy demand has increased. In this case, some energy issues,
environment problems, exceed to the others properties land and installing new transmission
lines are the main issue of the project. In response to this situation there have been a few
theories with regard to increasing the power transfer capability and power quality of systems.
Engineers have tried to design flexible device to make power networks function optimally.
Nowadays, in the area of power electronics, advanced component are used in power
networks. The aim of these devices is to enhance the capability of the system in terms of
transferring high-quality power to fulfil the demand. Flexible AC transmission system
devices are based on power electronics converters. In this regard, they are able to create rapid
adjustment to control the electrical components. And in this area, FACTS devices have
offered many advantages to power systems.
These devices are able to connect to power systems in parallel or series or a
combination of these. The benefits of using FACTS devices include: controllability,
increased stability, security and efficiency of power systems. By applying FACTS devices,
power transfer flow can be controlled along with the thermal limit of the transmission lines
enabling them to operate to their limit. As previously mentioned, installing extra transmission
lines is not always the right way to increase power transfer. In some cases, property owners
do not give permission to cross their land to set up the lines.
One of the major parameters that has a special role in the operation of power systems
is power transfer capability [58]. Power transfer capability can be defined as the ability of a
power network to transfer power in a specific condition without disturbing the constraints and
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security of the power system. This condition depends on the physical constraints and
financial issues of the transmission systems. With regard to physical constraints, major issues
are related to the security of power systems. Power transfer constraints can be categorized as
the thermal limit of transmission lines, voltage constraints at bus-bars and the stability of
power systems [59]. In this case, the power transfer capability of the system is directly
relevant to the economic part of the network, which needs several functions to be defined. In
this part, this study is going to stress the power transfer capability in power networks by
explaining some parameters.
2.2. Available transfer capability
ATC is one of the major functions of power transfer capability. Basically it can be
defined as the available power that is transferred in transmission lines to achieve more profit.
This parameter can be obtained by deducting the Transmission Reliability Margin (TRM), the
Capacity Benefit Margin (CBM) and existing transmission commitments (including the
CBM) from the Total Transfer Capability (TTC) [60]. ATC is expressed in Eq. 3.1.
𝐴𝑇𝐶 = 𝑇𝑇𝐶 – 𝑇𝑅𝑀 – 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 (𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝐵𝑀) (2.1)
This section demonstrates the difference between transfer capacity and transfer
capability, which have different expressions in power systems. Transfer capacity represents
the loading of transmission network components such as thermal limit, which is constant and
depends on the physical characteristics of the electrical components. But transfer capability
covers almost the whole system. To operate safely this parameter should be calculated and it
should be ensured that this value does not exceed a certain level [61]. The capability of the
whole system in terms of power transfer capability between two areas that have been
connected by transmission lines is greater than the power transfer ability between the same
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areas. This is because of the physical and electrical limitations of components in the power
network. In a good scenario, power transfer capability can match the power transfer ability of
electrical components between those areas. This amount is measured and defined in terms of
MW. Transfer capability in contrast to transfer capacity is an oriented vector. This means the
amount of power transfer capability from area A to B is not necessarily equal to the amount
of power transfer capability from B to A. Transfer capability can be defined as a power
transfer between one area and another with considering and remaining in constraints.
Depending on the power transfer in power networks (power injected in source and
sink areas), all other parameters such as voltage magnitude and angles will be affected.
Indeed, Kirchhoff’s voltage and current law in power systems determines the coefficient of
power transfer capability based on power transfer between two bus-bars [62]. In the case of
power transfer between two areas, usually some constraints such as thermal limit, voltage at
bus-bars and stability of the system are recognized as restricting power transfer.
It can be seen that this element depends on the input variable functions. Also, the
amount of power transfer capability can be affected by the power in source and sink areas.
The ability of power transfer in connected networks to deliver power will be restricted by
electrical and physical characteristics. Here this study will demonstrate three common
constraints in power systems: thermal limits, voltage limits and stability of the system.
Current flowing through the electrical equipment creates warmth. Each piece of equipment
has different characteristics in terms of thermal limit. And this can be defined as the
maximum current flowing through the device in a specific period before damaging the
components. So as a result, the current flowing through the equipment is limited by thermal
characteristics [63]. In all situations, including normal operation and emergency situations,
10 | P a g e
the voltage of the network should remain within the defined range. During the power transfer
in transmission networks, the system gets active and reactive losses and the voltage will drop.
Depending on the power transfer increase, the amount of losses will increase and the
network will need some reactive power to remain within the desirable voltage. Reactive
power will be needed in whole route of the transmission power, especially in sink areas and
also some areas with a shortage of generated power [64]. In some cases, such as emergency
situations, for instance, decreasing the generated power can be achieved by eliminating one
or several of the generation units in the power system. This situation will get worse if those
units provide the largest amount of reactor power in the system. Voltage collapse can lead to
horrible consequences.
Basically, voltage collapse starts at one point of the network and is extended to the
whole system immediately. The power network should remain stable in terms of disturbances
because of the transient states. A transient situation can occur between milliseconds and
minutes. In the case of stability, all the generators must operate at the same frequency, but
after disturbances appear they will start to oscillate and as a result the voltage will change in
the system. To remain in a stable state, all the disturbances should be reduced, then the
system needs to start again from a new point. If the system cannot compensate and regulate
itself to become stable, this leads to some part or all of the power system becoming out of
control and shutting down the entire network. It can be seen that varying the amount of
constraints to reach a different ability of power transfer creates a complex situation. One of
the most important concepts during the calculation of the transfer capability is the transfer
reliability margin. In order to, it is such a power transfer needs to be remained in the system
during operation and facing faults. Uncertainty in the power system needs to have high
security operation [65].
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Total transfer capability is very important in transfer capability and is a fundamental
part of it. Because transfer capability is related to total transfer capability. The amount of
delivering power between two areas can also be defined with a high level of certainty. In this
situation, the system should be able to eliminate the oscillation of the power against the
disturbances after knocking down one of the system components such as a transmission line
or generator and remain stable. To achieve total transfer capability, some points should be
considered. Reducing the load from the overloaded transmission lines leads to an increase in
power transfer capability and this can be done by using FACTS devices.
In this case, it is important to find out the impact of FACTS devices on the market
when assessing total transfer capability. To obtain total transfer capability, first of all the
initial condition of the power system, such as estimating the load, distributing the load
between the generators, the transfer schedule and the operating point of the system, should be
identified. Also, in terms of variation it supposes to compute again. When assessing the total
transfer capability unforeseen situations should be appeared for such as the breakdown of
generation and transmission components, and the worst failure situation must be considered
when assessing the total transfer capability. Due to the continuous fluctuation of the network,
the effect of failure should be calculated for different operating states. Total transfer
capability is determined according to thermal, voltage and stability constraints. These
constraints can be changed according to different situations such as changing system
situations and the breakdown of components.
2.3. Importance of FACTS
Power transfer capability is the potential of the network between the bus-bars and
areas according to the constraints of the network. To assess the power transfer capability
basically the power transfer will be increased until it reaches the minimum value for security,
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in order to by increasing the amount of the power, power system might be collapsed. In this
case, the role of the constraints is sensitive, such as thermal limit, voltage limit and stability
of the system. Based on this, FACTS devices are used to compensate for all power system
weaknesses [66]. Optimal allocation of FACTS devices has recently been challenged by
many researchers and all have introduced different methods and techniques to allocate these
devices in power networks.
The genetic algorithm (GA) and particle swarm optimization (PSO) are the most
common algorithms used in this area to find the optimal location for FACTS devices [67]. In
this study, the imperialist competitive algorithm has been introduced and this algorithm is
implemented in the case studies. In this study, two case studies have been analysed and the
IEEE-30 bus case study analysis is compared with other optimization techniques and all the
related results are shown in the results chapter.
Nowadays, reactive power compensators as a part of FACTS devices are essential in
power systems. And these devices have special roles in increasing the dynamic stability and
voltage regulation in power networks. Reactive power compensators are divided into two
groups: active and inactive (passive).
 Inactive (passive) reactive compensators: including inductors and capacitors
that are connected in series and parallel, which cannot be changed
continuously. In spite of cut on and off they are out of control.
 Active reactive compensators: including synchronous compensators and static
compensators. These types are controlled rapidly and continuously.
Basically, FACTS devices are not able to prevent faults in the system but they are
able to reduce the inconvenient conditions that occur due to faults in the system. For
example, cutting off one load from the system causes an increase in the line voltage. In this
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case, FACTS compensators eliminate the extra voltage from the lines and make them stable.
Long transmission lines, several networks connected to each other, the effect of varying loads
and transmission line faults make the network unstable. This leads to a decrease in the
efficiency of transmission lines and even to them breaking down. But using FACTS devices
in transmission lines decreases the risk of these phenomena in the network.
Modern industry needs high-quality power in order to operate, including stable
voltage, fixed frequency and continuous injected power. Applying various voltages and
frequencies to operate the system causes delay in some parts of the generation process and
leads to huge losses. Using FACTS devices reduces these losses and creates high-quality
power for customers. FACTS are compatible with the environment and do not create
pollution. FACTS devices increase the efficiency of suppliers and reduce the number of extra
transmission lines.
2.4. FACTS Device Investment
The cost of FACTS devices can be divided into two parts:
 FACTS device cost
 Infrastructure cost
The cost of FACTS devices depends on their own nominal operating value and some
other parameters such as system control, earthquake condition, environmental temperature
and system control communication with substation. Infrastructure cost depends on the
geographic condition of FACTS devices where they should be installed. This cost is included
land owner and building a room for FACTS devices including control equipment and
protection facilities.
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A variety of FACTS devices are used in transmission lines. This study recommended
SVCs and UPFCs as compensated components in transmission lines. UPFCs are used as
serious and shunt compensators together and SVCs are a reactive source added at the end of
transmission lines.
The optimal installation cost of FACTS devices can be defined from the following
mathematical equation [68]:
𝐼𝐶 = 𝐶 × 𝑠 (2.2)
where 𝐼𝐶 is the minimum installation cost in 𝑈𝑆$ and 𝐶 is the function of installation cost in
𝑈𝑆$/𝐾𝑉𝐴𝑟. The installation cost of a TCSC, SVC and UPFC according to the data applied
from Siemens is [68]:
𝐶 TCSC = 0.0015𝑠 2 – 0.71305𝑠 + 153.75 (𝑈𝑆$/𝑘𝑉𝑎𝑟) (2.3)
𝐶 SVC = 0.0003𝑠 2 – 0.3051𝑠 + 127.38 (𝑈𝑆$/𝑘𝑉𝑎𝑟) (2.4)
𝐶 UPFC = 0.0003𝑠 2 – 0.2691𝑠 + 188.22 (𝑈𝑆$/𝑘𝑉𝑎𝑟) (2.5)
In the above equations, 𝑆 is operating level of FACTS devices, which can be defined
as:
𝑆 = |𝑄2| – |𝑄 1| (2.6)
In this study, the cost function equations will be the same as in other case studies.
In this case, 𝑄 2 is the reactive power in the transmission line after installing FACTS
devices and 𝑄 1 is the reactive power in the transmission line before installing FACTS devices
in 𝑀𝑉𝐴𝑟. All the constraints are the same as this study has already used for optimization.
However, one more constraint, transmission reactance (XTCSC), needs to be added by the
15 | P a g e
TCSC in transmission lines. This constraint is also limited between minimum and maximum
value:
−0.8𝑋𝐿 ≤ 𝑋𝑇𝐶𝑆𝐶 ≤ 0.2𝑋𝐿 (2.7)
The algorithm objectives include only the cost function of FACTS devices. This
function shows the installation cost only. However, by analysing the case study in other area
such as Power World, simply other parameters can be achieved such as annual maintenance
cost and the cost of both active and reactive power. It is necessary to measure both economic
and technical benefits to obtain optimal investment. So, by installing in the right place, the
whole investment can be recovered after a decade. Fig. 2.1 illustrates the cost function graph
for SVC, TCSC and UPFC devices. In this case, the UPFC has more load-ability
characteristics and the SVC has a lower installation cost.
300
Investment cost US$/KVar
250
200
150 SVC
TCSC
100
UPFC
50
0
0 200 400 600 800
Operating range MVar
Figure 2. 1 Investment cost curves
2.5. Category and Types of FACTS
In general, FACTS can be divided into four groups and this study will discuss most
common devices in this chapter:
 Parallel devices  Series-Series devices
 Series devices  Series-Parallel devices
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2.5.1. Parallel Device Compensator
This component can be variable impedance or variable source or a combination of
these. This component in general, injects a current into the contact point. A parallel FACTS
compensator is mostly used to compensate reactive power. Basically, reactive power causes
some problems in power networks such as:
 Increasing power transfer price per KW
 Increasing flowing current through the transmission line
 Increasing losses and costs
 Decreasing the power transfer capability of the systems
 Decreasing the load-ability of the generators (decreasing system efficiency )
These issues affect the system in different ways and as a result decrease the power
quality. Good management can eliminate all these issues and achieve the following targets:
 Increasing the transient stability limit
 Converging the power oscillation
 Holding the voltage in limited range
 Improving the power factor
 Balancing the unbalanced three-phase load
2.5.1.1. Static Var Compensator
SVCs were initially used in power systems in 1978. According to one estimation, in
1990, there were 195 cases of an SVC being used in power systems. This device is static,
which means it does not have rotating and mobile components, and this enables SVCs to
provide a fast response to the network. In addition, less maintenance of the components is
17 | P a g e
required because there are no rotating parts. There are some advantages to using an SVC in
the network, including: rapid response, more flexibility, good certainty, balancing phases,
eliminating extra voltage, fast operation, low maintenance cost, simple control, increasing
transient stability, prevention of voltage collapse, improving power factor, improving power
quality and eliminating harmonics. An SVC is an electrical component used in high-voltage
transmission networks. SVC is a parallel compensator that can be used as a capacitor and
variable inductor according to its capacity in power networks. Basically, an SVC is a
component that can control the voltage. So, an SVC is a kind of generator with zero active
power that compensates the voltage at the connected bus-bar. Fig 2.2 illustrates the current
injected model by SVC.
Figure 2. 2 Injected current schematic by SVC
Reactive power injected into the k bas-bar follows the equation below and this
element can also be defined between maximum and minimum value as already mentioned:
QSVC = BSVC * 𝑉𝑘2 (2.8)
Fig 2.3 illustrates the schematic of the ideal static compensator. An ideal compensator
is able to regulate reactive power itself continuously. One of the most important
characteristics of this component is adjusting the reactive power with constant voltage in its
terminal [69].
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Figure 2. 3 Ideal static reactive compensator
Another important characteristic of this component is rapid response. A reactive
power compensator should be changed immediately with small portion of changes. Static var
compensator is categorized for several models which this study addresses briefly below.
2.5.1.1.1. Thyristor Controlled Reactor
A TCR is a reactor controlled with a thyristor that is allocated in parallel with the
network. The amount of reactance can be controlled continuously by triggering. The amount
of current flow from the inductor can change between zero and maximum value by
triggering. Fig 2.4 shows the schematic of a TCR [70].
Figure 2. 4 Schematic diagram of TCR
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There are two thyristors in this component as switchers. Whenever voltage is more if
the thyristor is turned on, current will flow through the inductor. A thyristor controlled
reactor has rapid response characteristics. After receiving a time signal, to change the reactive
power in a TCR, there is a 1/2𝑓 delay in the circuit. But the delay in the measurement
system and control circuit and impedance circuit lead to a decrease in the speed in the control
system of up to 10 cycles of source frequency.
In a three-phase system the maximum delay is 1/2𝑓. A thyristor controlled reactor
has simple structure and control characteristics, and control of the phases can be carried out
directly. Due to this feature this component is used to achieve phase balance. But there is a
disadvantage in that a thyristor does not have a sinusoidal current, so it will generate
harmonics that should be filtered.
A thyristor controlled reactor can only absorb reactive power from the system. To
generate continuous reactive power, three capacitors are connected in parallel permanently
with the TCR. In this case, by adding one inductor with a capacitor in series the harmonics
generated by the TCR can be removed.
2.5.1.1.2. Thyristor switched Reactor
A thyristor switched reactor is similar to a thyristor controlled reactor. The difference
is that in this component there is no continuous control of the angle and it is only operated at
90 and 180 degrees. That means thyristors are either completely connected or disconnected.
So reactive current injected will be a function of the voltage network. Fig 2.5 shows the
schematic of a TSR [71].
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Figure 2. 5 Schematic diagram of TSR
2.5.1.1.3. Thyristor Switched Capacitor
A thyristor switched capacitor is a capacitor that is parallel with one thyristor. By
applying on and off mode on the thyristor (without having control of the angle) the reactance
value can be controlled step by step. Fig. 2.6 shows the schematic of a TSC.
Figure 2. 6 Schematic diagram of TSC
The purpose of the inductor in the component is to limit the transient effect of
switches and also to converge the current and create a filter to eliminate the harmonics.
Harmonics generation in a TSC is very low. In order to current is almost sinusoidal shape.
21 | P a g e
Whenever the thyristor switch is on, the capacitor will be in the circuit and generate reactive
power until the signal reaches the thyristor gate.
A TSC has got a simple structure and control and it is also less expensive. Phase
control can be achieved simply and this component will not generate harmonics. This
component has less loss than other SVC models. The dynamic response of a TSC is very fast
and is about 0.5 to 1 cycle.
2.5.1.2. Static Synchronous Compensator
In recent years, FACTS components have been developed rapidly and new
components have replaced the old ones such as the TSC and TCR. A static synchronous
compensator is a parallel reactive compensator that is able to generate or absorb reactive
power. The output of this component is changed in terms of controlling the power system
parameters.
This component is able to control the three-phase voltage profile with high response.
It can compensate reactive power without requiring voltage from the AC system. The main
part of this component includes one transformer with a reactance and voltage source
converter based on IGBT and one DC capacitor.
Basically, the voltage difference in the reactance causes a reactive power transaction
between STATCOM and power systems. As a result it can adjust the voltage in the bus-bar
and improve the level. Fig. 2.7 shows the schematic of STATCOM [72].
22 | P a g e
Figure 2. 7 Schematic diagram of STATCOM
There are some advantages to using STATCOM:
 Dynamic control of the voltage
 Improvement of transient stability
 Elimination of power fluctuation in power networks
 Active and reactive power control
STATCOM is used as a synchronous voltage source and this feature creates better
operation and flexibility than SVC. STATCOM will operate better than an SVC for providing
voltage under the huge amount of disturbances in the power systems. The ability of
STATCOM when protecting the output current of the capacitor during a low voltage situation
makes this component operate better than an SVC in relation to transient stability of the
system.
STATCOM is one of the most common FACTS devices that is connected to the
system in parallel. One of the most important features of this device is improving the quality
of the power. The operation of STATCOM in most cases is similar to that of an inverter,
23 | P a g e
which changes DC voltage to AC. Whenever the voltage of the system decreases due to extra
demand, STATCOM will act as an active power generator and inject some of the required
active power into the network.
The generated reactive power of STATCOM depends on the connected bus-bar
voltage level and this makes it more complicated. But the maximum reactive power generated
by STATCOM is independent of voltage level so in a critical situation it can rescue the
system from voltage collapse.
2.5.2. Series Device Compensator
2.5.2.1. Thyristor Switched Series Capacitor
The main part of this component is a capacitor with a bypass switch. In this case, the
capacitor can be involved in the transmission lines when the switch is in off mode. A TSSC is
a collection of capacitors and each of them is parallel with a bypass switcher. In this method
of compensation, there is no control of the angle. So line reactance will not change
continuously and this is the main disadvantage of the component. Fig. 2.8 shows the
schematic of a TSSC.
Figure 2. 8 Schematic diagram of TSSC
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2.5.2.2. Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor
A thyristor controlled series capacitor includes a series capacitor that is parallel with a
TCR. This component can make various currents with a series capacitor and TCR and control
voltage injected into the system. This component is also able to work in both capacitance and
inductance areas. In the inductance, area the angle of the thyristor changes within 180 degrees
up to the maximum value of 𝛿𝐿 and in the capacitance area the angle changes between zero
and 𝛿𝐶 and in this case 𝛿𝐿 < 𝛿𝐶 . Fig. 2.9 shows the schematic of a TCSC [73].
Figure 2. 9 Schematic diagram of TCSC
A TCSC is a series compensator component that is used as a capacitor and inductor
element in transmission lines. This device increases the dynamic stability of power
transmission lines and improves the load sharing between transmission lines. The amount of
the compensator is calculated with the percentage of reactance of the transmission line that is
connected, and based on this connection the admittance matrix of the network is improved.
The reactance injected by the TCSC can be calculated by using the following equation:
𝑥𝑇𝐶𝑆𝐶 = K𝑥𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 (2.9)
In this case, K is the compensation range, and also, to avoid extra compensation, this
range should be limited and should follow the equation (5.5). Fig. 2.10 illustrates the current
injected by the TCSC.
25 | P a g e
Figure 2. 10 Injected current schematic by TCSC
According to the electrical circuit rules, all equations regarding injected active and
reactive power into transmission lines between buses by installing TCSC can be defined as:
𝑃ic = 𝑉i2 ∆𝐺 ij – 𝑉 i 𝑉 j [∆𝐺 ij 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛿 ij + ∆𝐵ij 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛿 ij] (2.10)
𝑃jc = 𝑉 j2 ∆𝐺 ij – 𝑉i 𝑉 j [∆𝐺 ij 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛿 ij – ∆𝐵ij 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛿 ij] (2.11)
𝑄 ic = – 𝑉i2 ∆𝐵ij – 𝑉 i 𝑉 j [∆𝐺 ij 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛿 ij – ∆𝐵ij 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛿 ij] (2.12)
𝑄 jc = – 𝑉j2 ∆𝐵ij + 𝑉i 𝑉 j [∆𝐺 ij 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛿 ij + ∆𝐵ij𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛿 ij] (2.13)
In the above equations, ∆𝐵ij and ∆𝐺 ij can be defined as:
2 2
𝑥𝑖𝑗 (−𝑘 2 𝑥𝑖𝑗 −𝑘𝑥𝑖𝑗 +𝑘𝑟𝑖𝑗 )
∆𝐵𝑖𝑗 = 2 +𝑥 2 )(𝑟 2 +(𝑥 +𝑘𝑥 ) ) 2 (2.14)
(𝑟𝑖𝑗 𝑖𝑗 𝑖𝑗 𝑖𝑗 𝑖𝑗
2
𝑘𝑟𝑖𝑗 𝑥𝑖𝑗 (2+𝑘)
∆𝐺𝑖𝑗 = 2 +𝑥 2 )(𝑟 2 +(𝑥 +𝑘𝑥 ) ) 2 (2.15)
(𝑟𝑖𝑗 𝑖𝑗 𝑖𝑗 𝑖𝑗 𝑖𝑗
FACTS technology is one of the most important facilities used in emergency
situations without losing the security of the system. A TCSC is one of the most important
FACTS devices and changes the impedance of the transmission line whether power flows
from appointed routes. This controlled impedance is programmed so that in emergency
26 | P a g e
conditions it increases the security of the power system. Refer to mentioned feature operating
system in huge amount of power is possible. Although using mechanical switches can obtain
this benefit, the speed and certainty of the thyristors causes an increase in the efficiency and
total transfer capability.
A TCSC in a power system is used to adjust the load between the parallel
transmission lines so as to achieve the maximum transfer capability. Whenever two
transmission lines are allocated in parallel, transferable power will be divided according to
their impedance. If both transmission lines have a different structure they will have different
thermal limits. If the first transmission line (L1), which has a lower thermal limit, does not
become overloaded, the second transmission line (L2) will not reach the maximum level. In
this case, by allocating the TCSC to the one that has a higher thermal limit and with proper
compensation, both of the lines operate up to the maximum thermal limit.
The availability and certainty of the TCSC depend on its own component
characteristics. The initial understanding of certainty of the system depends on the utilization
of the system. Basically, a TCSC is able to change its own reactance slowly or fast according
to transmission line impedance. Indeed, a TCSC is able to change power flow through the
transmission lines. With proper adjusting, the preferred power can be reached through the
lines. There are two ways to control this device: manual and automatic.
Usually a TCSC is installed to split the load in emergency conditions. Many
characteristics are involved to obtain high-quality capability. For instance, the situation of the
system gets worse if faults appear in the TCSC. Optimal allocation of a TCSC can have
different effects in terms of load separation in transmission lines. In the case of an ideal
TCSC in power system study case, it can be seen that it will work without fault permanently
and results will be reasonable. Generally, a TCSC is able to operate in three situations:
27 | P a g e
 Thyristor blocked: in this case the trigger will not work and the whole system
will operate like a simple capacitor
 Bypass thyristor: in this case the whole system will operate like a small
inductor where the thyristor conducts completely
 Normal operation: in this case the whole system is in a situation between those
conditions above and its characteristics change between those of a capacitor
and an inductor.
2.5.2.3. GTO Controlled Series Capacitor
According to Fig. 3.11, a GCSC includes a series capacitor with two GTOs in parallel.
The advantage of this component is that it is able to switch off at specific points. The aim of a
GCSC is to control the AC voltage in the capacitor while the current is flowing. To achieve
this, the angle of the GTO is controlled between 90 and 180 degrees. As a result, the AC
voltage in the capacitor is controlled so that in line with the specific line value the amount of
injected impedance is controlled continuously. Fig. 2.11 illustrates the schematic of a GCSC.
Figure 2. 11 Schematic diagram of GCSC
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2.5.2.4. Static Synchronous Series Compensator
This component, by using an inverter as a main part of the component, is able to
control the power in transmission lines. This device features quick response, smaller size,
lighter weight, reasonable price, balancing, and continuous and accurate control. Poor control
of the reactive power in power networks causes a reduction in the quality of power. This
component has an inverter with a source that is connected in series to the network by one
transformer. The SSSC can inject pre-controlled voltage in the network and also the network
is secure against disturbances. Fig. 2.12 shows the schematic of an SSSC [74].
Figure 2. 12 Schematic diagram of SSSC
2.5.3. Series-Series Device Compensators
2.5.3.1. Inter Line Power Flow Controller
This component is a combination of two or more other series compensators that are
connected in the AC terminal with a DC link. Injected voltage magnitude and angle using this
component are controlled in transmission lines. This device increases the reactive power
transfer. This device does not have control on reactive power and as a result is not able to
share load between transmission lines.
29 | P a g e
This device can reduce the load from overloaded transmission lines and increase the
stability in terms of dynamic disturbances. Fig. 2.13 shows the schematic of an IPFC [75].
Figure 2. 13 Schematic diagram of IPFC
2.5.4. Series-Parallel Device Compensators
2.5.4.1. Unified Power Flow Controller
A UPFC is one of the most useful FACTS devices and is used to control power
transfer. In general, a UPFC is able to control voltage, impedance and angle at the same time.
One of the other important features of this component is its control of active and reactive
power in transmission lines at the same time. In this device, an SVC is one of the parts of this
device that makes active and reactive power transactions. Using a UPFC for controlling
power transfer is better than increasing system transfer capability. Basically, a UPFC is used
to adjust the power transfer between two transmission lines that are parallel together. This
leads to maximum power transfer capability in the power system. A UPFC is one of the most
frequently applied FACTS devices in power networks. This component has several benefits
for static and dynamic operation of transmission lines. This feature includes STATCOM and
SSSC characteristics. UPFC has a unique capability in terms of the control of active power in
transmission lines and reactive power at a requested point. If two transmission lines have
30 | P a g e
different characteristics they will have different thermal limits. To achieve the same power
transfer through the lines, they should have the same impedance. In this case, the UPFC is
connected to the system and both transmission lines will operate within their own nominal
thermal limits. Generally, a UPFC has got all the other compensator features. Also, it is able
to adjust the voltage, compensate the impedance of the transmission line and shift the angle
[55]. This device has got dynamic characteristics, which is important in a transmission
system. Basically, a UPFC is able to control voltage, impedance and phase angle at the same
time. Also, it is able to control active and reactive power through the transmission lines to
achieve maximum load-ability. But this device has been challenged a lot in terms of power
electronics and power systems.
2.5.4.1.1. UPFC Structure
A UPFC includes two converters that are connected back to back via a DC capacitor.
Each of the converters is connected to a transformer separately. The first converter is called a
STATCOM, which injects a sinusoidal current with variable magnitude where it is connected.
The second converter is called an SSSC, which injects series sinusoidal voltage with variable
magnitude into the transmission line.
Figure 2. 14 Diagram of UPFC and its two converters
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2.5.4.1.2. Operation of UPFC
Power flow though a transmission line is a function of the impedance of the line, the
voltage of the source and loads and the angle of those voltages. Basically, power flow
depends on the crossing voltage through the impedance of the line. Fig. 2.15 shows a diagram
of a simple transmission line:
Figure 2. 15 UPFC injects voltage
In this case, 𝑋𝑙 is the inductive reactance of the line, 𝑉𝑑𝑞 is the series-injected voltage,
𝑉𝑠 is the voltage source in the sending area and 𝑉𝑟 is the voltage source in the receiving area.
The crossing voltage through the reactance of the line is equal to:
𝑉𝑥 = 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑟 − 𝑉𝑑𝑞 = 𝐼𝑋𝑙 (2.16)
In this case, 𝐼 is the current of the transmission line. 𝑉𝑥 changes whenever 𝑉𝑑𝑞 is
changed and as a result the current will be changed. Initially it can be assumed that 𝑉𝑑𝑞 = 0,
then the vector below can be obtained:

