3 Kinematics

Kinematics
1. Lesson 1 - Describing Motion with Words

a. Introduction
b. Scalars and Vectors
c. Distance and Displacement
d. Speed and Velocity
e. Acceleration
2. Lesson 2 - Describing Motion with Diagrams
a. Introduction
b. Ticker Tape Diagrams
c. Vector Diagrams
3. Lesson 3 - Describing Motion with Position vs. Time Graphs
a. The Meaning of Shape for a p-t Graph
b. Meaning of Slope for a p-t Graph
c. Determining the Slope on a p-t Graph
4. Lesson 4 - Describing Motion with Velocity vs. Time Graphs
a. Meaning of Shape for a v-t Graph
b. Meaning of Slope for a v-t Graph
c. Relating the Shape to the Motion
d. Determining the Slope on a v-t Graph
e. Determining the Area on a v-t Graph
5. Lesson 5 - Free Fall and the Acceleration of Gravity
a. Introduction
b. Acceleration of Gravity
c. Representing Free Fall by Graphs
d. How Fast? and How Far?
e. The Big Misconception
6. Lesson 6 - Describing Motion with Equations
a. Kinematic Equations
b. Kinematic Equations and Problem-Solving
c. Kinematic Equations and Free Fall
d. Sample Problems and Solutions
e. Kinematic Equations and Graphs
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Lesson 1 - Describing Motion with Words
Introduction
Scalars and Vectors
Distance and Displacement
Speed and Velocity
Acceleration
Introduction to the Language of Kinematics
A typical physics course concerns itself with a variety of broad topics. One such
topic is mechanics - the study of the motion of objects. The first
six units of The Physics Classroom tutorial will involve an
investigation into the physics of motion. As we focus on the
language, principles, and laws that describe and explain the
motion of objects, your efforts should center on internalizing the meaning of
the information. Avoid memorizing the information; and avoid abstracting the
information from the physical world that it describes and explains. Rather,
contemplate the information, thinking about its meaning and its applications.
Kinematics is the science of describing the motion of objects using words,
diagrams, numbers, graphs, and equations. Kinematics is a branch of
mechanics. The goal of any study of kinematics is to develop sophisticated
mental models that serve to describe (and ultimately, explain) the motion of
real-world objects.
In this lesson, we will investigate the words used to describe the motion of
objects. That is, we will focus on the language of kinematics. The hope is to
gain a comfortable foundation with the language that is used throughout the
study of mechanics. We will study such terms as scalars, vectors, distance,
displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration. These words are used with
regularity to describe the motion of objects. Your goal should be to become very
familiar with their meaning.
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Scalars and Vectors
Physics is a mathematical science. The underlying concepts and principles

have a mathematical basis. Throughout the course of our study of physics, we
will encounter a variety of concepts that have a mathematical basis associated
with them. While our emphasis will often be upon the conceptual nature of
physics, we will give considerable and persistent attention to its mathematical
aspect.
The motion of objects can be described by words. Even a person without a
background in physics has a collection of words that can be used to describe
moving objects. Words and phrases such as going fast,stopped, slowing
down, speeding up, and turning provide a sufficient vocabulary for describing
the motion of objects. In physics, we use these words and many more. We will
be expanding upon this vocabulary list with words such
as distance, displacement, speed, velocity, and acceleration. As we will soon
see, these words are associated with mathematical quantities that have strict
definitions. The mathematical quantities that are used to describe the motion
of objects can be divided into two categories. The quantity is either a vector or a
scalar. These two categories can be distinguished from one another by their
distinct definitions:
 Scalars are quantities that are fully described by a magnitude (or numerical
value) alone.
 Vectors are quantities that are fully described by both a magnitude and a
direction.
The remainder of this lesson will focus on several examples of vector and scalar
quantities (distance, displacement, speed, velocity, and acceleration). As you
proceed through the lesson, give careful attention to the vector and scalar
nature of each quantity. As we proceed through other units at The Physics
Classroom Tutorial and become introduced to new mathematical quantities,
the discussion will often begin by identifying the new quantity as being either a
vector or a scalar.
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Distance and Displacement
Distance and displacement are two quantities that may seem to mean the same
thing yet have distinctly different definitions and meanings.
 Distance is a scalar quantity that refers to "how much ground an object
has covered" during its motion.
 Displacement is a vector quantity that refers to "how far out of place an
object is"; it is the object's overall change in position.
To test your understanding of this distinction, consider the motion depicted in
the diagram below. A physics teacher walks 4 meters East, 2 meters South, 4
meters West, and finally 2 meters North.
Even though the physics teacher has walked a total distance of 12 meters, her
displacement is 0 meters. During the course of her motion, she has "covered 12
meters of ground" (distance = 12 m). Yet when she is finished walking, she is
not "out of place" - i.e., there is no displacement for her motion (displacement =
0 m). Displacement, being a vector quantity, must give attention to direction.
The 4 meters east cancels the 4 meters west; and the 2 meters
south cancels the 2 meters north. Vector quantities such as displacement
are direction aware. Scalar quantities such as distance are ignorant of
direction. In determining the overall distance traveled by the physics teachers,
the various directions of motion can be ignored.
Now consider another example. The diagram below shows the position of a
cross-country skier at various times. At each of the indicated times, the skier
turns around and reverses the direction of travel. In other words, the skier
moves from A to B to C to D.
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Use the diagram to determine the resulting displacement and the distance
traveled by the skier during these three minutes. Then click the button to
see the answer.
As a final example, consider a football coach pacing back and forth along the
sidelines. The diagram below shows several of coach's positions at various
times. At each marked position, the coach makes a "U-turn" and moves in the
opposite direction. In other words, the coach moves from position A to B to C to
D.
What is the coach's resulting displacement and distance of travel? Click

the button to see the answer.
To understand the distinction between distance and displacement, you must

know the definitions. You must also know that a vector quantity such as
displacement is direction-aware and a scalar quantity such as distance
is ignorant of direction. When an object changes its direction of motion,
displacement takes this direction change into account; heading the opposite
direction effectively begins to cancel whatever displacement there once was.
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Speed and Velocity
Just as distance and displacement have distinctly different meanings (despite

their similarities), so do speed and velocity. Speed is a scalar quantity that
refers to "how fast an object is moving." Speed can be thought of as the rate at
which an object covers distance. A fast-moving object has a high speed and
covers a relatively large distance in a short amount of time. Contrast this to a
slow-moving object that has a low speed; it covers a relatively small amount of
distance in the same amount of time. An object with no movement at all has a
zero speed.
Velocity as a Vector Quantity

Velocity is a vector quantity that refers to "the rate at which an object changes
its position." Imagine a person moving rapidly - one step forward and one step
back - always returning to the original starting position. While this might result
in a frenzy of activity, it would result in a zero velocity. Because the person
always returns to the original position, the motion would never result in a
change in position. Since velocity is defined as the rate at which the position
changes, this motion results in zero velocity. If a person in motion wishes to
maximize their velocity, then that person must make every effort to maximize
the amount that they are displaced from their original position. Every step
must go into moving that person further from where he or she started. For
certain, the person should never change directions and begin to return to the
starting position.
Velocity is a vector quantity. As such, velocity is direction aware. When
evaluating the velocity of an object, one must keep track of direction. It would
not be enough to say that an object has a velocity of 55 mi/hr. One must
include direction information in order to fully describe the velocity of the object.
For instance, you must describe an object's velocity as being 55 mi/hr, east.
This is one of the essential differences between speed and velocity. Speed is a
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scalar quantity and does not keep track of direction; velocity is a vector quantity
and is direction aware.
Determining the Direction of the Velocity Vector
The task of describing the direction of the velocity vector is
easy. The direction of the velocity vector is simply the same as
the direction that an object is moving. It would not matter
whether the object is speeding up or slowing down. If an object
is moving rightwards, then its velocity is described as being
rightwards. If an object is moving downwards, then its velocity is described as
being downwards. So an airplane moving towards the west with a speed of 300
mi/hr has a velocity of 300 mi/hr, west. Note that speed has no direction (it is
a scalar) and the velocity at any instant is simply the speed value with a
direction.
Calculating Average Speed and Average Velocity
As an object moves, it often undergoes changes in speed. For example, during
an average trip to school, there are many changes in speed. Rather than the
speed-o-meter maintaining a steady reading, the needle constantly moves up
and down to reflect the stopping and starting and the accelerating and
decelerating. One instant, the car may be moving at 50 mi/hr and another
instant, it might be stopped (i.e., 0 mi/hr). Yet during the trip to school the
person might average 32 mi/hr. The average speed during an entire motion can
be thought of as the average of all speedometer readings. If the speedometer
readings could be collected at 1-second intervals (or 0.1-second intervals or ... )
and then averaged together, the average speed could be determined. Now that
would be a lot of work. And fortunately, there is a shortcut. Read on.
The average speed during the course of a motion is often computed using
the following formula:
In contrast, the average velocity is often computed using this formula
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Let's begin implementing our understanding of these formulas with the
following problem:
Q: While on vacation, Lisa Carr traveled a total distance of 440 miles. Her
trip took 8 hours. What was her average speed?
To compute her average speed, we simply divide the distance of travel by the
time of travel.
That was easy! Lisa Carr averaged a speed of 55 miles per hour. She may not
have been traveling at a constant speed of 55 mi/hr. She undoubtedly, was
stopped at some instant in time (perhaps for a bathroom break or for lunch)
and she probably was going 65 mi/hr at other instants in time. Yet, she
averaged a speed of 55 miles per hour. The above formula represents a
shortcut method of determining the average speed of an object.
Average Speed versus Instantaneous Speed

