GROUP ASSIGNMENT OF AI ITec 4151

School of Computing and Informatics

Department of Information Technology

Group Assignment of Artificial Intelligent

Section one Group 4 Course Code: ITec 4151

Title: Predicate (First-order) and Inference in first order logic

Group member

Submission Date: 23/04/2010 Submitted to: Mr.Tefera

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Q1. Predicate (First-order) and inference in first order logic.

First-order logic (like natural language) assumes the world contains

 Objects: people, houses, numbers, colors, baseball games, wars,
 Relations: red, round, prime, brother of, bigger than, part of, comes between
some else
 Functions: father of, best friend, one more than, plus …

In FOL, Sentences are built or made up of terms and atoms:

 A term (denoting a real-world object) is a constant symbol, a variable
Symbol or function. For example, x and f(x1... xn) are terms, where each x is
a term.
 An atom(which has value true or false) is either an n-place predicate
Of n terms, or, if P and Q are atoms, then ~P, P V Q, P ^ Q, P => Q,
P <=> Q are atoms.
 A sentence is an atom, or, if P is a sentence and x is a variable, then
(Ax)P and (Ex) P are sentences.
 A well-formed formula (WFF) is a sentence containing no "free" Variables.
I.e., all variables are "bound" by universal or existential Quantifiers.
E.g., (Ax) P(X,Y)has x bound as a universally quantified variable, but y is
Free.

Syntax of FOL: Basic elements:-

 Constants King John, 2, NUS and others (In this, the constant could be
names ,numbers)
 Predicates Brother, >. (Where as in this predicate the relation between
the constant can enlists).
 Functions Sqrt (the function which could perform by the combination of
both the predicates or relations and constants).
 Variables x, y, a, b,...(those variables play a crucial role to make the
function) to handle some values.
 Connectives (not or negation of (x)), (implies or if then
condition),(this even indicates and ), (or), (by implies or if and only if)
Even those lists connectives and equality are types of relation between the
variables and the constants.
 Equality = (This indicates that the two or more objects are same).
 Quantifiers , 

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Atomic sentences

Atomic sentence = predicate (term1,...,termn) or term1 = term2

Term =function (term1,...,termn) or constant or variable

Example: - Brother (King John, Richard)

Complex sentences

Complex sentences are made from atomic sentences using connectives.

S, S1  S2, S1  S2, S1  S2, S1  S2,

E.g. Sibling (King _John, Richard)  Sibling (Richard, King _John).

 Truth in first-order logic

• Model contains objects (domain elements) and relations among them

• Interpretation specifies referents for
 constant symbols → objects
 predicate symbols → relations
 function symbols → functional relations

• An atomic sentence predicate (term1,...,termn) is true iff the objects referred to by it.
• term1,...,termn are in the relation referred to by predicate.

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Models for FOL: Example

 Universal quantification

• <variables> <sentence>

Everyone at NUS is smart:

X At(x,NUS)  Smart(x)

• X P is true in a model m if P is true with x being each possible object in the

model .
• Roughly speaking, equivalent to the conjunction of instantiations of P.

At (Kingohn,NUS)  Smart(KingJohn)

At(Richard,NUS)  Smart(Richard)

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 Existential quantification

• <variables> <sentence>
• Someone at NUS is smart:
• x At(x,NUS)  Smart(x)
• x P is true in a model m if P is true with x being some possible object in the
model.
• Roughly speaking, equivalent to the disjunction of instantiations of P.

At(KingJohn, NUS)  Smart(KingJohn)

At (Richard,NUS)  Smart(Richard)

At (NUS, NUS)  Smart (NUS)

Properties of quantifiers
 x y is the same as y x
 x y is the same as y x
 x y Loves(x,y)
 “There is a person who loves everyone in the world”.
 y x Loves(x,y)
 “Everyone in the world is loved by at least one person” .
 Quantifier duality: each can be expressed using the other
 x Likes(x, Ice Cream) x Likes(x, Ice Cream)
 x Likes(x, Ice Cream) x Likes(x, Ice Cream)

Equality
 term1 = term2 is true under a given interpretation if and only if term1 and
term2 refer to the same object.
 E.g. definition of Sibling in terms of Parent:
x,y Sibling(x,y)  [(x = y)  m,f  (m = f)  Parent(m,x) 
Parent(f,x)  Parent(x,y)  Parent(f,y)].

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Inference in first order logic

 Inference is the process of deriving a specific sentence from a KB (where the
sentence must be entailed by the KB)
 Universal Substitution
Every Substitution of a universally quantified sentence is entailed by it:
∀ V α/SUBST ({v /g}, α)
For any variable v and ground term g
E.g., ∀ x King(x) ∧ Greedy(x) ⇒ Evil(x)
King (John) ∧ Greedy (John) ⇒ Evil (John)
King (Richard) ∧ Greedy (Richard) ⇒ Evil (Richard)
King (Father (John)) ∧ Greedy (Father (John)) ⇒ Evil (Father (John))

 Existential Substitution
For any sentence α, variable v and constant symbol k that does not appear
elsewhere in the knowledge base:
∃ V α/SUBST ({v /k}, α)
E.g., ∃ x Crown(x) ∧ On Head(x, John) yields
Crown (C1) ∧ On Head (C1, John) provided C1is a new constant symbol, called a
Skolem constant.
Substitution

A substitution in a sentence binds variables to particular values

Example when we say p=teacher(X)

Z={X/Sara}

Pz=teacher (Sara)

 Unification

We can get the inference immediately if we can find a substitution θ such that King(x)
and Greedy(x) match King (John) and Greedy(y)

θ = {x/John,y/John} works
o Unification finds substitutions that make different logical expressions look
identical.
o Standardizing apart eliminates overlap of variables.
o To unify Knows(John,x) and Knows(y,z)

θ = {y/John, x/z } or θ = {y/John, x/John, z/John}

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• The first unifier is more general than the second.