𝑉𝑥
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑟
𝑉𝑑𝑞 = 0 𝛿
Figure 2. 16 𝑽𝒙 variation when 𝑽𝒅𝒒 is chenged
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𝛿 is the angle between 𝑉𝑠 and 𝑉𝑟 . 𝐼 is the transmission line current. 𝑃𝑟 and 𝑄𝑟 are the active
and reactive powers in the receiving area. Injecting 𝑉𝑑𝑞 as a series voltage into the lines 𝑉𝑜
and 𝑉𝑟 makes 𝛿1 .
𝑉𝑑𝑞 𝑉𝑥 𝐼
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑟
𝑉𝑑𝑞 > 0 𝛿1
Figure 2. 17 creation of 𝜹𝟏
As a result, the transmission line current will be changed. If 𝑉𝑑𝑞 increases more, 𝑉𝑜
and 𝑉𝑟 will make 𝛿2 , which is lagging. At this moment the current and power are in reverse
positions.
𝑉𝑑𝑞 𝐼 𝑉𝑥
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑟
𝛿2 𝑉𝑜
𝑉𝑑𝑞 > 0
Figure 2. 18 creation of 𝜹𝟐 .
2.5.4.1.3. Physical Operation of UPFC
According to Fig. 2.19, a UPFC includes two converters that are connected back to back by a
DC link.
Figure 2. 19 Schematic of UPFC
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The second converter, which is a series converter, injects controllable 𝑉𝑑𝑞 with magnitude
(𝑣𝑑𝑞 ) and phase (𝜌) using a series transformer into the transmission line. The reactive power
transaction in the AC terminal is done by the converter itself. The first converter provides or
absorbs the active power requested by the second converter via the DC link. This power is
transferred from the second converter to the first converter via the DC link and will be
changed to AC power. Then it will be transferred by shunt transformer to the network. The
shunt part is able to provide the requested active power to the series transformer and also it is
able to generate or absorb reactive power when required. UPFC operation is traditionally
based on shunt reactive compensation, series compensation and adjust phase angle. The
UPFC is able to manage all three operations.
2.5.4.1.4. UPFC Control Modes
To demonstrate these modes, the UPFC is connected to the power network as shown below:
Figure 2. 20 UPFC Connection to the network
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2.5.4.1.4.1. Parallel Converter
This converter absorbs controlled current from the transmission line. Some of this current
is provided according to the requested active power in the series converter. Another part of
this current is reactive. A parallel converter operates in two modes:
1) Var control mode
In this case, the var request is inductive or capacitive. In this control mode, the
converter’s gates are adjusted to generate a convenient current. This control uses current
feedback signals that are sent from the transformer.
2) Automatic voltage control mode
In this case, the reactive current in the parallel converter is adjusted which sets line
voltage in connected point according to source one.
2.5.4.1.4.2. Series Converter
This converter controls the voltage and phase angle that are injected into the transmission
line in series. This injected voltage wants to have an impact on the power flow in the
transmission line. This voltage can be provided in different ways:
1) Injecting direct voltage mode
A series converter simply generates voltage magnitude with angle, which is requested by
the source.
2) Emulation mode (phase shift)
The series converter injects voltage whose V2 phase angle is shifted towards the V1 phase
angle with an angle specified by the source point.
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3) Emulation mode (line impedance)
Proportional injected voltage with line current is controlled if we look at series
transformer from line side, it will be assumed such impedance. Generally, in this case,
creating negative resistance or capacitive inductance should be avoided, otherwise it will
create instability in the power network.
4) Automatic power flow control mode
In this case, the injected series voltage is determined, in terms of automatic and
continuous modes by system control. In this situation, P and Q are held constant.
2.5.4.1.5. UPFC Constraints
A UPFC has got many characteristics in terms of parameter control and it also has
quick response in terms of off and on mode. It can control the system in transient and
dynamic modes and it can be used to improve transient stability and eliminate the
disturbances in the power system. According to UPFC characteristics, it is able to
compensate (shunt and series) and change the phase angle. A UPFC is able to control active
power through a transmission line independently. The aim of using a UPFC in the power
system is to increase the load-ability of the system near its thermal limit. But during the
application of a UPFC in a power network there are some constraints that should be
considered.
A UPFC, as with other power electronic facilities, has got some limitations in power
networks. Some of these constraints are listed below:
1) Injected series voltage magnitude
2) Series converter current flow
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3) Active power transaction between series and parallel converters
4) Maximum and minimum UPFC voltage where connected
5) Parallel converter current flow
The application of FACTS devices in power networks will have more effect in the future.
But during the application of these devices, there are some problems that should be
challenged. By increasing the series voltage magnitude, the power flow range gets bigger
(and vice versa). But series voltage can increase in a limited range because series
transformers and converters are designed for specified voltages and will not allow the use of
high voltage. As a result, the series-injected voltage is between zero and Vimax. But the
voltage angle has no limitations and can be any value between zero and 2 pi:
0 ≤ 𝑉𝑖 ≤ 𝑉𝑖 𝑚𝑎𝑥 (2.17)
0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋 (2.18)
By applying I = 4.15 p.u, only 0 ≤ 𝜃𝑖 ≤ 66 and 115 ≤ 𝜃𝑖 ≤ 360 are able to transfer
power. When considering line voltage limitation, the voltage angle range will be 87 ≤ 𝜃𝑖 ≤
133 and 247 ≤ 𝜃𝑖 ≤ 293. The limitation of flow current from the parallel converter in some
cases has an effect on the power flow and makes it smaller, but generally it has no effect on
maximum power transfer. Whenever 𝑉𝐸 = 1 𝑝. 𝑢, there is no limitation on the power transfer
area. In summary, when considering all the constraints, the phase angle range will be
115 ≤ 𝜃𝑖 ≤ 133 and 247 ≤ 𝜃𝑖 ≤ 293. In this case, maximum power transfer takes place
when 𝜃𝑖 = 115°.
2.5.4.2. Thyristor Controlled Phase Shifting Transformer
A TCPST is a transformer phase-shifting component. This component applies a
thyristor to adjust the phase quickly. This is a series-parallel compensator component and this
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device is used to adjust the difference in voltage between the first point and last point of the
transmission lines. Usually the phase adjustment limitation in a TCPST is between -5 and +5
degrees. Fig. 2.21 shows the schematic of a TCPST.
Figure 2. 21 Schematic diagram of TCPST
2.5.5. Advantages of SVC and UPFC in Power Networks
Basically, an SVC is a static component for delivering rapid acting reactive power
compensation in power networks. This device supplies automated impedance balancing to the
system. Indeed, an SVC uses reactors to balance the impedance reactively. It is able to supply
adjustable reactive power to the power network. This component is used at the end of the
receiving point of the transmission line. Basically, this device has advantages over other
banks of shunt capacitors. For example, this device has tighter control of the voltage
compensation at the end of the receiving point of the transmission line, so it will increase line
stability when the load varies. This component is used for dynamic reactive power
compensation with a large number of reactive power demands. It also reduces the power
plant operating cost.
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An SVC is a parallel device that can control specific parameters of the power
networks. An SVC is a static component, which means this device does not have a rotation
part. This characteristic leads to it having a fast response to system variations and
disturbances. An SVC has several advantages over most FACTS components. This device
has a fast response, more flexible ability and high certainty, balances the phases and
eliminates extra voltages, has no rotating inertia, fast installation and lower maintenance and
installation cost and is less complicated to control, converges disturbances and enhances
transient stability. An SVC is used in both transmission and distribution areas.
The advantages of SVCs in terms of distribution should be mentioned: adjusting and
preventing of voltage collapse, improving the power factor, balancing the load and
eliminating the harmonics. With regard to the transmission system, it is able to improve
voltage before voltage collapse and increase transient stability.
UPFCs are one of the strongest FACTS devices and were introduced to the power
system in 1991. The structure of a UPFC includes two voltage convertors with a GTO switch
connection. These two convertors are connected to each other by a DC capacitor. The parallel
and series parts of the component can absorb and generate reactive power independently.
This characteristic enables power flow in both directions.
From a control point of view, this device can be assumed to have two different parts.
The parallel part includes a parallel transformer, voltage convertor and DC capacitor, which
act as STATCOM. The series part includes a series transformer, voltage convertor and DC
capacitor, which act as an SSSC. Indeed, this component is a combination of STATCOM and
an SSSC. A UPFC improves transient characteristics in power systems.
In this study, SVC and UPFC were used as compensators in the case study system. An
SVC is used widely in power networks because it has good characteristics in terms of loss
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reduction and voltage regulation. Also, because of lower installation and maintenance costs,
it is recommended for use in power networks. The UPFC is the best compensator device and
has many advantages over other compensators.
This device has the highest feature in terms of load-ability. The main disadvantage of
this component is the installation cost, which is higher than for other compensators. This
disadvantage can be analysed by a power network team to see whether this component is
suitable for the system. A UPFC can reduce losses more than other FACTS devices and
brings high stability to power networks. UPFCs are also used as fault detectors.
Table 2.1 shows the characteristics of various types of FACTS devices in power
system.
Table 2. 1 Advantages and features of various FACTS devices
FACTS Type Power flow control Voltage control Dynamic stability Transient stability
SVC * *** *** **
STATCOM * ** ** **
TCSC ** *** ** **
UPFC *** *** ** **
Note: number of the star represents importance of the characteristics
2.6. Summary of the Chapter
In this chapter, basically energy demand has been explained and the impact of FACTS
devices on power systems discussed. A brief history of FACTS devices has been provided
and the usage of these components discussed along with the effect they have on stability and
power transfer capability. In this case, maximum power transfer capability is one of the issues
that researchers challenge themselves to optimize. Available transfer capability (ATC) and
total power transfer capability (TTC) have been explained. The restriction of power networks
40 | P a g e
during the delivery of power has also been briefly discussed. The principle of flexible AC
transmission system devices, one of the most important components in the distribution and
transmission in power networks, has been explained. The types of FACTS devices and their
operation have been shown. In this case, several FACTS devices have been demonstrated and
briefly discussed in terms of connection and capability. The UPFC is one of the most efficient
devices and has more features than other FACTS devices.
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Chapter 3: Literature Review
Chapter 3
Literature Review
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3. Literature Review
In this chapter, this study is going to present several case studies to show the effect of
algorithms on the optimal allocation of FACTS devices. In this case, many techniques have
been implemented in the placement of FACTS devices. The GA, PSO and the bees algorithm
(BA) are the most common algorithms that have been used in this area. In these case studies,
power systems are discussed briefly in terms of objective function and constraints. Different
numbers of objective functions and constraints are implemented in the case studies.
It can be seen that by using a greater number of objective functions, a high solution
accuracy can be attained and systems can be analysed. At the end of this chapter, the
advantages and disadvantages of the algorithms are discussed individually in terms of
convergence characteristics and speed and finance issues.
Idris et al [5] presented the bees algorithm to find the optimal choice of FACTS
devices for enhancing available transfer capability. In this study, a novel bees algorithm
method is proposed for allocating FACTS devices to achieve the maximum available transfer
capability of power systems.
In this study, the genetic algorithm was also used to prove the validation of the
process. In this case, BA was used to find FACTS location and type. Three types of FACTS
devices were used in the optimization: a Thyristor Controlled Series Compensator (TCSC), a
static var compensator (SVC) and a Thyristor Controlled Phase Shift Transformer (TCPST).
The IEEE-30 bus system is used to indicate the outcome of the algorithm to enhance
Available Transfer Capability (ATC) in the system. This system has been divided into three
areas with two generators in each area. In this case, an SVC is connected at the bus-bar and
its working range is between -100 MVar and 100 MVar. Also, a TCSC, which changes the
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line reactance, is connected in series to the transmission lines. The working range for the
TCSC is between -0.7XLine and 0.2XLine. A TCPST is a shunt device and its working range is
between -5º and +5º. In this case, phase shifting by this device may not be too large since it
can also change the voltage amplitude.
The main aim of this study is to find the optimal location for FACTS devices to
maximize the available transfer capability of power subject to voltage limit, thermal limit and
FACTS device limits. Basically, the calculation of the total transfer capability taking FACTS
devices into consideration can be defined as follows:
𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑂𝐴𝑇𝐶 (3.1)
Subject to: 𝐹(𝑓, 𝑔) = 0 (3.2)
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑃𝐺𝑖 ≤ 𝑃𝐺𝑖 ≤ 𝑃𝐺𝑖 (3.3)
𝑄𝐺𝑖 ≤ 𝑄𝐺𝑖 ≤ 𝑄𝐺𝑖 (3.4)
𝑉 min ≤ 𝑉 ≤ 𝑉 max (3.5)
𝑆𝑗 ≤ 𝑆𝑗𝑚𝑎𝑥 (3.6)
𝑋𝑇𝐶𝑆𝐶 ≤ 𝑋𝑖 ≤ 𝑋𝑇𝐶𝑆𝐶 (3.7)
𝑄𝑆𝑉𝐶 ≤ 𝑄𝑆𝑉𝐶 ≤ 𝑄𝑆𝑉𝐶 (3.8)
𝛿𝑇𝐶𝑃𝑆𝑇 ≤ 𝛿𝑇𝐶𝑃𝑆𝑇 ≤ 𝛿𝑇𝐶𝑃𝑆𝑇 (3.9)
The results indicate that ATC increased from 211.98 MW to 233.98 MW using the
bees algorithm. On the other hand, using the genetic algorithm, ATC increased up to 231.96
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MW. In this case, the results show that an SVC is the better choice for FACTS devices over
other compensators. In this study, the bees algorithm can allocate an SVC much faster than
the genetic algorithm.
With regard to convergence characteristics, the bees algorithm converged after 25
iterations but the genetic algorithm took 100 iterations to become converged. The results
proved that a TCPST can increase ATC from 211.98 MW to 229.89 MW using the genetic
algorithm and to 231.20 using the bees algorithm. It can be seen that the value of ATC using
the bees algorithm is slightly higher than by using the genetic algorithm.
According to the results, the bees algorithm found the optimum and better solution
than the genetic algorithm. After installing FACTS devices using the genetic algorithm, ATC
increased from area 1 to area 2 by about 295.34 MW. The SVC needs to be installed at bus
number 19 with an amount of 50.84 MVar and also at bus 12 with an amount of -97.83
MVar. The TCSC was also connected to the transmission line with 70 per cent of the
reactance.
Indeed, the bees algorithm demonstrated almost same results. TCSC with a value of
-69.99 per cent of the XLine between bus 4 and bus 12 and two SVCs with a size of 58.54
MVar at bus 19 and -99.96 MVar at bus 12 were installed. It can be seen that the bees
algorithm reached the optimal solution faster in terms of convergence characteristics and
ATC was also better than the genetic algorithm. The main advantage of the bees algorithm is
that this algorithm does not need extra parameters such as crossover and mutation, so it can
find the solution faster than the genetic algorithm.
Idris et al [6] presented a multi-objective bees algorithm for optimum allocation of
FACTS devices in power systems. The bees algorithm has not been used as much as other
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more common algorithms such as PSO and the GA. In this part, this study will discuss the
IEEE-30 bus study case to show the effectiveness of the algorithm as an optimization tool.
The genetic algorithm has also been implemented in this case study and there are two
objective functions: minimizing the cost of the system in terms of FACTS investment and
maximizing the total transfer capability.
Minimizing the total cost function can be divided into two functions because of
multiple types of FACTS devices. All related data regarding the cost of FACTS devices has
been taken from the official Siemens website [7]. The cost function, which includes
generation cost and FACTS devices investment cost, can be defined as follows:
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑓1 (𝑥) = 𝑓𝑎 (𝑃) + 𝑓𝑏(𝑔) (3.10)
𝐶 TCSC = 0.0015𝑠 2 – 0.71305𝑠 + 153.75 (3.11)
𝐶 SVC = 0.0003𝑠 2 – 0.3051𝑠 + 127.38 (3.12)
𝑇𝑇𝐶 = ∑𝑖=1 𝑃Di (𝜆max) – ∑𝑖=1 𝑃 0Di (3.13)
The second objective function is to increase the ATC of power between the source
and sink area. To achieve the total transfer capability and ATC the injected PGi at the source
area and PDi at the sink area are enhanced in function of λ which are:
𝑃Gi = 𝑃Gi + (1 + 𝜆𝑘Gi) (3.14)
𝑃Di = 𝑃Di + (1 + 𝜆𝑘Di) (3.15)
𝑄 Di = 𝑄Di + (1 + 𝜆𝑘Qi) (3.16)
𝑉 min ≤ 𝑉 ≤ 𝑉 max (3.17)
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𝑆𝑗 ≤ 𝑆𝑗𝑚𝑎𝑥 (3.18)
In this case, two constraints were determined: thermal limit and bus voltage limit. In
this study, different types of FACTS devices have been considered. Static var compensator,
thyristor controlled series compensator and thyristor controlled phase shift transformer are
involved in this study case. Basically, the TCSC changes the line reactance, the SVC is used
to control the reactive compensation and the TCPST changes the phase angle between the
two terminal voltages.
The TCSC is a series compensator device. It is connected to transmission lines to
modify the reactance of the line. It can be inductive or capacitive to enhance or decrease the
reactance of the transmission lines. The working range of the TCSC in this case was between
-0.8XLine and 0.2XLine. The SVC is a shunt static device to generate or absorb power. This
device can be used in a power system to control the reactive compensation of the system at a
nominal voltage of 1 per unit. The working area for this device has been set between -100
MVar and 100 MVar. In this study case, the TCPST is used as a shunt device that is
connected to the system. The TCPST can regulate the voltage angle between sending and
receiving at the end of the transmission lines. The working area for this device has been set
between -5º and +5º.
Two analyses have been done. In the first scenario, only one type of FACTS is
involved. The results show that the bees algorithm increased the total transfer capability more
than the GA, but on the other hand, the cost is more than that of the GA. Both algorithms
approached the same two bus-bars (29 and 18) as the optimal place. In this case, the available
transfer capability and total transfer capability cost without installing any FACTS devices
were 156.48 MW and 573.94 $/hr, respectively. After installing only one type of FACTS
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devices it can be seen that the transfer capability of transmission lines increased. And the
SVC was selected as the best component of this analysis.
In the second scenario, multiple types of FACTS devices are involved. Both
algorithms reached the same bas-bars (29, 19 and 24) at the same time. This time the bees
algorithm was also slightly better than the GA in terms of total transfer capability. The results
also showed that the SVC is better than the TCSC for enhancing power transfer. This is
because the overall cost of the system using the SVC is cheaper than using the TCSC and the
TCPST.
Shaheen et al [8] presented the optimal location for a unified power flow controller
based on evolutionary optimization techniques. In this study, the IEEE-14 bus case study was
analysed. In this case, two optimization methods, the GA and PSO, were implemented in the
system. A unified power flow controller (UPFC) is one of the most important and useful
FACTS devices for controlling the power flow in the system. In this study, two evolutionary
optimization techniques are selected to find the optimal location for a UPFC in order to
minimize the active power losses in the power system and then both results are compared.
For this purpose, only one objective function, minimizing the active power loss of the power
system, was considered. This can be shown as follows:
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝐹 = ∑𝑛𝑡𝑙
𝑘=1 𝑃𝐿𝑡𝑙 (3.19)
𝑉 min ≤ 𝑉 ≤ 𝑉 max (3.20)
𝛿 min ≤ 𝛿 ≤ 𝛿 max (3.21)
𝑄 min ≤ 𝑄 ≤ 𝑄 max (3.22)
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In this analysis, bus voltage magnitude and angle and reactive power were considered
to be constraints with a definition of minimum and maximum value. After replacing the
FACTS device in the system, both algorithms reached the same place. The results achieved
from both techniques in the case study indicated that both algorithms are able to find the
optimum solution for the problem of allocating the UPFC in a way that minimizes the active
power losses in the power network by keeping all voltages and thermal limits within their
working range area. In this regard, three places were found.
According to the simulation results, it can be seen that the GA was slightly better than
PSO in this case. With regard to numerical results, it can be seen that minimum and average
loss value and calculation time using the genetic algorithm were 0.1198, 0.12352 p.u. and
76.9 s, respectively. But using PSO technique, minimum and average and calculation time
were 0.1198, 0.125708 p.u. and 39.4 s, respectively.
In this study, these techniques were also implemented in the 3 bus and 5 bus study
case and the obtained results show the advantage of the genetic algorithm in terms of loss
value and the advantage of PSO technique in terms of convergence characteristics.
In this case, the genetic algorithm minimum and average and calculation values for
the 3 bus and 5 bus study case were 0.2478, 0.25817, 24.9, 0.0271, 0.03471 and 58.4,
respectively. On the other hand, in reference to PSO technique, these values were 0.2478,
0.24801, 14.3, 0.02708, 0.03074 and 27.4, respectively.
In summary, optimal allocation of FACTS devices in power networks has a special
role in achieving the better functionality of these devices. The GA was able to improve the
voltage magnitude more than the PSO algorithm. Both techniques can easily and successfully
find the optimal location of FACTS devices within their constraints. The PSO algorithm was
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faster than the GA in terms of convergence because this technique does not have extra
calculation procedures such as crossover and mutation.
Sheeba et al [9] presented the optimal location of an SVC using artificial intelligence
techniques. In this study, a static var compensator was used. This device, because of the
lower cost and high system enhancement, has been used widely in power networks. This
device also supports the voltage, and if installed in the optimum place it can reduce power
losses. In this case, the size of the compensator indicates the amount of reactive power
connected to the bus-bar with a voltage of 1 p.u. A positive value indicates that the SVC
generates reactive power and injects into the network and a negative value shows that the
SVC absorbs reactive power from the network.
In this study, the IEEE-14 bus case study involves both the GA and PSO algorithms to
find the optimum place to allocate a FACTS device. To allocate this device, voltage deviation
is defined as the objective function:
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝐿 = ∑|1 − 𝑉𝑚 (𝑖)| (3.23)
0.95 ≤ 𝑉 ≤ 1.1 (3.24)
𝑄 min ≤ 𝑄 ≤ 𝑄max (3.25)
The main aim of this study is to improve the voltage profile. In this study, non-
optimal location also was considered whether there are no FACTS devices in the power
system. In this equation, the network voltage deviation for a given network is defined as the
sum of the deviations of the voltage magnitude. It is essential that voltage magnitude is
within standard operating voltage. So in this work, two constraints, voltage magnitude and
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reactive power, are considered with their maximum and minimum limit. Both GA and PSO
algorithms discovered the same place.
Bus numbers 7 and 13 were the optimal places. In reference to the results, without the
SVC network voltage deviation was 0.5662 p.u. With optimal location of the SVC this value
was changed to 0.28 p.u.
In this case, the accuracy of the GA is higher than that of PSO, but the speed of the
convergence was slightly higher than that of the GA. In a large number of power systems it
can be seen that one SVC will have a greater effect on the system and a power system
requires a greater number of compensators. After installing FACTS a big improvement in the
voltage over a wide range of operating conditions and for various types of disturbance in
power networks can be seen.
Mondal et al [10] presented PSO-based location and parameter setting of advance
SVC controller in comparison to the genetic algorithm. In this part, the IEEE-14 bus case
study is analysed with only one objective function. The optimization problem mentioned here
is to search for the optimal location and the optimal set of FACTS parameters using the PSO
and GA algorithms. It can be said that the FACTS controller is designed to minimize small
signal oscillations in the power system after a disturbance, thereby leading to improved
stability. This result in terms of minimization of the Critical Damping Index (CDI) is given
by:
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒 CDI = J = (1 − |ζi |) (3.26)
The problem constraints are the bounds on the possible locations and parameters of
the FACTS devices. Both the PSO and the GA algorithms separately create the best set of
parameters as well as the best location related to the FACTS device by minimizing the
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amount of objective function J. In this regard, PSO has been implemented for optimal
parameter setting and identification of the optimal site for the FACTS device in a standard
multi-machine power system in order to mitigate the small signal oscillation problem.
The ability and performance of the PSO- and GA-based FACTS devices have been
compared in relation to power system disturbances: for instance, changing the load and
transmission line power outage. The characteristics of the critical eigenvalue and time
response analysis reveal that PSO-based FACTS devices are faster than GA-based FACTS
devices even during critical loading.
The discussed method, called “PSO-based optimization technique”, seems to have a
high accuracy and convergence rate and this technique is basically free from computational
complexity unlike the GA technique.
Bhowmik et al [11] presented the optimal location of a UPFC based on the PSO
algorithm bearing in mind the minimization of active power losses. In this part, the IEEE-14
bus study case is investigated. A UPFC was used in this study to compensate for the power.
In this case, PSO and GA techniques have been used for minimizing active power loss
through optimal placing of FACTS devices in power systems. In this case, two objective
functions are implemented as indices of the system performance: identification of suitable
buses using a line loss sensitivity index and minimization of active power losses by
employing the PSO and GA techniques.
In this regard, two objective functions can be illustrated follows;
u1 (x) = PL (3.27)
ΔP
u2 (x) = |ΔQ | + PL (3.28)
2
52 | P a g e
In this case, the voltage magnitude and angle and size of the FACTS device were
pointed constraints and they were limited.
𝑉 min ≤ 𝑉 ≤ 𝑉 max (3.29)
𝛿 min ≤ 𝛿 ≤ 𝛿 max (3.30)
𝑋𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝑋𝐹𝐴𝐶𝑇𝐶 ≤ 𝑋𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 (3.31)
According to the results, the total loss reduction with the genetic algorithm was
0.8589 with a simulation time of 297 s. But with PSO technique the total loss reduction was
0.5682 with a simulation time of 254 s. A UPFC was located in three places: lines 4-9, 13-6
and 4-3. The total loss reductions with the UPFC using the same lines are 0.5201, 0.55353
and 0.5732, respectively, and without the UPFC using these lines they are 0.8429, 0.8229 and
0.8432, respectively. It can be seen that by allocating a compensator to line 4-9 maximum
loss reduction can be achieved.
With regard to the study case system, both GA and PSO techniques can find the
optimal location for the FACTS device, but the PSO technique is better in terms of
minimizing the active power loss problem. Basically, in this case PSO takes less simulation
time than the GA. Also, PSO is an easier-to-use, more robust and faster optimization
technique than the GA.
Rekha et al [12] presented a comparative analysis on reactive power optimization
using various techniques in a deregulated power system. In this part, the IEEE-30 bus study
case will be analysed. In this example, real power is maximized and reactive power should be
minimized as well. In addition, sufficient reactive power should be provided locally in the
system to keep the bus voltages within nominal ranges in order to satisfy customers’
equipment voltage ratings.
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In this regard, the mathematical model of reactive power optimization and its
algorithm was modified. In this case, FACTS devices are used to enhance the voltage profile.
In this regard, PSO and the GA are used and the MATLAB program is deployed.
In this study, two objective functions are used: minimizing reactive power and
voltage deviation. As usual there are a few constraints in the problem.
𝑄𝑖 = −𝑖{𝑉𝑖 ∗ [𝑉𝑖 𝑌𝑖𝑖 + ∑𝑛𝑗=1 𝑉𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑗 ]} (3.32)
𝑉(𝑖) = ∑𝑛𝑖=1(1 − 𝑉𝑖 ) (3.33)
𝑉 min ≤ 𝑉 ≤ 𝑉 max (3.34)
𝑄 min ≤ 𝑄 ≤ 𝑄 max (3.35)
𝑇𝑖−𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝑇𝑖 ≤ 𝑇𝑖−𝑚𝑎𝑥 (3.36)
After analysing using the GA and PSO algorithm, it can be seen that reactive power
has a reduction of 4.9% after optimization using the GA and a reduction of 7.1% after
optimization using PSO for the base case. The GA and PSO are implemented to reduce the
reactive power. The reactive power obtained after optimization using the genetic algorithm is
23.641 MVar. The opportunity cost value is $7.0320. The bus voltages of the 26th and 30th
buses are improved to 1.062 and 1.053 p.u. The reactive cost of compensator 1345 was
obtained $4.8417. The total cost of reactive power was obtained $11.8737.
The reactive power obtained after optimization using the PSO is 23.106 MVar. The