Since a moving object often changes its speed during its motion,
it is common to distinguish between the average speed and the
instantaneous speed. The distinction is as follows.
 Instantaneous Speed - the speed at any given instant in
time.
 Average Speed - the average of all instantaneous speeds; found simply by a
distance/time ratio.
You might think of the instantaneous speed as the speed that the speedometer
reads at any given instant in time and the average speed as the average of all
the speedometer readings during the course of the trip. Since the task of
averaging speedometer readings would be quite complicated (and maybe even
dangerous), the average speed is more commonly calculated as the
distance/time ratio.
Moving objects don't always travel with erratic and changing speeds.
Occasionally, an object will move at a steady rate with a constant speed. That
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is, the object will cover the same distance every regular interval of time. For
instance, a cross-country runner might be running with a constant speed of 6
m/s in a straight line for several minutes. If her speed is constant, then the
distance traveled every second is the same. The runner would cover a distance
of 6 meters every second. If we could measure her position (distance from an
arbitrary starting point) each second, then we would note that the position
would be changing by 6 meters each second. This would be in stark contrast to
an object that is changing its speed. An object with a changing speed would be
moving a different distance each second. The data tables below depict objects
with constant and changing speed.
Now let's consider the motion of that physics teacher again. The physics
teacher walks 4 meters East, 2 meters South, 4 meters West, and finally 2
meters North. The entire motion lasted for 24 seconds. Determine the average
speed and the average velocity.
The physics teacher walked a distance of 12 meters in 24 seconds; thus, her

average speed was 0.50 m/s. However, since her displacement is 0 meters, her
average velocity is 0 m/s. Remember that thedisplacement refers to the change
in position and the velocity is based upon this position change. In this case of
the teacher's motion, there is a position change of 0 meters and thus an
average velocity of 0 m/s.
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Here is another example similar to what was seen before in the discussion
of distance and displacement. The diagram below shows the position of a cross-
country skier at various times. At each of the indicated times, the skier turns
around and reverses the direction of travel. In other words, the skier moves
from A to B to C to D.
Use the diagram to determine the average speed and the average velocity
of the skier during these three minutes. When finished, click the button
to view the answer.
See Answer
As a last example, consider a football coach pacing back and forth along the
sidelines. The diagram below shows several of coach's positions at various
times. At each marked position, the coach makes a "U-turn" and moves in the
opposite direction. In other words, the coach moves from position A to B to C to
D.
What is the coach's average speed and average velocity? When finished,
click the button to view the answer.
See Answer
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In conclusion, speed and velocity are kinematic quantities that have distinctly
different definitions. Speed, being a scalar quantity, is the rate at which an
object covers distance. The average speed is the distance (a scalar quantity) per
time ratio. Speed is ignorant of direction. On the other hand, velocity is a vector
quantity; it is direction-aware. Velocity is the rate at which the position
changes. The average velocity is the displacement or position change (a vector
quantity) per time ratio.
Acceleration
The final mathematical quantity discussed in Lesson 1 is acceleration. An often

confused quantity, acceleration has a meaning much different than the
meaning associated with it by sports announcers and other individuals. The
definition of acceleration is:
 Acceleration is a vector quantity that is defined as the rate at which an
object changes its velocity. An object is accelerating if it is changing its
velocity.
Sports announcers will occasionally say that a person is
accelerating if he/she is moving fast. Yet acceleration has
nothing to do with going fast. A person can be moving very
fast and still not be accelerating. Acceleration has to do with
changing how fast an object is moving. If an object is not
changing its velocity, then the object is not accelerating. The data at the right
are representative of a northward-moving accelerating object. The velocity is
changing over the course of time. In fact, the velocity is changing by a constant
amount - 10 m/s - in each second of time. Anytime an object's velocity is
changing, the object is said to be accelerating; it has an acceleration.
The Meaning of Constant Acceleration

Sometimes an accelerating object will change its velocity by the same amount
each second. As mentioned in the previous paragraph, the data table above
show an object changing its velocity by 10 m/s in each consecutive second.
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This is referred to as a constant acceleration since the velocity is changing by
a constant amount each second. An object with a constant acceleration should
not be confused with an object with a constant velocity. Don't be fooled! If an
object is changing its velocity -whether by a constant amount or a varying
amount - then it is an accelerating object. And an object with a constant
velocity is not accelerating. The data tables below depict motions of objects
with a constant acceleration and a changing acceleration. Note that each object
has a changing velocity.
Since accelerating objects are constantly changing their velocity, one can say
that the distance traveled/time is not a constant value. A falling object for
instance usually accelerates as it falls. If we were to observe the motion of
a free-falling object (free fall motion will be discussed in detail later), we would
observe that the object averages a velocity of approximately 5 m/s in the first
second, approximately 15 m/s in the second second, approximately 25 m/s in
the third second, approximately 35 m/s in the fourth second, etc. Our free-
falling object would be constantly accelerating. Given these average velocity
values during each consecutive 1-second time interval, we could say that the
object would fall 5 meters in the first second, 15 meters in the second second
(for a total distance of 20 meters), 25 meters in the third second (for a total
distance of 45 meters), 35 meters in the fourth second (for a total distance of
80 meters after four seconds). These numbers are summarized in the table
below.
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Velocity Distance Total Distance
Ave. Velocity
Time Change Traveled Traveled from
During
Interval During During 0 s to End of
Interval
Interval Interval Interval
0 – 1.0 s 0 to ~10 m/s ~5 m/s ~5 m ~5 m
1.0 – 2.0 s ~10 to 20 m/s ~15 m/s ~15 m ~20 m
2.0 – 3.0 s ~20 to 30 m/s ~25 m/s ~25 m ~45 m
3.0 – 4.0 s ~30 to 40 m/s ~35 m/s ~35 m ~80 m
Note: The ~ symbol as used here means approximately.
This discussion illustrates that a free-falling object that is accelerating at a

constant rate will cover different distances in each consecutive second. Further
analysis of the first and last columns of the data above reveal that there is a
square relationship between the total distance traveled and the time of travel
for an object starting from rest and moving with a constant acceleration. The
total distance traveled is directly proportional to the square of the time. As
such, if an object travels for twice the time, it will cover four times (2^2) the
distance; the total distance traveled after two seconds is four times the total
distance traveled after one second. If an object travels for three times the time,
then it will cover nine times (3^2) the distance; the distance traveled after three
seconds is nine times the distance traveled after one second. Finally, if an
object travels for four times the time, then it will cover 16 times (4^2) the
distance; the distance traveled after four seconds is 16 times the distance
traveled after one second. For objects with a constant acceleration, the distance
of travel is directly proportional to the square of the time of travel.
Calculating the Average Acceleration

The average acceleration (a) of any object over a given interval of time (t) can be
calculated using the equation
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This equation can be used to calculate the acceleration of the object whose
motion is depicted by thevelocity-time data table above. The velocity-time data
in the table shows that the object has an acceleration of 10 m/s/s. The
calculation is shown below.
Acceleration values are expressed in units of

velocity/time. Typical acceleration units include the
following:
m/s/s
mi/hr/s
km/hr/s
m/s2
These units may seem a little awkward to a beginning physics student. Yet they
are very reasonable units when you begin to consider the definition and
equation for acceleration. The reason for the units becomes obvious upon
examination of the acceleration equation.
Since acceleration is a velocity change over a time, the units on acceleration

are velocity units divided by time units - thus (m/s)/s or (mi/hr)/s. The
(m/s)/s unit can be mathematically simplified to m/s2.
The Direction of the Acceleration Vector

Since acceleration is a vector quantity, it has a direction associated with it. The
direction of the acceleration vector depends on two things:
 whether the object is speeding up or slowing down
 whether the object is moving in the + or - direction
The general principle for determining the acceleation is:
If an object is slowing down, then its acceleration is in the
opposite direction of its motion.
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This general principle can be applied to determine whether the sign of the
acceleration of an object is positive or negative, right or left, up or down, etc.
Consider the two data tables below. In each case, the acceleration of the object
is in the positive direction. In Example A, the object is moving in
the positive direction (i.e., has a positive velocity) and is speeding up. When an
object is speeding up, the acceleration is in the same direction as the velocity.
Thus, this object has a positive acceleration. In Example B, the object is
moving in the negative direction (i.e., has a negative velocity) and is slowing
down. According to our general principle, when an object is slowing down, the
acceleration is in the opposite direction as the velocity. Thus, this object also
has a positive acceleration.
This same general principle can be applied to the motion of the objects
represented in the two data tables below. In each case, the acceleration of the
object is in the negative direction. In Example C, the object is moving in
the positive direction (i.e., has a positive velocity) and is slowing down.
According to ourprinciple, when an object is slowing down, the acceleration is
in the opposite direction as the velocity. Thus, this object has a negative
acceleration. In Example D, the object is moving in the negative direction (i.e.,
has a negative velocity) and is speeding up. When an object is speeding up, the
acceleration is in the same direction as the velocity. Thus, this object also has
a negative acceleration.
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Lesson 2 - Describing Motion with Diagrams
Introduction
Ticker Tape Diagrams
Vector Diagrams
Introduction to Diagrams
Throughout The Physics Classroom Tutorial, there is a persistent appeal to
your ability to represent physical concepts in a visual manner. You will quickly
notice that this effort to provide visual representation of physical concepts
permeates much of the discussion in The Physics Classroom Tutorial. The
world that we study in physics is a physical world - a world that we can see.
And if we can see it, we certainly ought to visualize it. And if we seek to
understand it, then that understanding ought to involve visual representations.
So as you continue your pursuit of physics understanding, always be mindful
of your ability (or lack of ability) to visually represent it. Monitor your study
and learning habits, asking if your knowledge has become abstracted to a
series of vocabulary words that have (at least in your own mind) no relation to
the physical world which it seeks to describe. Your understanding of physics
should be intimately tied to the physical world as demonstrated by your visual
images.
Like the study of all of physics, our study of 1-dimensional kinematics will be
concerned with the multiple means by which the motion of objects can be
represented. Such means include the use of words, the use of graphs, the use
of numbers, the use of equations, and the use of diagrams. Lesson 2 focuses
on the use of diagrams to describe motion. The two most commonly used types
of diagrams used to describe the motion of objects are:
 Ticker Tape Diagrams
 Vector Diagrams
Begin cultivating your visualization skills early in the course. Spend some time
on the rest of Lesson 2, seeking to connect the visuals and graphics with the
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words and the physical reality. And as you proceed through the remainder of
the unit 1 lessons, continue to make these same connections.
Ticker Tape Diagrams
A common way of analyzing the motion of objects in physics labs is to perform
a ticker tape analysis. A longtape is attached to a moving object and threaded
through a device that places a tick upon the tape at regular intervals of time -
say every 0.10 second. As the object moves, it drags the tape through the
"ticker," thus leaving a trail of dots. The trail of dots provides a history of the
object's motion and therefore a representation of the object's motion.
The distance between dots on a ticker tape represents the object's position
change during that time interval. A large distance between dots indicates that
the object was moving fast during that time interval. A small distance between
dots means the object was moving slow during that time interval. Ticker tapes
for a fast- and slow-moving object are depicted below.
The analysis of a ticker tape diagram will also reveal if the object is moving with
a constant velocity or accelerating. A changing distance between dots indicates
a changing velocity and thus an acceleration. A constant distance between dots
represents a constant velocity and therefore no acceleration. Ticker tapes for
objects moving with a constant velocity and with an accelerated motion are
shown below.
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And so ticker tape diagrams provide one more means of representing various
features of the motion of objects.
Vector Diagrams
Vector diagrams are diagrams that depict the direction and relative magnitude
of a vector quantity by a vector arrow. Vector diagrams can be used to describe
the velocity of a moving object during its motion. For example, a vector diagram
could be used to represent the motion of a car moving down the road.
In a vector diagram, the magnitude of a vector quantity is represented by the

size of the vector arrow. If the size of the arrow in each consecutive frame of the
vector diagram is the same, then the magnitude of that vector is constant. The
diagrams below depict the velocity of a car during its motion. In the top
diagram, the size of the velocity vector is constant, so the diagram is depicting
a motion of constant velocity. In the bottom diagram, the size of the velocity
vector is increasing, so the diagram is depicting a motion with increasing
velocity - i.e., an acceleration.
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Vector diagrams can be used to represent any vector quantity. In future
studies, vector diagrams will be used to represent a variety of physical
quantities such as acceleration, force, and momentum. Be familiar with the
concept of using a vector arrow to represent the direction and relative size of a
quantity. It will become a very important representation of an object's motion
as we proceed further in our studies of the physics of motion.
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Lesson 3 - Describing Motion with Position vs.
Time Graphs
The Meaning of Shape for a p-t Graph
Meaning of Slope for a p-t Graph
Determining the Slope on a p-t Graph
The Meaning of Shape for a p-t Graph

