The LN Scale
The LN Scale
The LN Scale
Robert Adams
1 Introduction
Earlier in this International Meeting a paper by Richard Hughes has introduced a number of rules
for electronic calculations. Many of the scales are alien to slide rule collectors and are purely for
impedance and resonance calculations within electronic and electrical circuits.
One scale that appears only on Pickett & Eckel, USA (Pickett) slide rules deserves closer
inspection. It was one of the scales that went to the Moon as part of the Pickett 600 models Ref 3.
The scale is useful and can be used in many areas of mathematics, physics and engineering. Why
it was not common on slide rules remains an interesting question. The answer lies, I think, in a
curious mix of patent protection, ingrained manufacturing systems and a lack of promotion.
The scale I am referring to is the Ln scale, which is a linear scale, used along with the C and D
scales for finding natural (base e) logarithms and exponentials.
The following partial scan of a Pickett 515T shows the Ln scale at the bottom of the body.
2 Log Scales
There are a number of scales on common slide rules that are called “log” scales.
For instance there is the L scale, a linear scale, used along with the C and D scales for finding
base-10 logarithms and powers of 10.
And then there are the LL scales commonly called log-log scales. These are exponential power
scales used for raising any number to a power (the range would normally be from about 0.00005 to
20,000).
The LL scales are useful for power calculations that are more complicated than basic squares and
cubes, provided by the A, B and K scales. They also allow raising of non-integer numbers to non-
x
integer powers. Another important use of the LL scales is for the calculation of e in hyperbolic
functions.
4.1 Patent
It is probably simpler for me to cite the patent at this point. I cite the words from the Canadian
patent CA 671991 (the only patent available to me at the time of writing) which quotes the
inventors as Maurice L. Hartung and Stephen B. Cohen (both citizens of the USA) and the owners
as Pickett and Eckel.
The Canadian patent dates from 1963 whereas I believe the American patent extended from 1958.
“This invention relates to the a slide rule having an Ln-L scale arrangement for simplifying the use of a slide
rule in computations involving the base e, reducing considerably the number of settings required in
comparisons to the usual slide rule when this base is used.
The present invention provides a slide rule including the combinations of coextensive logarithmic and linear
scales in which for 10 divisions of said logarithmic scale there are 2.302585 + divisions of said linear scale,
and a cursor movable along said scales and having a hairline against which they may be read enabling the
direct finding of powers of e and logarithms to the base e under the hairline of said cursor.
A further object of the invention is to provide an Ln scale which is uniform or linear the same as a L scale,
but bears relation to the L scale of the constant log e or 10 or 1 ÷ M = 2.302585 + for the full length of the
Ln scale compared to 1.0 for the full length of the L scale whereby the Ln scale may be used in problems
involving the base e in like manner as the L scale is used with problems involving the base 10.
Another object is to provide an Ln scale which may be combined with out slide rule scales such as C and D
and bears relation to the C and D scales of the constant e or Naperian base (2.7182818 +1), and may also
be combined with the CI and DI sales to find the powers of e, logarithms to the base, logarithms of proper
fractions, powers for negative exponents, and mantissas of logarithms by direct readings cross from the Ln
an L scales to the C, D, CI and DI scales.
Another object is to provide a slide rule having Ln, L and C and / or D scales bearing the relationship per
scale length in the following ratio:
Ln = 2.302585 +
L = 1.0
C = 10.0
D = 10.0 and
Wherein e of the C and D scales = 2.7182818 + and are coincident with 1 on the Ln scale, the values stated
being more accurately identified as;
2.302585092994045684017991454684 + and
2.718281828459045235360287471353 + respectively,
Still another object is to provide Ln and L scales of linear or uniform progression used in combination with
other scales of logarithmic progression involving relative settings of the body and slide of the slide rule
whereby multiplication and division with powers, the logarithms of combined operations, the power of other
bases, and hyperbolic functions may be determined on a slide rule of our design.
