Confined Space Entry (2005) PDF

BP Process Safety Series
Confined Space Entry

A collection of booklets
describing hazards and
how to manage them
This booklet is intended as a safety supplement to operator training courses, operating
manuals, and operating procedures. It is provided to help the reader better understand
the ‘why’ of safe operating practices and procedures in our plants. Important engineering
design features are included. However, technical advances and other changes made
after its publication, while generally not affecting principles, could affect some
suggestions made herein. The reader is encouraged to examine such advances and
changes when selecting and implementing practices and procedures at his/her facility.
While the information in this booklet is intended to increase the store-house of knowledge
in safe operations, it is important for the reader to recognize that this material is generic in
nature, that it is not unit specific, and, accordingly, that its contents may not be subject to
literal application. Instead, as noted above, it is supplemental information for use in
already established training programmes; and it should not be treated as a substitute for
otherwise applicable operator training courses, operating manuals or operating
procedures. The advice in this booklet is a matter of opinion only and should not be
construed as a representation or statement of any kind as to the effect of following such
advice and no responsibility for the use of it can be assumed by BP.
This disclaimer shall have effect only to the extent permitted by any applicable law.
Queries and suggestions regarding the technical content of this booklet should be
addressed to Frédéric Gil, BP, Chertsey Road, Sunbury on Thames, TW16 7LN, UK.
E-mail: gilf@bp.com
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher.
Published by
Institution of Chemical Engineers (IChemE)
Davis Building
165–189 Railway Terrace
Rugby, CV21 3HQ, UK
IChemE is a Registered Charity in England and Wales

Offices in Rugby (UK), London (UK) and Melbourne (Australia)
© 2005 BP International Limited
ISBN-10: 0 85295 479 4

ISBN-13: 978 0 85295 479 9
First edition 2005
Typeset by Techset Composition Limited, Salisbury, UK

Printed by Henry Ling, Dorchester, UK
ii
Foreword
Confined space entry is often described as one of the most hazardous activities
to be performed in an industrial environment. Numerous incidents have occur-
red in the past. This booklet is intended for those operators, engineers and
technicians working on process plant to raise awareness of the issues
surrounding this activity in order to adopt safe designs and practices and avoid
the occurrence of such incidents.
I strongly recommend you take the time to read this book carefully. The
usefulness of this booklet is not limited to operating people; there are many
useful applications for the maintenance, design and construction of facilities.
Please feel free to share your experience with others since this is one of the
most effective means of communicating lessons learned and avoiding safety
incidents in the future.
Greg Coleman, Group Vice President, HSSE
iii
Contents
1 Confined space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 What is a confined space? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Confined space locations in processing plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Hazards of confined spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 Other dangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6 Control of access to confined spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2 Confined Space Entry Permit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2.1 Confined Space Entry Permit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3 Identification of a confined space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4 Confined space entry process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.5 Training and competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.6 Common mistakes and pitfalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3 Gas testing and PPE requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

3.1 Gas testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.2 Order of gas testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.3 Gas testing for oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.4 Gas testing for flammable vapours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.5 Gas testing for toxic vapours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.6 Calibration and maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.7 Taking gas measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.8 Respiratory protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.9 Protective clothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.10 Common mistakes and pitfalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4 Emergency rescue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.1 Rescue and emergency services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.2 Rescue team . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.3 Design of vessels to facilitate ease of rescue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.4 Lifeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.5 Standby person . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5 Some points to remember . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Test yourself! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Acronyms and abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
v
CONFINED SPACE ENTRY
Acronyms and
abbreviations
BA Breathing apparatus
BCF Bromochlorodifluoromethane
CO Carbon Monoxide
CO2 Carbon Dioxide
CPR Cardiopulmonary resuscitation
GFCI Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters
H2 Hydrogen
H2S Hydrogen Sulphide
JSA/JHA Job Safety Hazard Analysis
LEL Lower Explosive Limit
LOTO Lock-out and Tag-out
MSDS Material Safety Data Sheet
MTBE Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether
N2 Nitrogen
O2 Oxygen
OEL Occupational Exposure Limit
OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration
PPE Personal Protective Equipment
RPE Respiratory Protective Equipment
SCBA Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus
STEL Short Term Exposure Limit
TEL Tetraethyl lead
THA Task Hazard Analysis
TML Tetramethyl lead
UEL Upper Explosive Limit
88
1
Confined space
1.1 Introduction
It is said that for every person killed in a confined space, nearly two would-be
rescuers are also killed. Confined space accidents are responsible for many
multiple fatality and injury cases and many of the victims have died trying to
rescue fallen colleagues.
A study conducted by a national agency for occupational health and safety
established that an astounding 234 deaths and 193 injuries resulted from 276
confined space related accidents that were reported over three years. These
figures alone demonstrate the deadly potential of confined spaces. Assuming
that not every accident resulted in an injury or death, which is likely to be the
case, a number of these accidents would have had multiple deaths or injuries.
Number of accidents, fatalities and injuries over a 3-year period

(as reported by a national occupational safety and health agency)
276
300 234
250 193
200
150
100
50
0
Accidents Deaths Injuries
It is estimated that millions of workers may be exposed to hazards in confined
spaces each year. Accident investigations find that workers often do not
recognize that they are working in a confined space and that they may
encounter unforeseen hazards. Specifically in the UK, 15 deaths per year occur
on average.
This booklet is intended as a safety supplement to operators’, engineers’ and
technicians’ training courses, operating manuals and operating procedures. It is
a compilation of recent experience on confined space entries in order to
increase awareness of confined space hazards and avoid accidents. This
booklet only provides guidance and does not replace site procedures and
specific risk assessments. Readers are encouraged to read the reference
publications listed in the Bibliography on page 89 for more information.
1
1.2 What is a confined space?

A confined space is an area that is partially or fully enclosed, where there is a
risk of serious injury or death from dangerous conditions.
Characteristics of confined spaces
• Limited openings for entry and exit
• Large enough to enter at least

partially
• Not designed for continuous human

occupancy
• Inadequate natural ventilation
• Contains potentially toxic and/or

hazardous atmospheres
1.3 Confined space locations in processing plants

Some confined spaces are easy to identify, such as storage tanks and reaction
vessels, while others can be less obvious but equally dangerous (for example,
open-topped chambers and areas under tarpaulins).
Listed below are some examples of confined spaces. They may not always be
confined spaces but may become confined spaces under certain circumstances.
Can you add to the list?
Storage tanks API separators Trenches (>1.3 m [4 ft] deep)

Vessels Ducting Floating roofs (>1.5 m [5 ft]
Furnaces Tunnels from the rim)
Towers Pits Bunded/diked areas (wall height >2 m
Drums Wells [6.6 ft])
Piping systems Containers Temporary enclosures (such as for
Boilers Underground sewers asbestos removal)
Extruder houses Catalyst preparation Rooms during/after spray painting
buildings
Laboratories Analyser houses
2
Examples of typical confined spaces
1.4 Hazards of confined spaces

Confined spaces are potentially hazardous due to the substances they may
contain and the nature of the activities undertaken within the space. Poor
natural ventilation in these areas allow the buildup of high concentrations of
substances which are not usually found in normal, breathable air.
Several key aspects of the atmosphere inside confined spaces must be
considered. They are:
• low oxygen level;

• high oxygen level;
• flammable atmosphere;
• toxic atmosphere;
• ingress of liquids or free-flowing powders.
These conditions can be highly lethal and have frequently resulted in serious
injuries and deaths upon entry when proper safety measures have not been
used.
3
Other hazards associated with confined spaces are:
• slippery and uneven walking surfaces;

• obstacles within the space;
• poor lighting and visibility;
• electricity;
• excessive noise;
• excessive heat;
• engulfment;
• drowning in deep pockets of liquids;
• radioactive level gauges;
• hit by falling objects;
• presence of internal equipment/machinery (mixers, heat exchangers, etc.);
• difficult access and egress;
• falling from height (columns, etc.);
• pyrophoric materials;
• corroded walkways or objects;
• bacteriological risks (legionella, etc.);
• animals (snakes in pits, etc.).
Many of these hazards are made worse than usual when associated with a
confined space.
Some areas may not seem like confined spaces but may be designated so
because of the presence of specific hazards such as:
• room protected by a total flooding fire fighting system;

• fin-fan cages, etc.
Low oxygen level

Low oxygen levels are produced through:
• displacement;
• depletion;
• chemical reactions.
Gases such as methane or nitrogen can displace oxygen, creating oxygen
deficient atmospheres. They may be used intentionally to prevent the formation
of flammable mixtures inside a storage tank.
Oxygen deficient atmospheres can also be the result of depletion through work
performed (for example, welding) or chemical reactions (for example, rusting
within a tank).
Human beings are highly susceptible to asphyxiation through oxygen deficiency.
A person deprived of sufficient oxygen may not be able to move, be unable to
rescue himself or herself, and display a lack of concern about an imminent loss
of consciousness.
4
An individual entering a confined space with a very low oxygen level usually
shows no warning symptoms but collapses immediately. Death will result
unless the individual is quickly rescued.
Refer to the BP Process Safety Booklet Hazards of Nitrogen and Catalyst
Handling for more information on asphyxiation by nitrogen.
Effects of lack of oxygen
O2
21% Typical O2 concentration in air.
15–19 % First sign of hypoxia. Decreased ability to

work strenuously. May induce early
symptoms in persons with coronary,
pulmonary or circulatory problems.
12 –14 % Respiration increases with exertion, pulse
up, impaired muscular coordination,
perception and judgment.
10 –12 % Respiration further increases in rate and

depth, poor judgment, lips blue.
8 –10% Mental failure, fainting, unconsciousness,

ashen face, blue lips, nausea, vomiting,
inability to move freely.
6 –8% 6 minutes æ 50% probability of death.
8 minutes æ 100% probability of death.
4 – 6% Coma in 40 seconds, convulsions,

respiration ceases, death.
ACCIDENT One dead and another injured when a confined space

was created inadvertently!!!
A column had been taken out of service, cleaned, and placed on nitrogen
purge with several manholes opened. Two experienced employees were
examining the flange surfaces on manholes. They checked for stress cracks
by spraying dye on the flanges and using a black light to identify them. The
men draped a tarpaulin over the flange either to block the wind or to facilitate
using the black light, or both. They then crawled underneath to perform the
work.
With no wind, nitrogen filled the confined space created by the tarpaulin. Both
men collapsed from lack of oxygen. One died while the other collapsed face
down on the metal grating. His position on the grating provided him with
sufficient oxygen to sustain his life. He was rescued and hospitalized for
several days.
continued
5
Pipe opening where a confined space was inadvertently created
Take care when planning or performing a job to ensure that all types
of hazards have been identified and that confined spaces are not
inadvertently introduced.
ACCIDENT Entry into rusty chamber kills two!!!

Two persons collapsed after entering
a buoyancy chamber on a barge. The
chamber had not been ventilated or
gas tested prior to entry. They died of
suffocation from low oxygen levels.
The chamber, which provides buoyancy
to the barge, had been closed for a
considerable period. During this time,
rusting and corrosion of steel structures
consumed the oxygen within the space,
creating an atmosphere incapable of
sustaining life.
6
Oxygen enrichment
There is an increased risk of fire and explosion from high oxygen levels. At
these levels, they can be expected to be more violent and intense.
Higher than normal oxygen levels can result from oxygen leakage during
oxy/acetylene welding operations.
Flammable atmosphere
A gas mixture is flammable when the concentration of flammable material in air
is within the Lower and Upper Explosive Limits (LEL and UEL). A flammable
mixture presents a fire and explosion risk that can kill or injure.
High levels of oxygen, which can occur from leaking oxygen canisters, widens
the range of Lower and Upper Flammability Limits thereby increasing the
possibility of fire.
The ignition of a flammable atmosphere within a confined
space is particularly dangerous because there are
limited means of escape, and the depletion of oxygen
coupled with smoke and heat generation can quickly
render a person unconscious and unable to escape.
ACCIDENT Flash fire in a tanker kills seven!!!

A tanker was undergoing repair work at a shipyard when without warning,
a huge fireball came through a manhole on deck. The same manhole spat
out a man engulfed in flames. Fire fighters doused him with water but he died
at hospital from serious burn injuries. Below deck, six other workers were
dead.
The workers had just returned from lunch and were about to resume cutting
away rusted parts of a tank and welding in new steel plates. An ignition in a
flammable atmosphere, suspected to have been created by a leak from
acetylene cylinders used for cutting and welding, sparked a flash fire below
deck.
It was nearly four hours before rescuers could retrieve all the bodies. The
searing heat and total darkness in the confined space hampered rescue
operations. Two bodies were found untouched by flames indicating that they
probably had difficulty escaping and succumbed to the extreme heat, smoke,
or were asphyxiated.
Perform gas tests after vacating any confined space for a period
of time, such as for a break, to ensure that safe working conditions
are still present.
7
Never store
compressed gas
cylinders/tanks in a
confined space,
regardless of their
contents.
Toxic atmosphere
Toxic materials can result in many different adverse health
effects, ranging from mere itchiness to death. The severity
of a human body’s reaction depends on the material,
concentration, duration of exposure, method of entry into
the body and individual susceptibility. The most common
method of entry into the body within a confined space is
through inhalation.
Some toxic substances typically found in process plants are given below. Can
you add to the list?
Hydrogen sulphide (H 2S) Chlorine Organic lead

Hydrogen fluoride (HF) Benzene Refractory dust
Hydrogen bromide (HBr) Toluene Cadmium vapour
Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) Hexane Catalyst
Ammonia Welding fumes Vanadium pentoxide
The maximum amount of a toxic material that a person can safely tolerate can
be represented in different ways.
• The Occupational Exposure Limit (OEL) is the maximum value a worker

should be exposed to, through inhalation, for an eight-hour working day
without harmful effects.
• The Short Term Exposure Limit (STEL) on the other hand expresses the
maximum value that a person can withstand for 15 minutes without harmful
effects.
The choice of which value to utilize depends on the purpose of the activity
being undertaken.
Exposure to toxic substances can lead to both short-term and long-term
adverse health effects. Both conditions are undesirable and steps should be
taken to avoid exposure to dangerous amounts of toxic substances. Check
your Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs) for the safe working concentration
levels of hazardous chemicals handled at your facility. (Refer to BP Process
Safety Booklet Hazardous Substances Refineries for more information.)
8
Dangerous levels of substances are easily formed within confined spaces due
to poor natural ventilation. Some toxic atmospheres result in death almost
immediately, while others can impede the ability of a person to escape the
area, eventually leading to death.
Although hydrocarbons are mostly regarded as fire and explosion risks, many
have narcotic effects on humans. Initial signs are typical of intoxication. Failure
to respond to verbal commands occurs roughly at the Lower Explosive Limit
(LEL), corresponding to about 50% of the general anaesthetic dose required for
surgical operations. These narcotic effects can occur very quickly—within only
four breaths!
Check your Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs) for information on

the toxicity and flammability of chemicals where exposure potential
exists. Plan your actions accordingly and ensure that the
appropriate protective measures are in place.
ACCIDENT Young worker found staggering around inside a tank!!!