Our study of 1-dimensional kinematics has been concerned with the multiple
means by which the motion of objects can be represented. Such means include
the use of words, the use of diagrams, the use of numbers, the use of
equations, and the use of graphs. Lesson 3 focuses on the use of position vs.
time graphs to describe motion. As we will learn, the specific features of the
motion of objects are demonstrated by the shape and the slope of the lines on a
position vs. time graph. The first part of this lesson involves a study of the
relationship between the shape of a p-t graph and the motion of the object.
Contrasting a Constant and a Changing Velocity

To begin, consider a car moving with a constant, rightward (+) velocity - say
of +10 m/s.
If the position-time data for such a car

were graphed, then the resulting graph
would look like the graph at the right.
Note that a motion described as a
constant, positive velocity results in a
line of constant and positive slope when
plotted as a position-time graph.
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Now consider a car moving with a rightward (+), changing velocity - that is, a
car that is moving rightward but speeding up or accelerating.

changing, positive velocity results in a
line of changing and positive slope
when plotted as a position-time graph.
The position vs. time graphs for the two types of motion - constant velocity and
changing velocity (acceleration) - are depicted as follows.
Constant Velocity Positive Velocity
Positive Velocity Changing Velocity (acceleration)
The Importance of Slope

The shapes of the position versus time graphs for these two
basic types of motion - constant velocity motion and
accelerated motion (i.e., changing velocity) - reveal an
important principle. The principle is that the slope of the line
on a position-time graph reveals useful information about the velocity of the
object. It is often said, "As the slope goes, so goes the velocity." Whatever
characteristics the velocity has, the slope will exhibit the same (and vice versa).
If the velocity is constant, then the slope is constant (i.e., a straight line). If the
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velocity is changing, then the slope is changing (i.e., a curved line). If the
velocity is positive, then the slope is positive (i.e., moving upwards and to the
right). This very principle can be extended to any motion conceivable.
Contrasting a Slow and a Fast Motion

Consider the graphs below as example applications
of this principle concerning the slope of the line on a
position versus time graph. The graph on the left is
representative of an object that is moving with a
positive velocity (as denoted by the positive slope), a
constant velocity (as denoted by the constant slope) and a small velocity (as
denoted by the small slope). The graph on the right has similar features - there
is a constant, positive velocity (as denoted by the constant, positive slope).
However, the slope of the graph on the right is larger than that on the left. This
larger slope is indicative of a larger velocity. The object represented by the
graph on the right is traveling faster than the object represented by the graph
on the left. The principle of slope can be used to extract relevant motion
characteristics from a position vs. time graph. As the slope goes, so goes the
velocity.
Slow, Rightward(+) Fast, Rightward(+)
Constant Velocity Constant Velocity
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Consider the graphs below as another
application of this principle of slope. The graph
on the left is representative of an object that is
moving with a negative velocity (as denoted by
the negative slope), a constant velocity (as
denoted by the constant slope) and a small
velocity (as denoted by the small slope). The graph on the right has similar
features - there is a constant, negative velocity (as denoted by the constant,
negative slope). However, the slope of the graph on the right is larger than that
on the left. Once more, this larger slope is indicative of a larger velocity. The
object represented by the graph on the right is traveling faster than the object
represented by the graph on the left.
Slow, Leftward(-) Fast, Leftward(-)
Constant Velocity Constant Velocity
Representing an Accelerated Motion

As a final application of this principle of slope, consider the two graphs below.
Both graphs show plotted points forming a curved line. Curved lines have
changing slope; they may start with a very small slope and begin curving
sharply (either upwards or downwards) towards a large slope. In either case,
the curved line of changing slope is a sign of accelerated motion (i.e., changing
velocity). Applying the principle of slope to the graph on the left, one would
conclude that the object depicted by the graph is moving with a negative
velocity (since the slope is negative ). Furthermore, the object is starting with a
small velocity (the slope starts out with a small slope) and finishes with a large
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velocity (the slope becomes large). That would mean that this object is moving
in the negative direction and speeding up (the small velocity turns into a larger
velocity). This is an example of negative acceleration - moving in the negative
direction and speeding up. The graph on the right also depicts an object with
negative velocity (since there is a negative slope). The object begins with a high
velocity (the slope is initially large) and finishes with a small velocity (since the
slope becomes smaller). So this object is moving in the negative direction and
slowing down. This is an example of positive acceleration.
Negative (-) Velocity Leftward (-) Velocity
Slow to Fast Fast to Slow
The principle of slope is an incredibly useful principle for extracting relevant

information about the motion of objects as described by their position vs. time
graph. Once you've practiced the principle a few times, it becomes a very
natural means of analyzing position-time graphs.
The Meaning of Slope for a p-t Graph

As discussed in the previous part of Lesson 3, the slope of a position vs. time
graph reveals pertinent information about an object's velocity. For example, a
small slope means a small velocity; a negative slope means a negative velocity;
a constant slope (straight line) means a constant velocity; a changing slope
(curved line) means a changing velocity. Thus the shape of the line on the
graph (straight, curving, steeply sloped, mildly sloped, etc.) is descriptive of the
object's motion. In this part of the lesson, we will examine how the actual slope
value of any straight line on a graph is the velocity of the object.
Consider a car moving with a constant velocity of +10 m/s for 5 seconds. The
diagram below depicts such a motion.
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The position-time graph would look like
the graph at the right. Note that during
the first 5 seconds, the line on the
graph slopes up 10 m for every 1 second
along the horizontal (time) axis. That is,
the slope of the line is +10 meter/1
second. In this case, the slope of the
line (10 m/s) is obviously equal to the velocity of the car. We will examine a few
other graphs to see if this a principle that is true of all position vs. time graphs.
Now consider a car moving at a constant velocity of +5 m/s for 5 seconds,
abruptly stopping, and then remaining at rest (v = 0 m/s) for 5 seconds.

For the first five seconds the line on the
graph slopes up 5 meters for every 1
second along the horizontal (time) axis.
That is, the line on the position vs. time
graph has a slope of +5 meters/1 second for the first five seconds. Thus, the
slope of the line on the graph equals the velocity of the car. During the last 5
seconds (5 to 10 seconds), the line slopes up 0 meters. That is, the slope of the
line is 0 m/s - the same as the velocity during this
time interval.
Both of these examples reveal an important
principle. The principle is that the slope of the line
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on a position-time graph is equal to the velocity of the object. If the object is
moving with a velocity of +4 m/s, then the slope of the line will be +4 m/s. If
the object is moving with a velocity of -8 m/s, then the slope of the line will be -
8 m/s. If the object has a velocity of 0 m/s, then the slope of the line will be 0
m/s.
Determining the Slope on a p-t Graph

 The Meaning of Shape for a p-t Graph
 Meaning of Slope for a p-t Graph
 Determining the Slope on a p-t Graph
It was learned earlier in Lesson 3 that the slope of the line on a position versus
time graph is equal to the velocity of the object. If the object is moving with a
velocity of +4 m/s, then the slope of the line will be +4 m/s. If the object is
moving with a velocity of -8 m/s, then the slope of the line will be -8 m/s. If the
object has a velocity of 0 m/s, then the slope of the line will be 0 m/s. The
slope of the line on a position versus time graph tells it all. Because of its
importance, a student of physics must have a good understanding of how to
calculate the slope of a line. In this part of the lesson, the method for
determining the slope of a line on a position-time graph will be discussed.
Let's begin by considering the position versus time graph below.
The line is sloping upwards to the right. But mathematically, by how much
does it slope upwards for every 1 second along the horizontal (time) axis? To
answer this question we must use the slope equation.
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Using the Slope Equation
The slope equation says that the slope of a line is found by determining the
amount of rise of the line between any two points divided by the amount of run
of the line between the same two points. In other words,
 Pick two points on the line and determine their coordinates.
 Determine the difference in y-coordinates of these two points (rise).
 Determine the difference in x-coordinates for these two points (run).
 Divide the difference in y-coordinates by the difference in x-coordinates
(rise/run or slope).
The diagram below shows this method being applied to determine the slope of
the line. Note that three different calculations are performed for three different
sets of two points on the line. In each case, the result is the same: the slope is
10 m/s.
So that was easy - rise over run is all that is involved.

Now let's attempt a more difficult example. Consider the graph below. Note that
the slope is not positive but rather negative; that is, the line slopes in the
downward direction. Note also that the line on the graph does not pass through
the origin. Slope calculations are relatively easy when the line passes through
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the origin since one of the points is (0,0). But that is not the case here. Test
your understanding of slope calculations by determining the slope of the line
below. Then click the button to check your answer.
Check Your Understanding

1. Determine the velocity (i.e., slope) of the object as portrayed by the graph
below. When you believe you know the answer (and not before), click the
button to check it.
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Lesson 4 - Describing Motion with Velocity vs. Time Graphs
Meaning of Shape for a v-t Graph
Meaning of Slope for a v-t Graph
Relating the Shape to the Motion
Determining the Slope on a v-t Graph
Determining the Area on a v-t Graph
The Meaning of Shape for a v-t Graph

 Meaning of Shape for a v-t Graph
 Meaning of Slope for a v-t Graph
 Relating the Shape to the Motion
 Determining the Slope on a v-t Graph
 Determining the Area on a v-t Graph
Our study of 1-dimensional kinematics has been concerned with the multiple
means by which the motion of objects can be represented. Such means include
the use of words, the use of diagrams, the use of numbers, the use of
equations, and the use of graphs. Lesson 4 focuses on the use of velocity
versus time graphs to describe motion. As we will learn, the specific features
of the motion of objects are demonstrated by the shape and the slope of the
lines on a velocity vs. time graph. The first part of this lesson involves a study
of the relationship between the shape of a v-t graph and the motion of the
object.
Constant Velocity versus Changing Velocity

Consider a car moving with a constant, rightward (+) velocity - say of +10
m/s. As learned in an earlier lesson, a car moving with a constant velocity is a
car with zero acceleration.
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If the velocity-time data for such a car
constant, positive velocity results in a
line of zero slope (a horizontal line has zero slope) when plotted as a velocity-
time graph. Furthermore, only positive velocity values are plotted,
corresponding to a motion with positive velocity.
Now consider a car moving with a rightward (+), changing velocity - that is, a
car that is moving rightward but speeding up or accelerating. Since the car is
moving in the positive direction and speeding up, the car is said to have
a positive acceleration.
If the velocity-time data for such a

car were graphed, then the resulting
graph would look like the graph at
the right. Note that a motion
described as a changing, positive
velocity results in a sloped line when
plotted as a velocity-time graph. The
slope of the line is positive, corresponding to the positive acceleration.
Furthermore, only positive velocity values are plotted, corresponding to a
motion with positive velocity.
The velocity vs. time graphs for the two types of motion - constant velocity and
changing velocity (acceleration) - can be summarized as follows.
Positive Velocity Positive Velocity
Zero Acceleration Positive Acceleration
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The Importance of Slope
The shapes of the velocity vs. time graphs
for these two basic types of motion -
constant velocity motion and accelerated
motion (i.e., changing velocity) - reveal an
important principle. The principle is
that the slope of the line on a velocity-time graph reveals useful
information about the acceleration of the object. If the acceleration is zero,
then the slope is zero (i.e., a horizontal line). If the acceleration is positive, then
the slope is positive (i.e., an upward sloping line). If the acceleration is negative,
then the slope is negative (i.e., a downward sloping line). This very principle
can be extended to any conceivable motion.
The slope of a velocity-time graph reveals information about an object's
acceleration. But how can one tell whether the object is moving in the positive
direction (i.e., positive velocity) or in the negative direction (i.e., negative
velocity)? And how can one tell if the object is speeding up or slowing down?
Positive Velocity versus Negative Velocity