opportunity cost is calculated as $7.05063. The bus voltages of the 26th and 30th buses are
improved to 1.069 and 1.055 p.u. The reactive cost of the compensator is $4.646. The total
cost of reactive power is given as $11.6966. Comparing the two methods, the PSO technique
has more optimized values than the genetic algorithm.
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Rashed et al [13] presented the optimal location and parameter setting of multiple
TCSCs for increasing power system load-ability based on the GA and PSO techniques. In this
study, the IEEE-6 and IEEE-14 bus study case will be analysed. In this case, one objective
function has been defined. Indeed, the location of FACTS devices in power systems has a
special role in achieving the problem goal.
This study used a TCSC to obtain a maximum system load-ability in the power
network with minimum cost of installing this component. In this case, two algorithms, the
GA and the PSO algorithm, are deployed to analyse the system in MATLAB. FACTS are
used to increase the load-ability of the system. In this objective function there are two
parameters.
The first part is related to the cost of a FACTS device and the second part is the sum
of two parts, which are thermal and bus voltage limit factors.
The objective function can be defined as follows:
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝐹 = 1000 × 𝐶𝐹𝐴𝐶𝑇𝑆 × 𝑆 × 𝜆1 × 𝑉𝐿 (3.37)
𝐶𝐹𝐴𝐶𝑇𝑆 = 0.0015𝑆 2 − 0.7130𝑆 + 153.75 (3.38)
𝑉 min ≤ 𝑉 ≤ 𝑉 max (3.39)
𝑋𝐿 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝑋𝐹𝐴𝐶𝑇𝐶 ≤ 𝑋𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 (3.40)
XL min ≤ XFACTC ≤ XLmax (3.41)
Both GA and PSO techniques increased the load-ability by 15%1. But in terms of
installation cost, using the GA to find out the installation cost is less expensive than using the
PSO technique. In terms of compensation, PSO is higher than the GA. They both found three
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places to allocate FACTS devices. In this case, by increasing the number of FACTS, it can be
seen that the installation cost was increased significantly.
In this study, two scenarios have been considered. In the first scenario, three places
were allocated for FACTS devices and both the genetic algorithm and the PSO technique
were implemented to achieve the solution. After running the program, the genetic algorithm
found lines 3, 4 and 5 to place the FACTS devices. The percentages of compensation were
11%, 34% and 16%, respectively, and the minimum installation cost was 0.23661*106. After
running the case using PSO technique lines 3, 4 and 8 were found and the percentages of
compensation were 22%, 41% and 95%, respectively. The minimum installation cost was
0.29683*106. It can be seen that the installation cost value using PSO was higher than with
the genetic algorithm.
By using five optimal places to allocate FACTS devices it can be seen that the system
load-ability increased by 22%. The PSO algorithm discovered lines 5, 6, 7, 11 and 13, while
the genetic algorithm lines 2, 3, 6, 13 and 20. According to the compensation percentages,
line 6 in the genetic algorithm and line 7 in the PSO technique were at the top. The PSO
algorithm’s compensation characteristics are higher than those of the GA, but the installation
cost using the PSO is higher than that of the GA. Based on convergence characteristics, the
PSO algorithm is faster than the GA at the beginning of the optimization; this is because the
GA includes steps such as selection, crossover and mutation, while PSO does not have these
features. But after a couple of generations it can be seen that the performance of the GA is
higher than that of PSO.
In this study, maximizing the system load-ability and minimizing the investment cost
of FACTS devices that are installed in the power system were considered. The results
achieved from the implementation of the two techniques have high-quality features such as
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quality solution and convergence characteristics. It can be seen that the efficiency of the
system was increased using both optimization techniques.
Lu et al [14] presented the optimal location for FACTS devices with a bacterial
swarming algorithm for reactive power planning. In this part, the IEEE-30 and IEEE-118 bus
study cases will be analysed. In this case, the bacterial swarming algorithm (BSA) has been
deployed in the systems. The results of the simulation show that the performance and power
quality of the system were increased. In this case, three algorithms, the BSA, the GA and the
PSO technique, were used and compared. The goal of the optimization is to minimize the real
power losses and improve the voltage profile.
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐹𝐿 + 𝐾𝑉 𝐹𝑉 + 𝐾𝑄 𝐹𝑄 (3.42)
There are a few constraints:
𝑉 min ≤ 𝑉 ≤ 𝑉 max (3.43)
𝑄 min ≤ 𝑄 ≤ 𝑄 max (3.44)
𝛿 min ≤ 𝛿 ≤ 𝛿 max (3.45)
With regard to the IEEE-118 bus study case, the final solution for the power loss in
the GA was 320.1823 MW, while in PSO it was 359.6403 MW and in the BSA it was
297.6209 MW. So it can be seen that the BSA was better than both the other techniques.
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With regard to the IEEE-30 bus study case, the final solution for the power loss in the
GA was 12.0739 MW, while in PSO it was 8.2172 MW and in the BSA it was 6.4989 MW.
So it can be seen that the BSA was better than both the other techniques.
In this study case, multiple types of FACTS devices were considered. The best BSA
results for the IEEE-30 bus system in terms of allocating different types of FACTS devices
were: the TCSC at branch 2-5, the TCPST in branch 4-12, the TCVR in branch 3-4 and the
SVC at bus 22. With regard to the IEEE-118 study case, the best BSA solutions in terms of
finding the optimal place for different types of FACTS devices were: the TCSC in branch 64-
61, the TCPST in branch 9-10, the TCVR in branch 89-92 and the SVC at bus 38. Optimal
location, using all three methods, was analysed and it can be seen that the behaviour of the
BSA was better than the other techniques. Basically, the BSA is most suitable for discovering
multiple types of FACTS devices in large-scale power systems.
Mohammadi et al [15] presented a hybrid particle swarm optimization algorithm for
optimal location of an SVC device in power system planning. In this example, the IEEE-68
bus study case is considered for the simulation. In this case, two techniques, the GA and the
PSO technique, are deployed to find the optimal place for the FACTS devices.
In this study, one objective function is used that includes two parameters. The first
part is related to the voltage profile at the bus-bar and the second part is related to the
operation and installation cost. By applying the PSO and the GA technique, the optimal
location for FACTS devices was found. By replacing FACTS devices in the system it can be
seen that losses decreased.
𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑤1 × 𝑉𝐾 + 𝑤2 × 𝐶𝑂 (3.48)
There are two constraints in this problem:
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𝑉 min ≤ 𝑉 ≤ 𝑉 max (3.49)
𝑄 min ≤ 𝑄 ≤ 𝑄 max (3.50)
The goal of the optimization is to find a perfect place to allocate FACTS devices in
power networks. After analysing using PSO and the GA it can be seen that both techniques
found one place to allocate a FACTS device. In terms of total loss reduction, PSO was higher
than the GA.
According to the results, the genetic algorithm found bus 34 to replace the
compensator. After allocating FACTS device the total power loss reduction was 0.3559 p.u.
The PSO algorithm was run on the system and the algorithm discovered bus 31 to place the
FACTS device. After replacing it, it can be seen that the total power loss reduction was
0.4608 p.u. In some cases, researchers combine some algorithms and basically use some of
their characteristics and mix these with other techniques.
In this case, a new algorithm was proposed: the PSO-GA algorithm. This combined
algorithm was also implemented in the case study and bus 50 was found to allocate the
FACTS device. After running the system, the total power loss reduction was 0.8823p.u. By
applying this algorithm in the case study the total loss reduction was higher than with the
other two techniques. In this case, a different place was found to allocate the FACTS device.
This is because of the behaviour of the algorithm while dealing with the optimization
problems.
Rashed et al [16] presented evolutionary optimization techniques for optimal location
and parameter setting of the TCSC. In this study, the IEEE-14 and IEEE-6 bus study case was
considered. In this regard, two evolutionary techniques, the GA and the PSO algorithm, are
implemented to find the optimal allocation for FACTS devices in power networks. In this
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case, both the GA and PSO algorithms found a suitable place to allocate the FACTS devices.
In this example, the main objective function was defined in terms of optimal location of
FACTS to eliminate and minimize voltage deviation under critical circumstances. The
following equations show the objective function and constraints:
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝐹𝑡 (3.51)
𝑉 min ≤ 𝑉 ≤ 𝑉 max (3.52)
𝑄 min ≤ 𝑄 ≤ 𝑄 max (3.53)
𝛿 min ≤ 𝛿 ≤ 𝛿 max (3.54)
−0.5𝑋𝐿 ≤ 𝑋𝐹𝐴𝐶𝑇𝐶 ≤ 0.5𝑋𝐿 (3.55)
Simulation has been carried out on the IEEE-6 bus and IEEE-14 bus systems. The
results achieved show that FACTS can improve sharply the security of a power system by
minimizing the overloading of transmission lines and voltage deviation. Both algorithms
found the same place to allocate the FACTS devices. The PSO algorithm is much faster than
the GA technique and this is because in the GA there are features such as selection, mutation
and crossover and the PSO does not have these features.
This study chose the TCSC component because of its flexible control over the
impedance of transmission lines so that, it can change its own current reactance according to
the power system requirements. Also, this device is faster in terms of response than other
switched series compensators. Both the GA and PSO successfully optimized the system with
virtually the same quality and performance. These methods have stable characteristics and a
high quality of convergence.
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Valle et al [17] presented the enhanced particle swarm optimizer for power system
application. In this example, the study case is part of the Brazilian power network with 45
bus-bars and 10 machines. The case study has been optimized with the PSO technique and
the related results are compared with other techniques such as the BFA and the GA. The
results proved that the PSO technique is able to find reasonable and optimal places to allocate
FACTS devices with a high speed of convergence.
In this case, there are two objective functions to be considered. The first is to
minimize the voltage deviation and the second is to minimize the possible FACTS size. They
can be defined as follows:
𝐽1 = √∑𝑁
1 (𝑉𝑘 − 1)
2 (3.56)
𝐽2 = 100,000 × ∑𝑀
1 𝜂𝑝 (3.57)
𝐽 = 𝑤1 × 𝐽1 + 𝑤2 × 𝐽2 (3.58)
𝑉 min ≤ 𝑉𝑘 ≤ 𝑉 max (3.59)
0.95 ≤ 𝑉𝑘 ≤ 1.05 , 𝑘: 1 → 𝑁 (3.60)
𝑄 min ≤ 𝑄 ≤ 𝑄 max (3.61)
According to the results, the minimum, maximum and average function values and
standard deviation value were 0.51745, 0.68390, 0.58791 and 0.04167 using the PSO
technique, respectively. On the other hand, the minimum, maximum and average function
values and standard deviation value were 0.52441, 0.96422, 0.74765 and 0.09654 using the
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BFA, respectively. Overall, the PSO performance after analysing was better than the BFA
and GA techniques.
In terms of success ratio, both algorithms achieved a feasible and suitable solution. In
the case of global optimality, PSO was able to reach and find a global solution while the BFA
was able to find a near optimal solution. In terms of global optimality, PSO was in forward
and had a smaller value of the objective function and a much higher accuracy than the BFA.
Sharifzadeh et al [18] demonstrated the optimal reactive power dispatch based on
particle swarm optimization considering FACTS devices. In this example, the IEEE-30 bus
study case is considered. In this case, the PSO algorithm has been deployed in the system and
related results are compared with other techniques such as the GA and differential evolution
(DE). Simulation results illustrate the capability of PSO for finding the solution to the
problem. In addition, comparing the results from these algorithms proved the greater
robustness of the PSO technique over the GA and differential evolution algorithms.
In this case study, there is just one objective function to minimize the real power loss
in transmission lines and it can be shown as follows:
𝑓 = ∑𝑘∈𝑁 𝑃𝑘𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 (3.62)
𝑄 min ≤ 𝑄 ≤ 𝑄 max (3.64)
−0.8 𝑋𝐿 ≤ 𝑋𝑇𝐶𝑆𝐶 ≤ 0.2 𝑋𝐿 (3.66)
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−0.5 ≤ 𝑋𝑆𝑉𝐶 ≤ 0.5 (3.67)
𝛿 min ≤ 𝛿 ≤ 𝛿 max (3.68)
In this regard, two types of FACTS devices were considered and two different
amounts were considered in terms of constraints. In this study, there were no stop condition
criteria and the algorithm was run for several times. In this case, after running each algorithm
30 times, it can be seen that the average power loss result from the PSO algorithm is less than
from the genetic algorithm and differential evolution technique.
According to the results, the best active power losses using the genetic algorithm,
differential evolution and PSO technique were 0.16384, 0.16399 and 0.16364, respectively.
With regard to convergence characteristics, PSO performs higher than the other two
techniques. It can be seen that using the PSO technique in the system increases the efficiency
as well.
Valle et al [19] presented the multiple STATCOM allocation and sizing using particle
swarm optimization. In this study, the 45 bus system, which is part of the Brazilian power
network, has been considered as a case study. In this case, the PSO technique is implemented
in the case study along with considering different power system load conditions. The impact
of STATCOM is investigated in terms of size and location.
In this study, there are two objective functions:
J1 = √∑45
1 (Vi − 1)
2 (3.70)
J1 represents the first objective function, which is voltage deviation.
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J2 = η1 + η2 (3.71)
η1 and η2 are the size of the first and second STATCOM in MVar. The multi-
objective optimization is defined as follows:
J = w1 ∗ J1 + w2 ∗ J2 (3.72)
A few constraints have been used in this study:
1 ≤ λ1 ≤ 45 (3.73)
1 ≤ λ2 ≤ 45 (3.74)
0.95 ≤ Vi ≤ 1.05 (3.75)
0 ≤ η1 ≤ 250 (3.76)
0 ≤ η2 ≤ 250 (3.77)
Different scenarios are investigated and analysed in this study. Single and multi
STATCOM are placed in the power network with different load conditions. In the first
scenario, the PSO technique found two solutions, which were buses number 378 and 430 with
sizes of 95 MVar and 137 MVar, respectively. Voltage deviation in this case without and
with STATCOM was 0.2481 and 0.1753, respectively. Also, the convergence rate was 60%.
In the second scenario, the PSO technique was implemented with a multiple number of
STATCOM, and after running, the program found three solutions for the problem. Buses
number 377 and 432 with sizes of 154 MVar and 144 MVar, buses 378 and 430 with sizes of
95 MVar and 137 MVar, and buses number 378 and 433 with sizes of 150 MVar and 103
MVar were found.
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By applying different load conditions after replacing the STATCOM algorithm
discovered different numbers. When the load was 90, 95, 100, 105 and 110 per cent, the
percentage of improvement was 4.4, 16.2, 29.3, 40.0 and 52.1, respectively. The PSO
technique was implemented in this case study as this case study was a medium-sized power
network. In the case of a large power network this algorithm will have a strong effect on the
system rather than having some complicated calculations.
Kheirizad et al [20] presented a novel algorithm for optimal location of FACTS
devices in power system planning. Particle swarm optimization has been used widely in
power networks. In this study, the IEEE-68 bus is used for simulation. In this case, two
objective functions have been used. The PSO technique and genetic algorithm were used for
the simulation process.
F = w1 ∗ Vk + w2 ∗ CO (3.78)
In this function Vk is the voltage deviation and CO is the cost of installation and
operation. Two constraints were used in this study:
𝐵𝑆𝑉𝐶,𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝐵𝑆𝑉𝐶 ≤ 𝐵𝑆𝑉𝐶,𝑚𝑎𝑥 (3.80)
After running the genetic algorithm bus number 34 was found as an optimal place
with an amount of 1.4654 p.u. The total power loss reduction was 0.3559 p.u. On the other
hand, after running the PSO technique on the case study bus number 31 was found with an
amount of 1.9754 p.u. The total power loss reduction was 0.4608 p.u. It can be seen that the
total power loss reduction using PSO was less than with the genetic algorithm.
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Kowsalya et al [21] presented voltage stability enhancement through optimal
placement of a UPFC. In this study, researcher implemented in the two study cases: the
WCCC-9 bus and IEEE-30 bus system. The researcher identified the new index to improve
the overall stability margin of the system by allocating the best position of the UPFC. The
voltage stability index for the load bus was given as:
𝑔 𝑉
𝐿𝑗 = |1 − ∑𝑖=1 𝐹𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑖 | (3.81)
𝑗
In this case, the L-index varies between zero and 1. There are two constraint
parameters. The voltage series and shunt are controlled in both their magnitude and angle
through 𝑟 and 𝛾. These values follow the limits below:
0 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥 (3.82)
0 ≤ 𝛾 ≤ 2𝜋 (3.83)
According to the load flow analysis, the model extracts the weakest bus and carries
out by replacing the unified power flow controller at the identified bus-bar to obtain the
L-index. In this case, the UPFC injects real and reactive powers into the system with control
parameters that they both vary in their limit. The analyses on the WCCC-9 bus indicated that
the optimum location of the UPFC will be between buses 9 and 6. From the analyses and
results on the IEEE-30 bus system, the optimum place for the UPFC was between buses 25
and 26. Also, bus 26 was the weakest bus according to the L-index.
Jahani Rouzbeh [22] presented the optimal placement for a UPFC in power systems
using the imperialist competitive algorithm. The analysis was carried out on the IEEE-14 bus
system. In this study, objective function is defined as follows:
𝑂𝐹 = ∏𝑖=𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝐿𝐹𝑖 + ∏𝑗=𝑏𝑢𝑠 𝐵𝐹𝑖 (3.84)
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In this equation, LF is the line flow index and BF is the bus voltage index. Also,
voltage level was limited between 0.95 and 1.05 as a constraint. In this study, two scenarios
are carried out. The UPFC is allocated as a single component in the first scenario and in the
second scenario two UPFCs are used to compensate the power. The best result for one UPFC
was found between buses 9 and 4. Also, the best result for using two UPFCs in the system
was found between buses 3 and 4, and buses 5 and 6. The level of the voltage was improved
by using one UPFC in the network. However, the level of voltage using two UPFCs was
satisfactorily flat.
Jayanti et al [23] presented the solution for multiple UPFC placements using the
gravitational search algorithm. In this case, the researcher presented a heuristic method based
on the gravitational search algorithm to allocate the UPFC in the optimal place bearing in
mind generation cost and power system losses. The objective functions are defined below:
∑𝑁 𝑁𝐺 2
𝑖=1 𝐶𝑖 (𝑃𝐺𝑖 ) = ∑𝑖=1(𝑎𝑖 + 𝑏𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 + 𝑐𝑖 𝑃 𝐺𝑖 )
𝐺
(3.85)
2 2
𝑃𝐿 = ∑𝑡(𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙(𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡 )(𝑉𝑘𝑡 +𝑉𝑚𝑡 )) − (𝑉𝑘𝑡 𝑉𝑚𝑡 𝑎𝑏𝑠(𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡 ) cos(𝛿𝑘𝑡 − 𝛿𝑚𝑡 − 𝛿(𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑚 ))) −
(𝑉𝑚𝑡 𝑉𝑘𝑡 𝑎𝑏𝑠(𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡 ) cos(𝛿𝑚𝑡 − 𝛿𝑘𝑡 − 𝛿(𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑚 ))) (3.86)
The constraints in this study are listed below:
𝑄𝐺𝑖 ≤ 𝑄𝐺𝑖 ≤ 𝑄𝐺𝑖 (3.88)
𝑉𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝑉𝑖 ≤ 𝑉𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 (3.89)
The UPFC constraints are:
𝑉𝑠𝑒,𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝑉𝑠𝑒 ≤ 𝑉𝑠𝑒,𝑚𝑎𝑥 (3.90)
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𝑉𝑠ℎ,𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝑉𝑠ℎ ≤ 𝑉𝑠ℎ,𝑚𝑎𝑥 (3.91)
0 ≤ 𝜃𝑠ℎ ≤ 2𝜋 (3.92)
0 ≤ 𝜃𝑠𝑒 ≤ 2𝜋 (3.93)
𝑃𝑚𝑘 ≤ 𝑃𝑚𝑘,𝑚𝑎𝑥 (3.94)
Three case studies, the IEEE-14 bus, IEEE-30 bus and IEEE-57 bus, were used to
demonstrate the results. In this study, cost and loss minimizations are deployed with single
and three UPFCs. Regarding to IEEE-14 bus, IEEE-30 bus and IEEE-57 bus algorithm found
optimal place of 10-11, 21-22, 27-28, respectively. The level of voltage was also improved.
The number of iterations needed for the optimum solution were 13, 11 and 11, respectively.
There was a comparison between other algorithms such as the BBO, GA, ACO and PBIL.
Computational time in terms of seconds needed to allocate an optimal place was faster than
with other algorithms.
Bhattacharyya et al [24] presented UPFC as a series and shunt FACTS controller for
the economic operation of a power system. In this study, the genetic algorithm is applied to
minimize transmission losses. The proposed technique is applied to the IEEE-30 bus system
for the optimal setting of FACTS devices. Cost functions for the TCSC, SVC and UPFC are
shown below:
𝑈𝑆$
𝐶𝐹(𝑇𝐶𝑆𝐶) = 0.0015(𝑇𝐶𝑆𝐶𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 )2 − 0.7130(𝑇𝐶𝑆𝐶𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 ) + 153.75(𝑘𝑉𝑎𝑟) (3.95)
𝑈𝑆$
𝐶𝐹(𝑆𝑉𝐶) = 0.0003(𝑆𝑉𝐶𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 )2 − 0.3051(𝑆𝑉𝐶𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 ) + 127.38(𝑘𝑉𝑎𝑟) (3.96)
𝑈𝑆$
𝐶𝐹(𝑈𝑃𝐹𝐶) = 0.0003(𝑈𝑃𝐹𝐶𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 )2 − 0.2691(𝑈𝑃𝐹𝐶𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 ) + 188.22(𝑘𝑉𝑎𝑟)(3.97)
So, the objective function can be described as follow:
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𝐶𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝐶𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 + 𝐶𝐹𝐴𝐶𝑇𝑆 (3.98)
In this case, 𝐶𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 is the cost due to the energy loss component and 𝐶𝐹𝐴𝐶𝑇𝑆 is the
investment cost of the FACTS devices. There are constraints, which are shown below:
𝑄𝐺𝑖 ≤ 𝑄𝐺𝑖 ≤ 𝑄𝐺𝑖 (3.100)
After running the program the algorithm allocated the TCSC between buses 28 and
20, the SVC at buses 17 and 21, and the UPFC between buses 4 and 3. Two case studies are
considered for the optimal location and types of FACTS devices. In the first scenario, TCSC
such a series controller and SVC such a shun controller are used with power system variables
to obtain economic operation of the power system. In the second scenario, the UPFC are used
with the series and shunt FACTS components to minimize active power losses and system
operation cost. It can be seen that using the UPFC with a series and shunt device generated a
better result than without the UPFC. Operating cost and also active power losses were
reduced sharply by allocating the UPFC.
Ramesh et al [25] presented loss reduction through optimal placement of a unified
power flow controller using the firefly algorithm. The aim of this study is to decrease the
power losses and enhance voltage profile in power networks optimally. To demonstrate the
validity of the proposed technique, analyses were carried out on the IEEE-14 and IEEE-30
bus systems. Also, simulation was implemented in normal and 150% of loading conditions.
The voltage stability index is defined below:
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𝑔 |𝑉 |
𝐿𝑗 = |1 − ∑𝑖=1 𝐹𝑖𝑗 |𝑉𝑖 || (3.102)
𝑗
Voltage and Q are limited as follows:
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝑉 ≤ 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 (3.103)
𝑄𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝑄 ≤ 𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 (3.104)
After running the program on the IEEE-14 bus system, the algorithm detected buses
9, 10 and 14 as weak buses and then replaced the UPFC in these buses. Basically, the UPFC
was replaced between buses 9 and 14 in normal loading and 150% of loading conditions. This
method was also run using the genetic algorithm and the results were compared. In terms of
system losses, both algorithms arrived at the same solution in terms of normal loading. The
firefly algorithm was slightly better in terms of the 150% loading condition. The voltage
profile level was also slightly better than with the genetic algorithm and all were almost 1.00
p.u. After running the program on the IEEE-30 bus system, the algorithm allocated the UPFC
between buses 27 and 30. Again, system loss reduction using the firefly algorithm was
slightly better than with the genetic algorithm. The voltage profile level after replacing the
UPFC in the network was improved and the firefly algorithm was better than the genetic
algorithm in this respect.
Nwohu et al [26] presented the optimal location for a unified power flow controller in
the Nigerian grid system. In this study, the optimal place for a UPFC was found based on the
sensitivity of the total active power loss in terms of UPFC control variable parameters. The
total active power loss was as follows:
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 (𝜃, 𝑉) = ∑𝑛𝑚=1 𝑉𝑚 ∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝑉𝑘 𝐺𝑚𝑘 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑚𝑘 (3.105)
70 | P a g e
To allocate the UPFC in the optimal place, active power loss sensitivity analysis must
be performed. This index is calculated for each line and the highest loss sensitivity index is
selected to allocate the UPFC device. In this case, the UPFC was allocated between buses 13
and 14. The active and reactive power in the network became stable after replacing the UPFC
device.
Sreerama et al [27] presented the optimal placement for a unified power flow
controller to minimize power transmission line losses. In this study, the genetic algorithm
was used to discover the solution and the 5-bus standard test system was chosen as a case
study. Load flow analysis with the connection of the UPFC model was used to calculate the
fitness function of each individual in the first population. In this case, the fitness function was
defined as follows:
𝐹𝑛 = 1.0/(1 + 𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 ) (3.106)
and 𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 is the total transmission line losses and can be defined as:
𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = ∑𝑁𝐵 2 2
𝑀=1 𝐺𝐾𝑀 {𝑉𝐾 +𝑉𝑀 − 2𝑉𝐾 𝑉𝑀 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝜕𝐾𝑀 ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐾 = 1,2, … , 𝑁𝐵 (3.107)
After running the program, the algorithm allocated UPFC between buses 5 and 4. It
can be seen that line losses after replacing the UPFC decreased.
Verma et al [28] presented the location of a unified power flow controller for
congestion management. In this study, two objective functions have been considered and the
results are compared after analysing the problem. The two objective functions that are used in
this study are: total system loss sensitivity indices and real power flow performance index
sensitivity indices:
′
𝑃𝐿𝑇 = 𝑃𝐿𝑇 − (𝑃𝑖𝑠 + 𝑃𝑗𝑠 ) (3.108)
71 | P a g e
𝑤𝑚 𝑃
𝑃𝐼 = ∑𝑁𝑙
𝑚=1
𝑙𝑚 2𝑛
(𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) (3.109)
2𝑛 𝑙𝑚
Three case studies, the 5-bus system, the IEEE-14 bus system and the 75-bus Indian
system, are considered. With regard to the 5-bus system, the results show that the placement
of the UPFC is at line 2. In terms of the IEEE-14 bus system, the results show that the UPFC
is suitable between lines 1 and 8. With regard to the Indian 75-bus system, results show that
the UPFC is suitable between lines 31 and 32.
Arabkhaburi et al [29] presented the optimal placement of a UPFC in power systems
using the genetic algorithm. The IEEE-14 bus system was used to demonstrate the results.
The results showed that power efficiency can be enhanced by optimal location and
parameters of the UPFC. The objective function was defined as follows:
𝑂𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ∏𝑖=𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝐿𝐹𝑖 + ∏𝑗=𝑏𝑢𝑠 𝐵𝐹𝑗 (3.110)
0.95 ≤ 𝑉 ≤ 1.05 (3.111)
LF is the line flow index and BF is the voltage index. In this study, five cases were
considered in terms of different circumstances. In case 1, load was increased at some buses
on the network. After running the program and analysing the network, the genetic algorithm
proposed that it is essential to place one UPFC at line 9. In case 2, active load was increased
at all buses. The genetic algorithm proposed two UPFCs at lines 9 and 16 as one UPFC is not
able to restore the system to a secure condition. In case 3, reactive load was increased at all
the buses. In this case, only voltage was dropped at bus-bars and transmission lines were not
overloaded. In this case, an SVC and STATCOM were proposed instead of using the UPFC.
Finally, the genetic algorithm proposed a UPFC for reactive power flow controlling. So, two
UPFCs were used at lines 3 and 8. In case 4, active and reactive loads were increased. The
genetic algorithm proposed two UPFCs at lines 6 and 8. In case 5, active and reactive and
72 | P a g e
load generation were increased at the same time. In this case, using two UPFCs cannot
restore system stability and another UPFC needs to be used at line 14. But using three UPFCs
is not economical in this small network and it is better to use one SVC or STATCOM at line
14 and two UPFCs at lines 6 and 16.
Asadzadeh et al [30] presented the allocation of a UPFC in the north-west grid of Iran
to increase power system security. In this study, the allocation of a UPFC in the Azerbaijan
transmission network was implemented. In this regard, the optimal placement of the UPFC
was based on sensitivity analysis to enhance the load-ability of the system and improve the
voltage profile that was provided. The loading and voltage security index of transmission
lines in this study are indicated in the formulae below:
2𝑛
𝑤 𝑃
𝐽𝑃 = ∑𝑖 2𝑛𝑖 (𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑖
) (3.112)
𝑖
𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝐽𝑉 = ∑𝑚 𝑏𝑚 (𝑉𝑚 − 𝑉𝑚 )2 (3.113)
As the above power network was divided into three zones, each zone was allocated a
UPFC in the optimal place with the proposed size. It can be seen that total power losses
decreased and system security was enhanced.
Sarkar M [31] presented the effect of UPFC allocation on transmission system power
loss. In this study, the IEEE-30 bus system is used. The allocation of a UPFC was performed
to minimize power losses in transmission lines. Three optimal places were found. So, a UPFC
was allocated between buses 6-7, 10-17 and 29-30. It can be seen that the voltage profile
level was improved and the transmission loss decreased.
Beykverdi et al [32] presented the optimal location and parameter setting for a UPFC
device in the transmission system based on the imperialist competitive algorithm. In this
73 | P a g e
study, the IEEE-14 bus system was deployed to show the validity of the method. In this case,
the fitness function was based on indices such as optimizing with overloaded lines and bus
voltage violation.
𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑠

𝐹𝑡 (𝑋, 𝑈) = ∑𝑖=1 𝐿(𝑂𝐿) + ∑𝑗=1 𝑉(𝐵𝑉) (3.114)
𝑆 ≤ 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 (3.115)
0.95 ≤ 𝑉𝑖 ≤ 1.05 (3.116)
After running the program, the algorithm allocated the UPFC between buses 7 and 9.
After replacing the FACTS device, the level of voltage was improved. The active and
reactive power flows were improved in transmission lines.
Othman et al [33] presented real-world optimal UPFC placement and its impact on
reliability. The UPFC is able to control active and reactive power and voltage profile at its
terminals. In this study, a real-world 110 KV sub-transmission network was proposed as a
case study. The genetic algorithm was deployed to show the validity of the work. Fitness
function was defined as follows:
𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑠

𝐹𝑡 (𝑋, 𝑈) = ∑𝑖=1 𝐿(𝑂𝐿) + ∑𝑗=1 𝑉(𝐵𝑉) (3.117)
0.95 ≤ 𝑉𝑖 ≤ 1.05 (3.118)
𝑆 ≤ 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 (3.119)
In this study, the load for each bus at the same time increased by 115% and 118%. The
optimal locations for the UPFC were lines 6-4 and 11-3, respectively. It can be seen that after
allocating the UPFC, no overloading and no voltage violation occurred and also the load-
ability of the network increased.
74 | P a g e
Laifa et al [34] presented the optimal placement and parameter setting for a UPFC
device using a perturbed particle swarm optimization. In this study, line overload and bus
voltage limit violations as a performance index are considered. The IEEE-14 bus system was
used as a case study. The objective function below demonstrates the active and reactive
power flow control setting with minimum overloading and voltage security level.
2 2
𝑆𝑙 𝑉𝑖 −𝑉𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝑃𝐼 = ∑𝑛𝑙
𝑙=1 𝑤𝑙 (𝑆 ) + ∑𝑛𝑏
𝑖=1 𝑤𝑉 ( ) (3.120)
𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑉𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑓
Constraints were defined as follows:
0 ≤ 𝑉𝑠𝑒 ≤ 𝑉𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥 (3.121)
−𝐼𝑞 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝐼𝑞 ≤ 𝐼𝑞 𝑚𝑎𝑥 (3.122)
𝑄𝑔 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝑄𝑔 ≤ 𝑄𝑔 𝑚𝑎𝑥 (3.123)
𝑉𝑖 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝑉𝑖 ≤ 𝑉𝑖 𝑚𝑎𝑥 (3.124)
𝑆𝑙 ≤ 𝑆𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥 (3.125)
After running the program, the algorithm allocated the UPFC between lines 2 and 3.
After installing the UPFC, the voltage profile was improved.
Izadpanah Tous et al [35] presented the optimal placement of the UPFC for voltage
drop compensation. In this study, the UPFC was allocated based on the voltage drop
sensitivity with respect to the increase in network loads. The IEEE-14 bus system was used to
show the validity of the work. The voltage drop index can be defined as:
𝑇𝑉𝐷𝐼𝑖 = ∑𝑚
𝑗=1 𝑉𝐷𝐼𝑖,𝑗 𝑖 = 1, … , 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑗 = 1, … , 𝑚 (3.126)
75 | P a g e
The voltage profile level was improved.
Kumar et al [36] presented the improvement in the voltage profile in power system
networks with the SVC and UPFC by using the optimal genetic algorithm. The IEEE-30 bus
system was used to demonstrate the results. In this case, the voltage stability index was
defined as follows:
𝑔 𝑉𝑖
𝐿𝑖 = |1 − ∑𝑖=1 𝑉𝑗 𝐹 𝐹𝑖𝑗| (3.127)
After running the program, the algorithm allocated the SVC and UPFC at buses 18
and 3-4, respectively. After allocating the devices, the voltage profile was improved in the
system.
Rezaee et al [37] presented the optimal location for the UPFC in the Esfahan-
Khuzestan network using APSO to increase the stability. In this study, during the allocation
of the UPFC, voltage limitation, load-ability, losses and installation cost were considered.
DIgSILENT was used to demonstrate the simulation as well. In this case, objective function
was defined as follows:
2
|𝑉𝑖 −𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑠 | 𝑆𝑙 −𝑆𝑙𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐 2
𝑀𝑖𝑛 𝜌1 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 ( ) + 𝜌2 ∑𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑙 + 𝜌3 ∑𝑙 ( ) + 𝜌4 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑝𝑓𝑐 (3.128)
𝑉𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑆𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥
After running the program, the UPFC was allocated between buses 15 and 57. The
voltage profile was improved significantly. It will protect power systems from disturbances
and overloading and will increase the security of the system.
Singh et al [38] presented the location of the UPFC to enhance power system load-
ability. The IEEE-14 bus system was used to show the validity of the work. In this study, the
maximum load-ability was gained by solving the equation below:
76 | P a g e
𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝜆 (3.129)
𝑄𝑔𝑖 ≤ 𝑄𝑔𝑖 ≤ 𝑄𝑔𝑖 (3.130)
𝛿𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝛿𝑖 ≤ 𝛿𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 (3.132)
0 ≤ 𝑉𝑇 ≤ 𝑉𝑇,𝑚𝑎𝑥 (3.133)
0 ≤ ∅ 𝑇 ≤ 2𝜋 (3.134)
𝐼𝑞𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝐼𝑞 ≤ 𝐼𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 (3.135)
In this case, the system load-ability was increased and the voltage profile was enhanced.
Reddy et al [39] presented an approach for optimal placement of the UPFC to enhance
the voltage stability margin under contingencies. In this study, the 75-bus Indian network was
used to show the validity of the work. To discover the solution, the sensitivity factor is used
from the reactive power flow balance equation. After running the program, the UPFC was
allocated between buses 29 and 38. In this case, the maximum enhancement was achieved in
terms of the voltage stability margin.
Singh et al [40] presented the enhancement of power system security through optimal
placement of a TCSC and UPFC. To allocate a UPFC in the optimal place, sensitivity indices
were used such as sensitivity of the transmission lines taking into consideration the FACTS
device parameters. In this study, the IEEE-30 bus system and Indian-246 bus system were
used to demonstrate the validity of the work. Objective function and constraints were defined
as follows:
77 | P a g e
𝑤𝑚 𝑃
𝑚=1
𝑙𝑚 2𝑛
(𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) (3.136)
2𝑛 𝑙𝑚
𝑋𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝑋𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 ≤ 𝑋𝑚𝑎𝑥 (3.137)
𝑃𝑔𝑖 ≤ 𝑃𝑔𝑖 ≤ 𝑃𝑔𝑖 (3.138)
𝑄𝑔𝑖 ≤ 𝑄𝑔𝑖 ≤ 𝑄𝑔𝑖 (3.139)
The PI sensitivity factors were obtained with respect to UPFC parameters. After
optimal allocation of the TCSC and UPFC, system security was enhanced in case of line
outage. The voltage profile level was improved.
Kumar et al [41] presented transmission loss allocation and loss minimization by
incorporating a UPFC in LFA. In this study, the UPFC was implemented in the 5-bus, IEEE-
14 bus and IEEE-30 bus systems. The bus loss allocation method follows the equation below:
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = ∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝐿𝑘 (3.142)
𝐿𝑘 = 𝑅[𝐿∗𝑘 (∑𝑛𝑏
𝑗=1 𝑅𝑘𝑗 . 𝐼𝑗 )] (3.143)
In this study, the UPFC was allocated in three places in all case studies. After
allocating this device, total power losses were decreased and the voltage profile level was
improved.
Kumar et al [42] presented a comparative analysis of the UPFC as a power flow
controller with applications. In this case, different aspects were discussed and then the
78 | P a g e
advantages of the UPFC over other compensators were demonstrated. Those aspects included
dynamic voltage control, load-ability and financial cost and benefits.
Bhowmik et al [43] presented implementation of a UPFC for power quality
improvement in the IEEE-14 bus system. In this study, active and reactive power flow has
been analysed with and without using a UPFC in the network. After running the program, the
UPFC was located between buses 1-2 and 4-7. After allocating the UPFC, active and reactive
power flow improved in the network and the load-ability of the system was enhanced.
Chandrakar et al [44] presented the improving power quality in transmission systems
using a UPFC. In this study, a UPFC was allocated on transmission lines to demonstrate the
effectiveness of the active and reactive power through the lines. It can be found that the
UPFC has got advantages such as reducing maintenance and the ability to control real and
reactive power at the same time.
Gopinath et al [45] presented the UPFC for dynamic stability in power systems using
modern control techniques. To show the validity of the work, simulation was carried out on
five bus test systems. After running the program, both active and reactive power flows
through each bus were analysed and active and reactive power were improved.
Bindal R.K [46] presented a review of the benefits of FACTS devices in power
systems. In this study, different FACTS devices are reviewed in terms of voltage and active
and reactive control in power networks. It can be found from the study that the UPFC has
more characteristics and usage in terms of load flow and voltage control and transient and
dynamic stability. Various FACTS devices are used depending on their installation and
condition in power systems.
79 | P a g e
Bhowmik et al [47] discussed placement of a UPFC for minimizing active power loss
and total cost function using the PSO algorithm. In this study, three objective functions were
used and implemented in the IEEE-14 bus system. Objective functions are shown below:
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑈(𝑥) (3.144)
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝐶(𝑡) = 𝐶1 (𝑓) + 𝐶2 (𝑃𝑔 ) (3.145)
𝑋𝑈𝑃𝐹𝐶 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝑋𝑈𝑃𝐹𝐶 ≤ 𝑋𝑈𝑃𝐹𝐶 𝑚𝑎𝑥 (3.146)
After running the program, the algorithm allocated the UPFC in three places between
buses 4-9, 13-6 and 4-3. In this case, system losses were reduced and the voltage profile in
the bus bars was improved.
Kalyani et al [48] presented the optimal placement and control of UPFC devices using
evolutionary computing and sequential quadratic programming. The simulation was carried
out on the IEEE-118 bus system to demonstrate the validity of the work. The algorithm
placed the UPFC in three places: buses 5-8, 26-30 and 23-32. After placement it can be seen
that the load-ability of the system and the voltage profile were enhanced.
Jafarzadeh et al [49] presented the optimal placement of FACTS devices based on
network security. The IEEE-30 bus system was used in this study. Objective function is
shown below:
𝑉𝐼 𝑠𝑦𝑠 = 𝑉𝐼 𝑏𝑢𝑠 + 𝑉𝐼 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 + 𝑉𝐼 𝑔𝑒𝑛 (3.149)
80 | P a g e
Three types of FACTS devices were used in this case. After running the program, the
TCSC was placed between line 7 and 6, the UPFC was placed between line 22 and 21 and
the SVC was placed at bus 5. In this case, the system load-ability and voltage profile were
improved and losses were reduced.
Singh et al [50] presented the enhancement of power system security through optimal
placement of the TCSC and UPFC. The IEEE-30 bus system was used to demonstrate the
validity of the work. In this study, the sensitivity index was used to find the solution. The real
power flow performance index is shown below:
𝑤𝑚 𝑃
𝑚=1
𝑙𝑚 2𝑛
(𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) (3.150)
2𝑛 𝑙𝑚
After running the program, the algorithm allocated the UPFC between lines 1 and 2. It
can be seen from the results that the voltage profile was improved and losses were decreased.
Shaheen et al [51] presented the optimal location and parameter setting for a UPFC
based on the GA and PSO to enhance power system security under single contingencies. In
this study, the IEEE-6 and 14-bus systems were used. The objective function that was used in
this study is shown below:
2𝑞 2𝑟
𝑆𝑙 𝑉𝑚 𝑟𝑒𝑓 −𝑉𝑚
𝐹𝑡 = ∑𝑛𝑡𝑙
𝑙=1 𝑤𝑙 (𝑆 ) + ∑𝑛𝑏
𝑚=1 𝑤𝑚 ( ) (3.151)
𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑉𝑚 𝑟𝑒𝑓
After running the program, the GA and PSO found three places to allocate a UPFC in
the networks. After allocation of the UPFCs, the voltage profile was improved. The load-
ability of the system also improved.
Wartana et al [52] presented the optimal placement for a UPFC to minimize system
load-ability and active power losses in system stability margins by NSGA-II. In this study,
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simulation was implemented in the IEEE-30 bus system. In this study, a fast voltage stability
index and line stability factor were used. Objective function was defined as follows:
𝐹(𝑥, 𝑢) = [𝐹1 (𝑥, 𝑢), 𝐹2 (𝑥, 𝑢)] (3.152)
𝑃𝐺𝑖 ≤ 𝑃𝐺𝑖 ≤ 𝑃𝐺𝑖 (3.153)
𝑄𝐺𝑖 ≤ 𝑄𝐺𝑖 ≤ 𝑄𝐺𝑖 (3.154)
−0.9 ≤ 𝛿𝑖 ≤ 0.9 (3.156)
𝑣𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝑣𝑆 ≤ 𝑣𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 (3.157)
𝑖𝑆𝐻 ≤ 𝑖𝑆𝐻 ≤ 𝑖𝑆𝐻 (3.158)
1 ≤ 𝜆𝑓 ≤ 𝜆𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 (3.159)
After running the program, the algorithm found line 6 and 4 to allocate the UPFC.
The voltage profile and load-ability of the network were improved and total losses were
decreased.
Ghahremani et al [53] presented the optimal placement of multiple types of FACTS
devices to maximise power system load-ability using a generic graphical user interface. In
this study, the IEEE-300 bus system was used as a case study to demonstrate the simulation
and validity of the work. Objective function was defined as follows:
𝐽 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥{𝜆} (3.160)
|Δ𝑉𝑏𝑖 | ≤ 0.05 (3.161)
𝑃𝑔𝑖 ≤ 𝑃𝑔𝑖 ≤ 𝑃𝑔𝑖 (3.162)
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After running the program and analysing single and multiple types of FACTS devices
it was found that the load-ability of the system had increased and there was no overloaded
transmission line in the network.
Gupta et al [54] presented the optimal placement of FACTS devices for voltage
stability using line indicators. In this study, the IEEE-14 bus system was used as a case study.
In this case, the solution was found by calculating voltage and stability indices. After running
the program, three places were found for allocating the FACTS devices. It was found that the
load-ability of the system was enhanced. The voltage profile level was improved at the bus-
bars.
Gupta et al [55] presented static and transient power system stability by optimally
placing a UPFC. The IEEE-14 bus system was used in this study to demonstrate the
simulation and validity of the work. In this study, the line stability index was defined as
follows:
2
𝐿 = 4 [𝑉𝑖 2 (𝑃(𝑖+1) 𝑟𝑖 + 𝑄(𝑖+1) 𝑥𝑖 ) + (𝑃(𝑖+1) 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑄(𝑖+1) 𝑟𝑖 ) ] /𝑉𝑖 4 (3.163)
After running the programme, UPFC was allocated between buses 13 and 14, 11 and
10, 6 and12. In this case, the load-ability of the system was increased and the voltage profile
was improved.
Christa et al [56] presented the application of particle swarm optimization for optimal
placement of the UPFC in electrical systems with line outages. The aim of this study is to
increase the load-ability of the system and improve the voltage profile. The IEEE-30 bus
system was used in this case to demonstrate the simulation and validity of the work. The
objective function is given below:
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑓 = ∏𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑂𝑣𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 + ∏𝑏𝑢𝑠 𝑉𝑡𝑏𝑢𝑠 (3.164)
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0.9 ≤ 𝑉𝑏 ≤ 1.1 (3.165)
In this study, two case studies were considered. Outage of line between buses 14 and
15 and also buses 10 and 21 were analysed. In both cases, a UPFC was allocated in the
optimal place and compensated the power and enhanced the load-ability in the network.
Sadek et al [57] presented the effect of load presentation on the performance and
optimal placement of a UPFC. This study carried out an estimation of the UPFC control
variables to obtain the optimal operation condition and load flow where the UPFC was
connected. In this case, total losses were decreased. In this case also, after allocation the
voltage profile was improved.
In this chapter, 52 case studies have been investigated and different types of objective
function with constraints applied to the systems. All the algorithms have different
characteristics and features in terms of fitness and convergence characteristics. Some of them
are usually used in power systems and some of the techniques are rarely used in terms of
optimization.
However, nowadays it can be seen that some researchers combine the techniques and
create a new algorithm with a combination of some other algorithm features to minimize the
solution. After analysing those case studies it can be seen that there are advantages and
disadvantages in the algorithms in terms of convergence, performance, solution and
computation of the problems. The advantages and disadvantages of the algorithms that are
used in the case studies are outlined below.
3.1. Genetic Algorithm
The genetic algorithm is the most widely known algorithm and is used in many areas
including power systems. This algorithm is able to solve any optimization problems based on
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chromosomes encoding. The genetic algorithm improves the efficiency of the distribution
networks, optimizes reactive power and evaluates system losses. This algorithm gives a high
quality of convergence value. It is also able to solve problems with multiple solutions. It is
user-friendly and easy to understand.
On the other hand, computational time of the process is more than differential
evolution techniques. It has got high cost function. Also, it does not have good characteristics
in terms of searching globally for solutions. In some cases, cost function value is more than
PSO technique.
3.2. Particle Swarm Optimization
This algorithm uses fewer functions. It is a common technique that is used in power
systems as load flow optimization. It has better characteristics in terms of convergence than
other techniques. It is convenient to use in power networks for load balancing and economic
dispatch. It has got good behaviour in multi-objective functions. Also, total loss calculation
value is mostly less than other techniques. On the other hand, it is weak in terms of local
search ability. Also, after convergence it is not able to enhance the accuracy of the answer.
3.3. Bees Algorithm
In some cases, cost function is better than other techniques. It is good in terms of
solving combinatorial optimization. In the case of complex problems it has high performance
characteristics than other techniques. It outperforms than GA in terms of objective function.
Its high speed of convergence is one of the advantages of this algorithm. Also, it does not
have required to have global search in the problem. This algorithm uses less iteration than the
GA. On the other hand, cost function is higher than with other techniques. Also, it has got
less accuracy in case of discovering optimal value.
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3.4. Imperialist Competitive Algorithm
This algorithm enhances the efficiency in power networks and reduces the losses. It
has high quality solutions and fewer functions than the GA. It has got higher speed of
convergence than other techniques. Its optimal ability in comparison with other optimization
methods in terms of solving problems is another feature. Also, it is a new optimization
algorithm and there is a chance that it could be improved in the future to give better answers.
On the other hand, it does not have good characteristics in terms of searching globally
for solutions. Sometimes the algorithm freezes; this is because of changing colonies and
empires in a closed loop. Quick convergence in some cases is one of the other disadvantages
of this algorithm.
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Chapter 4: Imperialist Competitive Algorithm
Chapter 4
Imperialist Competitive
Algorithm
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4. Imperialist Competitive Algorithm
4.1. Optimization Overview
Optimization is extremely important in engineering and science branches. For
instance, physicists, chemists and engineers are interested in applying optimum processes in
planning while reducing cost and maximizing efficiency. Also, researchers and economists
use optimization for optimum placing of sources in society and industries. Basically, the aim
of optimization is to improve progress. During optimization, initial condition is processed
with different methods and extracted data is used for improving the plan or idea.
Optimization is a mathematical tool for finding a solution for many of the problems. Indeed,
an optimization algorithm looks for a better solution. Obtaining the best answer and solution
depends on the definition of the parameters and percentage of tolerance in the problem. So,
the manner of formulation is directly relevant to finding the best answer. Some problems
have obvious answers, such as: the best athlete, the longest day of the year, etc., which can be
assumed to be simple equations. On the other hand, in some problems there are maximum
and minimum answers, which known as optimum or extremum. The best portrait, music and
view are examples of this. In optimization, changing the inputs and characteristics of a
process is done by mathematical or experimental tools to obtain the best output or answer
[76]. Fig 4.1 illustrates this process;
Figure 4. 1 Optimization process
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Inputs or process variables are a function of a problem that is known: objective
function, cost function, fitness function and performance function. And output is defined as
profit or cost. It can be seen that optimization problems can be defined as minimization
problems. Sometimes an optimization problem is called mathematical programming. An
optimization problem in terms of mathematical programming can be defined as follows:
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑓 (𝑥) (4.1)
𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑖 (𝑥) ≤ 𝑏𝑖 , 𝑖 = 1, 2, … , 𝑚
where in the above equation 𝑥 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 ) ∈ ℝ𝑛 is the main variable of the problem.
Objective function can be defined as 𝑓 ∶ ℝ𝑛 → ℝ and it is a real amount. Some functions are
defined such as 𝑔𝑖 ∶ ℝ𝑛 → ℝ in which constraints are expressed. The right part of Equation
(4.1), (𝑏𝑖 ) is the limitations.
There are many methods for solving linear optimization problems, which are used
mostly in sciences. One of the most famous ones in the case of linear optimization is the
transportation problem. In this problem there are n units of generation such as P1, P2, …, Pn.
and n units of consumption such as q1, q2, …, qn for which all the required data should be
provided. In this case, it is assumed that the cost of transportation of goods from unit i to unit
j is equal to Cij. In this case, i and j represent generation and consumption, respectively.
To achieve the minimum cost of transportation, how much should each of the
generators provide of the consumption requirements? Fig. 4.2 indicates the transportation
problem [76].
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Figure 4. 2 Transportation problem
4.2. Types of Optimization Problems
From a different view, optimization problems can be divided into different
categories. Some of the characteristics of optimization are expressed below.
4.2.1. Trial and Error Optimization
Trial and error is the phenomenon whereby input variables are changed and specific
data regarding the effect of each variable parameter on output are not available. For instance,
adjusting a TV antenna is a kind of optimization using trial and error, and even a professional
engineer is not able to estimate the movement of an antenna in different directions.
Most human innovations and discoveries are the result of trial and error optimization:
for instance, the discovery of penicillin as an antibiotic [77]. However, there are other types
of optimization where the parameters are clear that can be implemented using a mathematical
method.
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4.2.2. Single- and Multiple-Dimension Optimizations
If there is only one variable in a problem it is called single-dimension optimization,
but if there is more than one variable in a problem it is called multiple-dimension
optimization [78].
4.2.3. Dynamic and Static Optimizations
If one problem which optimisation is processed on it, be function of time and change
during the passing time which is called dynamic optimisation. On the other hand, if the
problem is independent of the time during the optimization it is called static optimization.
For instance, finding the best route to drive in a city to reach the destination is an
example of static optimization. In this case, this can be done by using a map to find the best
route. But this is not easy in practice and other parameters should be considered. Traffic
varies between day and night time, and the best route can change at different times [79].
4.2.4. Discrete and Continuous Optimization
If the concept of an optimization problem is continuous, it is called continuous. On
the other hand, if the selected parameters of a problem variable are limited it is called
discrete. One of the most important problems in discrete optimization is permutation
problems.
The aim of solving this kind of problem is to select a parameter from among of group
of selections [80].
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4.2.5. Constrained and Unconstrained Optimization
In some optimizations, variables cannot have any values and they should be matched
with a group of restrictions until they generate the preferred output. This condition is called
restriction and restricted problems are called constraints. If there are no limitations in the
problem, it is called unconstrained.
4.2.6. Minimum-Seeking and Random Optimization
Some of the methods start with a specific point in the search area and are based on
mathematical formula, which is in algebra and geometry, they generate better results. These
algorithms are very quick in terms of convergence. But they stop at minimum and maximum
local answers. In these methods, next generated answers based on the present answers have
direct process. On the other hand, random methods use probability algorithms to achieve
better solutions so in this case operating the algorithm is not easy. The speed of convergence
in these algorithms is less than in others. But they have an advantage in that they can search
globally. So, they will have a better chance of converging to the optimum answer [81].
4.2.7. Optimization Outline
Optimization methods are generally divided into two categories: local optimization
and global optimization. In the case of global optimization, an evolutionary method is used.
These algorithms include the genetic algorithm (GA), particle swarm optimization (PSO) etc.
The genetic algorithm is the most common algorithm and has got a special place in
optimization and systems. Some of this algorithm has been taken from nature and the
simulation is based on computer computation. However, in recent years an algorithm has
been implemented in human social evolution.
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Basically, many optimization algorithms are based on natural processes. But the social
and historical evolution of humans, which is one of the most successful, has not been
considered. This process can be defined as an algorithm that can be faster than other
optimization algorithms.
This type of algorithm takes into consideration some aspects of human social-politics,
and by converting this process into a mathematical equation can optimize different problems.
This algorithm is also used for designing controllers for industrial systems, designing
intelligent systems, and finding solutions for management problems and power systems and
networks.
4.3. Imperialist Competitive Algorithm Background
Imperialism means politics in the sense of the power and influence of one country
outside of its authority. This can be done in indirect ways, such as through the control of
goods, language and culture. Imperialism has existed in history for ages and initially it was a
sort of political-military because of its grabbing nature and human sources. In some cases, it
was because of opponents. In any case, imperialists faced hard competition to grab colonies.
This can be done by implementing culture and language in those counties. For
example, the UK and France have many colonies and in these countries the English and
French languages are used instead of the countries’ own language. Imperialist always try to
grab countries in different ways.
4.3.1. Imperialist Competitive Algorithm
In this part, this study is going to explain the steps and approaches of the imperialist
competitive algorithm. Basically, this algorithm starts with several countries that can provide
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answers problems. These countries are the same as chromosomes in the genetic algorithm and
particles in particle swarm optimization. All these countries are divided into two groups:
imperialist and colony.
The basis of this algorithm includes assimilation, imperialistic competition and
revolution [82]. This algorithm initially starts with an initial random answer, which in this
case is called country.
Some of these countries are selected in terms of lower cost function and other mainly
positive parameters. This group is called imperialist and the remaining countries are called
colonies. Imperialists will grab colonies according to their power. The total power of
imperialists depends on two factors: imperialist as a core and the number of its colonies.
After initialization, the imperialist competition will begin. In this case, if one
imperialist cannot succeed in the competition or increase its own power, it will be eliminated
automatically from the competition. So in this situation each empire will not collapse unless
it grabs more colonies.
So in this process, some empires will grow and become stronger and some will
collapse and be eliminated from the competition. Empires will also be developed and increase
the number of colonies.
After a time only one empire will remain and all other colonies will join the last
empire, and in this case it can be seen that there is a kind of convergence. Fig. 4.3 presents a
flow chart of the imperialist competitive algorithm.
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Start
Configure the empires
Selecting the colonies with their corresponding imperialist
Defining whether the colony in

an empire has a lower cost
than the imperialist
NO
Yes
Swap the position of the colony with the imperialist
Calculate the total cost of empire
NO
Select the weakest colony from the weakest empire and
hand it over to the empire that could obtain it
Are there any empires that