An apprentice was sent to apply dye to the walls of a tank as part of a testing
program. Later he returned to remove the excess dye by spraying it with a
solvent. He was not wearing (nor apparently told to wear) any form of
respiratory protection. As a result, he had been exposed to between 20 and
30 times the STEL (Short Term Exposure Limit) of solvent fumes. He was
found staggering around inside the steel tank after being exposed to toxic
fumes for several hours.
When authorizing entry to confined spaces, remember to consider

what is to be taken into the confined space by the workers, such as
paints, coatings, solvents, burning gas, and inerts for weld
shielding. Consider also the consumption of oxygen by metal
spraying processes and generation of welding/burning fumes.
Engulfment by free flowing solids

Engulfment can occur when a person works amid large quantities of fine solids
such as salt, sugar, catalyst, and grains. Free-flowing solids have the potential
to bury and drown. The danger is more serious when the storage compartment
has a sloping floor. The uneven floor can cause a person to trip, triggering a
cave in with disastrous consequences.
When digging through fine solids, take care that no high ‘walls’ are left, ready to
collapse when disturbed.
9
ACCIDENT Violation of work permit results in injury!!!

A unit was undergoing catalyst change when free-flow of catalyst stopped
due to agglomeration. A decision was made to unload catalyst from the top of
the vessel. This required permits for entry and work in the inert atmosphere.
A special note was made on the permit stating that the ‘inert entry worker
must never come under catalyst level’. The worker violated work permit
conditions by standing below the catalyst level and was buried under catalyst.
He received severe burns as a result.
Worker violates work permit Burnt helmet and safety harness

conditions by standing below
catalyst level ‘H’ and is buried
under hot catalyst
10
1.5 Other dangers

The hazards of confined spaces are not limited to the area inside the space
but also at openings to the confined space. The effects on humans depend on
the type and concentration of materials within the space. Many incidents
associated with equipment purged with nitrogen have occurred and are still
occurring. (Refer to BP Process Safety Booklet Hazards of Nitrogen and
Catalyst Handling.)
ACCIDENT Atmosphere outside a confined space can

be hazardous!!!
A subcontractor employee,
without breathing apparatus or
a safety harness with an
attached lifeline, entered the
barricaded area on top of a
reactor under nitrogen purge.
He was requested to assist a
confined space entrant to lift up
an access ladder that was
about 3 ft (0.9 m) below the
manhole flange. He was over-
come by an oxygen deficient
atmosphere around the manhole
and fell into the reactor.
ACCIDENT An operator put his head into

the tank opening of a barge to check the oil
level. He was overcome, fell into the tank and
was killed.
ACCIDENT A welder was repairing cracks

in the manhole of a tank that had been nitrogen
purged. Work was not possible with the
manhole cover in place so the cover was
removed. While working, he dropped a torch tip
into the tank, looked inside for it, collapsed, fell
in and died.
11
ACCIDENT Static ignition blows an operator off a tank roof!!!

An MTBE tank was being cleaned using a high pressure cleaning device
(rotating high pressure water nozzle) through the top manhole. A vacuum
truck had inadvertently created an explosive mixture within the tank when it
sucked vapours from the tank creating a slight underpressure which drew in
air. A static discharge created by the high speed fine particle water mist
ignited the explosive mixture resulting in an explosion. An operator was blown
off the roof of the tank and killed.
Watch out for sources of static electricity within a confined space.

Remember to earth/ground static generating devices to prevent
static accumulation.
Refer to BP Process Safety Booklet Hazards of Electricity and Static Electricity

for the dangers of static electricity and preventative measures.
ACCIDENT Contractor drowns in a water-washed column!!!

A contractor entered alone into the flash area of a vacuum distillation column
to look at the underside of the first trays. The column had been water washed
during the night but not drained. The contractor accidentally fell into the water
and was unable to gain access to the internal ladder. He drowned before
emergency services could rescue him.
12
ACCIDENT Dry pyrophoric scale auto-ignites in a slops oil tank!!!

A slops oil tank had been isola-
ted for planned repair work but
still contained some hydrocarbons.
Nitrogen blanketing was not in ser-
vice at the time and oxygen entered
the tank via the pressure/
vacuum safety valve as a result of
the breathing process. The dry
pyrophoric scale in the tank ignited,
causing an explosion and fire that
blew the tank roof against the stairs
of an adjacent tank. The fire was
extinguished after 40 minutes. The
incident could have been worse if there were people working in the tank or on
the tank roof.
Keep pyrophoric scale wet to avoid ignition and fire.
See BP Process Safety Booklet Safe Ups and Downs for Process Units for
more on pyrophoric scale.
ACCIDENT Pyrophoric fire completely destroys a column!!!

A pyrophoric fire occurred during a replacement of the carbon steel structured
packing within a column, which involved cutting out the old column internals
and removing each bed of packing. Despite persistent attempts to extinguish
the fire, the column fell over and was completely destroyed.
13
ACCIDENT Nitrogen leak semi-asphyxiates technician!!!

A technician was overcome by an oxygen deficient atmosphere while
connecting up a motor. The catalyst had been removed and the reactor was
floating on nitrogen. The pump seal on the reactor was leaking allowing
nitrogen to enter the reactor skirt. The supervisor assumed that the reactor
seal was tight and there was no requirement for either:
• air-line breathing apparatus;

• air movers;
• continuous oxygen monitoring with alarm.
HYDROTREATER
REACTOR EMPTY OF
CATALYST
UNDER
SEAL CONNECTION
NITROGEN
NOT FULLY
PURGE
TIGHTENED
Ebullating Bed
Pump
NITROGEN LEAK
TECHNICIAN
CONNECTING UP
MOTOR SEMI- OXYGEN DEFICIENT
ASPHYXIATED ENVIRONMENT
Reactor Skirt
Skirts surrounding the bottom of vessels must be considered a permit-requiring

confined space.
1.6 Control of access to confined spaces

Due to many multiple fatality incidents that have occurred while working in or
encountering confined spaces, the Confined Space Entry Permit procedure
was introduced as a method to control the hazards involved and ensure the
safety of workers. Most countries have legislation in place to enforce the use
of this procedure.
14
2
Confined Space
Entry Permit
2.1 Confined Space Entry Permit

What is a Confined Space Entry Permit?
A Confined Space Entry Permit is a document that carefully controls the entry
of personnel into confined spaces. It needs to be filled and signed by relevant
authorities before entry can take place. The permit provides a written
authorization for entry into a confined space and functions as a control system
for this potentially hazardous activity.
A confined space permit is not a replacement for a safe system of work. It is an
extension of it.
The Confined Space Entry Permit is only for entry! In order to

perform work within the space, a Hot Work or Cold Work Permit
is also required.
General contents of a Permit to Work

A Confined Space Entry Permit contains the following information:
• location of work;
• description of work;
• names of entrants and standby attendants;
• permit validity period;
• process and electrical isolation information;
• gas test results with gas tester’s name and signature;
• information on the remaining hazards;
• precautions to be undertaken;
• rescue procedures;
• approval by the Issuing Authority;
• acceptance by the Performing Authority;
• confirmation on completion of work;
• entry cancellation and permit withdrawal.
15
The Confined Space Entry Permit is declared void when:

• conditions change, making the job unsafe;
• work is delayed or work is stopped for more than two hours;
• an alarm to exit the space is activated;
• an order is given to exit the space.
TO BE USED FOR ENTRY INTO A CONFINED SPACE
ENTRY PERMIT NO.

(Permit Must Be Displayed)
1. Permission is given to Under MWO. NO.
2. Location of Work Item No.
3. Item Description
4. Description of Work
5. Validity of Permit Permit is valild as follows:
Issued on: Date............................Time.........................(hrs) a) when conditions change making job unsafe
Expires on: Date............................Time.........................(hrs) b) when starting work delayed or work stopped for 2 hours
* Tick off and delete as necessary
6. Isolation: The following precautions have been taken to isolate the plant/working area from likely sources of hazard:
6A. Process Isolation/Preparations
Equipment depressured/drained and free of flammable/corrosive/toxic deposits/asphyxiating gases
Isolated by: disconnection/blanks/spaces Drawing attached/Bank List No. .......................................................
Maximum natural/force ventilation is provided
Equipment physically/visually inspected
Other isolations/preparation carried out on:
COLD WORK PERMIT NO. ............................ EXCAVATION PERMIT NO. ..................... HOT WORK PERMIT NO. ......................
Others ................................................................................................................................................................................................
6B. Electrical Isolation
Description and Item No. ................................................................... have been isolated on COLD WORK PERMIT NO. ..........................................
6C. Gas Test Results (Gas Test Meter No. ...............) (Calibrated on ..............)
LOCATION OXYGEN FLAMMABLE GAS OTHERS TIME DATE CERTIFIED GAS TESTER'S NAME/SIGNATURE
7. Hazards Remaining:
8. Precautions That Must Be Undertaken
Standby man required Safe lighting required
Cool enough for entry Breathing apparatus/resuscitation on equipment on standby
Platform/Ladder for safe access exit Covers for nearby sewers/drains etc.
Safety belt/lifeline required Gas monitoring required
Protective equipment must be worn:
Goggles Gloves/Boots Full Protective Clothing
Face shield Dust Respirator Others ...................................................................................
Other precautions required................................................................................................................................................................................................
9. Certification (Issuing Authority)

Print Name.......................................................................................
I certify that the precautions in Section 6 have been taken and
that ENTRY may start subject to the requirements of Sections 7 Signed............................................................................................
and 8.
Time................................(hrs) Date..................................................
10. Acceptance (Performing Authority)
I have read and understood the Permit and accept the precautions to be taken under Sections 7 and 8.
SRC Print Name ...................................................... Contractor Print Name ........................................................
Signed ............................................................ Signed ...............................................................
Time ......................... (hrs) Date ..................... Time .......................... (hrs) Date ......................
*All works must stop and all personnel must evacuate the confined spaces immediately if the refinery fire alarm sounds or if requested to
do so by an SRC representative. When the "all-clear" fire alarm is sounded, the performing Authority will report to the respective Issuing
Authority to confirm that the areas are safe and work can be resumed.
11. Work Completed (Performing Authority)

The entry has been completed/suspended and all persons under my supervision, materials and equipment withdraw.
SRC Print Name ................................................... Contractor Print Name ..........................................
Signed .......................................................... Signed .................................................
Time .................... (hrs) Date ....................... Time ......................... (hrs) Date .........
12. Entry Has Been Cancelled or Permit Withdrawn 13. Authorisation to Cancel Associated
(Issuing Authority)
COLD WORK PERMIT No. .........................................
HOT WORK PERMIT No. ............................................
EXCAVATION PERMIT NO. ........................................
Print Name ......................................................................................... Print Name .......................................................................................
Signed ............................................................................................... Signed .............................................................................................
Time ................................ (hrs) Date.................................................. Time ........................................ (hrs) Date .......................................
RENEWAL: The work area has been surveyed and conditions have not changed.
VALIDITY EXTENDED
From To Issuing Authority Recertification
Date Time Date Time Name Signature Location Oxygen Flammable Others Certified Gas Testers
Gas Name/ Signature
Example of a Confined Space Entry Permit
16
Advantages of having a Permit System
The advantages that a Permit System may bring if operated appropriately

as part of a Control of Work for Confined Spaces:
• makes sure that proper authorization is obtained;
• ensur es that management is aware of all confined space entries;
• checks that the work site has been prepared and is safe
Before before work commences;
entry • informs workers of potential hazards, and the precautions
and safety equipment needed;
• ensures that no outside activity that can adversely affect those
working in the confined space is performed.
During • ensures that the job starts and continues to be carried out in a safe manner;
entry • prevents entry by unauthorized persons.
After
• prohibits entry into a confined s pace after the authorized period.
entry
2.2 Definitions
Confined space • Large enough and so configured that an employee can
bodily enter and perform assigned work.
• Not designed for continuous employee occupancy.
• Has limited or restricted means for entry or exit.
Limited or restricted means for entry and exit refer to:
• Confined space openings that are limited by size or

location.
• Small openings that are difficult to move through and

difficult to get needed equipment in or out of the
spaces.
• Large openings that may require the use of ladders,

and where escape may be difficult in emergency
situations (for example, open-topped spaces).
Note: A space containing a door or portal through which a

person can walk may still be deemed a confined space
if an entrant’s ability to escape in an emergency would
be hindered.
Note: A confined space can result in a fatality even if not

‘bodily’ entered, as the following incident shows.
17
ACCIDENT A maintenance foreman put his head inside a manhole of a

nitrogen-purged vessel to check details of internal fittings. He
was found collapsed and dead over the manhole.
ACCIDENT Small semi-confined space!!!