The answers to these questions hinge on one's ability to read a graph. Since
the graph is a velocity-time graph, the velocity would be positive whenever the
line lies in the positive region (above the x-axis) of the graph. Similarly, the
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velocity would be negative whenever the line lies in the negative region (below
the x-axis) of the graph. As learned in Lesson 1, a positive velocity means the
object is moving in the positive direction; and a negative velocity means the
object is moving in the negative direction. So one knows an object is moving in
the positive direction if the line is located in the positive region of the graph
(whether it is sloping up or sloping down). And one knows that an object is
moving in the negative direction if the line is located in the negative region of
the graph (whether it is sloping up or sloping down). And finally, if a line
crosses over the x-axis from the positive region to the negative region of the
graph (or vice versa), then the object has changed directions.
Speeding Up versus Slowing Down

Now how can one tell if the object is speeding up or slowing down? Speeding up
means that the magnitude (or numerical value) of the velocity is getting large.
For instance, an object with a velocity changing from +3 m/s to + 9 m/s is
speeding up. Similarly, an object with a velocity changing from -3 m/s to -9
m/s is also speeding up. In each case, the magnitude of the velocity (the
number itself, not the sign or direction) is increasing; the speed is getting
bigger. Given this fact, one would believe that an object is speeding up if the
line on a velocity-time graph is changing from near the 0-velocity point to a
location further away from the 0-velocity point. That is, if the line is getting
further away from the x-axis (the 0-velocity point), then the object is speeding
up. And conversely, if the line is approaching the x-axis, then the object is
slowing down.
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The Meaning of Slope for a v-t Graph
As discussed in the previous part of Lesson 4, the shape of a velocity versus
time graph reveals pertinent information about an object's acceleration. For
example, if the acceleration is zero, then the velocity-time graph is a horizontal
line (i.e., the slope is zero). If the acceleration is positive, then the line is an
upward sloping line (i.e., the slope is positive). If the acceleration is negative,
then the velocity-time graph is a downward sloping line (i.e., the slope is
negative). If the acceleration is great, then the line slopes up steeply (i.e., the
slope is great). This principle can be extended to any motion conceivable. Thus
the shape of the line on the graph (horizontal, sloped, steeply sloped, mildly
sloped, etc.) is descriptive of the object's motion. In this part of the lesson, we
will examine how the actual slope value of any straight line on a velocity-time
graph is the acceleration of the object.
Analyzing a Constant Velocity Motion

Consider a car moving with a constant velocity of +10 m/s. A car moving with a
constant velocity has anacceleration of 0 m/s/s.
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The velocity-time data and graph would look like the graph below. Note that the
line on the graph is horizontal. That is the slope of the line is 0 m/s/s. In this
case, it is obvious that the slope of the line (0 m/s/s) is the same as the
acceleration (0 m/s/s) of the car.
Time Velocity
(s) (m/s)
0 10
1 10
2 10
3 10
4 10
5 10
So in this case, the slope of the line is equal to the acceleration of the velocity-
time graph. Now we will examine a few other graphs to see if this is a principle
that is true of all velocity versus time graphs.
Analyzing a Changing Velocity Motion

Now consider a car moving with a changing velocity. A car with a changing
velocity will have an acceleration.
The velocity-time data for this motion show that the car has an acceleration
value of 10 m/s/s. (In Lesson 6, we will learn how to relate position-time data
such as that in the diagram above to an acceleration value.) The graph of this
velocity-time data would look like the graph below. Note that the line on the
graph is diagonal - that is, it has a slope. The slope of the line can be
calculated as 10 m/s/s. It is obvious once again that the slope of the line (10
m/s/s) is the same as the acceleration (10 m/s/s) of the car.
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Time Velocity
(s) (m/s)
0 0
1 10
2 20
3 30
4 40
5 50
Analyzing a Two-Stage Motion

In both instances above - the constant velocity motion and the changing
velocity motion, the slope of the line was equal to the acceleration. As a last
illustration, we will examine a more complex case - a two-stage motion.
Consider the motion of a car that first travels with a constant velocity (a=0
m/s/s) of 2 m/s for four seconds and then accelerates at a rate of +2 m/s/s for
four seconds. That is, in the first four seconds, the car is not changing its
velocity (the velocity remains at 2 m/s) and then the car increases its velocity
by 2 m/s per second over the next four seconds. The velocity-time data and
graph are displayed below. Observe the relationship between the slope of the
line during each four-second interval and the corresponding acceleration value.
Time Velocity
(s) (m/s)
0 2
1 2
2 2
3 2
4 2
5 4
6 6
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7 8
8 10
From 0 s to 4 s: slope = 0 m/s/
From 4 s to 8 s: slope = 2 m/s/s
A motion such as the one above further illustrates the important principle: the
slope of the line on a velocity-time graph is equal to the acceleration of the
object. This principle can be used for all velocity-time in order to determine the
numerical value of the acceleration. A single example is given below in
theCheck Your Understanding section.
Investigate!
The widget below plots the velocity-time plot for an accelerating object. Simply
enter the acceleration value, the intial velocity, and the time over which the
motion occurs. The widget then plots the line with velocity on the vertical axis
and time on the horizontal axis.
Try experimenting with different signs for velocity and acceleration. For
instance, try a positive initial velocity and a positive acceleration. Then,
contrast that with a positive initial velocity and a negative acceleration.
Velocity-Time Plot
Enter values for the object's
motion.
Then click on the Graph button.
Acceleration (m/s/s)
Initial Velocity (m/s)
Time (s)
Graph
y-axis = velocity ............ x-axis = time
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Relating the Shape to the Motion
As discussed in a previous part of Lesson 4, the shape of a velocity vs. time
graph reveals pertinent information about an object's acceleration. For
example, if the acceleration is zero, then the velocity-time graph is a horizontal
line - having a slope of zero. If the acceleration is positive, then the line is an
upward sloping line - having a positive slope. If the acceleration is negative,
then the velocity-time graph is a downward sloping line - having a negative
slope. If the acceleration is great, then the line slopes up steeply - having a
large slope. The shape of the line on the graph (horizontal, sloped, steeply
sloped, mildly sloped, etc.) is descriptive of the object's motion. This principle
can be extended to any motion conceivable. In this part of the lesson, we will
examine how the principle applies to a variety of types of motion. In each
diagram below, a short verbal description of a motion is given (e.g., "constant,
rightward velocity") and an accompanying motion diagram is shown. Finally,
the corresponding velocity-time graph is sketched and an explanation is given.
Near the end of this page, a few practice problems are given.
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Investigate!
The widget below plots the velocity-time plot for an accelerating object. Simply
enter the acceleration value, the intial velocity, and the time over which the
motion occurs. The widget then plots the line with velocity on the vertical axis
and time on the horizontal axis.
Try experimenting with different signs for velocity and acceleration. For
instance, try a positive initial velocity and a positive acceleration. Then,
contrast that with a positive initial velocity and a negative acceleration.
Velocity-Time Plot
Enter values for the object's
motion.
Then click on the Graph button.
Acceleration (m/s/s)
Initial Velocity (m/s)
Time (s)
Graph
y-axis = velocity ............ x-axis = time
We Would Like to Suggest ...
Sometimes it isn't enough to just read about it. You

have to interact with it! And that's exactly what you do when you use one of
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The Physics Classroom's Interactives. We would like to suggest that you
combine the reading of this page with the use of our Graph That Motion or
our Graphs and Ramps Interactives. Each is found in the Physics Interactives
section of our website and allows a learner to apply concepts of kinematic
graphs (both position-time and velocity-time) to describe the motion of objects.
Visit: Graph That Motion || Graphs and Ramps

Describe the motion depicted by the following velocity-time graphs. In your
descriptions, make reference to the direction of motion (+ or - direction), the
velocity and acceleration and any changes in speed (speeding up or slowing
down) during the various time intervals (e.g., intervals A, B, and C). When
finished, use the button to view the answers.
See Answer
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See Answer
See Answer
Determining the Slope on a v-t Graph

It was learned earlier in Lesson 4 that the slope of the line on a velocity versus
time graph is equal to theacceleration of the object. If the object is moving with
an acceleration of +4 m/s/s (i.e., changing its velocity by 4 m/s per second),
then the slope of the line will be +4 m/s/s. If the object is moving with an
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acceleration of -8 m/s/s, then the slope of the line will be -8 m/s/s. If the
object has a velocity of 0 m/s, then the slope of the line will be 0 m/s. Because
of its importance, a student of physics must have a good understanding of how
to calculate the slope of a line. In this part of the lesson, the method for
determining the slope of a line on a velocity-time graph will be discussed.
Let's begin by considering the velocity versus time graph below.
The line is sloping upwards to the right. But mathematically, by how much
does it slope upwards for every 1 second along the horizontal (time) axis? To
answer this question we must use the slope equation.
Using the Slope Equation

The slope equation says that the slope of a line is found by determining the
amount of rise of the line between any two points divided by the amount
of run of the line between the same two points. A method for carrying out the
calculation is
1. Pick two points on the line and determine their coordinates.
2. Determine the difference in y-coordinates for these two points (rise).
3. Determine the difference in x-coordinates for these two points (run).
4. Divide the difference in y-coordinates by the difference in x-coordinates
(rise/run or slope).
The calculations below shows how this method can be applied to determine the
slope of the line. Note that three different calculations are performed for three
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different sets of two points on the line. In each case, the result is the same: the
slope is 10 m/s/s.
For points (5 s, 50 m/s) and (0 s, 0 m/s):

Slope = (50 m/s - 0 m/s) / (5 s - 0 s) = 10 m/s/s

Slope = (50 m/s - 20 m/s) / (5 s - 2 s) = 10 m/s/s

Slope = (40 m/s - 30 m/s) / (4 s - 3 s) = 10 m/s/s
Observe that regardless of which two points on the line are chosen for the slope
calculation, the result remains the same - 10 m/s/s.