A further object is to provide a slide rule so scaled as to make possible combined operations with the
powers of e and logarithms to the base e, with the results accurate to three or four significant figures and
readable directly without the necessity of reading a value off one scale and then setting it on another one in
order to continue with another calculation. Thus a series of calculations involving the base e may be
performed without the use of a log log scale and without the necessity of reading off intermediate values
and resetting scales, the final result only being directly read on the appropriate scale.
Still a further object is to provide a slide rule having a scale for the base e capable of doing everything that
the L scale does for the base 10.
An additional object is to provide a scale for a slide rule which makes possible the reading of e to any
exponent between 0 and 2.3 directly on the C or D scale s of the rule, or e to any exponent between 0 and -
2.3 directly on the CI or DI scales, as well as e to any power between 1 and 10 on the C or D scales, or e to
any power between 1 and -0 on the CI or DI scales.
Another additional object is to provide an Ln scale so related to all logarithmic scales of a slide rule that
problems involving any logarithmic scale and the base w are greatly simplified , and particularly so in
combined operations, in comparison with such problems when worked on a slide rule having no Ln scale.
With these and other objects in view, our invention consists in the construction, arrangement and
combination of the various of our Ln-L scale slide rule, whereby the objects above contemplated are
attained, as hereinafter moiré full set forth, pointed out in our claims and illustrated in detail on the
accompanying drawings…”
-Steve C”
“So much for trying to resurrect 40-yr old memories off the top of
one's head. Besides, after working for Uncle Sam for the past 12+
yrs, my brain has softened a bit. (There were, however, a couple of
good years.)
I have dug through my old papers and found material on the gauge
marks. Their design was more ingenious than I remembered. I did use
gauge values of 2, 4, 6, etc. as Joe” (Pasquale I believe) “suggests. If I could get
interested sufficiently, I'd look closely at Joe's analysis, but my
thoughts are elsewhere. ... Anyone interested in working on a
logical/statistical structure for dealing with low probability-high
consequent events?
Anyway, I've found more than one version of the instructions & theory
of the marks that I wrote in January, 1960 when I was a college
freshman. When I get a chance, I'll decide which one is the latest.
If one or more of you wish, I'll then copy & send it to one of you for
scanning and you can post it if you wish. Warning: What I have are
carbons, so the print is not very clear. I do not have scanner, so
can't do it myself. (Still using 9-pin printer, too.)
-Steve C
The entire reason for the Ln scale was, as Joe correctly knows, to be able to multiply, etc. with
values of e^x = exp(x).
Also, as noted, it was limited to the range exp(-2.3) to exp(2.3).
I developed "gauge marks" to extend this range significantly, but Pickett would not add them to the
scale.
1
(Note: Stephen actually emailed me copies of the carbon copies of the instructions for the usage of gauge
marks with the Ln scales. My partner, Dianne has actually transcribed these copies into electronic format so
that the slide rule community can have them eternally).
If I recall correctly (we're going back 40+ years now!) you would align a gauge mark on the Ln scale
on the slide with an index (1) on the D scale, and then find exp(x) on the D scale.
Example:
To find exp (222) on the D scale, you would align the 10^2 gauge mark on the Ln scale with the left
index on the D scale. You would then set your cursor to 2.22 on the Ln scale and read exp (222)
under the hairline on the D scale.
I cannot remember if Maurice Hartung wrote the "L-Ln" scale manual or if I ghost wrote it. He was
considered a "well known" S-R expert so Pickett wanted to use his name. I do recall ghost writing
some manuals while in high school or college, but can't remember which ones.
By the way, Ross Pickett once told me that Eckel was the slide rule guru, while Ross was the
businessman/marketer. Eckel later had his own company which sold two circular slide rule models.
Neat! But apparently sales were poor.
What "did-in" Pickett was its move to Santa Barbara, CA. I suspect it borrowed more than it could
repay out of its sales and it ended up selling out to Times-Mirror Corp.
