9.

HIGHLIGHTS (UNIT-WISE)

UNIT – I

Basic Performance Equations of D.C. Motors

 Separately excited D.C. Motor
E a = Km Wm = Vt – Ia Ra
W m = (Vt – Ia Ra) / Ka Ø

 D.C. Series Motor

2
T e =k a I a

Wm = (Vt / (K I a )) – ( r a + r s) / k
 Single phase half wave converter drives

V o = (Vm / 2  ) (1 + cos
1 )

V f = (Vm /  ) (1 + cos
2 )
 Single phase semi converter drives

V o = (Vm /  ) (1 + cos
1 )

V f = (Vm /  ) (1 + cos
2 )
 Single phase full converter drive

V o = V t = (2Vm /  cos 1

V f = (2Vm /  ) cos  2
Wm speed of the armature
Ф – Flux per pole
Ia – Armature current
V – Armature voltage
Ra- Armature resistance
Te – Torque developed
Ke – Motor constant.

An electric drive is one which consists of an electric motor along with control
equipment & energy – transmitting device.

Examples Of Electric Drives:

 Ceiling fan motor with regulator & blades
 Food mixer with a motor & conveyer belt

Electric drives are of basically 2 types

 Dc drives
 AC drives.
D.C Drives:
These are extensively used in adjustable speed drives & position control application.

Depending on type of a.c source or the method of voltage control d.c drives are
classified as.

 Single phase d.c drives

 Three phase d.c drives
 Chopper drives.

Single Phase D.C Drives:

Depending upon type of power electronic converter used in armature circuit, single phase
d.c drives can be sub-divided as under.

a. Single phase half wave converter drives.

b. Single phase semi converter drives.
c. 1 – Φ full wave
d. 1 – Φ dual converter drives.

1 – Φ Half Wave Converter Drives:

A separately excited d.c motor is used in this drive. By using this scheme only one
quadrant operation is possible.

Vm
(1  cos 1 )
For such drives V0 = Vt = 2
α1 = firing angle of converter 1
Vm = Maximum voltage
V0 = output voltage

The average output voltage in field circuit

Vm
(1  cos  2 )
V f = 2

α2 - Firing angle of second converter

1/ 2
   
I sr  I a  
 2 

Isr = rms value of free wheeling diode current apparent input power =Vs. Isr
Single Phase Semi Converter Drive:
It uses separately excited D.C motor, fed through 2 single phase semi converters one for
armature circuit & other for field circuit. This converter also offers one-quadrant
drive.

1/ 2
   
I sr  I a  
R.m.s value of source current  2 
 
I fdr  I a  
R.m.s. value of free w heeling diode current s
1/ 2
   
ITr  I a  
R.m.s value of Thyristor current =  2 

Single Phase Full Converter Drive:

Two full wave Converters are used to feed armature circuit & field circuit of a.c separately
excited motor excited motor. This Schema offers 2 – quadrant drive. In this mode
regenerating is possible.
2vm
V0  Vt  cos 1
For the armature 
2vm
Vf  cos  2
For the field 
R.m.s value of source current = ISr = Ia
Ia
I tr 
R.m.s value of Thyristor current = 2
2 2
cos 1
Supply power factor = 
Single Phase Dual Converter Drives:
It is obtained by connecting two full converters in anti parallel to feed a separately excited
d.c. motor by using this schema Four – quadrant operation is possible.
2vm
Vt  cos 1
For converter 1 in operation 
2vm
Vt  cos  2
2 in operation 
1   2  
2vm
Vf  cos  3
For field converter 
Similar analysis can be made for 3 – φ circuits.
HIGH LIGHTS

UNIT-II

CONTROL OF DC MOTORS BY 3 CONVERTERS.

 Three phase drives are used for high power applications.

 In the phase drives output ripple is small, ripple frequency is large and filtering
requirement is less.

 Armature current is almost continuous.

 Three phase DC drives are divided as:

 1. Three phase half converter drives

2. Three phase semi converter drives

3. Three phase full converter drives

4. Three phase dual converter drives.

 THREE PHASE HALF CONVERTER DRIVES:

3vml
Vo 
The armature terminal voltage 2
Vml – Maximum value of the line voltage

 Firing angle.