Consider the velocity-time graph below. Determine the acceleration (i.e., slope)
of the object as portrayed by the graph. Use the button to view the answer.
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See Answer
Determining the Area on a v-t Graph

As learned in an earlier part of this lesson, a plot of velocity-time can be used
to determine the acceleration of an object (the slope). In this part of the lesson,
we will learn how a plot of velocity versus time can also be used to determine
the displacement of an object. For velocity versus time graphs, the area bound
by the line and the axes represents the displacement. The diagram below
shows three different velocity-time graphs; the shaded regions between the line
and the time-axis represent the displacement during the stated time interval.
The shaded area is representative of the displacement during from 0

seconds to 6 seconds. This area takes on the shape of a rectangle can
be calculated using the appropriate equation.

seconds to 4 seconds. This area takes on the shape of a triangle can be
calculated using the appropriate equation.
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seconds to 5 seconds. This area takes on the shape of a trapezoid can
be calculated using the appropriate equation.
The method used to find the area under a line on a velocity-time graph depends
upon whether the section bound by the line and the axes is a rectangle, a
triangle or a trapezoid. Area formulas for each shape are given below.
Rectangle Triangle Trapezoid
Area = b • h Area = ½ • b • h Area = ½ • b • (h1 + h2)
Calculating the Area of a Rectangle

Now we will look at a few example computations of the area for each of the
above geometric shapes. First consider the calculation of the area for a few
rectangles. The solution for finding the area is shown for the first example
below. The shaded rectangle on the velocity-time graph has a base of 6 s and a
height of 30 m/s. Since the area of a rectangle is found by using the formula A
= b x h, the area is 180 m (6 s x 30 m/s). That is, the object was displaced 180
meters during the first 6 seconds of motion.
Area = b * h
Area = (6 s) * (30 m/s)
Area = 180 m
Now try the following two practice problems as a check of your

understanding. Determine the displacement (i.e., the area) of the object
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during the first 4 seconds (Practice A) and from 3 to 6 seconds (Practice B).
See Practice A Answer
See Practice B Answer
Calculating the Area of a Triangle

Now we will look at a few example computations of the area for a few triangles.
The solution for finding the area is shown for the first example below. The
shaded triangle on the velocity-time graph has a base of 4 seconds and a
height of 40 m/s. Since the area of triangle is found by using the formula A =
½ * b * h, the area is ½ * (4 s) * (40 m/s) = 80 m. That is, the object was
displaced 80 meters during the four seconds of motion.
Area = ½ * b * h
Area = ½ * (4 s) * (40 m/s)
Area = 80 m

understanding. Determine the displacement of the object during the first
second (Practice A) and during the first 3 seconds (Practice B).
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Calculating the Area of a Trapezoid

Finally we will look at a few example computations of the area for a few
trapezoids. The solution for finding the area is shown for the first example
below. The shaded trapezoid on the velocity-time graph has a base of 2 seconds
and heights of 10 m/s (on the left side) and 30 m/s (on the right side). Since
the area of trapezoid is found by using the formula A = ½ * (b) * (h1 + h2), the
area is 40 m [½ * (2 s) * (10 m/s + 30 m/s)]. That is, the object was displaced
40 meters during the time interval from 1 second to 3 seconds.
Area = ½ * b * (h1 + h2 )
Area = ½ * (2 s) * (10 m/s + 30 m/s)
Area = 40 m

understanding. Determine the displacement of the object during the time
interval from 2 to 3 seconds (Practice A) and during the first 2 seconds
(Practice B).
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Alternative Method for Trapezoids

An alternative means of determining the area of a trapezoid involves breaking
the trapezoid into a triangle and a rectangle. The areas of the triangle and
rectangle can be computed individually; the area of the trapezoid is then the
sum of the areas of the triangle and the rectangle. This method is illustrated in
the graphic below.
Triangle: Area = ½ * (2 s) * (20 m/s) = 20 m

Rectangle: Area = (2 s) * (10 m/s) = 20 m
Total Area = 20 m + 20 m = 40 m
It has been learned in this lesson that the area bounded by the line and the
axes of a velocity-time graph is equal to the displacement of an object during
that particular time period. The area can be identified as a rectangle, triangle,
or trapezoid. The area can be subsequently determined using the appropriate
formula. Once calculated, this area represents the displacement of the object.
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Investigate!
The widget below computes the area between the line on a velocity-time plot
and the axes of the plot. This area is the displacement of the object. Use the
widget to explore or simply to practice a few self-made problems.
Area as Displacement
Enter values for the motion of the object; then click the
Compute Area button to view the plot and see the displacement.
Initial velocity (m/s):
Acceleration (m/s/s):
Time (s):
Compute Area
Lesson 5 - Free Fall and the Acceleration of Gravity

Introduction
Acceleration of Gravity
Representing Free Fall by Graphs
How Fast? and How Far?
The Big Misconception
Introduction to Free Fall

 Introduction to Free Fall
 Acceleration of Gravity
 Representing Free Fall by Graphs
 How Fast? and How Far?
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 The Big Misconception
A free falling object is an object that is falling under the sole influence of
gravity. Any object that is being acted upon only by the force of gravity is said
to be in a state of free fall. There are two important motion characteristics that
are true of free-falling objects:
 Free-falling objects do not encounter air resistance.
 All free-falling objects (on Earth) accelerate downwards at a rate of 9.8
m/s/s (often approximated as 10 m/s/s for back-of-the-
envelope calculations)
Because free-falling objects are accelerating downwards at a rate of
9.8 m/s/s, a ticker tape trace or dot diagram of its motion would
depict an acceleration. The dot diagram at the right depicts the
acceleration of a free-falling object. The position of the object at
regular time intervals - say, every 0.1 second - is shown. The fact
that the distance that the object travels every interval of time is
increasing is a sure sign that the ball is speeding up as it falls
downward. Recall from an earlier lesson, that if an object travels
downward and speeds up, then its acceleration is downward.
Free-fall acceleration is often witnessed in a physics classroom by
means of an ever-popular strobe light demonstration. The room is darkened
and a jug full of water is connected by a tube to a medicine dropper. The
dropper drips water and the strobe illuminates the falling droplets at a regular
rate - say once every 0.2 seconds. Instead of seeing a stream of water free-
falling from the medicine dropper, several consecutive drops with increasing
separation distance are seen. The pattern of drops resembles the dot diagram
shown in the graphic at the right.
The Acceleration of Gravity
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It was learned in the previous part of this lesson that a free-falling object is an
object that is falling under the sole influence of gravity. A free-falling object has
an acceleration of 9.8 m/s/s, downward (on Earth). This numerical value for
the acceleration of a free-falling object is such an important value that it is
given a special name. It is known as the acceleration of gravity - the
acceleration for any object moving under the sole influence of gravity. A matter
of fact, this quantity known as the acceleration of gravity is such an important
quantity that physicists have a special symbol to denote it - the symbol g. The
numerical value for the acceleration of gravity is most accurately known as 9.8
m/s/s. There are slight variations in this numerical value (to the second
decimal place) that are dependent primarily upon on altitude. We will
occasionally use the approximated value of 10 m/s/s in The Physics Classroom
Tutorial in order to reduce the complexity of the many mathematical tasks that
we will perform with this number. By so doing, we will be able to better focus
on the conceptual nature of physics without too much of a sacrifice in
numerical accuracy.
g = 9.8 m/s/s, downward
( ~ 10 m/s/s, downward)
Representing Free Fall by Graphs
Early in Lesson 1 it was mentioned that there are a variety of means of
describing the motion of objects. One such means of describing the motion of
objects is through the use of graphs - position versus time andvelocity vs.
time graphs. In this part of Lesson 5, the motion of a free-falling motion will be
represented using these two basic types of graphs.
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Representing Free Fall by Position-Time Graphs
A position versus time graph for a free-falling object is shown below.
Observe that the line on the graph curves. As learned earlier, a curved line on a
position versus time graph signifies an accelerated motion. Since a free-falling
object is undergoing an acceleration (g = 9.8 m/s/s), it would be expected that
its position-time graph would be curved. A further look at the position-time
graph reveals that the object starts with a small velocity (slow) and finishes
with a large velocity (fast). Since the slope of any position vs. time graph is the
velocity of the object (as learned in Lesson 3), the small initial slope indicates a
small initial velocity and the large final slope indicates a large final velocity.
Finally, the negative slope of the line indicates a negative (i.e., downward)
velocity.
Representing Free Fall by Velocity-Time Graphs

A velocity versus time graph for a free-falling object is shown below.
Observe that the line on the graph is a straight, diagonal line. As learned
earlier, a diagonal line on a velocity versus time graph signifies an accelerated
motion. Since a free-falling object is undergoing an acceleration (g = 9,8 m/s/s,
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downward), it would be expected that its velocity-time graph would be diagonal.
A further look at the velocity-time graph reveals that the object starts with a
zero velocity (as read from the graph) and finishes with a large, negative
velocity; that is, the object is moving in the negative direction and speeding up.
An object that is moving in the negative direction and speeding up is said to
have a negative acceleration (if necessary, review the vector nature of
acceleration). Since the slope of any velocity versus time graph is the
acceleration of the object (as learned in Lesson 4), the constant, negative slope
indicates a constant, negative acceleration. This analysis of the slope on the
graph is consistent with the motion of a free-falling object - an object moving
with a constant acceleration of 9.8 m/s/s in the downward direction.
How Fast? and How Far?
Free-falling objects are in a state of acceleration. Specifically, they are
accelerating at a rate of 9.8 m/s/s. This is to say that the velocity of a free-
falling object is changing by 9.8 m/s every second. If dropped from a position of
rest, the object will be traveling 9.8 m/s (approximately 10 m/s) at the end of
the first second, 19.6 m/s (approximately 20 m/s) at the end of the second
second, 29.4 m/s (approximately 30 m/s) at the end of the third second, etc.
Thus, the velocity of a free-falling object that has been dropped from a position
of rest is dependent upon the time that it has fallen. The formula for
determining the velocity of a falling object after a time of t seconds is
vf = g * t
(dropped from rest)
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where g is the acceleration of gravity. The value for g on Earth is 9.8 m/s/s.
The above equation can be used to calculate the velocity of the object after any
given amount of time when dropped from rest. Example calculations for the
velocity of a free-falling object after six and eight seconds are shown below.
Example Calculations:
At t = 6 s
vf = (9.8 m/s2) * (6 s) = 58.8 m/s
At t = 8 s
vf = (9.8 m/s2) * (8 s) = 78.4 m/s
The distance that a free-falling object has fallen from a position of rest is also
dependent upon the time of fall. This distance can be computed by use of a
formula; the distance fallen after a time of t seconds is given by the formula.
d = 0.5 * g * t2
(dropped from rest)
where g is the acceleration of gravity (9.8 m/s/s on Earth). Example

calculations for the distance fallen by a free-falling object after one and two
seconds are shown below.
Example Calculations:
At t = 1 s
d = (0.5) * (9.8 m/s2) * (1 s)2 = 4.9 m
At t = 2 s
d = (0.5) * (9.8 m/s2) * (2 s)2 = 19.6 m
At t = 5 s
d = (0.5) * (9.8 m/s2) * (5 s)2 = 123 m
(rounded from 122.5 m)
The diagram below (not drawn to scale) shows the results of several distance
calculations for a free-falling object dropped from a position of rest.
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The Big Misconception
Earlier in this lesson, it was stated that the acceleration of a free-falling object
(on earth) is 9.8 m/s/s. This value (known as the acceleration of gravity) is the
same for all free-falling objects regardless of how long they have been falling, or
whether they were initially dropped from rest or thrown up into the air. Yet the
questions are often asked "doesn't a more massive object accelerate at a greater
rate than a less massive object?" "Wouldn't an elephant free-fall faster than a
mouse?" This question is a reasonable inquiry that is probably based in part
upon personal observations made of falling objects in the physical world. After
all, nearly everyone has observed the difference in the rate of fall of a single
piece of paper (or similar object) and a textbook. The two objects clearly travel
to the ground at different rates - with the more massive book falling faster.
The answer to the question (doesn't a more massive object accelerate at a
greater rate than a less massive object?) is absolutely not! That is, absolutely
not if we are considering the specific type of falling motion known as free-fall.
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Free-fall is the motion of objects that move under the sole influence of gravity;
free-falling objects do not encounter air resistance. More massive objects will
only fall faster if there is an appreciable amount of air resistance present.
The actual explanation of why all objects accelerate at the same rate involves
the concepts of force and mass. The details will be discussed in Unit 2 of The
Physics Classroom. At that time, you will learn that the acceleration of an
object is directly proportional to force and inversely proportional to mass.
Increasing force tends to increase acceleration while increasing mass tends to
decrease acceleration. Thus, the greater force on more massive objects is offset
by the inverse influence of greater mass. Subsequently, all objects free fall at
the same rate of acceleration, regardless of their mass.
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Lesson 6 - Describing Motion with Equations
Kinematic Equations
Kinematic Equations and Problem-Solving
Kinematic Equations and Free Fall
Sample Problems and Solutions
Kinematic Equations and Graphs
The Kinematic Equations