P.S. I suspect that some of this e-group's members are retired, judging from the number of daily
postings. Regrettably I am not. (I never knew why my friends who worked for the Federal Govt.
couldn't wait to retire. I now know.) Anyway, the postings are too numerous for me to follow.
By the way, I have a Ph.D. in pure math, but everyone thinks it's in statistics. At one time I was so
familiar with the Pickett Model 600 that I could picture it in my head and use the "picture" for
approximate calculations. Now I can hardly remember my name.
Rule on!
--Steve C
My lasting impression of Steve, from these emails and others, is of a very busy man who has too
many interests and competing requirements in life to reflect on past glories, but continues to seek
out new ideas.
Figure 2
Exponential decay across the resistor in the above circuit is described by the function:
Apart from the above use, on a slide rule that has only limited real estate for scales, the inclusion
of an Ln scale allowed for reasonably quick calculation of hyperbolic functions. Particularly if the
Ln scale was on the body and a C and CI scale was included on the slide. With this arrangement
x -x
both e and e could be read directly and used to calculate the various hyperbolic functions.
Then setting 5.79 on the C or D scale read the Log10 value on the L scale and add the exponent to
this figure,
The method of extension of the Ln scale is remarkably similar, first express the number in
scientific terms as above, then find the natural log of the factor 5.79,
Ln 5.79 = 1.76
The actual value is 692. Therefore using the above method has resulted in an error of
approximately 0.5%. To electronic engineers accustomed to resistor values with tolerances much
greater than this, this is an acceptable degree of accuracy.
Previously it was necessary to use the somewhat “arduous” method in section 6.1.2 when working
with numbers outside the normal range of the Ln scale. A much simpler system was devised and
proposed to be incorporated into the Ln scale.
The system involved the use of special graduations called “guide marks”, which where designed as
“guide numbers.” These gave the Ln scale an effective range of -16.3 to +16.3 and the C and CI
scales a corresponding range of 107 to 10 -7 approximately.
The rules for using the guide marks appeared somewhat complicated at first, but the inventor
believed that a little time spent in working the examples made the operation so easy that it became
second nature.
Enclosed are the instructions for using the GUIDE MARKS for extending the range of the Ln scale,
on rules that have the Ln scale on the slide, as the model N4. (Since the instructions are different for
using rules with Ln on the body than they are for Ln on the slide, I felt that it would be best to have two
separate sets of instructions. Presently, I am working on the instructions for the rules with Ln on the
slide, the model N1011).
The next time the Ln-L Scale Supplement is printed the following correction should be made:
p.11 in the square beginning “Rule for a “e …” line 6 beginning with “…y on L.” should be changed to “…y
on Ln”.
I got the letter from your secretary requesting me to send you my slide rule history. Unless I can
con my English teacher into letting me have the original back, I will have to send you a carbon. Since I
didn’t stop to correct the carbons when I wrote the paper, it will take me a few days to make all the
typographical corrections in it.
To date I have received none of the papers from Professor Hartung and Mr. Rusher.
Sincerely,
Stephen B. Cohen
1232 N. San Rd.
Tuscan, Arizona
January 27, 1960
Here is the set of instructions for using the “Guide Marks” on rules with the Ln scale on the body. I’m
sorry it took so long to finish them, but semester finals came up.
I have included a sheet with some corrections for the first set of instructions I sent you on the “Guide
Marks” for rules with the Ln scale on the slide.
You will note that I included nothing on hyperbolic functions, etc. Since such things simply involve
finding e to certain powers and then plugging the values obtained into formulas, I felt that it wasn’t
worth the extra space to give examples.
Explanation of theory has been deliberately been kept to a minimum to conserve space and to reduce
confusion resulting from excessive wordage. If necessary, I can give a more complete explanation of the
theory.
I trust that everything is going well, and that I shall hear from you soon.