A workman was relaying plastic floor tiles in a small cupboard in an office
corridor using a solvent-based quick-setting adhesive. The fumes overcame
him and he fell face forward into the adhesive, where his face stuck, and
unconscious, he died.
Small spaces, such as cupboards and closets, are not always recognized as
confined spaces. A confined space large enough to stick a person’s head in, is
often enough to constitute a potential hazard.
Entry* • The action by which a person passes through an
opening into a permit-required confined space.
• Is considered to have occurred as soon as any part
of the entrant’s body breaks the plane of an
opening into the space.
Issuing Authority • Responsible for preparing and issuing a Confined

Space Entry Permit application.
Note: For ‘best practice’, the permit should only be
authorized by a person who has personally checked
and verified that all conditions are suitable for entry.
This would be a competent person or someone
authorized for the purpose by a competent person.
Performing Authority • Responsible for accepting the work permit.
• Supervises the work, or undertakes the work
personally.
• May be employees or contractors.
18
Competent Person • Responsible for assessment of risks and

implementation of safe systems of work
for confined space entry.
Entry Supervisor* • Is responsible for determining if acceptable
entry conditions are present.
• Authorizes entry, oversees entry operations
and terminates entry.
Authorized Entrant* • A trained person who is authorized to
enter a permit space.
Attendant/Standby Person* • An individual stationed outside one or more
permit spaces to monitor the authorized
entrants and perform all attendant duties
assigned (see Section 4.5).
Authorized Gas Tester • A qualified individual who undertakes tests
on the confined space atmosphere using
suitable instruments.
* As defined in OSHA’s Occupational Safety and Health Standards for General
Industry.
2.3 Identification of a confined space

Identification of a confined space should be
performed through risk assessment. Some
countries require the employer or owner of an
installation to establish these spaces as ‘non-
permit requiring’ or ‘permit requiring’ confined
spaces, but it is emphasized that this is not a
recommended practice as this à priori
classification does not consider the activities
to be carried out in the confined space.
Therefore a case-by-case risk assessment
for both the confined space and the activities
should be the preferred option where
possible.
Non-Permit Requiring:
• does not contain or (with respect to atmospheric hazards)

have the potential to contain any hazard capable of
causing death or serious physical harm.
Permit Requiring:
• contains or has the potential to contain a hazardous

atmosphere;
• contains a material that has the potential of engulfing an
entrant;
19
• has an internal configuration such that an entrant could be trapped or

asphyxiated by inwardly converging walls or by a floor which slopes
downward and tapers to a smaller cross section;
• contains any other recognized safety or health hazards.
If a space is found to be permit requiring, the entry point must be

clearly labelled to inform employees of the dangers.
A list of all confined spaces and their locations should be:
• distributed to all employees;

• placed in prominent places, such as employee bulletin boards;
• inserted into the written Confined Space Entry Procedures.
Warning sign posted at the entry

to a confined space
Note: Door
has mesh for
ventilation
Vessel skirt manhole is closed by a locked door
Access to confined spaces must be physically barricaded and

locked at all times when a valid permit is not issued. In this case,
use of keys must be controlled.
20
ACCIDENT Total disregard of Confined Space Entry Procedures

results in fatality!!!
A construction supervisor entered an underground fuel storage tank illegally with
the help of a security guard at a retail facility construction site. He lowered a
bucket and shovel into the tank with the intention of removing white sand slurry
that was pumped in as part of a cancelled abandonment plan. He stuffed toilet
paper up his nose and into his ears, and placed the end of a rubber hose, which
was secured near the manhole, into his mouth to be used like a snorkel!
He tied a rope around his waist and lowered himself into the tank. When the
security guard heard him cough and saw that he was trying to escape
the tank, he tried to help by pulling on the rope. Unable to assist further
because the supervisor was too heavy, the guard ran for help. When the fire
department arrived, the supervisor was already dead.
The supervisor had entered the tank, even though the area had been
cordoned off with yellow tape to forbid entry into the area. A perceived tight
construction schedule and poor judgment probably caused him to disregard
the entry permit procedure and proceed with entry. The entry should never
have taken place without purging, ventilating, gas testing, and the correct
breathing apparatus (all of which are required under the Confined Space
Entry Permit).
The supervisor
entered the
underground
tank through this
manhole even
though the area
had been cor-
doned off.
21
2.4 Confined space entry process

Before starting an application for a Confined Space Entry Permit, ask the
following questions:
Can the confined space be modified so that entry is not necessary?

Can the work be done from outside (for example, flushing or water
jetting blockages, using long-handled paint brushes or other tools,
using remote cameras, or other means)?
If ‘yes’ carry out a risk assessment, set up a safe system of work and do the job
without entering the confined space.
If ‘no’ a risk assessment must be carried out by a Competent Person. Key
factors to be considered in the assessment would include:
• previous contents of the confined space;

• remaining residues;
• surface, and other contamination;
• oxygen deficiency/enrichment;
• physical dimensions of, and equipment inside the confined space;
• chemicals to be used for cleaning or other purposes;
• sources of ignition;
• isolation of the confined space and possible ingress of substances;
• the breathing environment inside the confined space.
Examine the advantages and disadvantages of alternative methods

before deciding.
A safe system of work must then be established and approved by a Competent

Person and put into place. This must include consideration of:
• removal of hazards wherever practicable;

• supervision of, and competence for, confined space working by the
individuals concerned;
• communications;
• atmospheric testing;
• purging and ventilation;
• residue removal;
• isolation (process, mechanical, electrical);
22
• suitable equipment;
• PPE and RPE;
• gas supplies, by pipelines, hoses and cylinders;
• entry and exit;
• fire prevention;
• lighting;
• static electricity;
• emergency procedures;
• working time limits;
• anything peculiar to the industry or works concerned, for example,
radioactivity.
Smoking in a confined space must be prohibited and this restriction may extend
beyond the confined space itself.
ACCIDENT Smoking in confined space results in fatality!!!

A 78 m (286 ft) diameter floating roof tank used for crude oil storage had been
taken out of commission for cleaning, inspection and repair. An Entry Permit
and a Hot Work Permit (for diesel engines etc. located in the bund area) had
been issued.
Three employees of a contracted specialized tank cleaning firm were working
inside the tank removing crude oil sludge, wearing air-line breathing
apparatus, when a fire started inside the tank. Two of the contractor’s
employees escaped from the tank immediately. But the third man failed
to exit.
The fire was extinguished by the safety services operator assisted by terminal
staff before the fire brigade arrived some twelve minutes later. The body of
the trapped person was subsequently recovered.
It appeared that the contractor’s employees had started smoking inside the
crude oil tank, which ignited the residue material in the tank. An inquiry
confirmed that the contractor’s employees on site knew that smoking was
only permitted in the designated areas but had broken this rule.
23
2.4.1 Preparing the confined space for entry

If a safe alternative to working within a confined space cannot be found, the
following steps must be taken prior to entry.
a) Initiate the Confined Space Entry Permit and issue instructions
b) Purge, flush, and remove toxic vapour-releasing residues
c) Isolate the confined space and release any stored energies
d) Ventilate
e) Test the atmosphere of the confined space
f) Check that all hazardous energies are controlled or eliminated
g) Complete the Confined Space Entry Permit form
a) Initiate the Confined Space Entry Permit and issue instructions

Begin by planning the measures that must be taken to obtain a safe
environment within the confined space. Use the Permit form as guidance.
A simple risk assessment (typically called

a Job Safety Hazard Analysis, JSA or JHA,
or Task Hazard Analysis, THA) should be
performed to identify all the hazards present
and determine the consequences of not
eliminating or controlling them. A risk assess-
ment can help identify the major hazards,
as well as previously unrecognized hazards,
and aid in planning and documenting the
preparation of a confined space for entry.
Proper planning will not only ensure that the decommissioning and preparation pro-
cess runs smoothly but also that the target safe conditions are achieved efficiently.
b) Purge, flush, and remove toxic vapour-releasing residues
After a proper shutdown has been performed, the space
needs to be purged or flushed to remove residual
material. Purging can be accomplished using:
• steam;
• water;
• inert gas;
• air.
24
Steam is often the most effective means of purging. However, overpressure of

equipment can occur if vents are inadequate or are blocked, or if the equipment
is not designed for high pressure steam. Equipment can also be subjected to
vacuum conditions on cooling after steam out as the steam condenses.
Vessels not designed for vacuum can be damaged or can collapse if subjected
to vacuum.
Refer to BP Process Safety Booklet Hazards of Steam and BP Process Safety Booklet
Hazards of Trapped Pressures and Vacuum for more details.
Plan steam out procedures well to avoid overpressure, vacuum or

dead spaces (that get little or no steam) in a vessel.
Water is often used to clean long lengths of lines where steam cannot be used
effectively because of rapid condensation in the system. It can also be used to
displace vapour space, but care must be taken to ensure that structural strength
is maintained and to avoid potential for corrosion problems. Water left inside
equipment may freeze in cold weather and should be drained after flushing.
25
Watch for gas traps

Water
overflow
Water
overflow
Water in Water in
Some residual oil may remain after lines are flushed with only water. Light oil
flushing may sometimes be employed to remove deposits before water wash.
Inert gas can be used to displace flammable gases from a system. It may not
gas free because of oils left behind in sludge and dead ends, but it can reduce
oxygen levels to below the flammable range. Air can be used to purge tanks
only if no flammable mixtures can be created. Never use air if pyrophoric
materials are likely to be present.
If nitrogen is used to purge, this may influence gas testing and result in
inaccurate readings. Refer to Section 3.2 for details.
ACCIDENT Overlooked hydrocarbon vapours result in explosion!!!

A floating roof tank holding naphtha had been emptied, cleaned, inspected,
gas tested and refilled with water to facilitate repair work on the tank wall. The
results of gas tests were acceptable for both inside and on the roof of the
tank. Gas tests were performed daily on the roof, around the circumference
but the space between and underneath the seals was not tested.
Two months later, an explosion occurred
during hot work repairs causing damage
to the double seal on the tank roof.
Fortunately, three craftsmen working
nearby were unharmed.
The cause of the incident was inadequate
tank cleaning which left hydrocarbon
vapours between the double seal of the
roof. Incomplete gas testing failed to detect
this and fire blankets had not been fixed
properly, leaving part of the seal exposed.
The ignition source originated from the hot
work going on at the time.
Damaged Rim Seal
continued
26
Hot work
above seal
T Sparks
a
n
k Fire blankets (not fixed properly)
w
w Hydrocarbon vapours under /
a in between seals
ll
ll
Pressure relief valve

Double seal area
B A NG
BANG
70 mm strip every 800 mm

Pontoon
Trapped Pontoon
Hydrocarbon
Hydrocarbon Roof
Roof
Spacer
Spacer
Water
c) Isolate the confined space and release any stored energies

Isolation involves both process and electrical isolation. The purpose of isolation
is to ensure that:
• no gaseous, liquid or solid material enters the space;

• prime movers such as motors, turbines and engines cannot be started
accidentally;
• any electrical equipment involved is made safe.
Types of energy sources common in confined spaces include electrical,
mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, chemical, kinetic, and thermal.
Isolation for a confined space is performed by:
• locking out and tagging out;

• blanking;
• disconnecting;
• securing.
A blinds list is a list used to keep an accurate record of the installation
and subsequent removal of mechanical isolation devices. The list should
contain:
• identification of the unit/area;

• equipment;
27
• location;
• line number, size, and rating;
• dates of installation/removal;
• signatures of persons confirming each change in position of the mechanical
isolation device.
An isolation/blinds list can help facilitate the activity and ensure that no step is
omitted.
Locking out and tagging out
Control of stored energy sources is generally

included in the site’s Lock-Out & Tag-Out
(LOTO) procedure, which may require separate
approvals and permits.
Some devices must be locked out and tagged
out to avoid accidental activation when a
confined space is occupied. For example, valves
on lines containing hazardous material need to
be locked out and tagged out so that no material
is accidentally introduced into the confined space.
Electrical sources or switches of mechanical
equipment should also be locked out and tagged
out to prevent accidents.
Tagging out is necessary to inform others of the purpose of lockout and as a
convenient way to check the status of the valve/equipment.
ACCIDENT
A worker cleaning the inside of a vessel was killed when
the (wrong) mixer was inadvertently started. Electrical
isolations must be locked out and tagged out, and each
vessel should have an isolation list.
In preparation for work within a confined space, all pipes or lines connected to
the space must be positively isolated from live systems by blinding/blanking or
disconnection ensuring that all open ends of adjoining pipes are blinded/
blanked or plugged.
The only acceptable means of isolation are blanking/blinding or disconnecting.
Use of simple valve isolation (even including ‘double block and bleed’, which is
closing and locking/tagging a drain or vent valve between two closed valves)
is not an acceptable means of positive isolation for confined space entry.
28
Blanking
• Using spectacle blanks (Figure 8’s) • Using slip blanks (spades)
A slip blank is a solid metal plate inserted in

a line between flanges and can be rated for
full line design pressure or can be a thin
plate (pancake). Wherever possible, full
line pressure slip blanks should be used.
Disconnecting
BLANK
PRESSURE FLANGE UNIT BEING BLANKED FOR
SIDE E CONFINED SPACE ENTRY
Blanking by removing a spool and installing a blank flange
If entry must be made and disconnection or blanking/blinding is physically

impossible, the site procedure shall require all the following actions:
• isolating the confined space as rigorously as possible;