 Kinematic Equations
 Kinematic Equations and Problem-Solving
 Kinematic Equations and Free Fall
 Sample Problems and Solutions
 Kinematic Equations and Graphs
The goal of this first unit of The Physics Classroom has been to investigate the
variety of means by which the motion of objects can be described. The variety
of representations that we have investigated includesverbal
representations, pictorial representations, numerical representations, and
graphical representations (position-time graphs and velocity-time graphs). In
Lesson 6, we will investigate the use of equations to describe and represent the
motion of objects. These equations are known as kinematic equations.
There are a variety of quantities associated with the motion of objects -
displacement (and distance),velocity (and speed), acceleration, and time.
Knowledge of each of these quantities provides descriptive information about
an object's motion. For example, if a car is known to move with a constant
velocity of 22.0 m/s, North for 12.0 seconds for a northward displacement of
264 meters, then the motion of the car is fully described. And if a second car is
known to accelerate from a rest position with an eastward acceleration of 3.0
m/s2 for a time of 8.0 seconds, providing a final velocity of 24 m/s, East and
an eastward displacement of 96 meters, then the motion of this car is fully
described. These two statements provide a complete description of the motion
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of an object. However, such completeness is not always known. It is often the
case that only a few parameters of an object's motion are known, while the rest
are unknown. For example as you approach the stoplight, you might know that
your car has a velocity of 22 m/s, East and is capable of a skidding
acceleration of 8.0 m/s2, West. However you do not know the displacement
that your car would experience if you were to slam on your brakes and skid to
a stop; and you do not know the time required to skid to a stop. In such an
instance as this, the unknown parameters can be determined using physics
principles and mathematical equations (the kinematic equations).
The BIG 4
The kinematic equations are a set of four equations that can be utilized to
predict unknown information about an object's motion if other information is
known. The equations can be utilized for any motion that can be described as
being either a constant velocity motion (an acceleration of 0 m/s/s) or a
constant acceleration motion. They can never be used over any time period
during which the acceleration is changing. Each of the kinematic equations
include four variables. If the values of three of the four variables are known,
then the value of the fourth variable can be calculated. In this manner, the
kinematic equations provide a useful means of predicting information about an
object's motion if other information is known. For example, if the acceleration
value and the initial and final velocity values of a skidding car is known, then
the displacement of the car and the time can be predicted using the kinematic
equations. Lesson 6 of this unit will focus upon the use of the kinematic
equations to predict the numerical values of unknown quantities for an object's
motion.
The four kinematic equations that describe an object's motion are:
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There are a variety of symbols used in the above equations. Each symbol has
its own specific meaning. The symbol d stands for the displacement of the
object. The symbol t stands for the time for which the object moved. The
symbol a stands for the acceleration of the object. And the symbol v stands
for the velocity of the object; a subscript of i after the v (as in vi) indicates that
the velocity value is the initial velocity value and a subscript of f (as in vf)
indicates that the velocity value is the final velocity value.
Each of these four equations appropriately describes the mathematical
relationship between the parameters of an object's motion. As such, they can
be used to predict unknown information about an object's motion if other
information is known. In the next part of Lesson 6 we will investigate the
process of doing this.
Kinematic Equations and Problem-Solving
The four kinematic equations that describe the mathematical relationship
between the parameters that describe an object's motion were introduced in
the previous part of Lesson 6. The four kinematic equations are:
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In the above equations, the symbol d stands for the displacement of the
object. The symbol t stands for thetime for which the object moved. The
symbol a stands for the acceleration of the object. And the symbol vstands for
the instantaneous velocity of the object; a subscript of i after the v (as in vi)
indicates that the velocity value is the initial velocity value and a subscript of
f (as in vf) indicates that the velocity value is thefinal velocity value.
Problem-Solving Strategy
In this part of Lesson 6 we will investigate the process of using the equations to
determine unknown information about an object's motion. The process involves
the use of a problem-solving strategy that will be used throughout the course.
The strategy involves the following steps:
1. Construct an informative diagram of the physical situation.
2. Identify and list the given information in variable form.
3. Identify and list the unknown information in variable form.
4. Identify and list the equation that will be used to determine unknown
information from known information.
5. Substitute known values into the equation and use appropriate algebraic
steps to solve for the unknown information.
6. Check your answer to insure that it is reasonable and mathematically
correct.
The use of this problem-solving strategy in the solution of the following
problem is modeled in Examples A and B below.
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Example Problem A
Ima Hurryin is approaching a stoplight moving with a velocity of +30.0 m/s.
The light turns yellow, and Ima applies the brakes and skids to a stop. If Ima's
acceleration is -8.00 m/s2, then determine the displacement of the car during
the skidding process. (Note that the direction of the velocity and the
acceleration vectors are denoted by a + and a - sign.)
The solution to this problem begins by the construction of an informative
diagram of the physical situation. This is shown below. The second step
involves the identification and listing of known information in variable form.
Note that the vf value can be inferred to be 0 m/s since Ima's car comes to a
stop. The initial velocity (vi) of the car is +30.0 m/s since this is the velocity at
the beginning of the motion (the skidding motion). And the acceleration (a) of
the car is given as - 8.00 m/s2. (Always pay careful attention to the + and -
signs for the given quantities.) The next step of the strategy involves the listing
of the unknown (or desired) information in variable form. In this case, the
problem requests information about the displacement of the car. So d is the
unknown quantity. The results of the first three steps are shown in the table
below.
Diagram: Given: Find:

vi = +30.0 m/s
vf = 0 m/s
d = ??
a = - 8.00 m/s2
The next step of the strategy involves identifying a kinematic equation that
would allow you to determine the unknown quantity. There are four kinematic
equations to choose from. In general, you will always choose the equation that
contains the three known and the one unknown variable. In this specific case,
the three known variables and the one unknown variable are vf, vi, a, and d.
Thus, you will look for an equation that has these four variables listed in it. An
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inspection of the four equations above reveals that the equation on the top
right contains all four variables.
vf2 = vi2 + 2 • a • d
Once the equation is identified and written down, the next step of
the strategy involves substituting known values into the equation and using
proper algebraic steps to solve for the unknown information. This step is
shown below.
(0 m/s)2 = (30.0 m/s)2 + 2 • (-8.00 m/s2) • d
0 m2/s2 = 900 m2/s2 + (-16.0 m/s2) • d
(16.0 m/s2) • d = 900 m2/s2 - 0 m2/s2
(16.0 m/s2)*d = 900 m2/s2
d = (900 m2/s2)/ (16.0 m/s2)
d = (900 m2/s2)/ (16.0 m/s2)
d = 56.3 m
The solution above reveals that the car will skid a distance of 56.3 meters.
(Note that this value is rounded to the third digit.)
The last step of the problem-solving strategy involves checking the answer to
assure that it is both reasonable and accurate. The value seems reasonable
enough. It takes a car a considerable distance to skid from 30.0 m/s
(approximately 65 mi/hr) to a stop. The calculated distance is approximately
one-half a football field, making this a very reasonable skidding distance.
Checking for accuracy involves substituting the calculated value back into the
equation for displacement and insuring that the left side of the equation is
equal to the right side of the equation. Indeed it is!
Example Problem B
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Ben Rushin is waiting at a stoplight. When it finally turns green, Ben
accelerated from rest at a rate of a 6.00 m/s2 for a time of 4.10 seconds.
Determine the displacement of Ben's car during this time period.
Once more, the solution to this problem begins by the construction of an
informative diagram of the physical situation. This is shown below. The second
step of the strategy involves the identification and listing of known information
in variable form. Note that the vi value can be inferred to be 0 m/s since Ben's
car is initially at rest. The acceleration (a) of the car is 6.00 m/s2. And the time
(t) is given as 4.10 s. The next step of the strategy involves the listing of the
unknown (or desired) information in variable form. In this case, the problem
requests information about the displacement of the car. So d is the unknown
information. The results of the first three steps are shown in the table below.
vi = 0 m/s
t = 4.10 s
d = ??
a = 6.00 m/s2
The next step of the strategy involves identifying a kinematic equation that
would allow you to determine the unknown quantity. There are four kinematic
equations to choose from. Again, you will always search for an equation that
contains the three known variables and the one unknown variable. In this
specific case, the three known variables and the one unknown variable are t, vi,
a, and d. An inspection of the four equations above reveals that the equation
on the top left contains all four variables.
d = vi • t + ½ • a • t2
Once the equation is identified and written down, the next step of
the strategy involves substituting known values into the equation and using
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proper algebraic steps to solve for the unknown information. This step is
shown below.
d = (0 m/s) • (4.1 s) + ½ • (6.00 m/s2) • (4.10 s)2
d = (0 m) + ½ • (6.00 m/s2) • (16.81 s2)
d = 0 m + 50.43 m
d = 50.4 m
The solution above reveals that the car will travel a distance of 50.4 meters.
(Note that this value is rounded to the third digit.)
enough. A car with an acceleration of 6.00 m/s/s will reach a speed of
approximately 24 m/s (approximately 50 mi/hr) in 4.10 s. The distance over
which such a car would be displaced during this time period would be
approximately one-half a football field, making this a very reasonable distance.
Checking for accuracy involves substituting the calculated value back into the
equation for displacement and insuring that the left side of the equation is
The two example problems above illustrate how the kinematic equations can be
combined with a simpleproblem-solving strategy to predict unknown motion
parameters for a moving object. Provided that three motion parameters are
known, any of the remaining values can be determined. In the next part of
Lesson 6, we will see how this strategy can be applied to free fall situations. Or
if interested, you can try somepractice problems and check your answer
against the given solutions.
Kinematic Equations and Free Fall
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As mentioned in Lesson 5, a free-falling object is an object that is falling under
the sole influence of gravity. That is to say that any object that is moving and
being acted upon only be the force of gravity is said to be "in a state of free
fall." Such an object will experience a downward acceleration of 9.8 m/s/s.
Whether the object is falling downward or rising upward towards its peak, if it
is under the sole influence of gravity, then its acceleration value is 9.8 m/s/s.
Like any moving object, the motion of an object in free fall can be described by
four kinematic equations. The kinematic equations that describe any object's
motion are:
The symbols in the above equation have a specific meaning: the

symbol d stands for the displacement; the symbol t stands for the time; the
symbol a stands for the acceleration of the object; the symbol vi stands for
the initial velocity value; and the symbol vf stands for the final velocity.
Applying Free Fall Concepts to Problem-Solving