Sincerely,
Stephen B. Cohen
Note 2: The Pickett rules were produced in a number of different variants. For instance those
without N in the model number were most likely early versions made with magnesium, those with
T in the model number are white, and those with ES in the model number are in “eye saver”
yellow. Those with X in the model number are for executive gifts. As a general rule only those
rules with an N in the model number could have an Ln scale as those without the N would have
been produced before the invention of the Ln scale.
Note 3: I believe the optimal layout requires the Ln scale to be on the body of the rule and the slide
to have a CI scale on the slide. This arrangement allows chain calculations for both positive and
negative powers of e to be easily made. An equivalent arrangement for the Ln scale on the slide
would be to have a D and DI scale on the body.
Electronic Type
Note: due to the absence of labeling of scales it should be noted that the second scale from the top
of the 535 is the Ln scale.
Math
Figure 8 – N 1002
7.2 Other
Pickett held the patents for the Ln scale until they went out of the business of making slide rules.
And it would be easy enough to assume that no other manufacturer made a rule with the Ln scale
as Pickett did not (to my knowledge) license the use by others.
However, I do have in my possession a non-Pickett Rule that has an Ln scale.
As can be seen this is a variant of the Pickett 515, Aristo 10175 layout. It is labeled “WESTEC”
Electronics Slide Rule and is made for Westechno Ltd, Exmouth, Devon, England. On the reverse
side it contains the model number P2361 and bears the BRL trademark. On the front of the rule in
the bottom right-hand corner are the words “Prov Pat No. 49828” and “Copyright Reserved”.
8 Conclusion
As stated earlier it is no wonder that the Ln scale appeared on many of the “electronic” Pickett
rules. The inclusion of an Ln scale allowed for reasonably quick calculation of hyperbolic
functions and the powers of e.
Although the scale is directly limited to plus or minus 2.3 and therefore more suited to electronic
circuits than large electric systems, with their longer rise and decay times it would have been
useful in this field of work and I wonder why it wasn’t adopted by more manufacturers. Was it
because Pickett vigorously defended their patent (I have no evidence that that was the case) or was
it that other manufacturers saw little advantage? In the case of “Elektro” rules all the usual
manufacturers continued with two Log Log scales.
9 Acknowledgements
I would like to acknowledge the assistance offered by Steve Cohen to me when, a number of years
ago, I enquired about the Ln scales. Steve provided all the information that has enabled me to
produce this paper without any question.
I would also like to thank David Rance whose invaluable skills in dissecting a draft and turning it
into a worthwhile paper is without doubt beyond peer.
10 References
Ref 1 - Various Pickett slide rule manuals.
Ref 2 - ISRG email group archives
Ref 3 - JOS Vol. 10 No. 7 2007 Pg 15
Ref 4 - GriffenFly slide rule application
Ref 5 - Elektro Rules - Their Scales and Uses, IM2007, R Adams
Appendix A (Ln scale on the body)
GUIDE MARKS
for
of the
Ln SCALE
by
Stephen B. Cohen
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction ………………………………………………………………. 1
with numbers outside the normal range of the Ln scale. A much simpler system has been
devised and incorporated into your scale. This system involves the use of a number of
special graduations called “guide marks,” which are designed by “guide numbers.” These
give the Ln scale an effective range of -16.3 to +16.3 and the C and CI scales a
corresponding range of 107 + to 10 -7 – approx. For numbers in this range, this new
method takes the place of the one given in sections (e) – (g) of the manual. (The
methods for using common logarithms and power of 10 remain the same.)
The rules for using the guide marks may seem somewhat complicated at first, but
a little time spent in working the examples will show you that they are actually very
simple.
A helpful hint : When the left or right index of the C scale is set over a guide mark,
this index takes on the value 10 n/2 (where n is the guide number), and when the left or
right index of the CI scale is set over a guide mark, that index takes on the value 10 n/2 .
All other values on the C and CI scales are then in relation to these values.
(2)
RULE :
1) Using powers-of-ten, convert your number into the form a1 x 10r (where 1 < a1 <
10).