 3Ф half converter offers one quadrant operation and is used upto 40 KW motor
ratings.

 THREE PHASE SEMI CONVERTER DRIVES:

 This drive offers one quadrant operation

1
I o
 Average thyristor current is 3 a for 60
 180 -  
 360  I a 60o 1 180o
 Average thyristor current is for

Where Ia is the armature current.

3vml
Vt   1  cos  
Terminal voltage 2
 Application up to 115 KW ratings.

3Vm R
wm   1  cos    a2 T
 Speed torque relationship
2 K K
Wm speed of the armature.

 THREE PHASE FULL CONVERTER DRIVES:

 3ф full Converter drive offers two quadrant drive without field reversal.

 The thyristors are fired at an angle of 600

3Vml
Vo  Cos
 The average output voltage 

2
I ar  I a
 Rms value of the source current 3

ITr  I . 2  1  I a 13
 Rms value of the thyristor current a2 3 2

ITA  1 I a
 Average value of the thyristor current 3

3Vm R
Wm  Cos  - a
K K
2
 Speed torque relation ship

 Wm – Speed of the armature

 Vm - Peak value of the line voltage

  Ra - Armature resistance

 T - Torque developed by the motor

 K = Constant.

 SPEED OF THE ARMATURE WM

 Ф - flux per pole, Ia - Armature current

 V - Armature voltage

 Ra = Resistance of the armature circuit

 T - Torque developed.

T =KIa, E= KWm

V Ra
 Ia
wM = K K
3
V a = E + IaR a =  Vm Cos 

3vm R
Cos - a T
Wm =
 K2

HIGH LIGHTS

UNIT-III

FOUR QUADRANTT OPERATION OF DC DRIVES

DUAL CONVERTERS:

2V
Vt  m Cos 1
For Converter 1 in operation 
 2V
Vt  m Cos  2
For convertor 2 in operation 
1   2  

 A motor operate in two modes – motoring and braking.

 In motoring mode electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy.
 In braking mode the motor works as generator converting mechanical energy into
electrical energy and opposes motion.
 Motor can provide motoring and braking operations in forward and reverse
directions.
 Braking are of three types

1) Regenerative braking
2) Dynamic braking
3) Plugging

 In regenerative braking generated energy is supplied to the source.

 In dynamic braking motor armature is disconnected from the source

land connected across a resistance.

 For plugging the supply voltages of a separately excited motor is

reversed and force the armature current in the reverse direction.

UNIT – IV

CONTROL OF DC MOTORS BY CHOPPERS

CHOPPER CONTROL FOR SEPARATELY EXECUSTED MOTOR CHOPPERS ARE:

MOTORING CONTROL:
 Choppers are used in the speed control of DC motors used in industrial and tradition
drives.
  Ton is duty interval and motor is connected to source during this interval.
ton

 T
 Where  is the duty ratin
 Ton is the duty interval
 T is the chopper period

SPEED TORQUE RFELATION

 V Ra
Wm   T
K K2
1 ton
Where  V  0 Vdt
T

Wm= Speed ofd the armature

Ra = Resistance odf the armature
T = Torque
L = Constant.

REGENERATIVE BRAKING:

 During the on period of the chopper energy is stored in the armature cisrlcuit
inductance and called the energy storage interval.
 When the chopper is turned off the stored electromagnetic energy and energy
supplied by the machine is fed to the source.
Duty int erval T  Ton
 
 Duty ratio T T
 T- is l;the period of the chopper
 Ton – On period of chopper
 T- ton is the duty interval
 V Ra
Wm   T
 Armature speed K K2

DYNAMIC BRAKING:

 The energy stored in the inductance is dissipated in braking resistance RB

 Energy consum ed by RB during one cycle = EN = Ia2RB(T-ton)
Where Ia is the armature current
RB = Braking resistance
T = Chopper period
Ton –On period of the chopper
  Average power consumed by RB
EN
P  Ia 2 RB  1   
 T
 Effecstive value of RB
 =RBE=
P
 RB (1   )
Ia 2
ton

 T

CHOPPER CONTROL FOR DC SERIES MOTOR:

 v  IaRa
WM 
Ka
T  Ka Ia
Wm= Speed
Ia and Ka obtlaineda from magnetization characteristics.