• assessing risks present;
• approval in writing by a senior level of management appropriate to the risks
being assumed.
Securing
Secure mechanical moving parts within confined spaces such as mixers and
fans using latches, chains, chocks, blocks, or other devices.
29
ACCIDENT Hot work on non-isolated overhead line results

in two fatalities!!!
Two operators and one scaffolder were working in a crude oil distillation
column when smoke started entering the confined space from the overhead
line. The scaffolder in the tower dome quickly exited the column but the two
operators working below did not escape. Both died in the fire.
The column had been shutdown and was undergoing major overhaul. The
associated pipework had been flushed, emptied, steamed, water washed and
isolated following normal procedures. However, the overhead line was not
completely drained of hydrocarbon and had not been isolated. This was not
detected through gas tests. The hydrocarbon was ignited by hot work that
was being performed on the overhead line.
There was inadequate understanding and communication that allowed hot
work to be performed on associated pipework while a confined space entry
was in progress.
Perform isolation as close as possible to towers and vessels being

prepared for confined space entry. Where this is not possible,
prohibit entry into the space while hot work is taking place on
connected lines or vessels.
‘Gas free’ does not mean ‘flammable free’. Deposits or residue

material can give out toxic or flammable vapours under certain
conditions (e.g. heating). Testing and inspection must encompass
checks for these materials.
Some liquids like gas oil and fuel oil will not be detected by gas testing at ambient
temperature because of their high flash points. Authorizing any hot work on the
value of only a gas test can therefore lead to an incident. Refer to BP Process
Safety Booklet Hazards of Air and Oxygen for more details on flash points.
30
ACCIDENT Supervisor detects incomplete isolation from hissing

sounds!!!
The bottom half a vessel had been taken out of service for inspection. It was
emptied, nitrogen purged and air vented. All inlet and outlet lines were
blinded. The gas test showed no flammable or toxic materials present and an
oxygen concentration of 20.5%. The superintendent, assured by personnel
from the previous shift that the vessel was safe for entry, authorized the
permit without having inspected it.
The superintendent left the control room and, on the way back to his office,
stopped to have a look at the vessel. When he stood outside the bottom manhole,
he heard a slight hissing noise. The differential pressure (DP) instrument lines
had not been thoroughly closed or spaded/blinded, which permitted
hydrocarbons to be released into the vessel. He then cancelled the entry permit.
The DP lines had been missed as they were run with other lines inside cold
insulation. The procedure for vessel entry was inadequate. It did not confirm
that all lines into and out of the vessel had been identified and were positively
isolated with full face blinds/blanks before the permit was issued. The DP
lines were spaded/blinded, and the vessel was repurged and air aspirated
before a new permit was made out.
Differential pressure (DP)

instrument lines had not
been throughly closed or
spaded/blinded allowing
hydrocarbon to enter the
vessel.
Watch out for unidentified residual or stored energy sources within a

confined space after the isolation process.
Never authorize a Confined Space Entry Permit without being

absolutely certain that the area is safe for entry.
There is no substitute for walking around the isolated equipment to

check each connection and verify positive isolation.
31
ACCIDENT Two workers killed when inner baffle of a vessel

failed!!!
A vertical vessel, divided into two sulphur converters by an inner baffle, had
been taken out of service and the catalyst removed. The top converter was
sealed off and nitrogen at 60 psig (4.10 barg) was introduced because of high
H2S levels. The lower converter was being cleaned by a two-man entry crew
with four men assisting from the outside when the inner baffle failed under the
differential pressure built up between the two converters. One entrant was
fatally injured and another worker was killed when he was blown off the
working platform onto the ground. The other four men sustained injuries.
Nitrogen Top converter

under
pressure
Inner baffle
Lower converter
Ensure that the selected means of isolation has been designed to

withstand subjected pressures.
32
d) Ventilate
Ventilation is required to obtain an atmosphere
that is as safe as possible for entry. There are
two forms of ventilation—natural and forced
(which includes general and local exhaust).
The adequacy of natural ventilation depends
upon:
• number of manholes and their locations;

• size of confined space;
• number of internal obstructions;
• wind and thermal currents.
When natural ventilation is inadequate, forced ventilation is needed. General

ventilation is appropriate for the majority of confined space entries especially
when residual sludge is present. It involves the use of large volume air movers.
General ventilation is maintained for the entire duration of entry. It is best used
when there is a wide dispersion of low- or medium-toxicity contaminants. Exhaust
ventilation draws contaminated air out of the confined space while supply
ventilation blows fresh air in. Never use pure oxygen to replace fresh air! (Refer
to BP Process Safety Booklet Hazards of Air and Oxygen for more details.)
Precautions to take when ventilating:
• ground/earth electrical equipment;

• electrically bond the ventilation equipment to the confined space;
• use explosion-proof equipment if the atmosphere is flammable;
• do not place air intake near flammable or toxic materials;
• locate exhaust outlet so that contaminants are not returned to the confined
space;
• ensure that toxic or hazardous substances are not vented directly to the
atmosphere or close to areas that are accessible to workers—provide for
appropriate disposal of exhaust gases;
• check that no ignition sources are present for an exhaust of flammable gases.
Ineffective ventilation—contaminated Ineffective ventilation—no circulation in

exhaust circulates back into the space the lower part of the vessel
33
For large tanks, use equipment with sufficient power to ventilate the
entire space or use a series of fans as shown above
The placements of supply and exhaust points are important to obtain effective
ventilation. For contaminants lighter than air, place the exhaust through an
opening at the top of the confined space, while for contaminants heavier than
air, purge is performed at the base of the confined space. Refer to Material
Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs) for the relative densities of gases handled at
your site.
Ventilation arrangement for gases Ventilation arrangement for gases

lighter than air heavier than air
Local exhaust ventilation uses a long, adjustable section of flexible duct

connected to a powered air mover. The suction duct is placed close to the
immediate work area and is moved as the work area changes. Local exhaust
ventilation should be used for tasks such as welding, cutting, pneumatic
removal of refractory, application of coating and cleaning with solvents.
It effectively captures contaminants at their points of origin and removes
them.
Confined spaces containing flammable or toxic atmospheres should be purged
with non-flammable gases before being ventilated with clean air.
Think outside the box! When carrying out difficult work (such as hot
work or using solvents, etc.) in very confined spaces such as
pontoons of floating roof tanks, think first of other options to avoid
working from the inside, and do not hesitate to cut out temporary
ventilation manholes in the upper plates.
34
ACCIDENT H2S vented from a vacuum truck into work area gases
twelve!!!
An amine knock-out drum had been drained to an atmospheric sump through
an open sewer. A vacuum truck was called to the sump area to begin
pumping out operations. (All amine sumps at the site are either partially or
entirely drained of their contents using vacuum trucks.)
Since it was generally accepted by the employees that pumping out operations
of this manner produces H2S-like odours (the amine contains hydrogen
sulphide gas), no further thought was given to the presence of the strong smell.
Unwittingly, a number of contractors walked through the vapour coming from
the vacuum truck’s vent and, as a result, twelve contractors were diagnosed
to have been exposed to an amine cloud containing H2S. Two of them were
disoriented while eleven suffered from vomiting. Fortunately, all returned to
work following a medical evaluation and there were no lost time injuries.
When venting toxic, inert, or flammable gases, make sure the venting
area is far away from the work area, roads, etc. and cordon it off.
e) Test the atmosphere of the confined space

Gas testing is the determining step in the entire preparation process. If the oxygen,
flammable, and/or toxic contents meet the acceptable criteria, the Confined Space
Entry Permit application process can continue. Otherwise, more efforts must be
made to adequately ventilate the space to achieve the desired levels. If the situation
warrants it, the entire process of purging, isolating and ventilating must be repeated
until satisfactory gas test results are consistently obtained.
If the confined space fails the gas test, take time to examine
the situation and perform proper planning before repeating
preparation steps.
See Chapter 3 for details on gas testing requirements and methods, and refer to the
IP Guidance on the declassification of tanks previously in leaded gasoline service.
f) Check that all hazardous energies are controlled or eliminated
Entry into a confined space is prohibited until both Permit Issuing and
Performing Authorities perform the appropriate visual evaluation and
atmospheric monitoring of the space. This includes at least one site survey to
identify and inspect the worksite or equipment.
It is vital that the work area be given a thorough examination to identify any
remaining hazards, inside and outside the confined space, and to see that any
threats they pose are controlled or eliminated.
35
Examples to be aware of are:

• radioactive sources shielded or removed;
• power isolated to fans, mixers;
• hydraulic drives isolated;
• loose or poorly supported materials/equipment overhead;
• residual flammable material;
• sharp objects;
• damaged refractory/insulation;
• asbestos or synthetic mineral fibre.
ACCIDENT Uncontrolled radioactive source discovered only

after seven days!!!
A radiation type level detector on a vacuum tower had not
been isolated prior to entry. This was only discovered
seven days after the initial entry, with as many as 36
people exposed to varying levels of radiation from the
Caesium-137 source. However, the potential ‘worst-case’
exposure was determined to be well below the safe level.
Investigations indicated that the Isolation Device Listing
(IDL) had been signed authorizing work to proceed when
there had been no verification that the radiation source had
been isolated. General radiation awareness was also
found to be lacking.
ACCIDENT Dropped burner tile injures worker!!!

Workers were erecting a 33 ft (10 m) scaffold inside a reformer furnace to
repair refractory. A burner tile (weighing roughly 60 pounds (27 kg)) fell
against a worker’s leg as he was bending down to receive scaffold
components passed up to him. He tried to hold onto the burner tile, warning
his co-workers to move away. Unfortunately, the tile fell from his grasp and hit
an employee working below him, injuring his hand.
Location of burner tile on Burner tile on reformer floor 18 ft

reformer wall (5.5 m) below
36
g) Complete the Confined Space Entry Permit form

When the Confined Space Entry Permit form is completed, submitted and
approved by the relevant authority, the entry responsibility is ready to be
handed over to the Performing Authority at the site of the confined space
entry activity.
The original copy is issued to the Performing Authority and must be posted at
the worksite until the work is completed. A second copy is kept with the Issuing
Authority. Some sites may have additional copies given, for example, to the
HSE Department.
2.4.2 Performing the activity safely
a) Prepare for safe work prior to entry
b) Inform personnel of the confined space entry requirements
c) Entry to perform activity
d) All personnel leave the confined space
e) Final inspection and all clear given to return to service
a) Prepare for safe work prior to entry

Several items should be examined/checked when preparing to work in a
confined space. They are:
• low voltage, intrinsically safe lamps/lights;

• electrical tools, complete with earth/ground leakage or residual current
protection;
• integrity of oxy-acetylene hoses and electrical cables;
• communications equipment;
• ingress and egress equipment (for example, ladders);
• signs and barriers;
• rescue services.
37
Lighting
Confined spaces often do not receive sufficient natural
lighting. A safe light source has to be provided to enter
and work in a dark confined space. Regular lighting may
be unsafe to use, especially if the space contains
flammable materials. A spark from an unsafe light
source can cause a fire or explosion, leading to injury or
deaths.
Explosion-proof lanterns or flashlights that have

spring-loaded bulbs, which eject from the
electrical circuit upon breaking, should be used to
light up the confined space. Another option is to
use lightsticks. They are safe to use near
explosive materials because they contain no
ignition source. Another commonly used form of
lighting is the droplight. Approved droplights are
vapour-proof, explosion-proof and equipped with
ground fault circuit interrupters (GFCIs). Any other
electrical equipment must be intrinsically safe. Lightsticks
ACCIDENT Use of non-certified lamp!!!

A fire and explosion during tank cleaning operations killed three men at an oil
storage installation. The tank was being cleaned by spraying with paraffin-
based solvent. It is likely that the floodlight suspended from the tank roof had
been splashed with paraffin which had heated up and ignited. The lamp had
not been flameproof or certified for use in the confined space.
Check that the lighting provided is

certified for use in the location and is
in good condition before starting work.
Explosion-proof droplight
Electrical tools
In certain confined spaces where the hazard of electrical shocks is present
(such as inside metal tanks), suitable precautions need to be taken. These
include using extra low voltage equipment (typically less than 25V) and, where
necessary, residual current devices.
38
Communications equipment
Communications equipment is often given low
priority when preparing for a confined space entry
but is usually the first thing we turn to instinctively
when something goes wrong. Communication
procedures should be appropriate for the workplace
and level of risk. It can be achieved by voice, radio,
hand signals, or other appropriate means depending
on the conditions. A continuous voice commu-
nications system is the preferred means.
Ideal requirements for a confined space entry communications system

• reliable, especially in metallic environments;
• capable of two-way continuous speech communication;
• compact, rugged and environmentally protected from water ingress;
• simple, easily operated, and requiring minimum training;
• operation possible with PPE (hard hats,
gloves, breathing apparatus);
• able to operate in a high noise environment;
• roving capability to permit local mobility;
• sufficient battery life for the task;
• rapid repair and easily maintained.
A battery charging and changing regime should be in place to ensure that the
user is aware of the status of the equipment and that the procedure is
performed as recommended by manufacturers.
Ingress and egress equipment

For confined spaces that require vertical access,
ladders are usually installed to facilitate entry. Most
installed ladders are made of metal and may have been
shrouded in moist, chemical-laden atmospheres prior
to purging and ventilating. These conditions promote
corrosion and the ladder may fail during entry or exit.
Installed ladders must be inspected on a

periodic basis to ensure that they are safe
for use. It is important to also check the
devices holding the ladder, such as
attachment bolts and screws. Corroded ladder rungs
39
ACCIDENT Fatal fall while ascending ladder!!!

Two workers were working on a scaffold inside a tower. The scaffold was
accessed by entering a manway and descending a 40 ft (12 m) ladder while
wearing a self-retracting lanyard. One worker completed his work and began
to climb the cable ladder. The hole watch reported seeing him near the top of
the ladder when they heard him scream. They found him on the scaffold
below. The fallen worker was not connected to the self-retracting lanyard (fall
protection) when he slipped.
Adequate fall protection should always be provided and used for ladders
more than 2 m (7 ft) high.
The cable ladder from which the worker fell
When ladders or stairways are not available for safe entry and exit, winches
and hoisting devices are commonly used to raise and lower entrants. Only
hand-operated lifting devices should be employed. Do not use motorized
devices as they continue to pull an entrant out, even when the entrant gets
caught up in an obstruction, resulting in severe injuries or a fatality.
Ensure that winching and hoisting devices used for entry into a
confined space never leaves the entry/exit point when the confined
space is occupied to provide a ready means of retrieval.
Signs and barriers

Place barriers and shields (manhole guard rail assemblies, guard rail tents,
barrier tape, fences, manhole shields, etc.) around the entry point to prevent
people from falling into a manhole or entering it illegally. Set up warning signs
in prominent locations to warn people from approaching and remind personnel
that only authorized persons are allowed into the area.
40
ACCIDENT Worker asphyxiated after entering nitrogen purged

railcar!!!
A railcar with a defective vent valve cover plate had been sent for repair. It had
been purged with nitrogen prior to its arrival at the repair yard. This was not
mentioned to repair yard personnel. No signs were placed on the railcar to warn
that it contained a mixture of nitrogen and decene. A repair worker assigned to
perform repairs on the railcar entered the tank compartment not suspecting that
it was under nitrogen and was found unconscious. He died from asphyxiation.
No signs had been placed to warn

that the railcar contained asphyxiat-
ing gases
Rescue services
Check that means of rescue and rescue services are present and on standby.
It is essential that adequate help is available at all times to allow a quick and
effective rescue to be carried out. (Refer to Chapter 4 for details on rescues)
b) Inform personnel of the confined space entry requirements
All entrants and standby attendants must be thoroughly briefed on the full
requirements for the confined space entry. The hazards present must be clearly
stated and understood. Entrants must also be careful not to introduce
additional hazards into the area, for example using sparking tools when
flammable vapours are present.
41
Entrants must know the hazards and mitigation measures, and must be able to
recognize changing conditions that invalidate the Confined Space Entry Permit.
The permit must be available at all times at the work location.
Wearing suitable and properly maintained Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is
absolutely vital when hazardous conditions warrant it. See Section 3.8 for details.
Do not enter a confined space unless every precaution specified in

the entry permit is fulfilled.
Smoking is strictly prohibited in a confined space!

c) Entry to perform activity
Double check against the work order and entry

permit that the correct equipment is to be entered.
ACCIDENT Entry into wrong air cooler!!!