• There is a single most general unifier (MGU) that is unique up to
renaming of variables.

MGU = (y/John, x/z)

A substitution s unifies sentences p and q if ps = qs.

P Q A
Knows(john, X) Knows(john, Jane) {X/Jane}
Knows(john, X) Knows(Y, yared) {X/ yared,Y/john}
Knows(john, X) Knows(Mother(Y)) {Y/john,X/mother(john)}

Examples

UNIFY(Knows(John,x), Knows(John, Jane)) = {x/Jane}

UNIFY(Knows(John,x), Knows(y,yared)) = {x/yared, y/John}

UNIFY(Knows(John,x), Knows(y,Mother(y))= {y/John, x/Mother(John)

 Use unification in drawing inferences: unify premises of rule with known
facts, and then apply to conclusion.
 If we know q, and Knows (John,x)  Likes(John,x)

Conclude
 Likes(John, Jane)
 Likes(John, yared)
 Likes(John, Mother(John))
 Generalized Modus Ponens(GMP)
p1', p2’, pn’, ( p1 p2 … pnq)/qθwhere pi'θ = piθ for all i
p1' is King (John) p1 is King(x)
p2' is Greedy(y) p2 is Greedy(x)
θ is {x/John,y/John} q is Evil(x)
q θ is Evil (John)
Example
p1’=Faster (Bob, pat)
P2’=Faster (pat, Steve)
P1’n p2=>q=Faster(X, Y) n faster(Y, Z)=>Faster(X, Z)
A={X/Bob, Y/pat/Steve}
Pa=Faster (Bob, Steve)

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Example knowledge base

It is a crime for an American to sell weapons to hostile nations:
American(x)  Weapon(y)  Sells(x, y, z)  Hostile (z)  Criminal(x)
Nono … has some missiles, i.e., x Owns (Nono, x)  Missile(x):
Owns (Nono, M1) and Missile (M1)
… All of its missiles were sold to it by Colonel West
Missile(x)  Owns (Nono, x)  Sells (West, x, Nono)
Missiles are weapons:
Missile(x)  Weapon(x)
An enemy of America counts as "hostile“:
Enemy(x, America)  Hostile(x)
West, who is American …
American (West)
The country Nono, an enemy of America …
Enemy (Nono, America)
 Two mechanisms for applying binding to Generalized Modus Ponens
 Forward chaining
 Backward chaining

Forward chaining
o Start with the data (facts) and draw conclusions
o If the other premises are known, then add the conclusion to the KB
and continue chaining.

 Forward chaining is widely used in deductive databases

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Backward chaining
 Start with the query, and try to find facts to support it
 Attempt to prove each premise of the rule by backward chaining

 Widely used for logic programming

 Incomplete due to infinite loops

Resolution
 Resolution allows a complete inference mechanism (search-based) using only one
rule of inference.
 There is a resolution here below
 There is a pit at 2,1 or 2,3 or 1,2 or 3,2
o P21 P23 P12 P32
 There is no pit at 2,1
o P21
 Therefore (by resolution) the pit must be at 2,3 or 1,2 or 3,2
o P23 P12 P32
Proof using Resolution

 To prove a fact P, repeatedly apply resolution until either:

o No new clauses can be added, (KB does not entail P)
o The empty clause is derived (KB does entail P)

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 This is proof by contradiction: if we prove that KB P derives a contradiction

(empty clause) and we know KB is true, then P must be false, so P must be true!
 To apply resolution mechanically, facts need to be in Conjunctive Normal Form
(CNF)
 To carry out the proof, need a search mechanism that will enumerate all possible
resolutions.

CNF Example

1. B22  ( P21 P23 P12 P32 )

2. Eliminate, replacing with two implications

(B22 ( P21P23 P12 P32 ))  ((P21 P23 P12 P32 )B22)

3 Replace implication (A B) by AB

(B22 ( P21P23 P12 P32 ))  ((P21 P23 P12 P32 )B22)

4 Move  “inwards” (unnecessary parents removed)

(B22 P21 P23 P12 P32 )((P21 P23 P12 P32 ) B22)

5 Distributive Law

(B22 P21 P23 P12 P32 ) (P21 B22)  (P23 B22) (P12 B22) (P32 B22)

(Final result has 5 clauses)

Resolution Example

 Given B22 and P21 and P23 and P32 , prove P12
 (B22 P21 P23 P12 P32 ) ; P12
 (B22 P21 P23 P32 ) ; P21
 (B22 P23 P32 ) ; P23
 (B22 P32 ) ; P32
 (B22) ; B22

[Empty clause]

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 This is proof by contradiction: if we prove that KB P derives a contradiction

(empty clause) and we know KB is true, then P must be false, so P must be true!

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Conclusion
First-order logic:
– Objects and relations are semantic primitives.
– Syntax: constants, functions, predicates, equality, quantifiers.

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Reference:
We have referred some webs and others to make or do this assignment from those we refer are:
 some web site like www.tutorialpoint.com
 www.scholar.google.com
 Google like Wikipedia
 Some peoples who are member of our class

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