TWO – QUADRANT CHOPPER DRIVES:

In two quadrant d.c motor, drive both motiring as well as regenerative braking operations
are carried out by one chopper circuit configurations. One possible.

FOUR – QUAD CHOPPER DRIVES:

It four-quadrant d.c chopper drives, a motor can be used to work in forwad motoring,
forward regenerative braking, Reverse motoring, Reverse Regenerative braking
modes. Hence a circuit configuration can be used to obtain the four duadrant
operation of separately excited D.c motor device.

CHOPPER DRIVES

In order to control the speed of a d.c motor, variable voltage is obtained from d.c
chopper, which is widely used today. In addition chopper has following advantages.

 Easily adaptable for Regenerative broking

 Power control or motoring control is possible
 Overall efficiency improvement.

POWER CONTROL OR MOTORING CONTROL:

In this schema, d.c chopper feeds power to d.c series motor.

Average motor voltage V0 = α. Vs
Power delivered to motor = α. Vs. Ia
Ia = Armature current
α. = duty cycle
Vs = supply voltage
Average source current = α. Ia
Input power to motor α. . Vs. Ia
In this mode we can achieve only single quadrant operation.

REGENERATIVE BRAKING CONTROL:

In this motor acts Generator an kinetic energy of motor & connected load is returned to
supply.
The average voltage = (1 - α.) Vs
Power generated by motor = (1 - α.) Vs. Ia
Motor e.m.f generated = (1 - α.) Vs. + IaRa

Ia = Armature currents
Ra = Armature Resistance
α. = duty ratio

 Four Quad Open of D.C. Drives

1-Ø Dual Converter Drive

for converter 1 V t = (2 V / T) cos

1
m

converter 2 V t = (2 V m /  ) cos  2

 Power Control or Motoring Control

For motor armature circuit
V t = Km Wm + I a (r a + r s)
Wm =(  V s – I a ( r a + r s)) \ K m
Under steady state operating conditions
Vt=  Vs=Ea+IaR
 Regenerative Braking Control
W m = (1-  ) V s +I a R e) / K m
Maximum braking speed W mn =(V s +I c R e) K m
UNIT-V

CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTOR FROM STATION SIDE:

 Three phase induction motors are of two types:
 Squirrel cage and
 Wound rotor
 In squirrel cage rotor constant of shorted conductor bars.
 In wound rotor ltype rotor has a blanaced three phase distributed winding having
same poles as stator winding:
W  Wm
Slip  S  ms

Wms
 Wms = synchronous speed
 Wm = rotor speed
 Wms=120f/P
 F= Supply frequency
 P=number of poles
 Air gap power (Power transferred to rotor)
Pg  3I r12 Rr  / S

 Rotor copper loss is PC4=EiR
 Electlrical power converted into mechanical power Pm= Pg-PCh
 =e
 Torque developed by motor T= Pm/Wm = Pg/Wms.
 
 
3  V 2 Rr  / S 
T
 ns   
Rr 
2
2
  Rs    Xs  xr   
  S  
 Where Ir’ – is the equivalent rotor current
Rr

 S equivalent rotor resistance
 Xr’ = Equivalent rotor reactance
 Xs= Stator neactance
 Rs= Stator resistance
 V= Stator voltage.
 Maximum torque
 
3  V 2 
T max   
2 wms  2 

2

 RS  Rs  X S  X r  
 By7 reducing the stator voltage speed of the induct9ion motor can be reduced.
  For the same current motor develops lower torque.
Pm
 (1  S )
Pg
 Motor efficiency=
 Variable voltage for speed control is obtained by ac voltage controllers
 AC voltage controllers are used for soft start of motors.

The advantages & disadvantages of a.c drives wish aspect to d.c drives are quoted.

Advantages:
 For same vating a.c motors we light in weight
 Less Expensive.
 Can work in hazar dous areas like chemical Environment
 Requires low maintenance

Dis Advantages:
 Control is complex
 Poloer converters for a.c drives are expensive
 Power converters for a.c drives generates harmonics.