A contractor entered the cage of the wrong air cooler,
through a trap door locked with a padlock and key. The
padlock was in a bad condition so he cut it off. Luckily
the fan was not started while he was inside, as it had
not been electrically isolated.
Some additional equipment, apart from work tools, that may be

necessary for entry include:
• fire extinguisher;
• additional radios for communication;
• spare oxygen bottles (for SCBAs and cascade system);
• first aid kit.
Where a change in the atmosphere inside a confined space may be

expected (for example, oxygen deficiency/excess, build up of
flammable or toxic gases due to disturbance of sludge), continuous
monitoring of the atmosphere must be carried out.
This is done by repeating gas tests at frequent intervals or by the use of

personal gas monitors with visual/audible alarms. Entrants must leave the
confined space immediately when the monitor alarm is activated.
A standby attendant must always be present outside the confined space.
Among the duties of a standby attendant is to continuously monitor changes in
the atmosphere within a confined space and see that entrants leave the space
when a hazardous situation exists. (Refer to Section 4.5 for a full description of
the duties of a standby attendant.)
42
Effective communication should be maintained continuously between the

standby attendant and entrants so that:
• the entrants can alert the standby attendant whenever any warning signs or
symptom of exposure to a dangerous situation is recognized;
• the entrants can call for help in an emergency and the standby attendant, in
turn, summons rescue services;
• the standby attendant can order evacuation when conditions change to
endanger the people inside.
The Confined Space Entry Permit is withdrawn once

conditions deviate from the safe levels recorded on the permit.
Exit the space immediately and do not reenter until the permit
has been reissued.
Emergency situations must be handled according to the rescue plan stated on

the entry permit. Never enter a confined space unless properly equipped and
authorized to do so. Many rescuers have been killed trying to rescue original
victims (see Chapter 4).
Provide continuous ventilation if natural ventilation is inadequate to keep
atmospheric levels safe. Hot and humid environments can exist in poorly
ventilated confined spaces. Direct heat from the sun can aggravate the
situation. Heat stress can severely affect productivity and safety. To prevent
heat stress:
• provide adequate cooling air through effective ventilation;

• use work/rest arrangements—15 minutes rest in a cool place outside a
confined space for every hour of work;
• provide ample drinking water in rest area;
• in severe conditions, use air supplied respiratory suits with vortex and air
distribution system.
Work activities can often generate unsafe conditions or change the

environment within the confined space. Examples of these are such
things as:
• static electricity generated by cleaning system water jets;

• liberation of toxic/flammable vapours when disturbing/removing residues in
vessels/tanks;
• solvent sprays while painting;
• removal of insulation and asbestos;
• welding or oxy-cutting.
43
ACCIDENT Worker and rescuer overcome by solvent vapours!!!

A worker was cleaning the inside of a storage tank
unsupervised. He was instructed to use a steam
cleaner but used solvent because he thought it
would be quicker. He knocked over a container of
solvent and was overcome by vapours. A second
person, who entered the tank without breathing
apparatus, was also overcome.
Avoid deviating from work instructions as new actions would not

have been properly risk assessed.
ACCIDENT Adverse symptoms during boiler cleaning!!!

Workers began reporting of eye irritation and skin lesions during chemical
cleaning of a boiler. They also complained of a strong smell coming out of the
equipment. Ammonia was suspected so measurements were taken but each
time these showed nil or very low concentrations.
Interviews and examinations were held with those affected and chemical
analyses were performed. Investigations concluded that a chemical reaction
between deposits and the acidizing solution used as part of the chemical
cleaning process produced an atmosphere containing fluoride compounds.
The fluoride compounds coupled with hot and humid work conditions were
responsible for the symptoms suffered by the workers.
ACCIDENT Use of cleaning agent in a poorly ventilated space!!!

Three men inside a reactor vessel experienced breathing difficulties. They
had inhaled vapour containing 1.1.1-trichloroethane as a result of using a
cleaning agent containing solvents in a poorly ventilated space. The air
mover/ejector at the top of the reactor had been removed to facilitate access
into the reactor.
Adequate air supply and ventilation should always be ensured when

toxic vapours are expected. If ventilation is insufficient, self-
contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) must be used.
44
ACCIDENT Refractory releases hydrogen in a confined space!!!

Refractory was being replaced in a regenerator offgas pressure reduction
chamber during a maintenance turnaround at a refinery. As the old refractory
material (INSLAG) was no longer in production, a new substitute (INSULAG
‘AF’) was used. An explosion occurred when some hot work was carried out
on the equipment. Fortunately no one was injured.
Initially, a leak in a gas line was suspected to have caused the incident.
However, it was later found that the new refractory released hydrogen when
mixed with water. There was no indication on the MSDS that any flammable
gases would be given off during mixing, and that there was need for good
ventilation.
Other materials that can produce hazardous atmospheres:
• expanded foamed plastic materials releases propane, usually during their

bulk storage rather than at the end use (for example, for insulation);
• liquids such as dye penetrants for inspecting welds.
ACCIDENT Solvent for weld test leaves two unconscious!!!

An inspector and a worker entered a reactor to check the welds by stain
detection tests. The test consisted of applying a red dye and cleaning off
excess dye using a solvent. The solvent used was trichloroethylene applied in
liquid form.
At the time of the incident, the inspector sent the standby person to obtain
more solvent, leaving them unattended in the reactor. When the standby
person returned some 10 minutes later, both the inspector and worker had
collapsed from breathing trichloroethylene vapours. They were resuscitated
by rescue services and were sent to hospital for observation.
As a result of this incident, the use of trichloroethylene was replaced with
water in confined spaces.
ACCIDENT Hazards of fire under tarpaulins!!!

A fire broke out at an under-construction sphere while eight men were
working on it. One worker was fatally injured while another three were injured
seriously. Preliminary findings indicated that the fire probably started near the
base of the sphere, under the weather protection sheeting (tarpaulin). The
presence of polyurethane cold insulation and other combustible materials
caused a rapid escalation of the fire to the top of the sphere.
45
ACCIDENT Entrant and standby attendant gassed by engine

fumes!!!
A worker entered a tank on a ship to remove residual water from the tank. A
diesel driven internal combustion water pump was placed in the tank for that
purpose. The worker was later discovered unconscious. The standby
attendant entered the tank to rescue the fallen worker but was overcome
himself. Both workers died later in hospital. An autopsy indicated that the
cause of death was carbon monoxide poisoning.
The diesel engine used would have consumed the limited oxygen available in
the confined space, and emitted carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, both
hazardous in large amounts. Carbon monoxide in the exhaust from
gasoline/diesel-fuelled engines is so dangerous that use of such equipment
in confined spaces should never be allowed.
Locate machinery and equipment that present

ignition sources or give off toxic fumes
(for example, pumps, engines) outside the
confined space.
Welding operations change the environment within a confined space when

toxic fumes are given off. Local exhaust needs to be provided to avoid buildup
of toxic materials. However, there will still be some exposure of the welder to
the fumes.
Take extra care when dealing with riveted tanks. Some riveted tanks have lead
seals between two riveted plates. When the rivets leak, it is always tempting to
weld them. Welding will melt the lead and intoxicate the welder.
d) All personnel leave the confined space
Upon completion of work within the confined space, the area should be cleared
of all tools and debris. The Performing Authority needs to sign off the entry
permit before handing over the space in safe condition to the Permit Issuing
Authority/Operating Authority.
e) Final inspection and all clear given to return to service
A final inspection must be undertaken by the Permit Issuing/Operating Authority
to ensure that the completed work is adequate and matches the work order.
Also, the space should be checked to make sure that no tools, objects or debris
that may affect operations are left behind.
When everything is in order, the permit can be withdrawn, and the equipment
returned to service. The original copy of the permit should be filed away while
copies should be destroyed to avoid confusion or abuse.
46
2.4.3 Permit Issuing Authority and Work Performing Authority

responsibilities
No work may be carried out within restricted areas by engineering,
maintenance and inspection, and other services, without written permission
from the Permit Issuing Authority/Operating Authority.
The Permit Issuing Authority is responsible for:
• determining and raising the type of work permit required;

• preparing the area for safe entry by proper planning and identification of
risk;
• arranging for the isolation of equipment;
• arranging gas testing;
• interpreting gas test results and making the decision to proceed;
• authorizing and issuing the Confined Space Entry Permit;
• ensuring that a properly trained standby attendant is present during entry;
• monitoring the conditions within the confined space for changes;
• ensuring that a rescue plan is in place and emergency personnel are
informed.
The Work Performing Authority is responsible for:
• identifying the hazards associated with performing work in the confined

space;
• selecting suitable entrants to perform work within a confined space;
• ensuring that personnel are aware of the hazards that are present;
• checking that only safe tools are used in the confined space (such as non-
sparking);
• ensuring the safety of personnel working in a confined space by taking all
prescribed and necessary precautions;
• performing the work;
• clearing the workplace after completion of work.
47
The permit, by itself, does not make entry

safe. Workplace safety depends on people
factors!
Effective communication and cooperation

between Permit Issuing and Work Performing
Authorities are essential for a successful
Confined Space Entry Permit programme.
2.5 Training and competence

The purpose of training is to equip individuals (authorized entrant, standby
attendant, and entry supervisor) with an understanding, knowledge and skills
necessary for work associated with confined spaces.
Training usually consists of written and practical examinations. The employer
has to certify in writing that the employee has been trained. Certificates should
be kept with the employee’s personal and training records.
The following should be covered during training:
• statutory requirements on confined space entry;

• responsibilities of various parties;
• key definitions;
• exact location of the worksite’s permit-required confined spaces;
• how to use the confined space permit;
• potential for engulfment;
• potential for hazardous atmospheres;
48
• explanation and demonstration on how to use air monitoring equipment;

• explanation and demonstration on how to use required confined space entry
equipment (PPE, respiratory protection, etc.);
• procedures for confined space rescue;
• explanation on the interface between confined space entry and
lockout/tagout, respiratory protection and other work permits;
• how to properly use a pre-entry checklist.
Persons working in confined spaces wearing

breathing apparatus should be fully trained in the
use of that equipment and given appropriate
refresher training/certification. These persons
may also be required to undergo medical sur-
veillance, as required by local authorities/medical
programmes.
Refresher training must be provided and conducted whenever:
• an employee’s duties change;

• hazards in the confined space change;
• the entry procedure changes;
• an evaluation of the confined space entry program identifies inadequacies in
the employee’s knowledge.
Some local regulators may require refresher training based on a calendar
frequency (such as once every two years).
Important considerations when selecting entrants include:
• fitness and health;

• reaction to being in a confined space (claustrophobia);
• reaction to wearing breathing apparatus;
• ability to perform job in limiting conditions.
Overweight or excessively large persons may experience difficulty in entry,
which may also cause problems during rescues.
Authorized entrants, standby attendants, gas testers, and entry

supervisors must be adequately trained before assuming assigned
responsibilities.
49
2.6 Common mistakes and pitfalls

• Failure to identify confined spaces.
• Failure to isolate vessels.
• Failure to isolate internal appliances, such as mixers.
• Failure to personally check that isolation is complete.
• Exposure to explosive, toxic or asphyxiating atmosphere.
• Exposure to hazardous materials.
• Inability to exit quickly in an emergency.
• Risk from activities outside the vessel.
ACCIDENT Near miss by one day!

On the Wednesday afternoon, a confined space permit was prepared for
entry in the DEA scrubber tower. Some residual sour water drained from the
vessel.
The Safety Representative reviewed the vessel isolation and performed a
check of the vessel atmosphere. He did not see a 2” (5 cm) line coming from
the vessel due to visual obstruction from scaffolding and a line being steamed
and the air check of the vessel did not find any anomaly.
A permit was issued to a contractor to remove internal manways. The task
was completed without incident.
On Thursday morning, a sour odour was noticed coming from the vessel.
Sour water was seen coming from the bottom drain. 200 ppm H2S (Hydrogen
Sulphide) was identified at the manways.
The 2” line, the refinery slops system, was identified as the source of the
odours. Other vessels containing liquid and gas hydrocarbons on the unit
were drained and back flowed up the 2” line into the DEA scrubber. The blind
list did not include the 2” line.
Lessons learned
• Blind lists must include all isolation points.
• All lines must be positively checked before issuing entry permit.
50
3
Gas testing and PPE
requirements
3.1 Gas testing

Atmospheric testing must be conducted by an authorized Gas Tester to:
• evaluate the hazards of the permit space, and

• verify that the confined space is safe for entry.
NEVER trust your senses to determine if the air in a confined

space is safe!
You CANNOT see or smell many toxic or combustible gases and

vapours, nor can you determine the level of oxygen present.
3.2 Order of gas testing
51
A test for oxygen is performed first because most combustible gas meters
rely on the presence of oxygen to function and will not provide reliable
readings in an oxygen deficient atmosphere. Combustible gases are tested
for next because the threat of fire or explosion is both more immediate
and more life threatening, in most cases, than exposure to toxic gases and
vapours. If tests for toxic gases and vapours are necessary, they are
performed last.
Perform gas testing in this order:

(1) oxygen, (2) flammables, and (3) toxics.
3.3 Gas testing for oxygen
Plastic membrane Basic electrolyte

(e.g. a solution of
potassium hydroxide)
O2 Gold Lead
cathode anode
Thermistor
V
Voltmeter
Oxygen Analyzer
Working principle
The most common oxygen sensor works on an electrochemical principle. The
oxygen diffuses through a plastic membrane into the interior of the
electrochemical cell, where it produces a low electric current between the gold
cathode and the lead anode. This signal is amplified and transmitted to the
indicating instrument and to the alarm unit.
52
No gas present Gas present
No output signal Output signal

proportional to gas
Electrochemical Cell
The electrolyte solution requires a specific gas (such as oxygen) to
generate an output signal. Other gases have no effect. When the gas
enters the cell, it produces a signal that is proportional to the amount of gas
present.
Your oxygen analyzer should indicate 20.8%—the normal oxygen content in

atmosphere. If the value is below 20.8%, it indicates that the air contains inert
gases, flammables or toxic contaminants. How much inert/flammable/toxic
gases are there? The following formula can calculate the percentages of
contaminants in air:
20.8 X%
⫽
100 100 – Y%
Where
X ⫽ % vol of oxygen (as measured by your oxygen analyzer)
Y ⫽ % of contaminant gas
For instance, if x ⫽ 19.0%, then y ⫽ 8.7%.
Note: A reduction of 1.8% of oxygen in air means the presence of 8.7% of a
contaminant gas or vapour.
Normal 20.8%
Air 79.2% nitrogen oxygen 100%
Air with 19.0%

contaminant Y 72.3% nitrogen oxygen
Y 100%
With contaminants in air, the normal percentages of oxygen and nitrogen are reduced to
smaller values. Knowing the new and smaller value of O2% from the oxygen analyzer,
the percentage of the contaminant in air can be calculated.
What is the contaminant?