2) Multiply r by 2 and set the left index of C scale over this guide number. (If the slide
extends too far and the Ln scale is not below a1 on the C scale, use the next higher
guide number (2r + 2), setting the right index of C over it.)
3) Set the hairline over a1 on C. Read the value on Ln under the hairline.
4) Add this value to the guide number to obtain the natural logarithm of your number.
EXAMPLES:
1. Find Ln 11,200
3) Move the hairline to 1.12 on C, and read 1.324 on Ln under the hairline.
2. Find Ln 870,000
2) Multiply 5 by 2, getting a guide number of 10. When you set the left index
of C over this guide mark, you find that the slide extends too far.
Therefore, use the next higher guide number, 12 (10 + 2) and set the right
(3)
(Where 0.1<a2<1.0).
2) Multiply r by 2 and set the left index of CI over this guide number, (If the slide
extends too far, and a2 on the CI scale is not above the Ln scale, use the next
higher guide number (2r +2), setting the right index of CI over it.)
3) Set the hairline to a2 on CI. Head the value on Ln under the hairline.
4) Add this value to the guide number and attach a minus sign to obtain the natural
EXAMPLES:
a) Find Ln 0.000082.
all guide numbers are to be considered positive). Set the left index of CI
3) Set the hairline to 0.82 on CI and read 1.409 on Ln under the hairline.
b) Find Ln 0.00103.
2) Multiply -2 by 2, getting a guide number of 4. When you set the left index
of CI over this guide mark, you find that the slide extends too far. Therefore
use the next higher guide number, 6 (4 + 2) and set the right index of CI
over it.
3) Move the hairline to 0.103 on CI and read .878 on Ln under the hairline.
1) Subtract from the power y the guide number n which will leave the remainder y1
3) Set the hairline to y1 on Ln. Read the value a1 (1< a1 < 10) on C under the hairline.
EXAMPLES :
a) Find e 13.865.
2) Since 1.85 on Ln is to the right of n=12, set the left index of C over the guide
mark 12.
3) Set the hairline to 1.85 on Ln. Read a1 = 1.035 on C under the hairline.
b) Find e 6.72.
2) Since .72 on Ln is to the left of n=6, set the right index of C over the guide
mark 6.
(6)
3) Set the hairline to .72 on Ln. Read a1 = 8.29 on C under the hairline.
RULE : (Consider all values on Ln, guide numbers, and powers of e as positive).
1) Subtract from the power y the guide number n which will leave the remainder y1 -
3) Set the hairline to y1 on Ln. Read the value a2 (.1 <- a2 <
1.0) on CI under the
hairline.
EXAMPLES :
a) Find e -7.342
2) Since 1.32 on Ln is to the right of n=6, set the left index of CI over the guide
mark 6.
3) Set the hairline to 1.32 on Ln. Read a2 = 0.662 on CI under the hairline.
b) Find e -4.32
2) Since .32 on Ln is to the left of n=4, set the right index of CI over the guide
mark 4.
3) Set the hairline to .32 on Ln. Read a2 = 0.133 on CI under the hairline.
(8)
(E) COMPUTATIONS INVOLVING POWERS OF e
outside the normal range of Ln, the following methods may be used.
MULTIPLICATION: (a x ey)
1) Find the guide number n and the remainder y1 by the rules in sections (C) and (D).
2) Set the hairline to the guide number n. Pull a on C under the hairline.
4) If the slide extends too far for a value to be read, set the hairline to the index of C,
pull the slide out so that the other index of C is under the hairline, and continue
DIVISION : ( a / ey)
1) Find the guide number n and the remainder y1 by the rules in section (C) and (D).
3) Move the hairline to the guide number n. Read (a/ey) under the hairline.
4) If the slide extends too far for a value to be read, set the hairline over the index of
C, pull the other index of C under the hairline, and continue with the problem.