INDUCTION MOTOR DRIVE:

Three phase Im’s one of 2 type
 squirrel cage IM.
 Slip Ring IM.

When 3 – φ supply is given to 3 – φ stator winding, rotating magnetic field is produced,

which rotates at synchronous speed.
120 F
Ns 
P
F = supply Frequency in HZ
P = no. of poles.
The rotor speed Nr = Ns(1 – S)
Nr = Rotor speed in rpm.
Ns  Nr
S = slip =
Ns
SPEED CONTROL OF 3 – Φ INDUCTION MOTORS:
The various methods of speed control through Semi conductor devices are
 Stator voltage control
 Stator frequency control
 Stator voltage & Frequency control.
 Stator current control
 Static – rotor resistance control
 Slip – energy recovery control

Stator Voltage Control:

Electromagnetic torque is proportional to square of applied voltage. A reduction in supply
voltage will reduce motor torque & therefore the speed of the drive.

For purpose of varying 3 - φ voltage, A.c voltage controller is used. By controlling

the firing angle of 3 – φ a.c voltage controller, variable output voltage & there by
speed is obtained.
UNIT-VI

 Induction Motor Control From Stator Side

 Stator Voltage Control
2 2 2
T e = (3 / W s) ((K V 1) / (r 1 + (r 2/ s)) +(x 1 + x 2) ) (r 2/ s)
 Stator Frequency Control
T e m = ( 3 P / LW1 2) (V1 2) / ( l 1+ l 2)
 Stator Voltage and Frequency Control
2
T em = (3 P / 4) (V1/W1) (l 1 / ( l 1+ l 2))
2
T est = (3 P / 2 W 1) (V1/W1) (r 2 / ( l 1+ l 2)2)
 Stator Current Control
2 2
T em = (3 P / 4) (L m) / ( l 2+ l m) (I 1 )
2 2
T est = (3/ W s) (I 1. X m) /(r 2 + ( x 2 + x m)2) r 2

FREUENCY CONTROL:

 By changing supply frequency, motor synchronous speed can be altered and thus
torque & speed of 3 – φ IM.

 Hence with constant supply voltage, if supply frequency is increased the synchronous
speed and therefore motor speed rises.

3 I 22 r2
.
 Motor torque = Te =
Ws S

 Ws synchronous speed in rps

 I2 Rotor current
 r2 Rotor resistance
 s slip
 With constant voltage and increased frequency operation air gap flux gets reduced &
IM is said to be in “field weakning mode”.
CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTOR THROUGH STATOR FREQUENCY
 Voltage induced in stator is proportional to the product of supply frequency and air
gap flux.
 Variable frequency control below the rat act frequency is carried out by maintaining
constant V/f ratio.
 To control speed above base speed V is kept constant.

STATOR VOLTAGE & FREQUENCY CONTROL:

If the ratio of supply voltage to frequency is constant, flux is constant. This method of
speed control is called volt/Hz control. Variable voltage & variable frequency can be
obtained from voltage source Inverters.

STATOR CURRENT CONTROL:

The developed torque and therefore speed of 3 – φ IM can be controlled by stator current
control.

The maximum torque is

 proportional to stator current
 independent of supply frequency

A constant current for 3 – φ IM can be obtained from 3 – φ current source Inverter. The
advantages of CSI fed IM one

i. Fault current level control

ii. Current input is reflected by motor parameters.
DISADVANTAGES:

i. Generation of unwanted Harmonics

ii. Torque pulsations
UNIT-VII

CONTOROL OF INDUCTION MOTOR OF ROTOR SIDE:

 Maximum torque is independent of rotor resistance.

 Speed at which maximum torque is produced change with the rotor resistance.

SPEED CONTROL OF IM FROM ROTOR SIDE:

STATIC ROTOR RESISTANCE CONTROL:

In a slip ring induction Motor a 3 phase variable resistor can be inserted in rotor circuit,
hence starting torque & starting current can be controlled.

Disadvantages:
1. Low efficiency
2. Unbalances in voltages & currents.