It can be an inert, flammable or toxic material. Conduct other tests to determine
what the contaminant is.
53
Oxygen-enriched atmosphere
If the measured oxygen level is above 20.8%, it is most likely that a nearby
oxygen cylinder or source is leaking. This condition is equally dangerous as an
oxygen-enriched atmosphere (⬎23.5%) will cause flammable materials such
as clothing, hair and oils to ignite more easily and burn violently. Remember to:
• identify and eliminate any leaking oxygen source;

• never use pure oxygen for ventilation;
• never store or place compressed tanks or cylinders in a confined space.
Refer to BP Process Safety Booklet Hazards of Air and Oxygen for more
details.
Oxygen analyzer limitations

• The lead anode is used up over time and the sensor must be replaced every
one to two years.
• Oxygen analyzers may be affected by prolonged exposure to acid gases
such as carbon dioxide, and are not recommended for continuous use in
atmospheres which contain ⬎25% CO2.
• The electrolyte will freeze below –20oC (5oF).
Whenever an oxygen level of less than 20.0% is detected it must be

investigated further. (Either the analyzer is reading wrongly or there
is some contamination of the air.)
Performing gas tests
54
3.4 Gas testing for flammable vapours

Most portable LEL detectors are catalytic-type detectors as described below.
Must have air/oxygen in sample!
Controlled combustion takes place here:

Oxygen ⫹ flammable gases ⫽⬎ CO2 ⫹ H2O ⫹ Heat
Typical catalytic explosimeter
Working principle
The Wheatstone bridge is balanced under zero explosive conditions at ambient
temperature. Air is flushed several times through the instrument which is then
adjusted to zero using a single rheostat which adjusts the circuit balance and
detector current simultaneously. This is done every time before a test is
performed.
The sample is drawn into the cell by pumping the aspirator bulb (flame
arrestors must be in place to prevent flame propagation). Heat is developed as
the flammable mixture in the sample burns on a heated catalytic platinum
filament forming part of the bridge. The filament temperature is raised; hence
the resistance is raised in proportion to the heat of combustion in the sample,
which is directly dependent upon the concentration of combustibles. A bridge
imbalance occurs, the meter is deflected on a scale calibrated directly as %
Lower Explosive Limit (LEL).
55
Pumping is continued until a maximum reading is obtained. After each

determination the apparatus must be flushed out with air by at least five pumps.
Precautions/limitations
• Appropriate concentrations of oxygen (~20.8%) must be present in the
sample to ensure combustion in the typical explosimeter. Hence, never use
an explosimeter in an inert atmosphere unless the instrument incorporates
an additional valve and arrangement to introduce air, such as special ‘Gas-
scope/Tank-scope’ instrument. Always undertake an oxygen reading first.
• Remember this instrument measures the % LEL. It does not measure the
true concentrations of the flammables. It does not measure the concen-
tration beyond LEL. For vapour above the LEL, the instrument will flick over
and then return to zero, giving a false sense of safety. However, your
oxygen results from earlier measurements should give you an indication of
how much flammable material there is.
0% vol 5% vol 15% vol 100% vol

LEL UEL
flammable range
20% LEL
0% LEL 100% LEL
The measurement range for most flammable gas detectors is only a fraction of the LFL.
For instance, the flammable range of methane is between 5% (LEL) and 15% (UEL)
by volume, but only the first 5% is monitored by most detectors.
• The instrument may become poisoned or inhibited by certain substances,

thus affecting its accuracy. Some of the potential problems are shown
below:
• halogenated compounds such as BCF fire extinguishers can cause
poisoning of the filament;
• the presence of anti-knock agents such as tetraethyl lead (TEL) and
tetramethyl lead (TML) can cause permanent loss of sensitivity;
• volatile compounds of sulphur, lead or mercury do irreversible damage to
the catalytic platinum filament;
• copper parts are not recommended for acetylene;
• silicones can coat the filament and cause insensitivity.
• Use only extension tubes recommended by the manufacturers. Other
plastics and natural rubber may absorb hydrocarbons from the gas sample.
• Calibration. If the explosimeter is calibrated on pentane, the reading may be
70–80% too high in the case of H2 or CO, and 50% too low in the case of
xylene.
56
• Temperature variation. Ethyl alcohol easily evaporates at atmospheric con-

ditions, resulting in a cooling effect that causes concentration equivalent of
LEL to give only 66% LEL on a conventional explosimeter.
• High flash point materials such as lubricating oil, diesel oil or fuel oil is often
heated during maintenance/repair work, giving rise to a flammable
atmosphere. This will be undetected if the gas test is only done before the
work starts, not continuously. If gas testing is carried out during the work, the
explosimeter may not be able to detect heated vapours of high flash point
materials because condensation will occur in the sampling tube. It is
uncommon to obtain an ‘explosive’ reading of a vapour with a flashpoint
above ambient temperature. Cutting up oil drums with 1/10th pint oil left in
them will form an explosive mixture as the oil is vapourized. Testing devices
are not always entirely reliable. Visual inspection is essential.
• Leakage of air into the instrument through loose connections will cause a
dilution effect and give lower readings.
If you have purged a flammable atmosphere with nitrogen, do not

use a catalytic explosimeter to check for the presence of flammable
gas as it needs oxygen to operate. Use IR detectors for such tests.
3.5 Gas testing for toxic vapours
Draeger tubes
57
Working principle
The equipment consists essentially of a hand-held bellow pump and a
detector tube appropriate to the toxic compound to be measured. It is a
convenient sampling system and makes use of specific chemical colorimetric
reactions.
Method:
• break fused tips of tube;

• insert tube in pump—arrow points towards the pump;
• draw in air with bellow pump—one stroke samples 100 ml of air;
• note number of strokes;
• there are two ways to assess results; an instruction sheet with each tube
gives the method to be used.
1. Do ‘N’ strokes to get a stain. Check its length against prior calibration.
2. Do ‘X’ strokes to get a standard length of stain. ‘X’ is then related to
concentration.
Advantages
Its main advantages are its convenience, speed of response and speed in
terms of obtaining a quantitative answer.
Limitations
• Accuracy is in the range of ⫹/⫺ 20%. Hence it is best to use a ‘Go/No-Go’

test. Negative results will usually be recorded as less than the detection
limit where entry is permitted. Positive results indicate that entry is not
permitted.
• Store in cold. Each tube has specific instructions including storage life,
which is usually two years, although stock turnover of not more than six
months is preferable.
Other types of gas detectors

• Electrochemical—Gas molecules from the sample are adsorbed on an
electrocatalytic sensing electrode, after passing through a diffusion medium,
and are electrochemically reacted at an appropriate sensing electrode
potential. This reaction generates an electric current directly proportional to
the gas concentration.
• Infrared—Infra-red instruments shine a ‘tuned’ beam of light through the
gas sample. If the target gas is present, a portion of the beam’s light
spectrum is absorbed in proportion to the concentration of the gas.
• Papertape—Chemically-impregnated tape is used for very accurate and
specific detection of toxic gases. Much like litmus paper, the tape changes
colour when exposed to a given gas; the colour change is detected by a
photocell, analyzed, and translated into concentration value.
58
Various fixed and portable gas detectors with visual, audible and/or vibrator alarms
There is a large range of fixed and portable toxic gas detectors available for
use in detecting the full range of typical gases including H2S, CO, CO2,
benzene, etc. In order to be effective, these devices need to be maintained
and calibrated regularly to provide adequate assurance. The sensors are often
sensitive and can be easily damaged.
3.6 Calibration and maintenance

All gas testing instruments and apparatus should be registered and periodically
calibrated and inspected in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions to
ensure their integrity.
Calibration due dates must be indicated on each detector and records kept.
3.7 Taking gas measurements

Prior to any entry, tests of the atmosphere at
appropriate places within the confined space
should be carried out by an Authorized Gas
Tester.
Where the vessel, equipment or system is
large, multiple gas tests must be made.
The duration of testing should be at least the minimum response time of the
test instrument specified by the manufacturer.
59
Initial gas testing should be

performed from outside the
space by inserting a probe or
piece of flexible tubing.
Always sample through a pick-
hole, or open the cover slightly
on the downwind side (while
personnel are standing on the
upwind side) before opening
the cover completely.
However, ensure that the contractor or employee performing gas testing is

adequately protected with breathing apparatus if necessary and accompanied
by a second person.
ACCIDENT Gas testing/sampling can be hazardous!!!

While in the process of taking a sample of the atmosphere from a reactor
under nitrogen purge, the unaccompanied process operator removed the top
manhole cover completely and became asphyxiated and fell to his death
through the open manhole. The operator was not warned of an oxygen
deficient atmosphere prior to sampling and the necessity to wear breathing
apparatus in an area that could be deficient in oxygen. There was inadequate
assessment of needs and risks associated with taking samples of the
atmosphere inside the reactor. See the diagram on the next page.
• Have you adequately identified potentially hazardous jobs and reinforced

critical safe behaviours in their procedures?
• Gas testing must be performed by a trained and certified Authorized Gas
Tester wearing the appropriate breathing apparatus.
Nitrogen purge from bottom to

top of the reactor created an
inert atmosphere outside the
manhole that overcame an
operator who removed the
temporary plywood cover
completely to take gas
samples without any respiratory
protection.
continued
60
61
Testing stratified atmospheres

When monitoring for entry involving a descent into an atmosphere that may be
stratified, the atmospheric envelope should be tested a distance of
approximately 4 feet (1.22 m) in the direction of travel and to each side. If a
sampling probe is used, the entrant’s rate of progress should be slowed to
accommodate the sampling speed and detector response.
Some vapours or gases are heavier than air and will settle to the bottom of a
confined space. Other gases are lighter than air and will be found around the
top of the confined space. Because of the different densities of various toxic
gases, all areas (top, middle, bottom) of a confined space must be tested.
ACCIDENT Have you gas tested at all levels and in all areas?
A vertical reactor vessel (7.6 m/25 ft high) had been safely shut down, the
catalyst removed, water washed twice, ventilated, inspected, gas tested and
approved for entry. Then, the vessel was left idle for five days with no
mechanical ventilation. Gas testing was carried out again in preparation for
entry but was done only in the area around 2.4 m (8 ft) from the top manhole.
The reactor was then approved for entry by operations. The contractor went
down the ladder with an employee at the top manhole who lowered an
explosimeter/gas sentinel simultaneously with the entrant. No mechanical
ventilation was installed for this entry. Halfway down the vessel, the gas
sentinel alarmed due to a high LEL. The entrant immediately ascended the
ladder and exited the vessel. He felt a headache and was sent to the hospital.
continued
62
This incident could have resulted in a fatality or serious injury to the entrant
from a flash fire or being exposed to toxic levels of hydrocarbons. Although no
visible liquid hydrocarbon was detected in the vessel, hydrocarbon vapour
was probably released from residues trapped behind the metallic reactor
shroud or absorbed into the refractory liner. Gas testing at the manhole was
definitely not representative of the entire internal working space. This incident
clearly highlights why it is important to perform gas testing for top, middle,
and bottom of confined spaces. Remember to gas test at all levels and in all
areas.
Comment
An Authorized Gas Tester/Test Person is a person nominated by local
management to undertake gas tests of confined spaces. Such a person will
have received training in the use of the particular gas measuring instruments.
However the responsibility for ‘WHAT’ and ‘WHERE’ to test for contaminants
remains with the Confined Space Entry Permit Issuing Authority, who may also
be the nominated Authorized Gas Tester.
Other precautions
• Combustion (welding, heating, cutting, brazing, gasoline or diesel engines)
and oxidation (rusting) can cause hazards in confined spaces. These
processes can consume oxygen or displace oxygen by the combustion
products, creating oxygen deficient atmospheres.
• Cutting cadmium plated bolts with a torch releases a toxic vapour.
• Once work begins, sample frequently or continuously. Conditions can

change. As work progresses, a once-safe atmosphere can become
hazardous due to leaks, combustion, cleaning processes or other factors.
• Even after an empty tank has been purged, toxic or flammable gases can
desorb from porous walls or be liberated from sludge, cleaning solvents or
produced by chemical reaction between sludge and solvents or other
materials.
63
ACCIDENT Argon arc welding in confined space causes oxygen

deficiency!!!
A welder suffered headaches after a day inside a tank using argon to weld
repair titanium. It was discovered that there was a rapid decrease of oxygen
in the area where he was working due to a poor ventilation arrangement.
A manway watch attendant was monitoring the oxygen content in the tank at
all times, but the 10 ft (3 m) wand he was using was not long enough to
monitor the air where the welder was working (see figure below).
Arrangement set-up for argon arc welding in tank
Local exhaust ventilation is required for welding work in a

confined space.
The minimum safe level of oxygen in the air for working is 19.5% (which
is not far below the normal level in the air of 21%). Refer to BP Process
Safety Booklet Hazards of Nitrogen and Catalyst Handling for more
details on the dangers of inert gas atmospheres and working in confined spaces.
64
3.8 Respiratory protection

Respiratory protection of workers entering into confined spaces should be
determined based upon the following principles and specific risk assessment
guidelines.
Entry dispensation limits

Oxygen Flammable Toxic
Entry without
breathing apparatus 20.8% <1% LEL <10% OEL
Specific risk assessment 19.5-23.5% up to 20% LEL* up to STEL

Unsafeætoo high for
normal breathing apparatus <19.5% or >23.5% >20% LEL >STEL
Entry without Specific Unsafe