The above rules are for positive powers of e. For negative y remember that
multiplication by a negative power is the same as division by a positive power, and vice
versa.
(9)
The above methods may be used with powers of e within the normal range of Ln. Simply
use either the right or left index of D instead of the guide number n.
EXAMPLES:
2) Set the hairline to the guide number 6. Pull 2.5 on C under the hairline.
b) Find 72 x e-4.15
1) n = 4 and y1 = .15
with negative powers). Set the hairline to .15 on Ln. Put 72 on C under the
hairline.
3) Move the hairline to the guide mark 4 and read the answer 1.135 on C
4) Since the slide extends too far, set the hairline to the right index of C and
b) 0.799/x3.22 = 20.0
d) 0.00611/e4.40 = 0.0000750
f) 2.20/e12.21 = 0.00001096
(10)
To find the natural logarithm of a number, Ln a, one must first convert it into the form a1 x
By setting an index of C scale over the guide mark, the value in column D is automatically
added to (or subtracted from) Ln a1. The value in column C is then mentally added (or
subtracted) to give Ln a. (Numbers less than 1 are converted into the form a2 x 10n, 0.1 <
a2 < 1.0, and the CI scale is used instead of the C scale.)
** numerical values were obtained from C.R.C. Standard Mathematical Tables, Eleventh
Edition, Cleveland, Ohio Chemical Rubber Publishing Company, 1957 p.173.
PAGE 1 : line 7
…. of -16.3 to +16.3 and the D and DI scales a corresponding …..
NOT ….. of -16.3 to _16.3 and the D_scale_ a corresponding …
PAGE 2 : line 7
…. It over the right index of D.) NOT ….. it over the right index of D._
GUIDE MARKS
for
of the
Ln SCALE
by
Stephen B. Cohen
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction …………………………………………………………………. 1
Previously it was necessary to use a rather complicated method when working with
numbers outside the normal range of the Ln scale. A much simpler system has been
devised and incorporated into your scale. This system involves the use of a number of
special graduations called “guide marks,” which are designed by “guide numbers.” These
give the Ln scale an effective range of -16.3 to +16.3 and the D and DI scales a
corresponding range of 107 + to 10 -7 – approx. For numbers in this range, this new
method takes the place of the one given in sections (e) – (g) of the manual. (The
methods for using common logarithms and power of 10 remain the same.)
The rules for using the guide marks may seem somewhat complicated at first, but
a little time spent in working the examples will show you that they are actually very
simple.
A helpful hint: When the left or right index of the D scale is set over a guide mark,
this index takes on the value 10n/2 (where n is the guide number), and when the left or
right index of the DI scale is set over a guide mark, that index takes on the value 10n/2 .
All other values on the D and DI scales are then in relation to these values.
(2)
5) Using powers-of-ten, convert your number into the form a1 x 10r (where 1 < a1 <
10).
6) Multiply r by 2 and set the left index of D scale over this guide number. (If the slide
extends too far and the Ln scale is not below a1 on the D scale, use the next higher
7) Set the hairline over a1 on D. Read the value on Ln under the hairline.
8) Add this value to the guide number to obtain the natural logarithm of your number.
EXAMPLES:
1. Find Ln 11,200
6) Multiply 4 x 2, getting a guide number of 8. Set the guide mark 8 over the
7) Move the hairline to 1.12 on D, and read 1.324 on Ln under the hairline.
2. Find Ln 870,000
6) Multiply 5 by 2, getting a guide number of 10. When you set this guide
mark over the left index of D, you find that the slide extends too far.
Therefore, use the next higher guide number, 12 (10 + 2) and set it over the
right index of D.
(3)
6) Multiply r by 2 and set this guide number over the left index of D. (If the slide
extends too far, and the Ln scale is not above a2 on the DI scale, use the next
7) Set the hairline to a2 on DI, (you probably will have to turn the rule over). Read the
8) Add this value to the guide number and attach a minus sign to obtain the natural
EXAMPLES:
a) Find Ln 0.000082.
all guide numbers are to be considered positive). Set the guide mark 8 over
3) Set the hairline to 0.82 on DI and read 1.409 on Ln under the hairline.
b) Find Ln 0.00103.
mark over the left index of D, you find that the slide extends too far.