do not possess colonies?
Yes
NO
Remove the empires
Are the conditions reasonable?
Yes
End
Figure 4. 3 Flowchart of the imperialist competitive algorithm
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4.3.2. Performing Initial Empires
The goal of the optimization is to find the optimum solution in terms of variables. In
this case, the algorithm creates an array to apply optimization. In the genetic algorithm, this
array is called chromosomes, and in this algorithm it is called country. In the imperialist
competitive algorithm this can be define as follows [83]:
𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑦 = [𝑝1, 𝑝2, 𝑝3… 𝑝N] (4.2)
In socio-political terms, this can be culture, language, economic structure and other
features. Fig. 4.4 illustrates this performance clearly.
Figure 4. 4 Characteristics of function variables during the optimisation
In fact, during the optimization problem, the algorithm looks for the best country
(with the best features). To find the country, the algorithm needs to find the country with the
lowest cost function. The cost of these countries is defined as follows:
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝑓 (𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑦) = 𝑓 (𝑝1, 𝑝2, 𝑝3… 𝑝N) (4.3)
Basically, this algorithm looks for the best country and then through assimilation and
imperialistic competition tries to grab the colonies. Initially, 𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑦 is created and 𝑁𝑖𝑚𝑝
from the best countries which have less cost function an imperialist is selected. The Rest of
the 𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑙 are the number of colonies distributed between the empires. Sharing the colonies is
based on the empires’ power. For this purpose with having all empires, normal cost can be
defined as follows:
𝐶𝑛 = 𝑐𝑛 – 𝑚𝑎𝑥 {𝑐𝑖 } (4.4)
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where 𝑐𝑛 is the cost function of the nth imperialist and max {𝑐𝑖 } is the maximum cost between
the imperialists and 𝐶𝑛 is the normalized cost for the imperialist. So the empire has more cost,
which means it is a weak empire and will have less normalized cost. Having a normalized
cost, the normalized power of each empire is defined as follows:
𝑐𝑛
𝑝𝑛 = | 𝑁𝑖𝑚𝑝 | (4.5)
∑𝑖=1 𝑐𝑖
On the other hand, the power of one empire depends on the colonies that it has in its
authority. So the initial number of colonies of the empire will be:
𝑁. 𝐶.n= 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 {𝑝n, 𝑁col} (4.6)
where 𝑁. 𝐶.n is the initial colonies of one empire and 𝑁col is the total colonies that exist and
𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 is the function that gives integer value in the case of the decimal value. Taking into
account the initial position of all empires, the imperialist competitive algorithm starts to run.
The process is in a loop and won’t terminate unless the algorithm condition is satisfied.
Fig 4.5 shows the initial creation of the empires. It can be seen that the bigger empires
own more colonies.
Figure 4. 5 Initial creation of the empires
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4.3.3. Assimilation and Moving Colonies towards the Empires
In this level of optimization, empires try to gather all their colonies in terms of
different states. Fig. 4.6 indicates this movement and provides a schematic of the empire and
the colony.
Religion
Culture
Figure 4. 6 Movement process
In Fig. 4.6, it can be seen that the colony starts to move towards the empire amount of
unit x and reaches the new position. The total distance between empire and colony is shown
by unit d. X is also a random value and follows the relation below:
𝑋 ~ 𝑈 (0, 𝛽 × 𝑑) (4.7)
where 𝛽 is a digit greater than 1 and close to 2. In this case, to achieve better results, the
value can be assumed to be 2. By selecting 𝛽 > 1 it can be seen that the colony moves
towards the empire on different sides. By investigating in history it can be seen that during
the assimilation between the imperialist not all the expected policies were according their
preferred and sometimes there was a deviation [84].
In this algorithm, this can be defined by 𝜃. In this regard, moving the colonies
towards the empires might be done with a deviation angle. Fig. 4.7 indicates the movement of
the colony towards the empire with a deviation angle.
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Religion
Culture
Figure 4. 7 Movement of colony towards the empire with angle
So in this case, instead of moving unit x, the colony moves towards the empire same
amount with 𝜃 angle. 𝜃 is also a random value and follows the relation below:
𝜃 ~ 𝑈 (−𝛾, 𝛾) (4.8)
In this relation, 𝛾 is an open parameter. Selecting a high value of 𝛾 creates the need to search
more places around the empire and small value will make short distance to colony to reach
the empire. Taking into consideration the radian for 𝜃, 𝜋/4 has been the optimum value in
most optimizations.
4.3.4. Swapping the Positions of the Colony with the Imperialist
With regard to the modelling of optimization during the movement of colonies
towards empires, sometimes some colonies obtain better places than empires. That means
they reach the points in the cost function that are lower than empires. In this situation, colony
and empire swap places and the algorithm continues with a new empire and this time the new
empire starts to perform assimilation and grab the colonies.
The swapping of colony and empire is illustrated in Fig. 4.8. In this figure the best
colony is shown in a dark colour where ready to swap.
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Figure 4. 8 Swapping of colony and empire
4.3.5. Total Power of Imperialist
Total power of the imperialist is equal to power of empire plus some percentage of its
colony power. Total power of the imperialist is defined as:
𝑇. 𝐶.n= 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 (𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑡n) + 𝜁 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 {𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 (𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑒n)} (4.9)
In this equation 𝑇. 𝐶.n total cost of nth empire and 𝜁 is a very small value between zero and 1
and this value is selected near zero. Assuming a small value of 𝜁 causes both total cost of the
imperialist and empire to become equal. However, in optimal cases it can be assumed 𝜁 =
0.05 which is a reasonable value in the process.
4.3.6. Imperialist Competition
If any empire cannot increase its power and loses the competition, it will be
eliminated during the imperialist competition. This elimination will happen gradually. During
the time weak empires will lose their owned colonies and strong empires will grab these
colonies and increase their power.
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Base on this, the algorithm assumes that one empire is about to collapse. In this case,
the algorithm selects a couple of the weakest colonies and creates a competition between the
empires. In this situation, the strongest one will not take all of them. The stronger empires
have more probability of catching the colonies. Fig. 4.9 demonstrates this performance. In
Fig. 4.9, empire number 1 is the weakest empire in the competition and one of its weakest
colonies is about to be shared between other empires. Modelling of the competition between
the empires to grab the colony taking into account the total cost of empires follows the
equation below. First of all, based on the total cost of empires, the algorithm calculates the
total normalized cost:
𝑁. 𝑇. 𝐶.n= 𝑚𝑎𝑥 {𝑇. 𝐶.i} − 𝑇. 𝐶.n (4.10)
where 𝑇. 𝐶.n is the total cost of the nth empire and 𝑁. 𝑇. 𝐶.n is the normalized total cost of the
same empire. So, if any empire has less 𝑇. 𝐶.n then it will have more 𝑁. 𝑇. 𝐶.n. Basically, 𝑇. 𝐶.n
is equal to the total cost of one empire and 𝑁. 𝑇. 𝐶.n is equal to the total power of it. The
empire with a less cost function is the strongest one.
Figure 4. 9 Schematic of imperialist competition
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With the total normalized cost, the probability of each empire grabbing a colony
follows the equation below:
𝑁.𝑇.𝐶.𝑛
𝑃pn = | 𝑁𝑖𝑚𝑝 | (4.11)
∑𝑖=1 𝑁.𝑇.𝐶.𝑖
With knowing probability of grabbing each empire the algorithm needs a mechanism
such as a roulette wheel in the genetic algorithm that allocates the colony according to the
empire’s power. In this study, a new mechanism for implementing this part is introduced.
Furthermore, this mechanism has got less cost function because it eliminates the
complicated computation that is required with a roulette wheel in the genetic algorithm.
Indeed, it deletes the cumulative distribution function (CDF) and only needs the probability
density function (PDF). With the probability of grabbing each empire algorithm distributes
the related colony according to the probability of each empire. The P vector can be defined
according to the above description [85].
𝑃 = [𝑃𝑝1, 𝑃𝑝2, 𝑃𝑝3, … , 𝑃𝑝N(imp)] (4.12)
This vector has a size of 1 × Nimp and includes all the probability of the possession
values of the empires. In this regard, vector R should be created to the same size. Arrays of
this type of vector have a random value between 0 and 1.
𝑅 = [𝑟1, 𝑟2, 𝑟3, … , 𝑟N(imp)] , 𝑟1, 𝑟2, 𝑟3, … , 𝑟N(imp) ~ 𝑈(0,1) (4.13)
then vector D is created as below:
𝐷 = 𝑃 − 𝑅 = [𝐷1, 𝐷2, 𝐷3, … , 𝐷N(imp)] (4.14)
𝐷 = 𝑃 − 𝑅 = [𝑃𝑝1−𝑟1, 𝑃𝑝2−𝑟2, 𝑃𝑝3−𝑟3, … , 𝑃𝑝N(imp)− 𝑟N(imp)] (4.15)
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The colony is transferred to the empire, which has a high value in vector D. Without
considering the cumulative distribution function the algorithm processes the mechanism more
quickly.
This mechanism will be useful for transferring colonies to the empires and can be
replaced with a roulette wheel in the genetic algorithm to increase the speed of progress. With
one of the empires grabbing a colony this part of the algorithm is terminated. The next part of
the algorithm is the last part, which is empires are eliminated until the algorithm keeps the
last one.
4.3.7. Weak Empires Collapse
As previously mentioned, during the imperialist competition, weak empires collapse
gradually and their colonies are shared between other strong empires. Different scenarios can
be defined for collapsing the empires. In this case, empires are eliminated when they lose all
their colonies. Fig. 4.10 illustrates this elimination.
Figure 4. 10 Collapse of the weaker empires
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Empire number 1, due to losing all its colonies, will be eliminated from the
competition and the competition will continue between the other three empires. The
algorithm will continue according to the convergence condition and until all iterations finish.
After some time, all of the empires will collapse and only one empire will remain and all
other colonies will be under its authority. In this situation, the algorithm will stop and show
the solution. The imperialist competitive algorithm is the most recently developed
optimization technique and is briefly outlined below [86].
1. Selection of random points on the function and creation of initial empires
2. Moving colonies towards the imperialists (assimilation)
3. Running the revolution operation
4. Exchange positioning of the colonies and imperialists in terms of cost function
5. Calculating the whole cost including imperialists and colonies
6. Collect the weakest colony from the weakest empire and shift to the empire that has
the most opportunity to grab it
7. Eliminate the weak empire
8. If there is only one empire left, then stop, otherwise go to 2
The whole process of this algorithm is illustrated in Fig. 4.11.
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Religion
Culture
Figure 4. 11 Whole schematic diagram of the imperialist competitive algorithm
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This chapter started with an overview of optimization in science. The aim of
optimization is to improve the progress of the problem. The importance of optimization has
been discussed. Some types of optimization that are used to solve problems have been shown.
Constraints to optimization have been mentioned briefly. The imperialist competitive
algorithm, one of the most recent optimization methods, has been discussed. This algorithm is
based on human evolution. The steps of the imperialist competitive algorithm have been
discussed in full. This algorithm, after processing the answer and creating competition
between the empires, approaches the solution. This algorithm follows eight steps.
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Chapter 5: Optimization Problem
Chapter 5
Optimization Problem
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5. Optimization problem
In this study two test systems are analysed. In this case, all simulated results,
including load flow, convergence characteristics and comparison, are illustrated in the
results chapter.
5.1. IEEE 30-Bus System
This case study is part of the American electric power system. In this system
there are six generators and 30 bus-bars. The single diagram of the network is illustrated
in Fig. 5.1 [50].
Figure 5. 1 Single diagram of IEEE 30 bus system
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5.1.1. Total Transfer Capability
There are two scenarios for calculating TTC. In the first scenario, this is called
LG (load/generation). Load increases at the receiving point of power so the source area
will increase its generation to compensate this overload. The second scenario is called
GG (generation/generation). In this scenario, the generation will be dropped in the
receiving area so the source area will increase its generation to compensate this overload.
In this study, LG has been considered and all the required equations can be defined as
follows:
𝑃Gi – 𝑃Di– ∑𝑛𝑗=1 | 𝑉i||𝑉j| (𝐺 ij(FACTS) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛿 ij + 𝐵ij(FACTS) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛿 ij) = 0 (5.1)
𝑄 Gi – 𝑄Di – ∑𝑛𝑗=1 | 𝑉i||𝑉j| (𝐺 ij(FACTS) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛿 ij – 𝐵 ij(FACTS) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛿 ij) = 0 (5.2)
|𝑉i| min ≤ |𝑉 i| ≤ |𝑉 i|max (5.3)
𝑆ij ≤ 𝑆ijmax (5.4)
In this case, 𝑃Gi and 𝑄 Gi are generated real and reactive power at bus i, 𝑃Di and
𝑄 Di are the real and reactive power of the load at bus i, 𝐺 (ijFACTS) is the real part of
admittance (conductance) of the network including FACTS devices and 𝐵(ijFACTS) is the
imaginary part of admittance (susceptance) of the network including FACTS devices, 𝑛
is the number of buses, |𝑉i| min , |𝑉i|max are the minimum and maximum voltage
magnitude at bus i, 𝑆ij is the apparent power of the line i,j and 𝑆ijmax is the thermal limit of
the line i,j and δij is the difference of phase angle between buses i and j. |𝑉i|, |𝑉j| are the
voltage magnitude at bus i,j. For computing the total transfer capability some parameters
are defined. The real power generations at bus i (𝑃Gi), which is in the source area, and
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real and reactive load demand at bus i (𝑃Di & 𝑄Di), which is in the sink area in the
function of 𝜆 follow these equations:
𝑃Gi = 𝑃Gi + (1 + 𝜆𝑘Gi) (5.5)
𝑃Di = 𝑃Di + (1 + 𝜆𝑘Di) (5.6)
𝑄 Di = 𝑄Di + (1 + 𝜆𝑘Qi) (5.7)
𝑘Gi and 𝑘Di are the constants used to show the rate of changes in loads with various 𝜆.
The total transfer capability is defined as:
𝑇𝑇𝐶 = ∑𝑖=1 𝑃Di (𝜆max) – ∑𝑖=1 𝑃0Di (5.8)
In this case, 𝑃Di (𝜆max) is the sum of the load in the sink area where 𝜆 = 𝜆max . On the
other hand, 𝑃0Di is the sum of the load where 𝜆 = 0. Basically, 𝜆 is the parameter for
increasing load or generation. When 𝜆 = 0, there is no power transfer between the areas,
and when 𝜆 = 𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 it is equal to the maximum power transfer.
5.1.2. Objective Functions and Constraints
In this case, two objective functions have been involved. Firstly, minimizing the
voltage deviation, and secondly, minimizing the SVC size both as variables. The two
elements 𝐽1 and 𝐽2 are defined as [88]:
𝐽1 = 𝑉d = √∑𝑁𝑏𝑢𝑠
𝑖=1 (𝑉𝑖 − 1)𝑖 − 1 (5.9)
where 𝐽1 is the voltage deviation and 𝑉 i is the voltage magnitude, and
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𝐽2 = ∑𝑁𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑗=1 𝜂𝑗 (5.10)
where 𝐽2 is the SVC size, 𝜂𝑗 is the size in 𝑀𝑉𝑎𝑟 of the SVC and 𝑁𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 is the number of
SVCs that should be allocated.
The multi-objective function in this problem was defined as the sum of 𝐽1 and 𝐽2 .
𝐽 = 𝑤1 . 𝐽1 + 𝑤2 . 𝐽2 (5.11)
In this case, 𝑤1and 𝑤2 are the weight coefficient and were considered to be 1 and 1.5,
respectively.
Also, constraints can be defined as:
|𝑉i| min ≤ |𝑉 i| ≤ |𝑉i|max (5.12)
𝑆ij ≤ 𝑆ijmax , 𝛿 ij≤ 𝛿 ijmax (5.13)
Maximum and minimum reactive power output of the generator was assumed to
be between -999 and 999 𝑀𝑉𝑎𝑟. Maximum and minimum voltage magnitude was
assumed to be between 0.95 and 1.05 𝑝. 𝑢. and the total 𝑀𝑉𝐴 base of the machine was
considered to be 100𝑀𝑉𝐴. In this case SVC was a such a reactive power source which is
able to inject power into the system.
5.1.2.1. UPFC Modeling
In this part the case study will be analysed using another compensator, called a
UPFC. All the basic algorithm parameters will be the same as already used. A UPFC is a
sum of series and shunt components used to provide real power and also generate or
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absorb reactive power in the same way as STATCOM. Voltage magnitude and phase
angle are added into the transmission line by series part. It can be said that a UPFC is the
most powerful FACTS device. It is able to control three parameters: voltage, line
impedance and phase angle. Fig. 5.2 presents the basic diagram of a UPFC.
Figure 5. 2 Basic diagram of UPFC
In this study UPFC was connected as a source of current and voltages in the
network. Whenever a UPFC is connected to the network between buses 𝑖 & 𝑗, the injected
power at bus 𝑖 will be:
𝑆𝑖 = 𝑃𝑖 + 𝑗𝑄𝑖 (5.14)
and at bus 𝑗 it will be;
𝑆𝑗 = 𝑃𝑗 + 𝑗𝑄𝑗 (5.15)
The above equations can be expressed as:
𝑃𝑖 + 𝑉𝑠2 𝐺𝑖𝑗′ + 2𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑠 𝐺𝑖𝑗′ cos(∅𝑠 − 𝜃𝑖 ) − 𝑉𝑗 𝑉𝑠 [𝐺𝑖𝑗′ cos(∅𝑠 − 𝜃𝑗 ) − 𝐵𝑖𝑗

′
sin(∅𝑠 − 𝜃𝑗 )] = 0
(5.16)
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𝑄𝑖 − 𝑉𝑖 𝐼𝑞 − 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑠 [𝐺𝑖𝑗′ sin(∅𝑠 − 𝜃𝑖 ) − 𝐵𝑖𝑗

′
cos(∅𝑠 − 𝜃𝑖 )] = 0 (5.17)
𝑃𝑗 − 𝑉𝑗 𝑉𝑠 [𝐺𝑖𝑗′ cos(∅𝑠 − 𝜃𝑗 ) + 𝐵𝑖𝑗

′
sin(∅𝑠 − 𝜃𝑗 )] = 0 (5.18)
𝑄𝑗 + 𝑉𝑗 𝑉𝑠 [𝐺𝑖𝑗′ sin(∅𝑠 − 𝜃𝑗 ) − 𝐵𝑖𝑗

′
cos(∅𝑠 − 𝜃𝑗 )] = 0 (5.19)
In this case, 𝑆𝑖 & 𝑆𝑗 are the total powers that are injected at buses 𝑖 & 𝑗 by the
UPFC, respectively. In this part two objective functions are used to allocate the UPFC at
the optimal place. The two elements, 𝐽1 and 𝐽2 , are defined as [88]:
𝑖=1 (𝑉𝑖 − 1)𝑖 − 1 (5.20)
where 𝐽1 is the voltage deviation and 𝑉 i is the voltage magnitude.
The second objective function used in this problem is related to system losses.
The power loss equation is calculated by the equation below:
𝑃L= ∑ [ 𝑉 i2 + 𝑉j2 – 2𝑉 i𝑉 j 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛿 i – 𝛿 j)] 𝑌ij 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑ij (5.21)
where δi is the angle of the voltage at bus i, and 𝑌ij and φij are the magnitude and angle of
the admittance of the transmission lines at i,j. If we assume Plk is the active losses in the k
transmission lines, this will be calculated by the following formula:
PLk = P sending – P receiving (5.22)
The total power losses related to transmission lines can be calculated by the equation
below:
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𝑃𝐿𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = F Loss = ∑𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒−𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟

𝑘=1 𝑃𝐿𝑘 (5.23)
𝐽2 = ∑𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒−𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
𝑘=1 𝑃𝐿𝑘 (5.24)
The multi-objective function in this problem is defined as the sum of 𝐽1 and 𝐽2 :
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝐽 = 𝐽1 + 𝐽2 (5.25)
The objectives include the operating limits on the various power system variables
and these parameters are given below:
𝑃𝐺𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑖
≤ 𝑃𝐺𝑖 ≤ 𝑃𝐺𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑖
(5.26)
𝑄𝐺𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑖
≤ 𝑄𝐺𝑖 ≤ 𝑄𝐺𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑖
(5.27)
𝑖𝑠ℎ ≤ 𝑖𝑠ℎ ≤ 𝑖𝑠ℎ (5.29)
𝑉𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝑉𝑠𝑒 ≤ 𝑉𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 (5.30)
0 ≤ ∅𝑠𝑒 ≤ 2𝜋 (5.31)
In this part, objective function was defined as the sum of voltage deviation and power
losses. Six constraints were used in this analysis.
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In the second case study, there are 16 generators and 68 buses. Briefly this system
is known as the 68-bus New England test system (NETS)–New York (NYPS)
interconnected system. Generators 𝐺1– 𝐺9 are in New England, generators 𝐺10– 𝐺13 are
in New York and 𝐺14– 𝐺16 are analogous generators in the neighbourhood of New
York. The schematic of the network is illustrated in Fig. 5.3 [53].
Figure 5. 3 Single diagram of IEEE 68 bus system
5.2.1. Objective Functions and Constraints
In this case, there are three objective functions: size of the SVC, voltage deviation
and total system losses. Two of the objective functions and constraints are the same as
used for previous case studies. Objective function will be a combination of three
objectives in this part.
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Three elements, 𝐽1 , 𝐽2 and 𝐽3, are defined as [88]:
𝑖=1 (𝑉𝑖 − 1)𝑖 − 1 (5.32)
where 𝐽1 is the voltage deviation and 𝑉 i is the voltage magnitude, and
𝐽2 = ∑𝑁𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑗=1 𝜂𝑗 (5.33)
where 𝐽2 is the SVC size, 𝜂𝑗 is the size in 𝑀𝑉𝑎𝑟 of the SVC and 𝑁𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 is the number of
SVCs that should be allocated.
The power loss equation is calculated by the equation below:
𝑃L= ∑ [ 𝑉 i2 + 𝑉j2 – 2𝑉 i𝑉 j 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛿 i – 𝛿 j)] 𝑌ij 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑ij (5.34)
where δi is the angle of the voltage at bus i, and 𝑌ij and φij are the magnitude and angle of
the admittance of the transmission lines at i,j. If we assume Plk is the active losses in the k
transmission lines, this will be calculated by the formula below:
PLk = P sending – P receiving (5.35)
Total power losses related to transmission lines can be calculated by the following
equations:
𝑃𝐿𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = F Loss = ∑𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒−𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟

𝑘=1 𝑃𝐿𝑘 (5.36)
𝐽3 = ∑𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒−𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
𝑘=1 𝑃𝐿𝑘 (5.37)
The multi-objective function in this problem is defined as the sum of 𝐽1 , 𝐽2 and 𝐽3 .
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𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝐽 = 𝐽1 + 𝐽2 + 𝐽3 (5.38)
Also, constraints can be defined as:
|𝑉i| min ≤ |𝑉 i| ≤ |𝑉i|max (5.39)
𝑆ij ≤ 𝑆ijmax , 𝛿 ij≤ 𝛿 ijmax (5.40)
𝑄𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝑄 ≤ 𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 (5.41)
The maximum and minimum reactive power output of the generator was assumed to
be between -999 and 999 𝑀𝑉𝑎𝑟. The maximum and minimum voltage magnitude was
assumed to be between 0.95 and 1.05 𝑝. 𝑢. and the total 𝑀𝑉𝐴 base of the machine was
considered to be 100 𝑀𝑉𝐴.
All the simulated results are shown and analysed in the results chapter. It can be
seen that using various numbers of objective functions can affect the results slightly and
can achieve a high quality of solutions for problems.
In this chapter, the IEEE 30-bus and IEEE 68-bus were introduced. All objective
functions and constraints that are used in case studies were demonstrated. The results and
simulations are discussed in the next chapter.
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Chapter 6: Results and Discussions
Chapter 6
Results and Discussions
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6. Results and Discussions
After discussing a variety of FACTS devices and their operation in power networks,
this thesis investigated to find the optimal placement of the components. In this regard,
objective functions with constraints were demonstrated to achieve the size and optimal place
for the compensators. The test study case was implemented in the algorithm (MATLAB
program) to obtain the results. In this chapter, the results will be demonstrated and all
simulations will be separately shown and discussed.
This chapter includes five main parts. In the first part, the case study, which is the
IEEE-30 bus system, is analysed as it is. This analysis includes the power flow and line flow
of the system and the level of the voltage profile before optimization and using FACTS
devices.
In the second part, this study demonstrates optimization of the IEEE-30 bus system
using an SVC device with the imperialist competitive algorithm. In the third part, the IEEE-
30 bus system will be optimized by the imperialist competitive algorithm using a UPFC in
the network.
In the fourth part, all simulation and related results will be compared with those
obtained for the same network using the GA and PSO techniques. In this thesis, two case
studies were used: the IEEE-30 and IEEE-68 bus systems.
In the last part, the IEEE-68 bus system will be analysed using ICA technique. In this
case, different types of objective function and constraints were used to demonstrate the
simulations and results. In this case, an SVC was allocated as a parallel component to the
network. On the other hand, a UPFC, which is a shunt and series compensator at the same
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time, was optimized and connected to the network. In both cases, the position and size were
considered as variables.
6.1. IEEE-30 Bus System without FACTS
In the first part, this study demonstrates simulation of the IEEE-30 bus system without
using FACTS devices in the network. In this case, the system has been analysed and all
results, including load flow, line flow and convergence characteristics, will be discussed.
This case study includes a 30-bus and 6-generator. System characteristics, including
bus, branch and generator data and power flow, are included in the Appendix. Power flow
analysis is an important tool involving mathematical analysis applied to the power systems.
Line flow has been analysed and the results are indicated in Table 6.1.
Through the load flow it can be seen that the voltage magnitude and angles at each
bus, as well as real power and reactive power related to the generator and load, are computed.
Furthermore, the losses in the particular line can be calculated based on the difference
between the power flow in the sending and receiving areas. In this case, the system load flow
was analysed by Newton-Raphson.
Newton-Raphson is one of the fastest convergence methods to the root and
approximately doubles with each step. That is why this method causes the ability of the
Newton-Raphson method to be more accurate to the root than other convergence techniques.
Also, this method is easy to convert to multiple dimensions.
In this case, to increase the speed of convergence, it is advised that for the first couple
of decades, instead of the Newton-Raphson, Fast-Decoupled is used. The reason is that Fast-
Decoupled has more speed in terms of convergence because of fewer parameters in the
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Jacobian matrix, but for achieving high accuracy for answers a switch to the Newton-
Raphson method can be made to obtain high-quality solutions. The other reason that should
be mentioned is that the computer memory should be large because of the Jacobian matrix
elements and the programming logic is very complex.
On the other hand, this method has some disadvantages as well, such as: it had poor
global convergence properties and sometimes it is too far from the local root and depends on
the initial guess and in some cases it does not answer and maybe the loop will be infinite.
Newton-Raphson is one of the fastest convergence methods to the root; also, the
method of convergence is quadratic. The major aim of the load flow in the power system is to
find the voltage magnitude and angle of each bus when the power is distributed between the
transmission lines. In the real power network environment, basically engineers use Fast-
Decoupled for the initial couple of decades for convergence, then for enhancing the accuracy
of the answers they switch to the Newton-Raphson method. Fig. 6.1 illustrates the speed of
convergence.
In the Newton-Raphson method initially we need to write complex power equations
as equations with real coefficients. Then the next step is resolving into real and imaginary
parts. Basically, Newton-Raphson is used to determine the voltage magnitude and angle at
each bus-bar in the power systems. In this case we assume that the slack bus is the first bus
and then the voltage magnitude and angle at the other buses are determined correspondingly.
In this method, the difficult part is determining and inverting the Jacobian matrix. After
calculating the voltage angle and magnitude at each bus, the algorithm calculates other
parameters such as the line flows and generator reactive power output.
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Table 6. 1 Simulation of IEEE 30 bus system line flow
Losses without
Line flow without FACTS FACTS
Line P flow Q flow P flow Q flow P loss Q loss