There are a few conceptual characteristics of free fall motion that will be of
value when using the equations to analyze free fall motion. These concepts are
described as follows:
 An object in free fall experiences an acceleration of -9.8 m/s/s. (The - sign
indicates a downward acceleration.) Whether explicitly stated or not, the
value of the acceleration in the kinematic equations is -9.8 m/s/s for any
freely falling object.
 If an object is merely dropped (as opposed to being thrown) from an elevated
height, then the initial velocity of the object is 0 m/s.
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 If an object is projected upwards in a perfectly vertical direction, then it will
slow down as it rises upward. The instant at which it reaches the peak of its
trajectory, its velocity is 0 m/s. This value can be used as one of the motion
parameters in the kinematic equations; for example, the final velocity (vf)
after traveling to the peak would be assigned a value of 0 m/s.
 If an object is projected upwards in a perfectly vertical direction, then the
velocity at which it is projected is equal in magnitude and opposite in sign
to the velocity that it has when it returns to the same height. That is, a ball
projected vertically with an upward velocity of +30 m/s will have a
downward velocity of -30 m/s when it returns to the same height.
These four principles and the four kinematic equations can be combined to
solve problems involving the motion of free falling objects. The two examples
below illustrate application of free fall principles to kinematic problem-solving.
In each example, the problem solving strategy that was introduced earlier in
this lesson will be utilized.
Example Problem A
Luke Autbeloe drops a pile of roof shingles from the top of a roof located 8.52
meters above the ground. Determine the time required for the shingles to reach
the ground.
The solution to this problem begins by the construction of an informative
diagram of the physical situation. This is shown below. The second step
involves the identification and listing of known information in variable form.
You might note that in the statement of the problem, there is only one piece of
numerical information explicitly stated: 8.52 meters. The displacement (d) of
the shingles is -8.52 m. (The - sign indicates that the displacement is
downward). The remaining information must be extracted from the problem
statement based upon your understanding of the above principles. For
example, the vi value can be inferred to be 0 m/s since the shingles are
dropped (released from rest; see note above). And the acceleration (a) of the
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shingles can be inferred to be -9.8 m/s2 since the shingles are free-falling (see
note above). (Always pay careful attention to the + and - signs for the given
quantities.) The next step of the solution involves the listing of the unknown (or
desired) information in variable form. In this case, the problem requests
information about the time of fall. So t is the unknown quantity. The results of
the first three steps are shown in the table below.
vi = 0.0 m/s
d = -8.52 m
t = ??
a = - 9.8 m/s2
The next step involves identifying a kinematic equation that allows you to
determine the unknown quantity. There are four kinematic equations to choose
from. In general, you will always choose the equation that contains the three
known and the one unknown variable. In this specific case, the three known
variables and the one unknown variable are d, vi, a, and t. Thus, you will look
for an equation that has these four variables listed in it. An inspection of
the four equations above reveals that the equation on the top left contains all
four variables.
d = vi • t + ½ • a • t2
Once the equation is identified and written down, the next step involves
substituting known values into the equation and using proper algebraic steps
to solve for the unknown information. This step is shown below.
-8.52 m = (0 m/s) • (t) + ½ • (-9.8 m/s2) • (t)2
-8.52 m = (0 m) *(t) + (-4.9 m/s2) • (t)2
-8.52 m = (-4.9 m/s2) • (t)2
(-8.52 m)/(-4.9 m/s2) = t2
1.739 s2 = t2
t = 1.32 s
The solution above reveals that the shingles will fall for a time of 1.32 seconds
before hitting the ground. (Note that this value is rounded to the third digit.)
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enough. The shingles are falling a distance of approximately 10 yards (1 meter
is pretty close to 1 yard); it seems that an answer between 1 and 2 seconds
would be highly reasonable. The calculated time easily falls within this range of
reasonability. Checking for accuracy involves substituting the calculated value
back into the equation for time and insuring that the left side of the equation is
Example Problem B
Rex Things throws his mother's crystal vase vertically upwards with an initial
velocity of 26.2 m/s. Determine the height to which the vase will rise above its
initial height.
Once more, the solution to this problem begins by the construction of an
informative diagram of the physical situation. This is shown below. The second
step involves the identification and listing of known information in variable
form. You might note that in the statement of the problem, there is only one
piece of numerical information explicitly stated: 26.2 m/s. The initial velocity
(vi) of the vase is +26.2 m/s. (The + sign indicates that the initial velocity is an
upwards velocity). The remaining information must be extracted from the
problem statement based upon your understanding of the above principles.
Note that the vf value can be inferred to be 0 m/s since the final state of the
vase is the peak of its trajectory (see note above). The acceleration (a) of the
vase is -9.8 m/s2 (see note above). The next step involves the listing of the
unknown (or desired) information in variable form. In this case, the problem
requests information about the displacement of the vase (the height to which it
rises above its starting height). So d is the unknown information. The results of
the first three steps are shown in the table below.
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vi = 26.2 m/s
vf = 0 m/s
d = ??
a = -9.8 m/s2
The next step involves identifying a kinematic equation that would allow you to
determine the unknown quantity. There are four kinematic equations to choose
from. Again, you will always search for an equation that contains the three
known variables and the one unknown variable. In this specific case, the three
known variables and the one unknown variable are vi, vf, a, and d. An
inspection of the four equations above reveals that the equation on the top
right contains all four variables.
vf2 = vi2 + 2 • a • d
Once the equation is identified and written down, the next step involves
substituting known values into the equation and using proper algebraic steps
to solve for the unknown information. This step is shown below.
(0 m/s)2 = (26.2 m/s)2 + 2 •(-9.8m/s2) •d
0 m2/s2 = 686.44 m2/s2 + (-19.6 m/s2) •d
(-19.6 m/s2) • d = 0 m2/s2 -686.44 m2/s2
(-19.6 m/s2) • d = -686.44 m2/s2
d = (-686.44 m2/s2)/ (-19.6 m/s2)
d = 35.0 m
The solution above reveals that the vase will travel upwards for a displacement
of 35.0 meters before reaching its peak. (Note that this value is rounded to the
third digit.)
enough. The vase is thrown with a speed of approximately 50 mi/hr (merely
approximate 1 m/s to be equivalent to 2 mi/hr). Such a throw will never make
it further than one football field in height (approximately 100 m), yet will surely
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make it past the 10-yard line (approximately 10 meters). The calculated answer
certainly falls within this range of reasonability. Checking for accuracy involves
substituting the calculated value back into the equation for displacement and
insuring that the left side of the equation is equal to the right side of the
equation. Indeed it is!
Kinematic equations provide a useful means of determining the value of an
unknown motion parameter if three motion parameters are known. In the case
of a free-fall motion, the acceleration is often known. And in many cases,
another motion parameter can be inferred through a solid knowledge of
some basic kinematic principles. The next part of Lesson 6 provides a wealth of
practice problems with answers and solutions.
Sample Problems and Solutions
Earlier in Lesson 6, four kinematic equations were introduced and discussed. A
useful problem-solving strategy was presented for use with these equations
and two examples were given that illustrated the use of the strategy. Then, the
application of the kinematic equations and the problem-solving strategy to free-
fall motion was discussed and illustrated. In this part of Lesson 6, several
sample problems will be presented. These problems allow any student of
physics to test their understanding of the use of the four kinematic equations
to solve problems involving the one-dimensional motion of objects. You are
encouraged to read each problem and practice the use of the strategy in the
solution of the problem. Then click the button to check the answer or use the
link to view the solution.
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1. An airplane accelerates down a runway at 3.20 m/s2 for 32.8 s until is
finally lifts off the ground. Determine the distance traveled before takeoff.
See Answer
See solution below.
2. A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly over a time of 5.21 seconds
for a distance of 110 m. Determine the acceleration of the car.
See Answer
See solution below.
3. Upton Chuck is riding the Giant Drop at Great America. If Upton free falls
for 2.60 seconds, what will be his final velocity and how far will he fall?
See Answer
See solution below.
4. A race car accelerates uniformly from 18.5 m/s to 46.1 m/s in 2.47
seconds. Determine the acceleration of the car and the distance traveled.
See Answer
See solution below.
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5. A feather is dropped on the moon from a height of 1.40 meters. The
acceleration of gravity on the moon is 1.67 m/s2. Determine the time for the
feather to fall to the surface of the moon.
See Answer
See solution below.
6. Rocket-powered sleds are used to test the human response to acceleration.

If a rocket-powered sled is accelerated to a speed of 444 m/s in 1.83
seconds, then what is the acceleration and what is the distance that the
sled travels?
See Answer
See solution below.
7. A bike accelerates uniformly from rest to a speed of 7.10 m/s over a

distance of 35.4 m. Determine the acceleration of the bike.
See Answer
See solution below.
8. An engineer is designing the runway for an airport. Of the planes that will
use the airport, the lowest acceleration rate is likely to be 3 m/s2. The
takeoff speed for this plane will be 65 m/s. Assuming this minimum
acceleration, what is the minimum allowed length for the runway?
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See Answer
See solution below.
9. A car traveling at 22.4 m/s skids to a stop in 2.55 s. Determine the skidding
distance of the car (assume uniform acceleration).
See Answer
See solution below.
10. A kangaroo is capable of jumping to a height of 2.62 m. Determine the

takeoff speed of the kangaroo.
See Answer
See solution below.
11. If Michael Jordan has a vertical leap of 1.29 m, then what is his takeoff
speed and his hang time (total time to move upwards to the peak and then
return to the ground)?
See Answer
See solution below.
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12. A bullet leaves a rifle with a muzzle velocity of 521 m/s. While
accelerating through the barrel of the rifle, the bullet moves a distance of
0.840 m. Determine the acceleration of the bullet (assume a uniform
acceleration).
See Answer
See solution below.
13. A baseball is popped straight up into the air and has a hang-time of 6.25
s. Determine the height to which the ball rises before it reaches its peak.
(Hint: the time to rise to the peak is one-half the total hang-time.)
See Answer
See solution below.
14. The observation deck of tall skyscraper 370 m above the street.
Determine the time required for a penny to free fall from the deck to the
street below.
See Answer
See solution below.
15. A bullet is moving at a speed of 367 m/s when it embeds into a lump of
moist clay. The bullet penetrates for a distance of 0.0621 m. Determine the
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acceleration of the bullet while moving into the clay. (Assume a uniform
acceleration.)
See Answer
See solution below.
16. A stone is dropped into a deep well and is heard to hit the water 3.41 s
after being dropped. Determine the depth of the well.
See Answer
See solution below.
17. It was once recorded that a Jaguar left skid marks that were 290 m in
length. Assuming that the Jaguar skidded to a stop with a constant
acceleration of -3.90 m/s2, determine the speed of the Jaguar before it
began to skid.
See Answer
See solution below.
18. A plane has a takeoff speed of 88.3 m/s and requires 1365 m to reach
that speed. Determine the acceleration of the plane and the time required to
reach this speed.
See Answer
Page 77 of 100
See solution below.
19. A dragster accelerates to a speed of 112 m/s over a distance of 398 m.