Therefore use the next higher guide number, 6 (4 + 2) and set it over the
right index of D.
3) Move the hairline to 0.103 on DI and read .878 on Ln under the hairline.
1) Subtract from the power y the guide number n which will leave the remainder y1
3) Set the hairline to y1 on Ln. Read the value a1 (1< a1 < 10) on C under the hairline.
EXAMPLES:
a) Find e 13.865.
2) Since 1.85 on Ln is to the right of n=12, set the guide rule mark as over the
left index of D.
3) Set the hairline to 1.85 on Ln. Read a1 = 1.035 on D under the hairline.
4) Since the guide mark 12 is over the left index of D, a = 1.035 x 1012/2 =
b) Find e 6.72.
2) Since .72 on Ln is to the left of n=6, set the guide mark 6 over the right
index of D.
(6)
3) Set the hairline to .72 on Ln. Read a1 = 8.29 on D under the hairline.
RULE: (Consider all values on Ln, guide numbers, and powers of e as positive).
1) Subtract from the power y the guide number n which will leave the remainder y1 -
3) Set the hairline to y1 on Ln. Read the value a2 (.1<a2<1.0) on DI under the hairline.
EXAMPLES:
a) Find e -7.342
2) Since 1.32 on Ln is to the right of n=6, set the guide mark 6 over the left
index of D.
3) Set the hairline to 1.32 on Ln. Read a2 = 0.662 on DI under the hairline.
b) Find e -4.32
2) Since .32 on Ln is to the lef6t of n=4, set the guide mark 4 over the right
index of D.
3) Set the hairline to .32 on Ln. Read a2 = 0.133 on DI under the hairline.
(8)
(E) COMPUTATIONS INVOLVING POWERS OF e
negative power is the same as division by a positive power and vice versa).
(These same rules can be used for 10y and the L scale).
For power outside the normal range the following method may be used:
1) Find the guide number n and the remainder y1 by the rules in sections (C) and (D).
2) Using the general rules with y1 in the calculations, consider the guide mark n as
4) If the slide extends too far for a value to be read, set the hairline to the 1 of C, pull
out the slide so that the other 1 of C is under the hairline, and continue with the
problem.
(In involved calculations, always work with the power of e first to avoid making errors).
EXAMPLES:
1) n = 6 and y1 = .34
2) Set the hairline to 2.5 on D. Pull the guide mark 6 under the hairline. Move
b) Find 72 x e-4.15
1) n = 4 and y1 = .15
4) Since the slide extends too far, move the hairline to the left 1 of C, and pull
the slide out so that the right 1 of C is under the hairline. Now move the
b) 0.799/x3.22 = 20.0
d) 0.00611/e4.40 = 0.0000750
f) 2.20/e12.21 = 0.00001096
(10)
To find the natural logarithm of a number, Ln a, one must first convert it into the form a1 x
A B C D
By setting the guide mark over an index of D scale over the guide mark, the value in
column D is automatically added to (or subtracted from) Ln a1. The value in column C is
them mentally added (or subtracted) to give Ln a. (Numbers less than 1 are converted
into the form a2 x 10n, 0.1 < a2 < 1.0, and the DI scale is used instead of the D scale.)
** numerical values were obtained from C.R.C. Standard Mathematical Tables, Eleventh
Edition, Cleveland, Ohio Chemical Rubber Publishing Company, 1957 p.173.
PAGE 1 : line 7
…. of -16.3 to +16.3 and the D and DI scales a corresponding …..
NOT ….. of -16.3 to _16.3 and the D_scale_ a corresponding …
PAGE 2 : line 7
…. It over the right index of D.) NOT ….. it over the right index of D._