No Buses (p.u) (p.u) Buses (p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u)
1 1-2 3.5088 -0.5427 2-1 -3.2898 1.1412 0.2190 0.5985
2 1-3 1.6881 0.3270 3-1 -1.5662 0.1309 0.1218 0.4580
3 2-4 1.0281 0.2433 4-2 -0.9681 -0.0964 0.0601 0.1469
4 3-4 1.4918 -0.1682 4-3 -1.4594 0.2535 0.0324 0.0853
5 2-5 2.0457 0.0454 5-2 -1.8607 0.6884 0.1850 0.7338
6 2-6 1.3281 0.1281 6-2 -1.2310 0.1293 0.0971 0.2574
7 4-6 1.1770 -0.5932 6-4 -1.1540 0.6651 0.0230 0.0719
8 5-7 -0.2990 0.6295 7-5 0.3217 -0.5918 0.0227 0.0377
9 6-7 1.0622 -0.1664 7-6 -1.0287 0.2538 0.0335 0.0874
10 6-8 0.0255 -1.4675 8-6 0.0025 1.5565 0.0279 0.0890
11 6-9 0.4831 0.2327 9-6 -0.4831 -0.1705 0.0000 0.0622
12 6-10 0.3792 0.3012 10-6 -0.3792 -0.1681 0.0000 0.1331
13 9-11 -0.5560 -0.6639 11-9 0.5560 0.8417 0.0000 0.1777
14 9-10 1.0392 0.8344 10-9 -1.0392 -0.6118 0.0000 0.2226
15 4-12 1.0148 0.3864 12-4 -1.0148 -0.0936 0.0000 0.2928
16 12-13 -0.5244 -0.9032 13-12 0.5244 1.0714 0.0000 0.1682
17 12-14 0.2800 0.1291 14-12 -0.2671 -0.1023 0.0129 0.0268
18 12-15 0.6498 0.4127 15-12 -0.6066 -0.3276 0.0432 0.0851
19 12-16 0.2621 0.2224 16-12 -0.2498 -0.1966 0.0123 0.0259
20 14-15 0.0749 0.0526 15-14 -0.0725 -0.0505 0.0024 0.0021
21 16-17 0.1413 0.1407 17-16 -0.1370 -0.1308 0.0042 0.0099
22 15-18 0.2081 0.1070 18-15 -0.2001 -0.0905 0.0080 0.0164
23 18-19 0.1008 0.0626 19-18 -0.0994 -0.0598 0.0014 0.0028
24 19-20 -0.1952 -0.0456 20-19 0.1974 0.0501 0.0022 0.0045
25 10-20 0.2768 0.0968 20-10 -0.2656 -0.0718 0.0112 0.0250
26 10-17 0.1431 0.0517 17-10 -0.1421 -0.0490 0.0010 0.0027
27 10-21 0.5471 0.3848 21-10 -0.5254 -0.3382 0.0217 0.0466
28 10-22 0.2715 0.1845 22-10 -0.2606 -0.1621 0.0109 0.0225
29 21-22 -0.0173 -0.0092 22-21 0.0173 0.0092 0.0000 0.0000
30 15-23 0.2166 0.1936 23-15 -0.2050 -0.1702 0.0116 0.0234
31 22-24 0.2433 0.1529 24-22 -0.2282 -0.1293 0.0151 0.0235
32 23-24 0.1058 0.1206 24-23 -0.1003 -0.1092 0.0055 0.0113
33 24-25 0.0586 0.0308 25-24 -0.0571 -0.0280 0.0016 0.0028
34 25-26 0.1204 0.0890 26-25 -0.1085 -0.0713 0.0118 0.0177
35 25-27 -0.0633 -0.0609 27-25 0.0651 0.0643 0.0018 0.0033
36 27-28 0.5704 0.6800 27-28 -0.5704 -0.3438 0.0000 0.3363
37 27-29 0.2332 0.1298 29-27 -0.2033 -0.0731 0.0300 0.0566
38 27-30 0.2721 0.1497 30-27 -0.2130 -0.0384 0.0591 0.1113
39 29-30 0.1288 0.0452 30-29 -0.1158 -0.0205 0.0131 0.0247
40 8-28 0.1526 0.4039 28-6 -0.1407 -0.3871 0.0119 0.0169
41 6-28 0.4349 0.3057 28-6 -0.4297 -0.2929 0.0052 0.0127
Total losses 1.1207 4.5335
122 | P a g e
0.22
0.2
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
∆𝑉
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Iteration
Figure 6. 1 Speed of convergence
In Fig. 6.1, it can be seen that the amount of the ∆𝑉 decreased significantly then
started to decrease gradually. In this case, there is a stop criteria condition that helps the
system to obtain the final results whilst being happy. In this case, the stop criteria condition is
assumed to be 10-4, which is acceptable. In different methods and algorithms the stop criteria
condition is usually defined in the same way. The reason this study selected the same value is
because a comparison was made with other optimization techniques.
Basically, voltage optimization is a kind of energy-saving method in power systems.
By carrying out voltage optimization it can be seen that power losses are reduced and the
level of power quality improved. In the case of additional activities, for instance balancing
phase voltage and eliminating harmonics from the system, this process is called voltage
power optimization. But this study did not focus on filtering the harmonics. Voltage
optimization is mostly used in a large number of power network environments where it can
reduce power consumption and increase the life of electrical equipment. Voltage optimization
can reduce reactive power and improve the power factor in the system.
123 | P a g e
The level of the voltage before optimization is shown in Fig. 6.2. In any condition,
power systems should be stable according to various operational criteria. Voltage collapse is
one of the major phenomena that take place in transmission systems. In this case, the voltage
decreases gradually until the system is going to shut down. Also, in the case of a small
amount of overload, the voltage will decrease slightly, but in the case of massive overloaded,
the voltage will drop significantly.
In Fig, 6.2, it can be seen that the voltage in buses 7, 10, 14, 15, 18-27, 29 and 30 is
not stable and is under the unit value. The voltage in buses 3, 4, 6, 9, 12 and 28 dropped
slightly, which can be considerable after optimization if it is still under the unit value. In
power systems, to achieve a stable voltage, all disturbances need to be removed from the
system. This is because of increasing load in the system or one of the electrical components
in the network being broken. Voltage collapse usually happens in one area and extends and
affects other areas before finally damaging the whole network.
Figure 6. 2 Level of voltage before optimization
124 | P a g e
By referring to Fig. 6.2, it is essential to find out how the voltage level can be
improved taking into consideration the number of FACTS devices. It can be seen that by
allocating the FACTS devices in critical areas the voltage level can be improved. The key
parameter that makes these components different to other facilities is flexibility. FACTS
devices are able to control active power and reactive power through the transmission lines
and the voltage at buses. In other mechanical components, variable parameters change step
by step, but in the case of FACTS devices these parameters change continuously and quickly.
FACTS devices are used widely in power systems rather than mechanical facilities. In
this case, minimizing the installation cost, which has a direct relation with the number of
FACTS devices at bus-bars and transmission lines, is essential. The installation cost of
FACTS devices is one of the important parameters that should be considered during network
design. In some cases, installing a local generator is more economical than installing FACTS
in the transmission system or bus-bars.
In this case, MATPOWER should be installed as a part of the MATLAB file and
needs to be added to the MATLAB directory. MATPOWER is able to solve power flow and
optimal power flow problems and this makes it easy for researchers to use and modify and
simulate power system problems. The minimum MATLAB version of 6.5 is required.
This part gives the best performance possible while using the codes. This field helps
after creating an M file whose return value is the mpc structure or a MAT file. Basically, in
this area the base MVA field is scalar and the rest of them are matrix. In the data file
generally each row represents a single bus, branch or generator and the columns are the same
as the standard IEEE format. All the data that have been used to define study case
characteristics are taken from the University of Washington official website [87].
125 | P a g e
There are 30 buses in the system and in the bus type section number 1 represents the
load bus. In this bus, real and reactive powers are determined and voltage magnitude is
computed. Both real and reactive powers in the power network assessed by polarity whether,
in the case of supplying would be positive and in the case of consuming and absorbing would
be negative. Number 2 indicates the generator bus. In this case, voltage magnitude is adjusted
to constant value by varying the field current of the synchronous generator at the bus-bar.
And finally number 3 represents the reference bus.
In the optimization area the aim of the objective functions and constraints is to find
the minimum and maximum of the function, which is called the objective function. Basically,
according to a mathematical process, the objective function describes the relationship
between the optimization parameters. This can be done by using input parameters.
Constraints are simply kinds of restrictions in a problem that are forced to the optimization
engine. Constraints are defined based on optimization parameters whether the generated
solution by engine should be satisfied by constraints. This study tried to define the same
number of constraints as the compared one. The maximum and minimum reactive power
output of the generator has been assumed to be between -999 and 999 𝑀𝑉𝑎𝑟. The maximum
and minimum voltage magnitude has been assumed to be between 0.95 and 1.05 𝑝. 𝑢. and the
total 𝑀𝑉𝐴 base of the machine has been considered to be 100 𝑀𝑉𝐴.
In the IEEE study case, short-, long- and emergency-term ratios have not been
considered. It can be set all those values for different approaches. The reason this thesis has
not involved those values is because a comparison has been made with other techniques and
this shows the advantage of the imperialist competitive algorithm. Basically, in the long term,
a generator provides power to the load for an unlimited number of hours per year and in the
short term this amount will decrease according to the amount of load, and in an emergency
126 | P a g e
the generator runs at 70 per cent output with varying loads for short periods of time, i.e.
between 50 and 200 hours per year.
6.1.1. P-V Curves
The P-V (Power-Voltage) analysis in power network transmission lines is a kind of
process using a series of power flow solutions to enhance the transfer of MW taking into
consideration what is happening in the voltage profile. In order to do this, the P-V curves
indicate the loading of the power systems. To obtain the curves, full power flow solutions are
required. To obtain P-V curves in the power system, load is increased slightly, and at each
step of increasing the power, the voltage magnitude is analysed and according to the
behaviour of the slope the voltage collapse point can be realised; on the other hand, voltage
stability can be analysed.
To obtain the P-V curves, basically specific bus-bars should be selected for
consideration and monitoring. P-V curves will be plotted for each single bus. In the curve the
pick point before reversing to become zero is called critical voltage, and after that point the
power flow solution fails in terms of convergence. P-V curves are illustrated in Figs. 6.3 –
6.7. Initially, by increasing the load in the system, some of the buses remain stable, but by
increasing to a high rate of power those buses start to collapse.
In this case, some buses’ reactions were sharp. It can be seen that buses 20, 24, 26, 29
and 30 are not stable in terms of voltage stability and collapsed earlier than other bus-bars.
From the viewpoint of this analysis voltage instability is one of the major problems in power
systems and it is necessary to define the exact conditions in which voltage instability can
occur. It can be improved by installing FACTS devices, which is described in the next part.
127 | P a g e
Figure 6. 3 P-V curve at bus 20
128 | P a g e
129 | P a g e
System stability is one of the most important parameters in power systems. System
stability can be defined as the ability of the system to hold the voltage at a steady state level
in all the buses after disturbances in the system. A disturbance might block out one of the
pieces of equipment or increase gradually the load in the system. Voltage collapse occurs
when increasing load leads to not having enough control over the voltage in some part of the
system. Voltage instability is a regional phenomenon, which means it can become a huge
voltage collapse in the system.
Voltage collapse can happen when there is not enough controllable reactive power or
it is not available to provide to the consumers. If this shortage is big enough, the system
voltage will decrease. There are different types of voltage collapse in power networks.
Long-term voltage collapse occurs when generators or power producers are far away
from the loads and transmission lines are heavily loaded. So the system will not be able to
handle acceptable voltage in the receiving area. This can happen in a couple of minutes or
130 | P a g e
take up to several hours. In classic voltage collapse due to a fault, some part of the system
will not operate and then the power system will not be able to provide power to the
consumers and loads. A reactive power shortage in the system causes the voltage to decrease.
This can happen in between 1 and 5 minutes. In transient voltage collapse, some of the
motors stop working and we want to operate them again. This can happen in less than 15
seconds.
6.2. IEEE 30-Bus System with Static Var Compensator
In the section the IEEE 30-bus system will also be demonstrated. In this part, this
study will discuss the problem and results after optimal allocation of the SVC in the network.
In this case, problems were analysed through the imperialist competitive algorithm and also
results related to those obtained using the GA (genetic algorithm) and PSO (particle swarm
optimization) techniques were indicated. Different values of SVCs were obtained and power
flow and line flow simulation were demonstrated.
The basic required parameters that are used in the optimization program are shown in
Table 6.2:
Table 6. 2 Imperialist competitive algorithm basic parameters
Imperialist Competitive Algorithm Amount

Number of initial country 30
𝛽 2
𝜃 𝜋/4
𝜁 0.05
In this part a FACTS device which is SVC will be involved and also simulated results
including iteration characteristics, voltage deviation and placement, size, installation cost and
131 | P a g e
losses will be discussed. The aim of study is optimal allocation of FACTS devices taking into
consideration the size in transmission lines.
The first goal in seeking the optimal place for FACTS devices is to assess the total
transfer capability (TTC) in power systems. The total transfer capability in power systems is
the maximum power that can be transferred in transmission lines without any disturbances.
Also, this parameter can be limited by constraints such as thermal limit in transmission
networks. Another aim in this study is to maintain voltage profile in a limited range.
In this section, two main objective functions have been considered in order to
compare simulated results with other methods that have already been used. In that work, PSO
and the GA have been implemented in the IEEE 30-bus study case.
The parameters are the same as those already used in the IEEE 30-bus study case
because of the comparison that was made in the last part. Also, in this section the number of
objective functions and constraints are the same as used by the imperialist competitive
algorithm. The table below shows a summary of the comparison with other published
techniques [88]:
Table 6. 3 Comparison with other published techniques
Method Bus 1 Size 1 (MVar) Bus 2 Size 2 (MVar) Time(S)

PSO [88] 26 50 30 62 546
GA [88] 26 50 30 62 525
BFA [88] 26 51 30 62 8,453
Benders [88] 26 50 30 62 16,463
B&B [88] 26 42 30 62 735
ICA 24 70 20 55 428
132 | P a g e
In Table 6.3, it can be seen that particle swarm optimization achieved the solution
after 546 seconds. In this case, the genetic algorithm obtained the solution faster than PSO.
Indeed, both of the methods obtained the same solution in terms of size and place.
The PSO algorithm is an exploratory search method that is based on the idea of
collaborative behaviour and swarming in biological populations. Particle swarm optimization
is very similar to the genetic algorithm. They are both population-based search approaches
and they both depend on information sharing among their population members to enhance
their search processes. Basically, the genetic algorithm is a well-established algorithm which
matches with various problems.
With regard to the SVC component, the program allocated a value of 70 𝑀𝑉𝐴𝑟 at bus
24. As an optimum place, the algorithm reached bus 20 with a value of 55 𝑀𝑉𝐴𝑟.
After allocation of the SVC at buses 26 and 30, the level of the voltage profile almost
reached unit value. In terms of accuracy in finding an optimal solution to the problem, the
PSO technique had a standard deviation of 0.04098. On the other hand, this parameter was
2.5 times bigger in the genetic algorithm, which was 0.10641.
In this case, statistical parameters were calculated for both of the algorithms. A set of
50 trials was carried out. In this case, the convergence ratio of the PSO technique was higher
than that of the genetic algorithm: 100 and 34 per cent, respectively.
133 | P a g e
Figure 6. 8 Level of voltage after replacing the SVC by GA & PSO techniques
Figure 6. 9 Level of voltage after replacing the SVC at bus 24 & 20
134 | P a g e
After replacing the SVC at buses 20 and 24 it can be seen that the level of the voltage
profile gradually improved.
Figure 6. 10 Convergence characteristics after replacing SVC by ICA
In this case study, the imperialist competitive algorithm was implemented in the test
system. In Fig. 6.10 it can be seen that the algorithm converged the solution after 83
iterations. It is important to improve the voltage stability in power plants.
Many failures have happened due to voltage instability around the world. To achieve
this purpose a few tasks have to be fulfilled such as minimizing real power losses in the
system and minimizing voltage deviation from the desired voltage value.
The proposed algorithm in this study gives encouraging results for the case study.
This study has investigated different options and methods to increase the power transfer in a
network. Several advantages can be seen by optimizing the system using the ICA. Firstly, this
can improve the total transfer capability, and secondly, it can reduce losses.
135 | P a g e
In this regard, two objective functions have been considered: voltage deviation and
FACTS size, which have the same number of objective functions as other techniques. The
stopping criterion condition in the program was 10-4.
Power flow and line flow simulations after allocating the SVC were carried out on the
IEEE 30-bus case study. Also in the simulations, total losses of the power network were
shown.
Tables 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 6.7, 6.8, 6.9, 6.10 and 6.11 show a summary of the power flow
and line flow simulations using the SVC in the network.
136 | P a g e
Table 6. 4 IEEE 30-bus power flow simulation after allocating SVC at bus 30
Bus V (p.u) Phase (deg) P gen (p.u) Q gen (p.u) P load (p.u) Q load (p.u)
Bus 01 1.06 0 7.8889 0.3166 0 0
Bus 02 1.033 -17.172 2.3115 3.725 0.8714 0.51
Bus 03 0.944 -25.655 0 0 0.0964 0.0482
Bus 04 1.02 -31.612 0 0 0.3052 0.0643
Bus 05 0.985 -49.989 0.9863 3.0151 3.7829 0.763
Bus 06 1.003 -37.404 0 0 0 0
Bus 07 0.945 -45.216 0 0 0.9156 0.4377
Bus 08 0.948 -39.621 1.4055 4.5256 1.2047 1.2047
Bus 09 1.005 -46.953 0 0 0 0
Bus 10 1.00 -62.423 0 0 0.2329 0.0803
Bus 11 0.965 -37.377 0.72 1.4573 0 0
Bus 12 1.085 -58.429 0 0 0.4498 0.3012
Bus 13 0.945 -52.456 0.6791 1.9693 0 0
Bus 14 0.988 -65.339 0 0 0.249 0.0643
Bus 15 1.002 -65.951 0 0 0.3293 0.1004
Bus 16 0.998 -62.046 0 0 0.1406 0.0723
Bus 17 1.003 -64.315 0 0 0.3614 0.2329
Bus 18 0.966 -72.565 0 0 0.1285 0.0361
Bus 19 1.002 -74.813 0 0 0.3815 0.1365
Bus 20 0.977 -72.001 0 0 0.0883 0.0281
Bus 21 1.002 -67.52 0 0 0.7028 0.4498
Bus 22 1.008 -67.395 0 0 0 0
Bus 23 0.988 -70.512 0 0 0.1285 0.0643
Bus 24 0.966 -73.523 0 0 0.3494 0.2691
Bus 25 0.987 -76.086 0 0 0 0
Bus 26 1.002 -81.093 0 0 0.1406 0.0924
Bus 27 0.984 -74.717 0 0 0 0
Bus 28 1.004 -40.723 0 0 0 0
Bus 29 0.993 -90.21 0 0 0.0964 0.0361
Bus 30 1.005 -101.524 0 0 0.4257 -1.0194
Table 6.4 presents the power flow results after allocation of the SVC at bus 30. It can
be seen that the voltage level at bus number 30 reached the unity value. The voltage level at
other bus-bars was also enhanced. Active and also reactive power losses are shown in Table
6.5. In the table it can be seen that losses are higher in some of the transmission lines, which
are line numbers 1, 2, 3, 5, 6 and 18. In this problem the aim of the optimization was to
improve the voltage profile by allocating the SVC at a bus-bar.
137 | P a g e
Table 6. 5 IEEE 30-bus line flow simulation after allocating SVC at bus 30
Losses with SVC

Line flow with applying SVC at bus 30 at bus 30
P flow Q flow P flow Q flow P loss Q loss

Line No Buses (p.u) (p.u) Buses (p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u)
1 1-2 5.4626 -0.5211 2-1 -4.9486 2.0027 0.514 1.4815
2 1-3 2.4263 0.8377 3-1 -2.1597 0.2154 0.2666 1.0532
3 2-4 1.4993 0.5711 4-2 -1.3608 -0.1829 0.1385 0.3882
4 3-4 2.0633 -0.2636 4-3 -1.9919 0.4619 0.0714 0.1983
5 2-5 2.9108 0.2676 5-2 -2.5329 1.2766 0.3779 1.5442
6 2-6 1.9785 0.3736 6-2 -1.7573 0.2622 0.2212 0.6358
7 4-6 1.6511 -1.0608 6-4 -1.592 1.2592 0.0591 0.1984
8 5-7 -0.2637 0.9755 7-5 0.3111 -0.8748 0.0474 0.1007
9 6-7 1.2819 -0.2816 7-6 -1.2267 0.4371 0.0552 0.1555
10 6-8 0.1608 -2.4483 8-6 -0.0742 2.7431 0.0866 0.2948
11 6-9 0.6134 0.5318 9-6 -0.6134 -0.3741 0 0.1577
12 6-10 0.477 0.5702 10-6 -0.477 -0.2231 0 0.3471
13 9-11 -0.72 -0.9959 11-9 0.72 1.4573 0 0.4615
14 9-10 1.3335 1.3699 10-9 -1.3335 -0.7793 0 0.5906
15 4-12 1.3964 0.7175 12-4 -1.3964 -0.0092 0 0.7083
16 12-13 -0.6791 -1.4564 13-12 0.6791 1.9693 0 0.5129
17 12-14 0.3835 0.2005 14-12 -0.3508 -0.1325 0.0327 0.068
18 12-15 0.8895 0.6269 15-12 -0.7783 -0.4078 0.1112 0.2191
19 12-16 0.3526 0.337 16-12 -0.3207 -0.27 0.0319 0.0671
20 14-15 0.1019 0.0682 15-14 -0.0956 -0.0625 0.0063 0.0057
21 16-17 0.1802 0.1977 17-16 -0.1689 -0.1711 0.0113 0.0266
22 15-18 0.2962 0.185 18-15 -0.2678 -0.127 0.0284 0.058
23 18-19 0.1393 0.0909 19-18 -0.1339 -0.0801 0.0053 0.0108
24 19-20 -0.2476 -0.0564 20-19 0.2551 0.0715 0.0075 0.015
25 10-20 0.3812 0.1839 20-10 -0.3435 -0.0996 0.0377 0.0843
26 10-17 0.1957 0.07 17-10 -0.1926 -0.0618 0.0032 0.0082
27 10-21 0.675 0.4633 21-10 -0.6225 -0.3503 0.0525 0.113
28 10-22 0.3256 0.2048 22-10 -0.3014 -0.1549 0.0242 0.0499
29 21-22 -0.0803 -0.0994 22-21 0.0808 0.1006 0.0006 0.0011
30 15-23 0.2484 0.1849 23-15 -0.2275 -0.1427 0.0209 0.0422
31 22-24 0.2206 0.0543 24-22 -0.2034 -0.0275 0.0172 0.0268
32 23-24 0.099 0.0785 24-23 -0.0929 -0.066 0.0061 0.0125
33 24-25 -0.053 -0.1755 25-24 0.0756 0.2149 0.0225 0.0394
34 25-26 0.1672 0.1321 26-25 -0.1406 -0.0924 0.0266 0.0397
35 25-27 -0.2427 -0.347 27-25 0.2879 0.4332 0.0451 0.0862
36 27-28 1.0516 0.5797 27-28 -1.0516 0.0944 0 0.6741
37 27-29 0.3376 -0.1982 29-27 -0.2862 0.2954 0.0514 0.0972
38 27-30 0.4261 -0.3294 30-27 -0.2843 0.5964 0.1418 0.267
39 29-30 0.1898 -0.3315 30-29 -0.1414 0.4231 0.0484 0.0915
40 8-28 0.2750 0.5777 28-6 -0.2493 -0.5167 0.0257 0.061
41 6-28 0.8161 0.1065 28-6 -0.8024 -0.063 0.0138 0.0436
138 | P a g e
Bus 01 1.06 0 7.9026 0.3216 0 0
Bus 02 1.034 -17.208 2.3208 3.7451 0.8749 0.5121
Bus 03 0.894 -25.697 0 0 0.0968 0.0484
Bus 04 0.879 -31.666 0 0 0.3064 0.0645
Bus 05 1.006 -50.153 0.9903 3.0329 3.7981 0.7661
Bus 06 0.911 -37.463 0 0 0 0
Bus 07 0.907 -45.334 0 0 0.9193 0.4395
Bus 08 1.023 -39.682 1.4112 4.5373 1.2096 1.2096
Bus 09 0.822 -47.032 0 0 0 0
Bus 10 0.661 -62.704 0 0 0.2339 0.0806
Bus 11 1.091 -37.383 0.7229 1.4735 0 0
Bus 12 0.836 -58.721 0 0 0.4516 0.3024
Bus 13 1.088 -52.702 0.6818 1.9934 0 0
Bus 14 0.988 -65.713 0 0 0.25 0.0645
Bus 15 0.958 -66.317 0 0 0.3306 0.1008
Bus 16 0.975 -62.365 0 0 0.1411 0.0726
Bus 17 0.854 -64.648 0 0 0.3629 0.2339
Bus 18 0.847 -73.096 0 0 0.129 0.0363
Bus 19 0.987 -75.42 0 0 0.383 0.1371
Bus 20 0.974 -72.52 0 0 0.0887 0.0282
Bus 21 0.935 -67.865 0 0 0.7056 0.4516
Bus 22 0.895 -67.72 0 0 0 0
Bus 23 0.845 -70.859 0 0 0.129 0.0645
Bus 24 0.875 -73.747 0 0 0.3508 0.2701
Bus 25 0.877 -75.752 0 0 0 0
Bus 26 1.001 -80.745 0 0 0.1411 0.0927
Bus 27 0.815 -74.149 0 0 0 0
Bus 28 0.892 -40.773 0 0 0 0
Bus 29 0.988 -93.722 0 0 0.0968 -1.0189
Bus 30 0.988 -94.27 0 0 0.4274 0.0766
Table 6.6 shows the power flow results after allocating the SVC at bus 26. In this
case, the voltage at this bus was improved and reached the unity value. The real power loss at
buses 1, 2, 3, 5, 6 and 18 is higher than at other bus-bars. By allocating an SVC at bus 26, it
can be seen that the level of the loss is lower than in the previous case. Overall, the level of
the voltage profile by allocating the SVC at bus 30 compared with bus 26 was better. In this
case, the size of the SVC had an effect on the level of voltage profile improvement.
139 | P a g e
Losses with SVC at

Line flow with applying SVC at bus 29 bus 29

Line No Buses (p.u) (p.u) Buses (p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u)
1 1-2 5.4738 -0.5214 2-1 -4.9577 2.0092 0.5161 1.4878
2 1-3 2.4288 0.843 3-1 -2.1613 0.2137 0.2675 1.0567
3 2-4 1.5014 0.5761 4-2 -1.3622 -0.186 0.1391 0.3902
4 3-4 2.0646 -0.2621 4-3 -1.993 0.461 0.0716 0.1989
5 2-5 2.9216 0.2715 5-2 -2.5408 1.2848 0.3808 1.5563
6 2-6 1.9806 0.3762 6-2 -1.7588 0.2612 0.2218 0.6375
7 4-6 1.6475 -1.0685 6-4 -1.5882 1.2677 0.0593 0.1991
8 5-7 -0.267 0.982 7-5 0.3151 -0.8796 0.048 0.1024
9 6-7 1.2903 -0.2823 7-6 -1.2343 0.4401 0.056 0.1578
10 6-8 0.1586 -2.4565 8-6 0.0713 2.7536 0.0873 0.2971
11 6-9 0.6121 0.5426 9-6 -0.6121 -0.3823 0 0.1603
12 6-10 0.477 0.5789 10-6 -0.477 -0.2252 0 0.3537
13 9-11 0.7229 l .0030 11-9 0.7229 1.4735 0 0.4705
14 9-10 1.3351 1.3853 10-9 -1.3351 -0.7828 0 0.6025
15 4-12 1.4012 0.7289 12-4 -1.4012 -0.0105 0 0.7184
16 12-13 -0.6818 -1.4688 13-12 0.6818 1.9934 0 0.5247
17 12-14 0.3853 0.2027 14-12 -0.3519 -0.1334 0.0333 0.0693
18 12-15 0.8923 0.6335 15-12 -0.779 -0.4103 0.1133 0.2232
19 12-16 0.3539 0.3407 16-12 -0.3213 -0.2721 0.0326 0.0685
20 14-15 0.1019 0.0689 15-14 -0.0955 -0.0631 0.0064 0.0058
21 16-17 0.1802 0.1996 17-16 -0.1686 -0.1724 0.0116 0.0272
22 15-18 0.2988 0.1884 18-15 -0.2694 -0.1282 0.0295 0.0602
23 18-19 0.1403 0.0919 19-18 -0.1348 -0.0806 0.0056 0.0113
24 19-20 -0.2483 -0.0565 20-19 0.256 0.072 0.0078 0.0156
25 10-20 0.3838 0.1875 20-10 -0.3447 -0.1003 0.039 0.0872
26 10-17 0.1975 0.0699 17-10 -0.1943 -0.0615 0.0033 0.0085
27 10-21 0.6731 0.4649 21-10 -0.6199 -0.3503 0.0533 0.1146
28 10-22 0.3237 0.2051 22-10 -0.2993 -0.1548 0.0244 0.0503
29 21-22 -0.0857 -0.1013 22-21 0.0863 0.1026 0.0006 0.0013
30 15-23 0.2451 0.1843 23-15 -0.2243 -0.1423 0.0208 0.0419
31 22-24 0.2130 0.0522 24-22 -0.1966 -0.0267 0.0164 0.0255
32 23-24 0.0953 0.0778 24-23 -0.0894 -0.0658 0.0059 0.012
33 24-25 -0.1647 -0.1776 25-24 0.0891 0.2201 0.0243 0.0425
34 25-26 0.1677 0.1325 26-25 -0.1411 -0.0927 0.0266 0.0398
35 25-27 -0.2568 -0.3526 27-25 0.3044 0.4435 0.0476 0.0909
36 27-28 1.0431 0.5599 27-28 -1.0431 0.094 0 0.6539
37 27-29 0.4121 -0.4546 29-27 -0.2875 0.69 0.1246 0.2354
38 27-30 0.3265 -0.0829 30-27 -0.2718 0.1859 0.0547 0.103
39 29-30 0.1908 0.329 30-29 -0.1556 -0.2625 0.0352 0.0665
40 8-28 0.2729 0.5741 28-6 -0.2476 -0.5141 0.0253 0.06
41 6-28 0.8089 0.0884 28-6 -0.7955 -0.0458 0.0135 0.0425
140 | P a g e
Table 6. 8 IEEE -30 bus power flow simulation after allocating SVC at bus 24
Bus 01 1.06 0 7.9516 0.3016 0 0
Bus 02 1.034 -52.258 2.4248 3.6441 0.8649 0.5320
Bus 03 0.987 -60.677 0 0 0.0988 0.0587
Bus 04 0.988 -66.644 0 0 0.4064 0.0747
Bus 05 1.006 -85.198 0.9953 3.0827 3.5983 0.6868
Bus 06 1.002 -72.474 0 0 0 0
Bus 07 0.907 -80.312 0 0 0.9193 0.4395
Bus 08 1.023 -74.584 1.4919 4.9379 1.2292 1.3097
Bus 09 1.006 -82.132 0 0 0 0
Bus 10 0.961 -97.605 0 0 0.1339 0.0906
Bus 11 1.091 -72.387 0.7829 1.4838 0 0
Bus 12 0.977 -93.721 0 0 0.4518 0.3028
Bus 13 1.088 -87.802 0.6919 1.8938 0 0
Bus 14 0.988 -100.951 0 0 0.25 0.0648
Bus 15 1.006 -101.321 0 0 0.3806 0.1007
Bus 16 0.979 -97.847 0 0 0.1811 0.0826
Bus 17 1.005 -99.528 0 0 0.3829 0.2834
Bus 18 1.005 -108.096 0 0 0.159 0.0368
Bus 19 0.978 -110.42 0 0 0.393 0.1371
Bus 20 0.987 -107.89 0 0 0.0887 0.0282
Bus 21 0.997 -102.741 0 0 0.7096 0.4816
Bus 22 1.005 -102.258 0 0 0 0
Bus 23 0.987 -105.951 0 0 0.159 0.0745
Bus 24 1.001 -108.421 0 0 0.3808 0.2755
Bus 25 0.988 -110.251 0 0 0 0
Bus 26 0.975 -115.644 0 0 0.1654 0.0966
Bus 27 1.007 -109.658 0 0 0 0
Bus 28 0.998 -75.522 0 0 0 0
Bus 29 1.005 -128.888 0 0 0.0978 -1.0219
Bus 30 1.002 -129.844 0 0 0.3574 0.0866
Table 6.8 presents the power flow results after allocation of the SVC at bus 24. It can
be seen that the voltage level at bus number 24 reached the unity value. The voltage level at
other bus-bars was also improved. Active and also reactive power losses are shown in Table
6.9. In the table it can be seen that losses are higher in some of the transmission lines, which
are line numbers 1, 2, 3, 5, 6 and 18. The total real power loss was lower than when the SVC
was allocated at buses 30 and 26.
141 | P a g e
Losses with SVC at