Oxygen Flammable Toxic Breathing Risk Too High
Apparatus Assessment for normal BA
<10% OEL **
< 1% LEL up to STEL
> STEL
<10% OEL
20.8% up to 20% LEL* up to STEL
> STEL
<10% OEL
> 20% LEL up to STEL
> STEL
<10% OEL
< 1% LEL up to STEL
> STEL
<10% OEL
19.5%-23.5% up to 20% LEL* up to STEL
> STEL
<10% OEL
> STEL
<10% OEL
< 1% LEL up to STEL
> STEL
>23.5% <10% OEL
or up to 20% LEL* up to STEL
<19.5% > STEL
<10% OEL
> STEL
Note: *Concentration below 10% LEL should be considered as an entry criteria,

while 20% LEL used as an exit criteria where work should stop and persons be
withdrawn from the confined space. **Provided hazardous atmosphere is not
generated by cleaning solvents, removal of sludge, hot work, etc.
Table showing authorization requirement for confined space entry against

various levels of gas concentrations.
65
Types of Characteristics and guidelines

atmosphere
• oxygen content the same as atmospheric air, i.e. 20.8%;
Safe • flammable gas concentration < 1% LEL;
atmosphere • toxic gas concentration <10% OEL;
• adequate ventilation is provided to maintain atmospheric
conditions;
• the space has been thoroughly cleaned of sludge, scale and
any other material likely to give off harmful gases or vapours if
disturbed;
• work inside the confined space, or on equipment connected to it
and within the isolation envelope, cannot give rise to hazardous
gases or vapours;
• work being carried out in the area outside the confined space
cannot give rise to harmful gases or vapours which can enter the
confined space through openings such as manways,
disconnected piping or removed stirrers;
• conditions are not expected to change.
Continued on next page
• oxygen content should be in the range 19.5% to 23.5% volume;
Hazardous • flammable gas concentration should be below 10% LEL (this
atmosphere should be considered as an entry criteria, with 20% LEL used as
an exit criteria where work should stop and persons be
withdrawn from the confined space);
• toxic gas concentration at or below the short term exposure
value (STEL);
• where conditions are considered likely to change from safe
atmosphere, for example, entry is required to remove sludge,
scale and any other material likely to give off hazardous gases
or vapours.
• the oxygen content is below 19.5% or above 23.5%;
Life- • concentrations of flammable gas or vapour are above 20% LEL;
threatening • concentrations of toxic gases or vapours are above short term
atmosphere exposure values (STEL).
66
Entry requirement
• safe entry without respiratory protection

• with adequate mechanical ventilation
• standby person
• gas testing after a break of >30 minutes
If in doubt æ use breathing apparatus

during entry.
• competent person to determine the degree of respiratory protection

required based on risk assessment of the measured concentrations
of gases/dusts within the space and the work to be carried out.
• standby person.
• Strictly No Entry!
See Note 1*. Strictly

No Entry!
*Note 1: Only specialist workers with recognized expertise, training, special

respiratory protective equipment and work practices should be allowed to enter a
life threatening atmosphere in a confined space for rescue or to work under inert
conditions. Special dispensation from senior site management should be sought
whenever carrying out inert entry work.
67
ACCIDENT Breathing air supply cut off!!!

While cleaning the inside of a separator, the primary (and only) breathing air
supply to the worker was cut off. The worker scurried out of the separator with
the help of the standby attendant. In the worst case scenario, the worker
could have died from lack of oxygen or being overcome by toxic fumes from
the cleaning fluid. It was found that the wrong type and size of air compressor
generator was used, which caused the air compressor to overheat and shut
off. Also, the air compressor plug connected to the generator was not the
proper lock/explosion proof. This incident highlights the need to specify
proper and adequate requirements for equipment used in confined space
entry.
• Do not rely on contractors to decide correct equipment.

• Do not accept improper or substandard equipment.
• A secondary air supply, such as a 5-minute escape bottle is required.
Picture of the separator after the incident, with inadequate physical barrier
and lack of signage.
ACCIDENT Breathing air supply running on empty!!!

A contract worker was working 8 m (26 ft) inside an amine contactor tower
using air supplied breathing apparatus when the air supply ceased because
the external air bottle was exhausted. The labourer put in charge of
monitoring and operating the air bottle system was ordered by a supervisor to
perform other duties away from the air bottles. The worker was alert and
quickly exited the tower. Two lessons can be learned here:
• air bottles supplying air to breathing apparatus should be continuously

monitored;
• warning devices for low breathing air pressure should be installed and
tested prior to the commencement of work.
68
3.9 Protective clothing

Additional protection requirements for persons entering confined spaces can
include:
• hearing protection against excessive noise;

• specialized protective clothing and equipment for specific tasks such as
shot/grit blasting, cutting and welding, etc.;
• special precautions against specific materials such as asbestos and
radioactive materials.
3.10 Common mistakes and pitfalls

• Inadequate gas testing.
• No gas testing after lunch break.
• Failure to interpret gas testing results correctly.
• Failure in inspection and maintenance regime.
• Inadequate respiratory protection.
• Unauthorized person sneaking into confined space.
69
4
Emergency rescue
4.1 Rescue and emergency services

The site should have a procedure describing the means of rescue and
allocation of resources (internal and/or external) to affect a confined space
rescue, and the means of raising the alarm.
Rescue should always be considered when planning for confined space entry
work. In all cases of entry into confined spaces the methods of rescue of
persons from inside the equipment must be agreed upon in advance with the
appropriate emergency services function, irrespective of whether breathing
apparatus is worn.
The hazards that may be faced during entry including information on the mode
of exposure, signs or symptoms, and consequences of exposure shall be
communicated to the entrants and standby person.
All entrants should exit from a permit required confined space as quickly as
possible whenever:
• an order to evacuate is given by the standby person or the entry supervisor;

• the entrant recognizes any warning signs or symptoms of exposure to a
dangerous situation; and
• the entrant detects a prohibited condition, for example, toxic level exceeds
STEL.
For the rescue and emergency procedures to be sufficient and adequate

overall, they should include consideration of:
• resuscitation techniques;
• raising, and responding to the alarm;
• safeguarding rescuers;
• fire control;
• plant control;
• first aid;
• on-site, and off-site, emergency services;
• training.
70
4.2 Rescue team

The employer shall ensure that:
• Each member of the rescue team is provided with, and is trained to properly
use, the personal protective equipment and rescue equipment necessary
for making rescues from confined spaces.
• Each member of the rescue team shall be trained to perform the assigned
rescue duties. Each member of the rescue team shall also receive the
training required of authorized entrants.
• Each member of the rescue team shall practice making confined space
rescues at least once every 12 months, by means of simulated rescue
operations in which they remove dummies, mannequins, or actual persons
from the actual confined spaces, or from representative confined spaces.
Representative permit spaces shall, with respect to opening size,
configuration and accessibility, simulate the types of confined spaces from
which rescue is to be performed.
• Each member of the rescue team shall be trained in basic first-aid and in
cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). At least one member of the rescue
team holding current certification in first aid and in CPR shall be available.
4.3 Design of vessels to facilitate ease of rescue

Rescue from a confined space is a specialized and difficult activity. New plant
and equipment should, wherever possible, specify a minimum access way size
of 24 inch (600 mm). It is virtually impossible to effect a confined space rescue
using a breathing air apparatus with an 18 inch (450 mm) access way!
4.4 Lifeline
• When entry is made wearing breathing apparatus, all entrants must also
wear a full body harness and lifeline that extends outside the confined
space.
• The lifeline must be securely fastened to a proper support and with an
arrangement to provide mechanical aid for the rescue of the person from the
confined space. The best choice will depend on the shape of the access
port(s). The person outside the equipment should be able to pull an affected
man out of the confined space using the lifeline alone.
71
• When entry is authorized without breathing apparatus the wearing of full

body harness and lifeline may still be advisable if access inside the confined
space is particularly hazardous, for example a rope ladder extending over a
substantial vertical height.
• Account should be taken of any internal equipment inside the confined
space that might interfere with rescue by lifeline by ‘fouling’ the lifeline
and preventing rescue of, or even injuring, persons inside the confined
space.
Entry into confined space with access

ladder, safety harness with attached
lifeline that extends out of confined
space and secured to a proper
support.
The preferred method of rescue is external (non-entry) confined space rescue,

even though it may not be feasible on all occasions. The rule of thumb is that if
external rescue via a tripod, winch, retrieval line, and body harness cannot be
made, then the confined space entry should not be made in the first place.
When such retrieval systems are used, they shall meet the following
requirements.
• Each authorized entrant shall use a chest or full body harness, with a
retrieval line attached at the centre of the entrant’s back near shoulder level,
or above the entrant’s head. Wrist harness may be preferable to a full body
harness in the case of a closed vessel provided with one or more manholes.
• The other end of the retrieval line shall be attached to a mechanical device
(such as a tripod and winch assembly) or fixed point outside the permit
space in such a manner that rescue can begin as soon as the rescuer
becomes aware that rescue is necessary.
In the event of a rescue where the entrant is exposed to a hazardous material

for which a Material Data Safety Sheet (MSDS) or other similar written
information is required to be kept at the worksite, that MSDS or written
information must be made available to the medical facility treating the exposed
entrant.
72
A means must be provided for both safe nor-

mal entry or exit, and emergency extrication.
Ladders may be used for ordinary entry and
exit. Tripods with hoist, lifeline, and full
body harness are often used for emergency
rescue and recovery.
Entrant in full body

harness making a
correct entry into a
confined space.
Manual winch and

hook used to res-
cue entrant when
required.
73
ACCIDENT Botched rescue!!!

Work was being carried out on a tank containing residual toluene at a
petroleum storage plant. It was a welded steel, cone roof tank approximately
20 ft (6 m) high by 91/2 ft (3 m) in diameter. The only access to the tank
interior was via a small opening (16 in/0.41 m diameter) on the roof, since the
tank was not fitted with a bottom entrance.
Two workers went to the roof of the tank, bringing along a single 30-minute
self-contained breathing apparatus and a spare cylinder, a nylon rope, a
squeegee mop and paper towels. The rope was tied at mid-length around
the relief vent at the top of the cone roof, and one end was lowered into the
tank. The intention was to lower the worker to the bottom of the tank and then
have the breathing apparatus lowered to him. He had removed his shoes and
left them on the roof prior to making entry, barefoot and without protective
clothing or respiratory protection.
The victim was disabled very quickly after entering the tank. He was on the
floor of the tank, overcome by lack of oxygen and the presence of toluene
vapours. The other worker on the roof raised the alarm to other employees.
The local fire department responded to the rescue call promptly. There was
some confusion about what material was inside the tank and its properties. A
decision was made to cut into the tank based on an assessment that this
approach would reach the victim more rapidly than any other and could be
accomplished safely. During the rescue operations that utilized a gasoline
engine-driven power saw, an explosion occurred inside the tank resulting in
the death of one fire-fighter and injury to 14 others. During the autopsy, it was
estimated that the worker died of asphyxiation and inhalation of toluene
vapours within 10 minutes of entry.
This incident highlights the severe consequences of an inadequate rescue
arrangement (rescue procedures and equipment i.e. safety harness, lifeline,
tripod with hoist, and drills with external assistance) prior to commencing a
confined space entry.
4.5 Standby person

In all cases a Standby Person/Attendant must be
posted outside the confined space when work is
performed, and must remain on duty throughout
the duration of the entry, unless relieved by
another person of equivalent experience and
training, and knowledge of the job. This individual
should be provided with an equivalent level of
protection worn by those within the confined space
so that he can look into the vessel.
74
The specific duties of a Standby Person should include the following:
• Maintain an accurate count of all persons within the confined space.

• Monitor activities inside and outside the confined space to determine
whether it remains safe for the entrants to remain inside the space.
• Maintain effective and continuous

contact with the persons working inside
the confined space, using radio, agreed
hand signals, horn, lights, etc.
• Prevent entry of unauthorized persons.
• Order evacuation of the confined space if conditions

change or any situation occurs which could endanger
entrants.
• Raise the alarm and summon rescue services

in an emergency.
• Assist the rescue services as necessary without
entering the confined space.
Should conditions develop which require extrication, and the entrants cannot
get out of the confined space on their own, the standby person must call for
emergency assistance at once!
The standby person should attempt to remove the entrant from the confined
space using tripods, hoist, and lifelines. The Standby Person must NEVER
enter confined spaces. Lethal hazards may be present within the confined
space. Only properly equipped and trained emergency rescue personnel may
enter confined spaces to make rescues.
75
The Standby Person must NEVER enter confined spaces to

attempt rescue.
ACCIDENT Additional three die in fatal rescue!!!

Four men were assigned to work inside an empty sewage tank. One man
entered the tank with a safety harness, but no lifeline. When he uncoupled a
hose that was used to drain off the tank’s contents, residual sewage and
gases in the line flowed back into the tank. The mixture of methane and
hydrogen sulphide overcame the man inside the tank, and he lost
consciousness. One by one, his co-workers (who were observing the
operation from outside the tank) entered the tank to attempt a rescue. All
were overcome within a minute. They drowned in sewage.
This story is tragic, but all too familiar. Just how often does this occur? Refer
to annual statistics provided by the National Safety Council and the Bureau of
Labor Statistics, USA on fatalities that occur in the workplace. In 1996,
approximately 60 fatalities occurred from confined space entries. Out of this
number, over 60% of the victims were rescuers!
Over 60% of workers who die in confined spaces are would-be

rescuers.
76
ACCIDENT Fatalities due to solvent spraying and rescue!!!