With Chopper Control:

3s pg = Vd. Id.
Pg = gross power
Vd = d.c voltage
Id = d.c current

Te .ws .3s
Id 
1.
Vd

2
I1  I d
2. Rotor current Referred to stator 3
3. Fundamental component of rotor current, referred to stator
b
I11   . Id


SLIP – POWER RECOVERY SCHEME:

In the above method slip power is dissipated in external resistance and it leads to poor
efficiency of drive. However, instead of washing slip power in rotor circuit resistance,
it can be conveniently converted by various schems for speed control of IM. Two
important schemes are
static kramer’s drive
static scherbius drive
STATIC KRAMER’S DRIVE:

The slip frequency power from rotor circuit is converted to d.c voltage which is then
converted to line frequency & pumped back to a.c source. As slip power can flow in
only one direction, it offers speed control below synchronous speed.

STATIC SCHERBIUS DRIVE:

These are of 2 types

 Dc link scherbius drive
 Cyclo converter scherbius elrine.

LINK STATIC SCHERBIUS DRIVE:

In sub synchronous speed control of WRIM, slip power is removed from rotor circuit &
pumped back to a.c supply.

In super synchronous speed control of WRIM, additional power is fed to rotor circuit
at slip frequency.

The circuit consists of WRIM, 2-phase – controlled bridges, smoothing inductor &
Transformer.
Near synchronous speed, slip frequency e.m.f’s are insufficient for natural
commutation of thyristors, hence forced commutation is applied.

CYCLOCONVERTER SCHERBIUS DRIVE:

such a scheme is applicable for very high power pumps & blower-type drives.
Cycloconverter permits slip-power flow in either direction and hence machine can therefore
be controlled in both motoring & regenerating features with both sub-synchronous and
super-synchronous speed.
UNIT-VIII
SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR DRIVES

Synchronous motor has 2 windings, one on the stator is 3 – φarmature winding and
other on rotor is field winding. The three phase winding on stator is similar to 3 – φ
stator winding of Induction Motor. Three phase stator winding 3 – φ balance
currents creating it own rotating m.m.f.

Power factor of synchronous motor can be varied by varying its field current.

For speed control of synchronous motor both inverter and cycloconverters are used.

VARIOUS TYPES OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS ARE

 Cylindrical Rotor motors.
 Salient role motors
 Reluctance motors
 Permanent magnet motors.

CYLINDRICAL ROTOR MOTORS:

Developed torque
1 E f .Vt
Te  . Sin f
ws xs
4f
Ns  
P
Synchronous speed in rods
E f .Vt vt2  1 1 
P Sin f     Sin 2 f
xd 2  xd q 
 = load angle
Ef = E.m.f
Vt = remind voltage
Xd = direct axis reactance
Xq = quadrature axis reactance.
I a xq cos 
Vt  I a x q k sin 
tan f =
 Vt Cos .Ef
Id = xd

REFLECTANCE MOTORS:

A salient pole motor connected to runs at Ns. If the field current is switched off, it
continues running at Ns as a reflectance motor.
Thus a machine designed to operate as reluctance motor is similar to salient pole motor
wish no field winding on rotor. The rotating magnetic field induces field in rotor
which tends to align itself with armature field producing a reluctance torque at
synchronous speed.

P  Vt cos  I q  Vt sin  I d
tan 1 I a x q cos 

Vt  I a x q sin 
Where ‘θ’ is angle between Vt & Ia
Pull –out torque

Vt 2  1 1 
  
2ws  xq xd 
Tom =

1 vt 2  1 1 
Te  .    sin 2
ws 2  xq xd 
Reluctance torque

PERMANENT MAGNET MOTORS:

It is similar to salient pole synchronous motor without field winding on poles. The required
flux is produced by permanent magnets mounted on rotor. In these motor excitation
emf ef can’t be varied.

All the equations governing the performance of salient pole are applicable to this
with excitation e.m.f ef taken as constant. The absence of field winding & 2 slip rings
loads to reduction in motor loss. For same frame – size PMSM has higher pull-out
torque & more efficiency as compared to salient pole motor.

These motors are used in robots & machine tools. It is fed from CSI