Line flow with applying SVC at bus 24
bus 24
Line
No
Buses Buses
(p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u)
1 1-2 5.4843 -0.5152 2-1 -4.9604 2.1237 0.5239 1.6085
2 1-3 2.4393 0.8492 3-1 -2.164 0.3282 0.2753 1.1774
3 2-4 1.5119 0.5823 4-2 -1.3649 -0.0715 0.147 0.5108
4 3-4 2.0751 -0.2559 4-3 -1.9957 0.5755 0.0794 0.3196
5 2-5 2.9321 0.2777 5-2 -2.5435 1.3993 0.2886 0.1678
6 2-6 1.9911 0.3824 6-2 -1.7615 0.3757 0.1296 0.7581
7 4-6 1.658 -1.0623 6-4 -1.5909 1.3822 0.0671 0.0315
8 5-7 -0.2565 0.9882 7-5 0.3124 -0.7651 0.0559 0.2231
9 6-7 1.3008 -0.2761 7-6 -1.237 0.5546 0.0638 0.2785
10 6-8 0.1691 -2.4452 8-6 0.0686 2.8681 0.2377 0.4229
11 6-9 0.6226 0.5488 9-6 -0.6148 -0.2678 0.0078 0.281
12 6-10 0.4875 0.5851 10-6 -0.4797 -0.1107 0.0078 0.0471
13 9-11 0.7334 1.0632 11-9 0.7202 1.588 0.0458 0.5287
14 9-10 1.3456 1.3915 10-9 -1.3378 -0.6683 0.0078 0.5284
15 4-12 1.4117 0.7351 12-4 -1.4039 0.104 0.0078 0.0854
16 12-13 -0.6713 -1.4626 13-12 0.6791 2.1079 0.0078 0.0648
17 12-14 0.3958 0.2089 14-12 -0.3546 -0.0189 0.0412 0.19
18 12-15 0.9028 0.6397 15-12 -0.7817 -0.2958 0.0125 0.3439
19 12-16 0.3644 0.3469 16-12 -0.324 -0.1576 0.0404 0.1893
20 14-15 0.1124 0.0751 15-14 -0.0982 0.0514 0.0142 0.1265
21 16-17 0.1907 0.2058 17-16 -0.1713 -0.0579 0.0194 0.1479
22 15-18 0.3093 0.1946 18-15 -0.2721 -0.0137 0.0372 0.1809
23 18-19 0.1508 0.0981 19-18 -0.1375 0.0339 0.0133 0.132
24 19-20 -0.2378 -0.0503 20-19 0.2533 0.1865 0.0155 0.1362
25 10-20 0.3943 0.1937 20-10 -0.3474 0.0142 0.0469 0.1258
26 10-17 0.208 0.0761 17-10 -0.197 0.053 0.011 0.1291
27 10-21 0.6836 0.4711 21-10 -0.6226 -0.2358 0.061 0.0258
28 10-22 0.3342 0.2113 22-10 -0.302 -0.0403 0.0322 0.171
29 21-22 -0.0752 -0.0951 22-21 0.0836 0.2171 0.0084 0.122
30 15-23 0.2556 0.1905 23-15 -0.227 -0.0278 0.0286 0.1627
31 22-24 0.2235 0.0584 24-22 -0.1993 0.0878 0.0242 0.1462
32 23-24 0.1058 0.084 24-23 -0.0921 0.0487 0.0137 0.1327
33 24-25 -0.1542 -0.1714 25-24 0.0864 0.3346 -0.0678 0.1632
34 25-26 0.1782 0.1387 26-25 -0.1438 0.0218 0.0344 0.1605
35 25-27 -0.2463 -0.3464 27-25 0.3017 0.558 0.0554 0.0215
36 27-28 1.0536 0.5661 27-28 -1.0458 0.2085 0.0078 0.0747
37 27-29 0.4226 -0.4484 29-27 -0.2902 0.8045 0.0258 0.1561
38 27-30 0.337 -0.0767 30-27 -0.2745 0.3004 0.0625 0.2237
39 29-30 0.2013 0.3352 30-29 -0.1583 -0.148 0.043 0.1872
40 8-28 0.2834 0.5803 28-6 -0.2503 -0.3996 0.0331 0.1807
41 6-28 0.8194 0.0946 28-6 -0.7982 0.0687 0.0212 0.1633
142 | P a g e
Bus 01 1.06 0 7.7027 0.3415 0 0
Bus 02 1.04 -40.116 2.2204 3.6457 0.7742 0.5628
Bus 03 0.988 -48.605 0 0 0.0958 0.0584
Bus 04 1.02 -54.574 0 0 0.3064 0.0455
Bus 05 0.97 -73.061 0.8925 3.0824 3.2621 0.9861
Bus 06 1.011 -60.371 0 0 0 0
Bus 07 0.983 -68.242 0 0 0.9243 0.4685
Bus 08 1.023 -62.59 1.5112 4.2473 1.1954 1.1996
Bus 09 1.055 -69.94 0 0 0 0
Bus 10 1.023 -85.612 0 0 0.3239 0.0847
Bus 11 1.091 -60.291 0.7549 1.4735 0 0
Bus 12 0.978 -81.629 0 0 0.4656 0.3085
Bus 13 1.088 -75.61 0.6852 1.9794 0 0
Bus 14 0.977 -88.621 0 0 0.25 0.0689
Bus 15 1.02 -89.225 0 0 0.3306 0.1054
Bus 16 0.986 -85.273 0 0 0.1847 0.0627
Bus 17 1.025 -87.556 0 0 0.2659 0.3229
Bus 18 0.952 -96.004 0 0 0.119 0.0469
Bus 19 1.023 -98.328 0 0 0.383 0.1479
Bus 20 1.01 -95.428 0 0 0.1087 0.0287
Bus 21 0.998 -90.773 0 0 0.8056 0.3525
Bus 22 0.988 -90.628 0 0 0 0
Bus 23 0.987 -93.767 0 0 0.1356 0.0745
Bus 24 0.978 -96.655 0 0 0.4306 0.2809
Bus 25 0.998 -98.66 0 0 0 0
Bus 26 0.978 -103.653 0 0 0.1411 0.0927
Bus 27 1.02 -97.057 0 0 0 0
Bus 28 0.992 -63.681 0 0 0 0
Bus 29 0.993 -116.63 0 0 0.0988 -1.0209
Bus 30 1.003 -117.178 0 0 0.5276 0.0964
Table 6.10 shows the power flow results after allocating the SVC at bus 20. In this
case, the voltage at this bus was improved and reached the unity value. The real power loss at
buses 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 13 and 41 is higher than at other bus-bars. By allocating the SVC at bus
20, it can be seen that the level of the loss is lower than in the previous cases. Overall, the
level of the voltage profile by allocating the SVC at bus 24 compared with bus 20 was better.
In this case, the objective function was defined to allocate the SVC to improve the voltage
profile. By adding another objective another solution can be found to minimize the losses in
the network as well.
143 | P a g e
Losses with SVC at

Line flow with applying SVC at bus 20
bus 20
Line
No
Buses Buses
(p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u)
1 1-2 5.5525 -0.7063 2-1 -4.9509 1.0098 0.6016 0.3035
2 1-3 2.0123 0.4525 3-1 -2.1545 0.2565 0.1422 0.709
3 2-4 1.5349 0.3951 4-2 -1.4563 0.0277 0.0786 0.4228
4 3-4 2.0981 -0.247 4-3 -1.9862 0.6747 0.1119 0.4277
5 2-5 2.6551 0.2866 5-2 -2.534 1.4985 0.1211 1.7851
6 2-6 1.8557 0.3913 6-2 -1.752 0.4749 0.1037 0.0862
7 4-6 1.681 -1.5285 6-4 -1.5814 1.4814 0.0996 -0.0471
8 5-7 -0.2335 0.7991 7-5 -0.1219 -0.6659 -0.3554 0.1332
9 6-7 1.3238 -0.2672 7-6 -1.2275 0.6538 0.0963 0.388
10 6-8 0.1921 -2.3514 8-6 -0.1524 2.0673 0.0275 0.0819
11 6-9 0.6456 0.5577 9-6 -0.6053 -0.1686 0.0403 0.3891
12 6-10 0.5105 0.594 10-6 -0.4702 -0.0115 0.0403 0.0525
13 9-11 0.7564 1.0945 11-9 -0.5245 0.7558 0.2319 0.0781
14 9-10 1.3686 1.004 10-9 -1.3283 -0.5691 0.0403 0.0813
15 4-12 1.4001 0.2522 12-4 -1.3944 0.2032 0.0057 0.4554
16 12-13 -0.6483 -1.4537 13-12 0.4558 2.2071 -0.1925 0.0753
17 12-14 0.4188 0.2178 14-12 -0.3451 0.0803 0.0737 0.0298
18 12-15 0.7956 0.2356 15-12 -0.7722 -0.1966 0.0234 0.452
19 12-16 0.3874 0.3558 16-12 -0.3145 -0.0584 0.0729 0.0297
20 14-15 0.1354 0.084 15-14 -0.0887 0.1506 0.0467 0.2346
21 16-17 0.2137 0.2147 17-16 -0.1618 0.0413 0.0519 0.256
22 15-18 0.3323 0.2035 18-15 -0.2626 0.0855 0.0697 0.289
23 18-19 0.1738 0.107 19-18 -0.128 0.1331 0.0458 0.2401
24 19-20 -0.2148 -0.0414 20-19 0.1628 0.2857 -0.052 0.2443
25 10-20 0.4173 0.2026 20-10 -0.3379 0.1134 0.0794 0.316
26 10-17 0.231 0.085 17-10 -0.1875 0.1522 0.0435 0.2372
27 10-21 0.7066 0.48 21-10 -0.6131 -0.1366 0.0935 0.0343
28 10-22 0.3572 0.2202 22-10 -0.2925 0.0589 0.0647 0.2791
29 21-22 -0.0522 -0.0862 22-21 0.0931 0.3163 0.0409 0.023
30 15-23 0.2786 0.1994 23-15 -0.2175 0.0714 0.0611 0.0278
31 22-24 0.2465 0.0673 24-22 -0.1898 0.187 0.0567 0.2543
32 23-24 0.1288 0.0929 24-23 -0.0826 0.1479 0.0462 0.2408
33 24-25 -0.1312 -0.1625 25-24 0.0959 0.2335 0.0353 0.071
34 25-26 0.2012 0.1476 26-25 -0.1343 0.121 0.0669 0.2686
35 25-27 -0.2233 -0.3375 27-25 0.2114 0.6572 -0.0119 0.3197
36 27-28 1.0766 0.3255 27-28 -1.0363 0.3077 0.0403 0.0887
37 27-29 0.4456 -0.4395 29-27 -0.3807 0.9037 0.0649 0.0464
38 27-30 0.36 -0.0678 30-27 -0.265 0.3996 0.095 0.3318
39 29-30 0.1524 0.3441 30-29 -0.1488 -0.0488 0.0036 0.2953
40 8-28 0.3064 0.8854 28-6 -0.2408 -0.3004 0.0656 0.585
41 6-28 0.9525 0.1035 28-6 -0.7887 0.1679 0.1638 0.2714
144 | P a g e
In this part, the IEEE 30-bus system was demonstrated as it is. The test system was
analysed with and without using the SVC in the network. The voltage level was quite low
before allocating the SVC in the network and it fluctuates in different bus-bars.
In this case, the SVC was allocated in four places: bus numbers 20, 24, 26 and 30. The
voltage level was demonstrated individually in this regard. The power network approached to
the different losses using the SVC in different places. In terms of losses, by allocating the
SVC at bus 20, the network achieved the least losses.
The aim of this analysis was to discover the behaviour of an SVC using different
optimization techniques. All the evolutionary algorithms, including the ICA, improved the
voltage profile and security of the system.
6.3. IEEE 30-Bus System with Unified Power Flow Controller
In this study, the ICA technique was implemented in the IEEE 30-bus system. Also,
the optimal place to allocate the UPFC was demonstrated. PSO and GA results were also
discussed. In this case, PSO and GA techniques demonstrated different branches in terms of
line priority in allocating the UPFC.
The voltage of the buses was also demonstrated before and after installing the UPFC.
Line losses were also discussed taking into consideration the UPFC in different places with
different techniques. The Load-ability of the network after installing the UPFC was enhanced
and illustrated.
Table 6.12 presents a summary of the optimal place for the UPFC in the IEEE 30-bus
system [23], [24], [53]:
145 | P a g e
Table 6. 12 IEEE 30-bus system using UPFC
Optimisation Optimal Losses

𝑽𝒔𝒆 ∅𝒔𝒆 𝒊𝒔𝒉
method place
PSO [23], 3-4 2.5503 0.2408 68 0.0106

[24], [53] 3-4 0.2125 66 -0.0686
2.314
25-27 0.2749 84 -0.0495
5-7 0.1018 114 0.1094
21-22 1.9755 0.0945 218 -0.0146
1-2 0.1182 102 0.0174

GA [23], 16-17 2.5455 0.2302 74 0.0156
[24], [53] 3-4 0.1892 111 0.0365
2.1865
12-15 0.2015 218 -0.0187
3-4 0.1798 98 0.0589
15-18 1.7841 0.1875 119 0.1589
22-24 0.1258 242 0.0254

ICA 24-23 2.5355 0.2389 85 0.0198
24-23 0.1158 112 0.0158
2.1233
20-10 0.2155 95 0.0258
24-23 0.1101 211 0.0154
20-10 1.6589 0.1854 245 -0.0112
30-27 0.1154 80 0.0685
146 | P a g e
In this case ICA has been run for three times to allocate the UPFC in the network. In
the first run, algorithm placed the UPFC between bus 24 and 23. After allocating, algorithm
was run again with considering the UPFC between bus 24 and 23. This time algorithm placed
the UPFC between bus 20 and 10. So network got benefit of having two UPFCs. Algorithm
also was run for the third time, this time algorithm reached bus 30 and 27 to allocate UPFC
between them. With having three UPFCs in the system it can be seen that losses reduced to
1.6589. The level of the voltage profile after replacing the UPFC in the network is illustrated
in the following tables.
It can be seen that the level of the voltage profile using a greater number of UPFCs
was better than for the single component. Tables 6.13, 6.14 and 6.15 show the level of the
voltage using one, two and three UPFC devices in the network, respectively.
147 | P a g e
Table 6. 13 Level of the voltage profile after replacing one UPFC in the network
Bus voltage Bus voltage with Bus voltage with Bus voltage with
Bus
before UPFC UPFC using GA UPFC using PSO UPFC using ICA
Bus 01 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05
Bus 02 1.034 1.012 1.02 1.015
Bus 03 0.958 0.935 1.016 0.955
Bus 04 0.946 0.940 1.003 0.978
Bus 05 1.006 1.002 1.003 1.005
Bus 06 0.959 0.95 1.002 0.988
Bus 07 0.948 0.977 0.985 0.981
Bus 08 1.023 1.02 1.01 1.02
Bus 09 0.937 0.945 0.945 0.978
Bus 10 0.848 0.998 0.925 0.945
Bus 11 1.091 1.055 1.025 1.06
Bus 12 0.953 1.021 1.015 0.965
Bus 13 1.088 1.023 1.055 1.055
Bus 14 0.884 0.988 0.93 0.988
Bus 15 0.853 0.935 0.925 0.995
Bus 16 0.881 0.944 0.935 0.978
Bus 17 0.837 0.925 0.915 0.936
Bus 18 0.801 0.922 0.915 0.924
Bus 19 0.783 0.944 0.93 0.935
Bus 20 0.735 0.901 0.895 0.902
Bus 21 0.792 0.912 0.855 0.901
Bus 22 0.792 0.915 0.885 1.01
Bus 23 0.783 0.901 0.845 0.945
Bus 24 0.723 0.912 0.862 1.01
Bus 25 0.694 0.895 0.815 0.985
Bus 26 0.602 0.887 0.825 0.955
Bus 27 0.723 0.899 0.878 0.945
Bus 28 0.932 0.956 0.945 0.985
Bus 29 0.775 0.878 0.853 0.945
Bus 30 0.768 0.901 0.878 0.925
The table demonstrates the level of the voltage profile using one UPFC in the
network. It can be seen that the level of the voltage before optimization has not reached the
unity value. In this case, three evolutionary algorithms were implemented in the case study.
As shown in Table 6.12, the UPFC was placed between lines 16 and 17 by GA and PSO
technique placed UPFC between line 3 and 4. The ICA technique allocated the UPFC
between lines 24 and 23. The voltage level in those lines was improved and reached the unity
148 | P a g e
value. In this case, the loss from using the GA was lower than with the PSO technique and
the ICA technique also achieved the least losses in this regard. The level of the voltage
profile was improved in all the buses.
Table 6. 14 Level of the voltage profile after replacing two UPFCs in the network
Bus
Bus 01 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05
Bus 02 1.034 1.035 1.038 1.037
Bus 03 0.958 1.012 1.015 0.966
Bus 04 0.946 1.011 1.005 0.955
Bus 05 1.006 1.002 1.001 1.002
Bus 06 0.959 1.001 1.012 0.965
Bus 07 0.948 0.955 0.945 0.955
Bus 08 1.023 1.012 1.02 1.018
Bus 09 0.937 0.965 0.955 0.965
Bus 10 0.848 0.955 0.899 1.021
Bus 11 1.091 1.035 1.023 1.025
Bus 12 0.953 1.012 1.05 0.985
Bus 13 1.088 1.054 1.055 1.05
Bus 14 0.884 0.998 0.925 0.944
Bus 15 0.853 1.022 0.905 0.988
Bus 16 0.881 0.989 0.901 0.901
Bus 17 0.837 0.925 0.915 0.955
Bus 18 0.801 0.989 0.988 0.925
Bus 19 0.783 0.985 0.974 0.985
Bus 20 0.735 0.978 0.965 1.02
Bus 21 0.792 0.945 0.935 0.995
Bus 22 0.792 0.965 0.955 0.998
Bus 23 0.783 0.988 0.988 1.012
Bus 24 0.723 0.925 0.989 1.001
Bus 25 0.694 0.895 1.011 0.989
Bus 26 0.602 0.855 0.998 0.925
Bus 27 0.723 0.975 1.001 0.845
Bus 28 0.932 0.964 0.985 0.989
Bus 29 0.775 0.895 0.982 0.925
Bus 30 0.768 0.836 0.965 0.862
Table 6.14 presents the voltage level using two UPFCs in the network. In this case,
the PSO technique placed the UPFCs between lines 3-4 and 25-27. The GA allocated the
UPFCs between lines 3-4 and 12-15. The ICA allocated the UPFCs between lines 24-23 and
20-10. The level of the voltage profile in the allocated bas-bars reached the unity value. In
149 | P a g e
this case, the ICA technique was better than other algorithms in terms of losses. The voltage
level using two UPFCs was better than using a single UPFC in the network. In this case, the
level of the cost will be increased because of the number of components.
Table 6. 15 Level of the voltage profile after replacing three UPFCs in the network
Bus
Bus 01 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05
Bus 02 1.034 1.029 1.025 1.038
Bus 03 0.958 1.02 1.00 0.966
Bus 04 0.946 1.012 0.988 0.958
Bus 05 1.006 1.002 1.002 1.002
Bus 06 0.959 0.988 0.985 0.963
Bus 07 0.948 0.974 1.001 0.959
Bus 08 1.023 1.011 1.01 1.015
Bus 09 0.937 0.975 0.985 0.965
Bus 10 0.848 0.964 0.978 1.019
Bus 11 1.091 1.035 1.025 1.03
Bus 12 0.953 0.988 0.998 0.988
Bus 13 1.088 1.056 1.065 1.055
Bus 14 0.884 0.945 0.955 0.974
Bus 15 0.853 1.021 0.98 0.987
Bus 16 0.881 0.99 0.945 0.945
Bus 17 0.837 0.945 0.925 0.956
Bus 18 0.801 1.001 0.978 0.965
Bus 19 0.783 0.985 0.975 0.985
Bus 20 0.735 0.988 0.955 1.02
Bus 21 0.792 0.955 1.001 0.985
Bus 22 0.792 1.001 1.021 0.986
Bus 23 0.783 0.984 0.985 1.012
Bus 24 0.723 1.005 0.985 1.001
Bus 25 0.694 0.912 0.955 0.989
Bus 26 0.602 0.905 0.921 0.965
Bus 27 0.723 0.925 0.955 1.02
Bus 28 0.932 0.975 0.945 0.975
Bus 29 0.775 0.915 0.895 0.975
Bus 30 0.768 0.845 0.901 1.012
Table 6.15 presents the level of the voltage profile using three UPFCs in the network.
In this case, PSO allocated a UPFC between lines 5-7, 21-22 and 1-2. The GA placed a UPFC
between lines 3-4, 15-18 and 22-24. The ICA technique allocated a UPFC between lines 24-
150 | P a g e
23, 20-10 and 30-27. It can be seen that the level of the losses through the ICA technique was
lower than with other techniques. The level of the voltage profile of the whole network was
improved significantly. But the cost of installation and maintenance of the UPFC is another
issue that should be considered through the design and optimization. The level of the voltage
profile reached the unity value in the UPFC installation places. It can be seen that by using
UPFCs in the network, losses can be reduced and the voltage profile improved.
After replacing the UPFC in the transmission networks using evolutionary algorithms,
it can be seen that the level of the voltage profile almost reached the unity level and the
voltage level at unstable bus-bars was improved.
In this case, the number of UPFC devices used in the network is important.
Obviously if the network benefits from a greater number of UPFCs, it will have higher
security in terms of breakdown or overload and disturbances. The other point that can be seen
is that the network will be more stable by using a greater number of FACTS devices.
Another point to mention in this part is local networks. In this regard, some
improvement can be made using local generators as it is not a good idea to install a
compensator device in the network whenever it is required. This is because sometimes it will
be less expensive to install a local generator rather than installing FACTS components.
Voltage deviation is one of the major issues that all industries must also consider;
voltage level can be divided from a millisecond to a few seconds. Therefore, installing SVC
and UPFC devices in different places can solve the voltage sag problem and supply high
quality power in the network.
151 | P a g e
6.4. Results Comparison
In the last three parts this study has demonstrated IEEE-30 bus system simulation. In
this case, the test system was allocated by the SVC and UPFC separately. Here in this part
this study is going to present a comparison between the evolutionary algorithms. After
installing FACTS components, it can be seen that the voltage level became quite stable. Table
6.16 presents a summary of losses using different algorithms. In this case, the PSO, GA and
ICA techniques based on the allocation of SVCs were considered.
Table 6. 16 Summary of the losses Using SVC with different algorithms
Optimisation method Bus no. Total losses p.u.
26 2.603
PSO
30 2.6105
26 2.603
GA
30 2.6105
24 2.5882
ICA
20 2.5347
In this case, the PSO and GA algorithms allocated the SVC in the same place in the
transmission system. According to the results, it can be seen that the level of the loss that was
achieved through the ICA was slightly lower than with other algorithms. Figure 6.11 presents
a summary of the losses based on both compensators. A comparison of convergence time is
illustrated in Figure 6.12.
152 | P a g e
2.5
2
Losses p.u.
1.5
0.5
PSO GA ICA PSO GA ICA
Figure 6. 11 Level of the losses with different scenarios
In Fig. 6.11, it can be seen that the level of losses with PSO and the GA in terms of
allocating SVCs in the network was the same. In this case, the ICA technique was slightly
better than both the other algorithms. The ICA technique achieved a lower amount of losses
in the case of the SVC at bus number 20. With regard to the UPFC devices, three scenarios
were illustrated. UPFCs were connected to the network individually and in combination. All
three algorithms almost reached the same level of losses. When two UPFCs were used, the
GA and ICA techniques were better than the PSO technique; however, the ICA technique
was better than the GA in this case.
In terms of the three UPFCs, it can be seen that the level of losses dropped sharply.
All three algorithms presented good achievement in terms of loss reduction. In this case, the
ICA algorithm was better than both the other algorithms. In this analysis the cost of FACTS
153 | P a g e
was not involved. Taking into considering the cost function it may obtain different results to
those presented in this study. Fig. 6.12 presents the convergence time of all three algorithms
in terms of allocation of SVCs in the network. It can be seen that the ICA was the fastest one
to converge to the solution.
600
546
525
500
428
400
300
time S
200
100
0
PSO GA ICA
Figure 6. 12 Comparison of convergence time
Average bus voltages is shown next. Figures 6.13, 6.14 and 6.15 indicate the average
voltage using different numbers of UPFCs in the network. By using one UPFC in the
network, it can be seen that the level of the PSO algorithm was lower than the other
techniques. However, by using two UPFCs in the network, the voltage level with the GA and
ICA was almost the same.
In terms of three UPFCs in the network, the ICA technique was slightly better than
the GA. The voltage level before optimisation was noticeable. The averages of the voltage
almost reach the unity level after allocating the UPFCs in the network.
154 | P a g e
1
0.98
0.96
0.94
0.92
Voltage p.u.
0.9
0.88
0.86
0.84
0.82
without optimisation GA PSO ICA
Figure 6. 13 Average of bus voltage using one UPFC
1
0.98
0.96
0.94
Voltage p.u.
0.92
0.9
0.88
0.86
0.84
0.82
Figure 6. 14 Average of bus voltage using two UPFCs
155 | P a g e
1.02
1
0.98
0.96
0.94
Voltage p.u. 0.92
0.9
0.88
0.86
0.84
0.82
0.8
Figure 6. 15 Average of bus voltage using three UPFCs
The cost of FACTS devices is also important in power networks. According to the
above figures it can be seen that the voltage level was improved by using the compensators.
Using a greater number of UPFCs in power networks increases the maintenance cost as well.
The Load-ability of the system was also enhanced. Voltage profile is one of the most
important issues in power networks, as fluctuation of load variation in a power network
causes systems to be stressed. By adjusting the transformer-tap ratio and installing UPFC
devices, losses can be reduced and the voltage profile will be improved.
ICA technique in this study approached to the different solution. In this case genetic
algorithm and particle swarm optimization reached the same solution. In case of SVC, GA
and PSO were the same but ICA technique result was slightly different than those algorithms.
It is because of the structure of the algorithms. As this study investigated case studies with
optimization methods, GA and PSO techniques do not have a good characteristic in terms of
searching globally for the solution. By implementing the solutions of GA, PSO and ICA
techniques on the case study, it can be seen that ICA was better than other two algorithms in
this case.
156 | P a g e
In this case study, there are 16 generators and 68 buses. Briefly this system is known
as the 68-bus New England test system (NETS)–New York (NYPS) interconnected system.
Generators 𝐺1– 𝐺9 are in New England, generators 𝐺10– 𝐺13 are in New York and
𝐺14– 𝐺16 are analogous generators in the neighbourhood of New York [89].
In this case, to prevent complicated analysis, the case study can be divided into five
areas. The discussion below shows the optimal location and size of an SVC component. The
Percentage of losses and total transfer capability (TTC) have been indicated. In this system,
one type of FACTS device was involved and the results were analysed. Convergence
characteristics in different iterations are shown in Fig. 6.16 and Fig. 6.17. Also, system losses
are considered. For computing the total transfer capability, initially loads are increased.
Increasing the load will be stopped when the situation exceeds one of the problem conditions.
In this study case, voltage profile, convergence characteristics and P-V curves are illustrated.
By allocating the SVCs in the study, the system load-ability and voltage profile can be
enhanced.
6.5.1. Allocation of SVC in the Study Case
Fig. 6.16 and Fig. 6.17 indicate the convergence characteristics of the imperialist
competitive algorithm in different numbers of iterations. It seems that after 150 iterations the
algorithm is going to be converged after a couple of decades.
157 | P a g e
SVC Mvar
Loss p.u.
Voltage deviation p.u.
Figure 6. 16 Convergence characteristics after 100 iterations
(Size and voltage deviation and loss are the objectives)