Three workers were killed while cleaning an above ground 8,000-gallon
(30 m3) storage tank used to store clear vinyl coating. A contractor was
applying the solvent cyclohexanone from a hatch on the tank’s roof with a
pressurized wand. At some point, he entered the confined space of the tank.
The safety manager and a co-worker died while trying to rescue him. The
deaths were caused by chemical exposure and lack of oxygen. The spraying
of solvents can itself be hazardous and needs to be assessed before
permission is given to do so, for example toxic risks, static ignition if a
flammable solvent is used, etc. Rescue attempts must not be made, unless
competent rescuers are provided with and wearing appropriate protection,
such as breathing apparatus, protective clothings, rescue lines, etc.
77
5
Some points to remember
1. Take care when planning or performing a job to

ensure that all types of hazards have been
identified and that confined spaces are not
inadvertently introduced.
2. Perform gas tests after vacating any confined space for a

period of time, such as for a break, to ensure that safe
working conditions are still present.
3. Never store compressed gas cylinders/tanks in

a confined space, regardless of its contents.
4. Check your Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs) for

information on the toxicity and flammability of
chemicals where exposure potential exists. Plan your
actions accordingly and ensure that the appropriate
protective measures are in place.
5. When authorizing entry to confined spaces,

remember to consider what is to be taken into the
confined space by the workers, for example, paints,
coatings, solvents, burning gas, and inerts for
weld shielding. Consider also the consumption of
oxygen by metal spraying processes and
generation of welding/burning fumes.
78
6. Watch out for sources of static electricity within a

confined space. Remember to earth/ground static
generating devices to prevent static accumulation.
7. Keep pyrophoric scale wet to avoid ignition and

fire.
8. The Confined Space Entry Permit is only for entry! In order

to perform work within the space, a Hot Work or Cold Work
Permit is also required.
9. The Confined Space Entry Permit is declared

void when:
• conditions change, making the job unsafe;
• work is delayed or work is stopped for
more than two hours;
• an alarm to exit the space is activated;
• an order is given to exit the space.
10. Access to confined spaces must be physically barricaded

and locked at all times when a valid permit is not issued. In
this case, use of keys must be controlled.
11. Can the confined space be modified so that

entry is not necessary? Can the work be done
from outside (for example, flushing or water
jetting blockages, using long-handled paint
brushes or other tools, using remote cameras,
or other means)? Examine the advantages and
disadvantages of alternative methods before
deciding.
79
12. Plan steam out procedures well to

avoid overpressure, vacuum or dead
spaces (that get little or no steam) in a
vessel.
13. Perform isolation as close as possible to

towers and vessels being prepared for
confined space entry. Where this is not
possible, prohibit entry into the space while
hot work is taking place on connected lines or
vessels.
14. ‘Gas free’ does not mean ‘flammable free’.

15. Deposits or residue material can give out toxic or flammable
vapours under certain conditions (such as heating). Testing
and inspection must encompass checks for these materials.
16. Watch out for unidentified residual or stored

energy sources within a confined space after
the isolation process.
17. Never authorize a Confined Space Entry Permit
without being absolutely certain that the area is
safe for entry.
18. There is no substitute for walking around the
isolated equipment to check each connection
and verify positive isolation.
19. Ensure that the selected means of isolation has

been designed to withstand subjected pressures.
20. When venting toxic, inert, or flammable gases, make sure

the venting area is far away from the work area, roads, etc.
and cordon it off.
21. If the confined space fails the gas test, take time to
examine the situation and carry out proper planning
before repeating preparation steps.
80
22. Check that the lighting provided is certified for use in

the location and is in good condition before starting
work.
23. Installed ladders must be inspected on a periodic

basis to ensure that they are safe for use. It is
important to also check the devices holding the
ladder, such as attachment bolts and screws.
24. Ensure that winching and hoisting devices used for

entry into a confined space never leave the entry/exit
point when the confined space is occupied to provide a
ready means of retrieval.
25. Do not enter a confined space unless every precaution

specified in the entry permit is fulfilled.
26. Double check against the work order and entry permit that
the correct equipment is to be entered.
27. Where a change in the atmosphere inside a confined space

may be expected (such as oxygen deficiency/excess, build up
of flammable or toxic gases due to disturbance of sludge),
continuous monitoring of the atmosphere must be carried out.
28. The Confined Space Entry Permit is withdrawn once

conditions deviate from the safe levels recorded on
the permit. Exit the space immediately and do not
reenter until the permit has been reissued.
29. Avoid deviating from work instructions as new actions

would not have been properly risk assessed.
81
30. Adequate air supply and ventilation should always be

ensured when toxic vapours are expected. If ventilation is
insufficient, self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA)
must be used.
31. Locate machinery and equipment that present

ignition sources or give off toxic fumes (for example,
pumps, engines) outside the confined space.
32. The permit, by itself, does not make entry safe.

Workplace safety depends on people factors!
33. Effective communication and cooperation between

Permit Issuing and Work Performing Authorities are
essential for a successful Confined Space Entry Permit
Program.
34. Authorized entrants, standby attendants, gas testers, and

entry supervisors must be adequately trained before
assuming assigned responsibilities.
35. Never trust your senses to determine if the air in a

confined space is safe!
36. You cannot see or smell many toxic or combustible
gases and vapours, nor can you determine the level
of oxygen present.
37. Perform gas

testing in this
order.
82
38. Whenever an oxygen level of less than

20.0% is detected it must be investigated
further. Either the analyzer is reading
incorrectly or there is some contamination of
the air.
39. If you have purged a flammable atmosphere with nitrogen, do

not use a catalytic explosimeter to check for the presence of
flammable gas as it needs oxygen to operate.
40. Local exhaust ventilation is required for welding work in a

confined space.
41. The Standby Person must never enter confined spaces

to attempt rescue.
42. Over 60% of workers who die in confined spaces are
would-be rescuers.
83
Acknowledgements
The co-operation of the following in providing data and illustrations for this
edition is gratefully acknowledged:
• Jan Smith and Neil Macnaughton, BP Grangemouth Refinery

• Tony Fishwick, IChemE Loss Prevention Panel member
• BP Refining Process Safety Network
• André Duplessis, Clarence Liew and Shawn Hoh,
ABS Consulting Singapore
iv
Bibliography
ANSI Z117.1 Safety Requirements for Confined Spaces
API 2217 Guidelines for Work in Inert Confined Spaces in the
Petroleum Industry
API 2015 Safe Entry & Cleaning of Petroleum Storage Tanks
OSHA 29 CFR 1910.46; 94 & 252
1926.651
1915.12; 13; 14 & 15
UK HSE Approved Code of Practice, Regulations and Guidance ‘Safe Work in
Confined Spaces’ ISBN 0 71761 405 0
http://www.hse.gov.uk/spd/spdconf.htm
Complete Confined Spaces Handbook; John F Rekus ISBN 0 87371 487 3
Introduction to Safety Management (Lesson 6: Confined Space Entry); ABS
Consulting, Government Institutes Division
Occupational Medicine, Third Edition; Carl Zenz, O. Bruce Dickerson, Bruce P.
Horvath, Jr.
IP Guidance on the Declassification of Tanks Previously in Leaded Gasoline
Service, The Institute of Petroleum, London, 1998
Safe Work in Confined Spaces, HSE Leaflet, ISBN 7176 1442 5
Loss Prevention Bulletin, No. 154, August 2000, Special Issue on Confined
Space Entry, Institution of Chemical Engineers, Rugby, U.K.
89
Test yourself!
Confined spaces
1. One of the first questions that should be answered before planning entry
into a confined space is ‘can this job/task be accomplished without
entering the space?’
2.
True
·
The Permit-Required Confined Space Entry program requires the
False
·
employer initially to evaluate the workplace to determine if there are any
confined spaces.
3.
True
· False
A confined space is an equipment that stands apart from an operation’s
main facility.
·
4.
True
· False
A confined space has limited or restricted means for entry and exit.
·
5.
True
· False
An underground office where authorized personnel spend most of their
40-hour working week is considered a confined space.
·
6.
True
·
An open trench more than 4ft (1.2 m) deep is a confined space.
False
·
7.
True
· False
A worker can access the roof of an empty floating roof tank (20 ft/6 m of
height) without a Confined Space Entry Permit because there is no
·
product in the tank.
True
· False
·
Confined Space Entry Program
8. Entry into a permit-required confined space is considered to have occurred
only when the whole body of the entrant is fully inside the confined space.
9.
True
· False
The most deadly hazards associated with confined spaces are hazardous
atmospheric conditions and engulfment.
·
True
· False
·
84
10. If an employer decides to contract out all confined space work, then they
will not need to develop an effective Confined Space Entry Program.
True
· False
11. A written Confined Space Entry Permit Program requires that the employer
develop a system to prepare, issue and cancel entry permits.
·
True
· False
12. The following actions are essential parts of a permit-required confined
space program:
·
• the permit must include the purpose, date and duration of entry;
• the permit must list all residual hazards and necessary precautions;
• a rescue plan must be attached to the permit.
True
· False
13. The type of ventilation methods to be used for confined space entry is
determined by the configuration and contents of the confined space, and
·
the tasks to be performed inside it.
True
· False
14. Hot work is going to be performed in a solvent reactor vessel that is
12 ft (3.7 m) high and 8 ft (2.5 m) in diameter. After cleaning and
·
purging the vessel, the worker can enter it without a Confined Space Entry
Permit.
True
· False
15. Local exhaust ventilation is not required for welding work in a confined
space.
·
True
· False
16. Ladders in confined spaces should be inspected periodically because
corrosion often occurs.
·
True
· False
17. When contracting out all confined space work, the employer does not need
to ensure that the contractor has a proper rescue plan.
·
True
· False
18. Training of all employees whose work is regulated by the permit-required
confined space standard shall be provided when the employer believes
·
that there are inadequacies in the employee’s knowledge of the company’s
confined space procedures.
True
· False
19. The following must be included in employee training for confined spaces:
·
• precise locations of all permit-required confined spaces at the
worksite;
• proper use of the worksite’s pre-entry checklist;
85
• written evaluation and certification of each trained employee;

• refresher training when job duties change.
Gas testing
True
· False
·
20. The proper gas testing sequence for confined spaces is the following:
Toxics; Flammables; Oxygen.
True
· False
21. The principal of operation of most combustible gas meters/explosimeters
used for permit entry testing is catalytic combustion.
·
True
·
22. When you use a combustible gas meter/explosimeter to test an
atmosphere with a mixture of 2% by volume methane with a balance of
False
·
nitrogen, the reading is zero.
True
·
23. Combustible gas meters/explosimeters should be used to detect toxic
gases because they can measure all types of gases.
False
·
True
·
24. Toxic gases in confined spaces can result from products stored in the
space and the manufacturing process; work being performed inside the
False
·
space or in adjacent areas; desorption from porous walls and
decomposing organic matter.
True
· False
25. It is the duty of the standby attendant to continually test the level of toxic
chemicals in the confined space.
·
Standby attendant
True
· False
·
26. A standby attendant is a person with no other duties assigned other than to
remain immediately outside the entrance to the confined space and who
may render assistance as needed to personnel inside the space. The
attendant never enters the confined space and never leaves the space
unattended while personnel are within the space.
True
·
27. The standby attendant watches over a confined space while other
employees are in it and can only leave to use the restroom.
False
·
True
· False
28. A standby attendant is a person who runs to the nearest food store to buy
refreshments for the crew inside the confined space.
·
True
· False
·
86
29. It is the standby attendant’s responsibility to issue confined space entry

permits.
True
· False
30. Standby attendants can enter the space to rescue a worker but only when
wearing a SCBA and connected to a lifeline.
·
Rescue team
True
· False
·
31. During most confined space incidents, outside personnel tend to risk
personal safety to rescue others affected inside the confined space.
True
· False
32. The employer shall provide trained confined space rescue personnel for
each confined space entry affected.
·
True
· False
33. The rescue personnel must be on site, must be aware that confined space
entry is being performed, and must be immediately available to perform
·
rescue.
True
· False
34. Each member of the rescue team will practice making rescues at least
once every year.
·
True
· False
·
35. Each member of the rescue team need not be trained in basic first-aid and
cardiac-pulmonary resuscitation (CPR).
True
· False
·
31T/32T/33T/34T/35F
26T/27F/28F/29F/30F
21T/22T/23F/24T/25F
16T/17F/18T/19T/20F
11T/12T/13T/14F/15F
6T/7F/8F/9T/10F
1T/2T/3F/4T/5F
ANSWERS
87

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BP Process Safety Series

Confined Space Entry

IChemE is a Registered Charity in England and Wales

© 2005 BP International Limited

ISBN-10: 0 85295 479 4

First edition 2005

Typeset by Techset Composition Limited, Salisbury, UK

Greg Coleman, Group Vice President, HSSE

2 Confined Space Entry Permit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

3 Gas testing and PPE requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

5 Some points to remember . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Number of accidents, fatalities and injuries over a 3-year period

1.2 What is a confined space?

Characteristics of confined spaces

• Limited openings for entry and exit

• Large enough to enter at least

• Not designed for continuous human

• Inadequate natural ventilation

• Contains potentially toxic and/or

1.3 Confined space locations in processing plants

Storage tanks API separators Trenches (>1.3 m [4 ft] deep)

Examples of typical confined spaces

1.4 Hazards of confined spaces

• low oxygen level;

Other hazards associated with confined spaces are:

• slippery and uneven walking surfaces;

• room protected by a total flooding fire fighting system;

Low oxygen level

Effects of lack of oxygen

15–19 % First sign of hypoxia. Decreased ability to

10 –12 % Respiration further increases in rate and

8 –10% Mental failure, fainting, unconsciousness,

4 – 6% Coma in 40 seconds, convulsions,

ACCIDENT One dead and another injured when a confined space

Pipe opening where a confined space was inadvertently created

ACCIDENT Entry into rusty chamber kills two!!!

ACCIDENT Flash fire in a tanker kills seven!!!

Hydrogen sulphide (H 2S) Chlorine Organic lead

• The Occupational Exposure Limit (OEL) is the maximum value a worker

Check your Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs) for information on

ACCIDENT Young worker found staggering around inside a tank!!!

When authorizing entry to confined spaces, remember to consider

Engulfment by free flowing solids

ACCIDENT Violation of work permit results in injury!!!

Worker violates work permit Burnt helmet and safety harness

1.5 Other dangers

ACCIDENT Atmosphere outside a confined space can

ACCIDENT An operator put his head into

ACCIDENT A welder was repairing cracks

ACCIDENT Static ignition blows an operator off a tank roof!!!

Watch out for sources of static electricity within a confined space.

Refer to BP Process Safety Booklet Hazards of Electricity and Static Electricity

ACCIDENT Contractor drowns in a water-washed column!!!

ACCIDENT Dry pyrophoric scale auto-ignites in a slops oil tank!!!

Keep pyrophoric scale wet to avoid ignition and fire.

ACCIDENT Pyrophoric fire completely destroys a column!!!

ACCIDENT Nitrogen leak semi-asphyxiates technician!!!

• air-line breathing apparatus;

Skirts surrounding the bottom of vessels must be considered a permit-requiring