SVC Mvar
Loss p.u.
Voltage deviation p.u.
Figure 6. 17 Convergence characteristics after 150 iterations
(Size and voltage deviation and loss are the objectives)
In this case, after analysing the study case and power flow and implementing the
imperialist competitive algorithm in the power network, buses 47 and 48 were found to
allocate the SVC. In this case, attention should be paid to the percentage of TTC and losses.
158 | P a g e
Also, voltage deviation is the other parameter that is desirable. Table 6.17 presents a
summary of the results. In this case, voltage profile should be considered separately and the
effect of the compensation on the system observed.
Table 6. 17 Summary of the results with allocating of SVC
Bus SVC Voltage deviation TTC % Losses reduction %

(MVar)
47, 48 320, 285 0.006 26.31 6.36
In Table 6.17, it can be seen that allocating the SVC devices at the bus 47 and 48 can
increase the total transfer capability of the system by 26.31 per cent and reduce losses by 6.36
per cent. Voltage profiles are indicated before and after optimization by the imperialist
competitive algorithm in Fig. 6.18 and Fig. 6.19, respectively.
Figure 6. 18 Level of voltage before replacing SVC
159 | P a g e
Figure 6. 19 Level of voltage after replacing SVC
P-V curves related to buses 47 and 48 are shown in Figs. 6.20 and 6.21. In this case,
by increasing the load, the effect of the loads on the stability of the voltage can be seen and
the unstable bar-bars observed. Many researchers and engineers have struggled with voltage
stability problems. In this case, load behaviour is detected as one of the major driving forces
of voltage collapse.
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There are various reasons why voltage collapse occurs: for instance, due to
inconvenient locations of FACTS controllers or high reactive power compensation at high
161 | P a g e
levels of load, or because voltage sources are too far from load centers. In the case of using
multiple types of FACTS devices, there should be good coordination between the FACTS
controllers. After replacing the SVC component in the power network it can be seen that the
voltage level was improved, but still there are some bus-bars that have not reached the unity
level of the voltage and need to be investigated and further improved. In transmission
networks everything should be used more efficiently and the capacity of power networks
should be increased without massive investment but without compromising the security in the
power network, and also when power networks operate at a marginal level of stability, a
small amount of disturbance can affect the whole system and collapse may occur.
By installing more SVCs in different optimal places the level of losses can be reduced
and the voltage profile level and security of the power systems improved. In this simulation,
the imperialist competitive algorithm converged after 175 iterations. This number of
iterations can be varied by adding or removing objective functions.
In this chapter, initially the IEEE-30 bus system was analysed, a case study with and
without FACTS devices and also speed convergence and voltage profile were demonstrated
and P-V curves were illustrated. Objective function and constraints were discussed in relation
to the case study and all simulated results were compared with other optimization techniques.
Total transfer capability was also discussed. SVCs and UPFCs were assumed to be
parallel (and series + parallel) compensators and were placed in the case study. The IEEE-68
bus test system was also demonstrated. The level of the bus-bars before and after SVC
allocation was illustrated. P-V curves for unstable bus-bars were indicated. It can be seen that
162 | P a g e
after installing FACTS components, the level of voltage profile and the load-ability of the
system were enhanced.
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Chapter 7: Conclusions and Future Work
Chapter 7
Conclusions and
Future Work
164 | P a g e
7. Conclusions
This study has investigated the imperialist competitive algorithm, which is one of the
most recently developed evolutionary algorithms for achieving solutions. The imperialist
competitive algorithm was deployed in the case study and was compared with other
intelligent algorithms. The speed of convergence of the imperialist competitive algorithm and
loss reduction were the advantages of this algorithm over other techniques.
Initially, this study discussed the demand for and impact of Flexible AC Transmission
System (FACTS) devices on power systems. In this case, maximum power transfer
capability, which is one of the issues that researchers challenge themselves to optimize, was
discussed. Available transfer capability (ATC) and total power transfer capability (TTC) were
explained. Power network restriction during the delivery of power was also briefly discussed.
FACTS devices, one of the most important components of power electronics, have been
explained. The different types of FACTS devices and their operation have been discussed. In
this case, several FACTS devices were demonstrated and briefly discussed in terms of
connection and capability.
Then the importance of the algorithms in optimizations was indicated. In this case, 52
case studies were demonstrated and discussed.
The most common objective functions and constraints that are used to find the optimal
locations for FACTS devices in power networks were demonstrated. And the advantages and
disadvantages of the algorithms were presented. This comparison was made based on case
studies with a known number of constraints. They can be affected by changing the number of
objective functions and constraints.
165 | P a g e
The impact of optimization in science is briefly discussed. The aim of optimization is
to improve the progress of a problem. The importance of optimization was discussed. Some
types of optimizations that are used to solve problems were shown. Constraints in
optimization were mentioned briefly. The imperialist competitive algorithm, one of the most
recent optimization methods, was discussed. This algorithm is based on human evolution.
The steps of the imperialist competitive algorithm were discussed in full. This algorithm,
after processing answers and creating competition between them, approaches the solution.
This algorithm follows eight steps. As a case study, initially the IEEE-30 bus system was
analysed. A case study with and without FACTS devices and also speed of convergence and
voltage profile were demonstrated and P-V curves were illustrated. Objective function and
constraints were discussed in relation to the case study and all simulated results were
compared with other optimization techniques. SVCs and UPFCs were assumed to be parallel
(and series + parallel) compensators and were placed in the case study. The IEEE-68 bus test
system was discussed as a second case study with the SVC component and all related
simulated results were analysed. In this case, the imperialist competitive algorithm had good
characteristics in terms of convergence. The imperialist competitive algorithm is one of the
evolutionary algorithms that has recently been used frequently in optimization areas.
7.1. Future Work
In this case, by considering a greater variety of FACTS devices along with having
knowledge of their characteristics they can be implemented in power networks. So, by
involving different types of FACTS devices, different solutions and probably more accurate
answers might be achieved. A greater number and different types of objective functions
transfer problems to the different solutions. So, by considering many and new objective
functions the accuracy of the answers can be enhanced.
166 | P a g e
Recently, researchers have combined the characteristics of the algorithms and
obtained a new algorithm. So, with a combination of algorithms such as the genetic algorithm
and the imperialist competitive algorithm, a new algorithm can be obtained including the
characteristics of both of them.
167 | P a g e
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179 | P a g e
Appendices
APPENDIX A
Table A. 1 Simulation of IEEE 30 bus system power flow
Phase P gen Q gen P load Q load

Bus V (p.u)
(deg) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u)
Bus 01 1.05 0 5.1969 -0.2157 0 0
Bus 02 1.034 -11.242 1.785 1.9519 0.673 0.3938
Bus 03 0.958 -17.157 0 0 0.0744 0.0372
Bus 04 0.946 -20.869 0 0 0.2357 0.0496
Bus 05 1.006 -34.013 0.7617 1.9071 2.9213 0.5892
Bus 06 0.959 -24.39 0 0 0 0
Bus 07 0.948 -30.157 0 0 0.7071 0.338
Bus 08 1.023 -25.478 1.0854 2.8908 0.9304 0.9304
Bus 09 0.937 -30.67 0 0 0 0
Bus 10 0.848 -38.944 0 0 0.1799 0.062
Bus 11 1.091 -24.175 0.556 0.8417 0 0
Bus 12 0.953 -36.446 0 0 0.3473 0.2326
Bus 13 1.088 -32.386 0.5244 1.0714 0 0
Bus 14 0.884 -40.242 0 0 0.1923 0.0496
Bus 15 0.853 -40.494 0 0 0.2543 0.0775
Bus 16 0.881 -38.566 0 0 0.1085 0.0558
Bus 17 0.837 -39.785 0 0 0.2791 0.1799
Bus 18 0.801 -43.348 0 0 0.0992 0.0279
Bus 19 0.783 -44.173 0 0 0.2946 0.1054
Bus 20 0.735 -43.094 0 0 0.0682 0.0217
Bus 21 0.792 -41.299 0 0 0.5427 0.3473
Bus 22 0.792 -41.272 0 0 0 0
Bus 23 0.783 -42.588 0 0 0.0992 0.0496
Bus 24 0.723 -43.868 0 0 0.2698 0.2078
Bus 25 0.694 -45.408 0 0 0 0
Bus 26 0.602 -48.573 0 0 0.1085 0.0713
Bus 27 0.723 -44.66 0 0 0 0
Bus 28 0.932 -25.725 0 0 0 0
Bus 29 0.775 -53.964 0 0 0.0744 0.0279
Bus 30 0.768 -63.254 0 0 0.3287 0.0589
180 | P a g e
Appendices
Table A. 2 Simulation of IEEE 30 bus system bus data
Bus_I Bus_Type PD QD G B Bus_Area VM VA Base_KV Zone Vmax Vmin
1 3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1 1.060 0.0 132 1 1.05 0.95
2 2 21.7 12.7 0.0 0.0 1 1.043 -5.48 132 1 1.05 0.95
3 1 2.4 1.2 0.0 0.0 1 1.021 -7.96 132 1 1.05 0.95
4 1 7.6 1.6 0.0 0.0 1 1.012 -9.60 132 1 1.05 0.95
5 2 19.4 19.0 0.0 0.0 1 1.010 -14.37 132 1 1.05 0.95
6 1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1 1.010 -11.34 132 1 1.05 0.95
7 1 22.8 10.9 0.0 0.0 1 1.002 -13.12 132 1 1.05 0.95
8 2 30 30 0.0 0.0 1 1.010 -12.10 132 1 1.05 0.95
9 1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1 1.051 -14.38 1 1 1.05 0.95
10 1 5.8 2 0.0 0.19 1 1.045 -15.97 33 1 1.05 0.95
11 2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1 1.082 -14.39 11 1 1.05 0.95
12 1 11.2 7.5 0.0 0.0 1 1.057 -15.24 33 1 1.05 0.95
13 2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1 1.071 -15.24 11 1 1.05 0.95
14 1 6.2 1.6 0.0 0.0 1 1.042 -16.13 33 1 1.05 0.95
15 1 8.2 2.5 0.0 0.0 1 1.038 -16.22 33 1 1.05 0.95
16 1 3.5 1.8 0.0 0.0 1 1.045 -15.83 33 1 1.05 0.95
17 1 9 5.8 0.0 0.0 1 1.040 -16.14 33 1 1.05 0.95
18 1 3.2 0.9 0.0 0.0 1 1.028 -16.82 33 1 1.05 0.95
19 1 9.5 3.4 0.0 0.0 1 1.026 -17.00 33 1 1.05 0.95
20 1 2.2 0.7 0.0 0.0 1 1.020 -16.80 33 1 1.05 0.95
21 1 17.5 11.2 0.0 0.0 1 1.033 -16.42 33 1 1.05 0.95
22 1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1 1.033 -16.41 33 1 1.05 0.95
23 1 3.2 1.6 0.0 0.0 1 1.027 -16.61 33 1 1.05 0.95
24 1 8.7 6.7 0.0 0.043 1 1.021 -16.78 33 1 1.05 0.95
25 1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1 1.017 -16.35 33 1 1.05 0.95
26 1 3.5 2.3 0.0 0.0 1 1.000 -16.77 33 1 1.05 0.95
27 1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1 1.023 -15.82 33 1 1.05 0.95
28 1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1 1.007 -11.97 132 1 1.05 0.95
29 1 2.4 0.9 0.0 0.0 1 1.003 -17.06 33 1 1.05 0.95
30 1 10.6 1.9 0.0 0.0 1 0.992 -17.94 33 1 1.05 0.95
181 | P a g e
Appendices
Table A. 3 Simulation of IEEE 30 bus system generator data
N PG QG Qmax Qmin VG Mbase Gen_Status Pmax Pmin

1 250 0 999 -999 1.04 100 1 250 10
2 545 0 999 -999 1.035 100 1 300 10
5 650 0 999 -999 1.012 100 1 270 10
8 632 0 999 -999 1.02 100 1 250 10
11 505.2 0 999 -999 1.011 100 1 300 10
13 700 0 999 -999 1.05 100 1 270 10
182 | P a g e
Appendices
Table A. 4 Simulation of IEEE 30 bus system branch data
F_Bus T_Bus R X BT SLT SST SE Tap 𝜹 BR_Status

1 2 0.0192 0.0575 0.0528 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 1
1 3 0.0452 0.1652 0.0408 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 1
2 4 0.0570 0.01737 0.0368 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 1
3 4 0.0132 0.0379 0.0084 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 1
2 5 0.0472 0.1983 0.0418 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 1
2 6 0.0581 0.1763 0.0374 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 1
4 6 0.0119 0.0414 0.0090 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 1
5 7 0.0460 0.1160 0.0204 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 1
6 7 0.0267 0.0820 0.0170 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 1
6 8 0.0120 0.0420 0.0090 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 1
6 9 0.0 0.2080 0.0 0 0 0 0.978 0.0 1
6 10 0.0 0.5560 0.0 0 0 0 0.969 0.0 1
9 11 0.0 0.2080 0.0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 1
9 10 0.0 0.1100 0.0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 1
4 12 0.0 0.2560 0.0 0 0 0 0.932 0.0 1
12 13 0.0 0.1400 0.0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 1
12 14 0.1231 0.2559 0.0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 1
12 15 0.0662 0.1304 0.0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 1
12 16 0.0945 0.1987 0.0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 1
14 15 0.2210 0.1997 0.0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 1
16 17 0.524 0.1923 0.0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 1
15 18 0.1073 0.2185 0.0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 1
18 19 0.0639 0.1292 0.0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 1
19 20 0.0340 0.0680 0.0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 1
10 20 0.0936 0.2090 0.0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 1
10 17 0.0324 0.0845 0.0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 1
10 21 0.0348 0.0749 0.0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 1
10 22 0.0727 0.1499 0.0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 1
21 22 0.0116 0.0236 0.0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 1
15 23 0.1000 0.2020 0.0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 1
22 24 0.1150 0.1790 0.0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 1
23 24 0.1320 0.2700 0.0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 1
24 25 0.1885 0.3292 0.0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 1
25 26 0.2544 0.3800 0.0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 1
25 27 0.1093 0.2087 0.0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 1
28 27 0.0 0.3960 0.0 0 0 0 0.968 0.0 1
27 29 0.2198 0.4153 0.0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 1
27 30 0.3202 0.6027 0.0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 1
29 30 0.2399 0.4533 0.0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 1
8 28 0.0636 0.2000 0.0428 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 1
6 28 0.0169 0.0599 0.0130 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 1
183 | P a g e
Appendices
APPENDIX B
Table B. 1 Simulation of IEEE 68 bus system power flow (Bus 1-34)

Bus V (p.u)
(deg) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u)
Bus 01 1.05 -11.25 0 0 60.00 3.0000
Bus 02 1.06 -21.23 0 0 0 0
Bus 03 0.95 -27.17 0 0 24.70 1.2300
Bus 04 0.9 -18.95 0 0 32.520 0.5287
Bus 05 0.95 -24.52 0 0 0 0
Bus 06 1.01 -38.59 0 0 0 0
Bus 07 0.97 -42.187 0 0 6.8 1.0300
Bus 08 0.99 -32.48 0 0 0 0
Bus 09 1.08 -37.57 0 0 0 0
Bus 10 0.99 -62.44 0 0 0 0
Bus 11 1.01 -44.75 0 0 0 0
Bus 12 1.04 -28.46 0 0 2.74 1.1500
Bus 13 1.0 -41.86 0 0 0 0
Bus 14 0.98 -35.42 0 0 0 0
Bus 15 1.005 -48.94 0 0 10.254 1.0025
Bus 16 0.89 -24.66 0 0 2.48 0.8500
Bus 17 0.88 -51.85 0 0 0 0
Bus 18 1.03 -33.38 0 0 3.09 -0.9200
Bus 19 1.04 -32.73 0 0 0 0
Bus 20 0.99 -55.04 0 0 0 0
Bus 21 0.91 -36.29 0 0 2.24 0.4700
Bus 22 0.98 -31.72 0 0 0 0
Bus 23 0.99 -51.88 0 0 0 0
Bus 24 0.943 -33.88 0 0 1.39 0.1700
Bus 25 1.008 -55.48 0 0 0 0
Bus 26 0.99 -78.53 0 0 2.81 0.7600
Bus 27 1.02 -54.66 0 0 0 0
Bus 28 0.99 -45.75 0 0 2.06 0.2800
Bus 29 1.03 -63.94 0 0 0 0
Bus 30 0.98 -33.24 0 0 0 0
Bus 31 0.99 -24.36 0 0 0 0
Bus 32 1.001 -51.36 0 0 0 0
Bus 33 1.04 -17.68 0 0 2.84 0.2700
Bus 34 1.03 -43.21 0 0 0 0
184 | P a g e
Appendices
Table B. 2 Simulation of IEEE 68 bus system power flow (Bus 35-68)

Bus V (p.u)
(deg) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u)
Bus 35 0.99 -36.54 0 0 0 0
Bus 36 1.04 -41.22 0 0 2.035 0.3528
Bus 37 1.0 -57.37 0 0 0 0
Bus 38 1.03 -35.89 0 0 0 0
Bus 39 1.02 -28.13 0 0 11.258 0.458
Bus 40 0.94 -39.49 0 0 5.255 0.258
Bus 41 1.0 -50.17 0 0 0 0
Bus 42 0.95 -45.48 0 0 0 0
Bus 43 0.99 -30.77 0 0 1.12 0.124
Bus 44 1.02 -38.44 0 0 2.001 0.652
Bus 45 0.99 -44.55 0 0 0 0
Bus 46 1.00 -46.46 0 0 12.25 0.357
Bus 47 0.78 -32.36 0 0 1.85 -0.146
Bus 48 0.85 -60.32 0 0 1.025 0.874
Bus 49 0.95 -60.44 0 0 3.65 0.321
Bus 50 0.98 -88.56 0 0 2.67 0.150
Bus 51 1.0 -39.75 0 0 0 0
Bus 52 0.95 -33.38 0 0 0.6563 0.253
Bus 53 1.0 0 1.70 0.80 0 0
Bus 54 0.99 -33.04 4.10 1.35 0 0
Bus 55 0.99 -31.299 4.50 2.0 0 0
Bus 56 1.0 -41.22 5.20 1.12 0 0
Bus 57 0.93 -22.58 4.05 1.0 0 0
Bus 58 1.0 -33.88 5.0 2.0 0 0
Bus 59 0.91 -55.48 4.60 1.0 0 0
Bus 60 1.003 -58.53 4.30 1.10 0 0
Bus 61 1.003 -34.56 6.90 1.10 0 0
Bus 62 1.0 -45.75 3.90 1.10 0 0
Bus 63 0.93 -63.94 7.50 2.50 0 0
Bus 64 1.0 -53.24 11.50 2.0 0 0
Bus 65 0.935 -35.41 25.81 10.10 0 0
Bus 66 0.95 -25.48 12.50 5.35 0 0
Bus 67 0.925 -35.47 7.50 2.50 0 0
Bus 68 0.935 -62.51 30.50 9.50 0 0
185 | P a g e
Appendices
Table B. 3 Simulation of IEEE 68 bus system load bus data
Bus Number Real Load (p.u) Reactive Load (p.u)

1 60.00 3.0000
3 24.70 1.2300
4 32.520 0.5287
7 6.80 1.0300
12 2.74 1.1500
15 10.254 1.0025
16 2.48 0.8500
18 3.09 -0.9200
21 2.24 0.4700
24 1.39 0.1700
26 2.81 0.7600
28 2.06 0.2800
33 2.84 0.2700
36 2.035 0.3528
39 11.258 0.458
40 5.255 0.258
43 1.12 0.124
44 2.001 0.652
46 12.25 0.357
47 1.85 -0.146
48 1.025 0.874
49 3.65 0.321
50 2.67 0.150
52 0.6563 0.253
186 | P a g e
Appendices
Table B. 4 Simulation of IEEE 68 bus system machine bus data
Bus Number Voltage (p.u) Power Generation (p.u)
53 1.0450 2.50
54 0.9800 5.45
55 0.9830 6.50
56 0.9970 6.32
57 1.0110 5.05
58 1.0500 7.00
59 1.0630 5.60
60 1.0300 5.40
61 1.0250 8.00
62 1.0100 5.00
63 1.0000 10.00
64 1.0156 13.50
65 1.0110 35.91
66 1.0000 17.85
67 1.0000 10.00
68 1.0000 40.00
187 | P a g e
Appendices
Table B. 5 Simulation of IEEE 68 bus system load line data
From Bus To Bus Resistance (p.u) Reactance (p.u) Line charging Tap ratio
(p.u)
54 1 0 0.0181 0 1.0250
58 2 0 0.0250 0 1.0700
62 3 0 0.0200 0 1.0700
19 4 0.0007 0.0142 0 1.0700
20 5 0.0009 0.0180 0 1.0090
22 6 0 0.0143 0 1.0250
23 7 0.0005 0.0272 0 0
25 8 0.0006 0.0232 0 1.0250
29 9 0.0008 0.0156 0 1.0250
31 10 0 0.0260 0 1.0400
32 11 0 0.0130 0 1.0400
36 12 0 0.0075 0 1.0400
17 13 0 0.0033 0 1.0400
41 14 0 0.0015 0 1.0000
42 15 0 0.0015 0 1.0000
18 16 0 0.0030 0 1.0000
36 17 0.0005 0.0045 0.3200 0
49 18 0.0076 0.1141 1.1600 0
68 19 0.0016 0.0195 0.3040 0
19 20 0.0007 0.0138 0 1.0600
68 21 0.0008 0.0135 0.2548 0
21 22 0.0008 0.0140 0.2565 0
22 23 0.0006 0.0096 0.1846 0
23 24 0.0022 0.0350 0.36)0 0
68 24 0.0003 0.0059 0.0680 0
54 25 0.0070 0.0086 0.1460 0
25 26 0.0032 0.0323 0.5310 0
37 27 0.0013 0.0173 0.3216 0
26 27 0.0014 0.0147 0.23 0
26 28 0.0043 0.0474 0.7802 0
26 29 0.0057 0.0625 1.0290 0
28 29 0.0014 0.0151 0.2490 0
53 30 0.0008 0.0074 0.4800 0
61 30 0.0019 0.0183 0.2900 0
61 30 0.0019 0.0183 0.2900 0
30 31 0.0013 0.0187 0.3330 0
53 31 0.0016 0.0163 0.2500 0
30 32 0.0024 0.0288 0.4880 0
32 33 0.0008 0.0099 0.1680 0
33 34 0.0011 0.0157 0.2020 0
35 34 0.0001 0.0074 0 0.9460
34 36 0.0033 0.0111 1.4500 0
61 36 0.0022 0.0196 0.3400 0
61 36 0.0022 0.0196 0.3400 0
68 37 0.0007 0.0089 0.1342 0
31 38 0.0011 0.0147 0.2470 0
33 38 0.0036 0.0444 0.6930 0
41 40 0.0060 0.0840 3.1500 0
48 40 0.0020 0.0220 1.2800 0
42 41 0.0040 0.0600 2.2500 0
18 42 0.0040 0.0600 2.2500 0
17 43 0.0005 0.0276 0 0
Continued on next page
188 | P a g e
Appendices
Table B. 6 Simulation of IEEE 68 bus system load line data (continued)
From Bus To Bus Resistance (p.u) Reactance (p.u) Line charging (p.u) Tap ratio
39 44 0 0.0411 0 0
43 44 0.0001 0.0011 0 0
35 45 0.0007 0.0175 1.3900 0
39 45 0 0.0839 0 0
44 45 0.0025 0.0730 0 0
38 46 0.0022 0.0284 0.4300 0
53 47 0.0013 0.0188 1.3100 0
47 48 0.0025 0.0268 0.4000 0
47 48 0.0025 0.0268 0.4000 0
46 49 0.0018 0.0274 0.2700 0
45 51 0.0004 0.0105 0.7200 0
50 51 0.0009 0.0221 1.6200 0
37 52 0.0007 0.0082 0.1319 0
55 52 0.0011 0.0133 0.2138 0
53 54 0.0035 0.0411 0.6987 0
54 55 0.0013 0.0151 0.2572 0
55 56 0.0013 0.0213 0.2214 0
56 57 0.0008 0.0128 0.1342 0
57 58 0.0002 0.0026 0.0434 0
58 59 0.0006 0.0092 0.1130 0
57 60 0.0008 0.0112 0.1476 0
59 60 0.0004 0.0046 0.0780 0
60 61 0.0023 0.0363 0.3804 0
58 63 0.0007 0.0082 0.1389 0
62 63 0.0004 0.0043 0.0729 0
64 63 0.0016 0.0435 0 1.0600
62 65 0.0004 0.0043 0.0729 0
64 65 0.0016 0.0435 0 1.0600
56 66 0.0008 0.0129 0.1382 0
65 66 0.0009 0.0101 0.1723 0
66 67 0.0018 0.0217 0.3660 0
67 68 0.0009 0.0094 0.1710 0
53 27 0.0320 0.3200 0.4100 1.0000
69 18 0.0006 0.0144 1.0300 0
50 69 0.0006 0.0144 1.0300 0
189 | P a g e

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Optimal Allocation of FACTS Devices

in Power Networks Using Imperialist

A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Supervised by Dr. Ahmed F Zobaa

College of Engineering, Design and Physical Sciences

transmission lines, using Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) devices is inevitable. In

simulation results, including voltage profile improvement and convergence characteristics,

algorithm technique over the conventional approaches.

I gratefully acknowledge my brother who supported me financially during my course.

Dad & Mum

©COPYRIGHT Mohammad Shahrazad

All Rights Reserved

LIST OF JOURNAL PUBLICATIONS

1. Mohammad Shahrazad, Ahmed Zobaa, “Optimal Allocation of FACTS Devices in

Distribution Networks Using Imperialist Competitive Algorithm”, International

Review of Electrical Engineering (I.R.E.E.), 2013, Vol. 8, No. 5

2. Mohammad Shahrazad, Amirhessam Alikhanzadeh, “Application of Imperialist

Competitive Optimization Algorithm in Power Industry”, International Journal of

Industrial Engineering Computations, 2015, Vol. 6, No. 1

3. Mohammad Khodapanah, Mohammad Shahrazad, “Combination of Energy Storage

and Wind Turbine with Conventional Generation Using Scheduling Technique”,

International Journal of Electronics and Electrical Engineering, 2015, Vol. 3, No. 6

4. Yaminidhar Reddy Bhavanam, Mohammad Shahrazad, “Impact of Increased

Distributed Generation on Fault Levels and the Network Equipment”, Journal of

Electrical Systems, 2014, Vol. 10, No. 2

Declaration ........................................................................................................................................................... iii

Statement of Copyright ........................................................................................................................................ v

List of Journal Publications ................................................................................................................................. v

List of Figures ....................................................................................................................................................... x

List of Tables ...................................................................................................................................................... xiii

List of Symbols .................................................................................................................................................... xv

List of Abbreviations ......................................................................................................................................... xvi

1.2.FACTS Devices ...................................................................................................................... 2

1.3.Power Networks ..................................................................................................................... 3

1.4.Research Aim and Objectives ........................................................................................ 3

1.5.Principle Contribution to Knowledge ........................................................................ 4

1.6.Research Methodology ....................................................................................................... 4

1.7.Thesis Outline .......................................................................................................................... 5

2.FACTS Devices ................................................................................................................................. 8

2.2.Available transfer capability ........................................................................................... 9

2.4.FACTS Device Investment ............................................................................................ 14

2.5.Category and Types of FACTS ................................................................................... 16

2.5.1.1.Static Var Compensator .......................................................................................... 17

2.5.1.1.1.Thyristor Controlled Reactor ............................................................................... 19

2.5.1.1.2.Thyristor switched Reactor .................................................................................. 20

2.5.1.1.3.Thyristor Switched Capacitor .............................................................................. 21

2.5.1.2.Static Synchronous Compensator ........................................................................... 22

2.5.2.Series Device Compensator .................................................................................................. 24

2.5.2.1.Thyristor Switched Series Capacitor ....................................................................... 24

2.5.2.2.Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor .................................................................... 25

2.5.2.3.GTO Controlled Series Capacitor ........................................................................... 28

2.5.2.4.Static Synchronous Series Compensator ................................................................. 29

2.5.3.Series-Series Device Compensators ...................................................................................... 29

2.5.3.1.Inter Line Power Flow Controller ........................................................................... 29

2.5.4.Series-Parallel Device Compensators ................................................................................... 30

2.5.4.1.Unified Power Flow Controller ............................................................................... 30

2.5.4.1.1.UPFC Structure .................................................................................................... 31

2.5.4.1.2.Operation of UPFC .............................................................................................. 32

2.5.4.1.3.Physical Operation of UPFC ................................................................................ 33