Determine the acceleration (assume uniform) of the dragster.
See Answer
See solution below.
20. With what speed in miles/hr (1 m/s = 2.23 mi/hr) must an object be
thrown to reach a height of 91.5 m (equivalent to one football field)? Assume
negligible air resistance.
See Answer
See solution below.
Solutions to Above Problems
Given: Find:
a = +3.2 m/s2 t = 32.8 s vi = 0 m/s d = ??
d = vi*t + 0.5*a*t2
d = (0 m/s)*(32.8 s)+ 0.5*(3.20 m/s2)*(32.8 s)2
d = 1720 m
Return to Problem 1
Page 78 of 100
Given: Find:
d = 110 m t = 5.21 s vi = 0 m/s a = ??
d = vi*t + 0.5*a*t2
110 m = (0 m/s)*(5.21 s)+ 0.5*(a)*(5.21 s)2
110 m = (13.57 s2)*a
a = (110 m)/(13.57 s2)
a = 8.10 m/ s2
Return to Problem 2
Given: Find:
a = -9.8 m t = 2.6 s vi = 0 m/s d = ??
vf = ??
d = vi*t + 0.5*a*t2
d = (0 m/s)*(2.60 s)+ 0.5*(-9.8 m/s2)*(2.60 s)2
d = -33.1 m (- indicates direction)
vf = vi + a*t
vf = 0 + (-9.8 m/s2)*(2.60 s)
vf = -25.5 m/s (- indicates direction)
Return to Problem 3
Given: Find:
vi = 18.5 m/s vf = 46.1 m/s t = 2.47 s d = ??
a = ??
a = (Delta v)/t
a = (46.1 m/s - 18.5 m/s)/(2.47 s)
a = 11.2 m/s2
d = vi*t + 0.5*a*t2
Page 79 of 100
d = (18.5 m/s)*(2.47 s)+ 0.5*(11.2 m/s2)*(2.47 s)2
d = 45.7 m + 34.1 m
d = 79.8 m
(Note: the d can also be calculated using the equation vf2 = vi2 + 2*a*d)
Return to Problem 4
Given: Find:
vi = 0 m/s d = -1.40 m a = -1.67 m/s2 t = ??
d = vi*t + 0.5*a*t2
-1.40 m = (0 m/s)*(t)+ 0.5*(-1.67 m/s2)*(t)2
-1.40 m = 0+ (-0.835 m/s2)*(t)2
(-1.40 m)/(-0.835 m/s2) = t2
1.68 s2 = t2
t = 1.29 s
Return to Problem 5
Given: Find:
vi = 0 m/s vf = 444 m/s t = 1.83 s a = ??
d = ??
a = (Delta v)/t
a = (444 m/s - 0 m/s)/(1.83 s)
a = 243 m/s2
d = vi*t + 0.5*a*t2
d = (0 m/s)*(1.83 s)+ 0.5*(243 m/s2)*(1.83 s)2
d = 0 m + 406 m
d = 406 m
(Note: the d can also be calculated using the equation vf2 = vi2 + 2*a*d)
Return to Problem 6
Page 80 of 100
Given: Find:
vi = 0 m/s vf = 7.10 m/s d = 35.4 m a = ??
vf2 = vi2 + 2*a*d
(7.10 m/s)2 = (0 m/s)2 + 2*(a)*(35.4 m)
50.4 m2/s2 = (0 m/s)2 + (70.8 m)*a
(50.4 m2/s2)/(70.8 m) = a
a = 0.712 m/s2
Return to Problem 7
Given: Find:
vi = 0 m/s vf = 65 m/s a = 3 m/s2 d = ??
vf2 = vi2 + 2*a*d
(65 m/s)2 = (0 m/s)2 + 2*(3 m/s2)*d
4225 m2/s2 = (0 m/s)2 + (6 m/s2)*d
(4225 m2/s2)/(6 m/s2) = d
d = 704 m
Return to Problem 8
Given: Find:
vi = 22.4 m/s vf = 0 m/s t = 2.55 s d = ??
d = (vi + vf)/2 *t
d = (22.4 m/s + 0 m/s)/2 *2.55 s
d = (11.2 m/s)*2.55 s
d = 28.6 m
Return to Problem 9
Given: Find:
Page 81 of 100
a = -9.8 m/s2 vf = 0 m/s d = 2.62 m vi = ??
vf2 = vi2 + 2*a*d
(0 m/s)2 = vi2 + 2*(-9.8 m/s2)*(2.62 m)
0 m2/s2 = vi2 - 51.35 m2/s2
51.35 m2/s2 = vi2
vi = 7.17 m/s
Return to Problem 10
Given: Find:
a = -9.8 m/s2 vf = 0 m/s d = 1.29 m vi = ??
t = ??
vf2 = vi2 + 2*a*d
(0 m/s)2 = vi2 + 2*(-9.8 m/s2)*(1.29 m)
0 m2/s2 = vi2 - 25.28 m2/s2
25.28 m2/s2 = vi2
vi = 5.03 m/s
To find hang time, find the time to the peak and then double it.
vf = vi + a*t
0 m/s = 5.03 m/s + (-9.8 m/s2)*tup
-5.03 m/s = (-9.8 m/s2)*tup
(-5.03 m/s)/(-9.8 m/s2) = tup
tup = 0.513 s
hang time = 1.03 s
Given: Find:
vi = 0 m/s vf = 521 m/s d = 0.840 m a = ??
vf2 = vi2 + 2*a*d
(521 m/s)2 = (0 m/s)2 + 2*(a)*(0.840 m)
Page 82 of 100
271441 m2/s2 = (0 m/s)2 + (1.68 m)*a
(271441 m2/s2)/(1.68 m) = a
a = 1.62*105 m /s2
Given: Find:
a = -9.8 m/s2 vf = 0 m/s t = 3.13 s d = ??
(NOTE: the time required to move to the peak of the trajectory is one-
half the total hang time - 3.125 s.)
First use: vf = vi + a*t

0 m/s = vi + (-9.8 m/s2)*(3.13 s)
0 m/s = vi - 30.7 m/s
vi = 30.7 m/s (30.674 m/s)
Now use: vf2 = vi2 + 2*a*d
(0 m/s)2 = (30.7 m/s)2 + 2*(-9.8 m/s2)*(d)
0 m2/s2 = (940 m2/s2) + (-19.6 m/s2)*d
-940 m2/s2 = (-19.6 m/s2)*d
(-940 m2/s2)/(-19.6 m/s2) = d
d = 48.0 m
Given: Find:
vi = 0 m/s d = -370 m a = -9.8 m/s2 t = ??
d = vi*t + 0.5*a*t2
-370 m = (0 m/s)*(t)+ 0.5*(-9.8 m/s2)*(t)2
-370 m = 0+ (-4.9 m/s2)*(t)2
(-370 m)/(-4.9 m/s2) = t2
75.5 s2 = t2
Page 83 of 100
t = 8.69 s
Given: Find:
vi = 367 m/s vf = 0 m/s d = 0.0621 m a = ??
vf2 = vi2 + 2*a*d
(0 m/s)2 = (367 m/s)2 + 2*(a)*(0.0621 m)
0 m2/s2 = (134689 m2/s2) + (0.1242 m)*a
-134689 m2/s2 = (0.1242 m)*a
(-134689 m2/s2)/(0.1242 m) = a
a = -1.08*106 m /s2
(The - sign indicates that the bullet slowed down.)
Given: Find:
a = -9.8 m/s2 t = 3.41 s vi = 0 m/s d = ??
d = vi*t + 0.5*a*t2
d = (0 m/s)*(3.41 s)+ 0.5*(-9.8 m/s2)*(3.41 s)2
d = 0 m+ 0.5*(-9.8 m/s2)*(11.63 s2)
d = -57.0 m
(NOTE: the - sign indicates direction)
Given: Find:
a = -3.90 m/s2 vf = 0 m/s d = 290 m vi = ??
vf2 = vi2 + 2*a*d
(0 m/s)2 = vi2 + 2*(-3.90 m/s2)*(290 m)
0 m2/s2 = vi2 - 2262 m2/s2
Page 84 of 100
2262 m2/s2 = vi2
vi = 47.6 m /s
Given: Find:
vi = 0 m/s vf = 88.3 m/s d = 1365 m a = ??
t = ??
vf2 = vi2 + 2*a*d
(88.3 m/s)2 = (0 m/s)2 + 2*(a)*(1365 m)
7797 m2/s2 = (0 m2/s2) + (2730 m)*a
7797 m2/s2 = (2730 m)*a
(7797 m2/s2)/(2730 m) = a
a = 2.86 m/s2
vf = vi + a*t
88.3 m/s = 0 m/s + (2.86 m/s2)*t
(88.3 m/s)/(2.86 m/s2) = t
t = 30. 8 s
Given: Find:
vi = 0 m/s vf = 112 m/s d = 398 m a = ??
vf2 = vi2 + 2*a*d
(112 m/s)2 = (0 m/s)2 + 2*(a)*(398 m)
12544 m2/s2 = 0 m2/s2 + (796 m)*a
12544 m2/s2 = (796 m)*a
(12544 m2/s2)/(796 m) = a
a = 15.8 m/s2
Page 85 of 100
Given: Find:
a = -9.8 m/s2 vf = 0 m/s d = 91.5 m vi = ??
t = ??
First, find speed in units of m/s:
vf2 = vi2 + 2*a*d
(0 m/s)2 = vi2 + 2*(-9.8 m/s2)*(91.5 m)
0 m2/s2 = vi2 - 1793 m2/s2
1793 m2/s2 = vi2
vi = 42.3 m/s
Now convert from m/s to mi/hr:
vi = 42.3 m/s * (2.23 mi/hr)/(1 m/s)
vi = 94.4 mi/hr
Kinematic Equations and Graphs
Lesson 4 of this unit at The Physics Classroom focused on the use of velocity-
time graphs to describe the motion of objects. In that Lesson, it was
emphasized that the slope of the line on a velocity-time graph is equal to the
acceleration of the object and the area between the line and the time axis is
equal to the displacement of the object. Thus, velocity-time graphs can be used
to determine numerical values and relationships between the quantities
displacement (d), velocity (v), acceleration (a) and time (t). In Lesson 6, the
focus has been upon the use of four kinematic equations to describe the
motion of objects and to predict the numerical values of one of the four motion
parameters - displacement (d), velocity (v), acceleration (a) and time (t). Thus,
there are now two methods available to solve problems involving the numerical
Page 86 of 100
relationships between displacement, velocity, acceleration and time. In this
part of Lesson 6, we will investigate the relationships between these two
methods.
Example Problem - Graphical Solution

Consider an object that moves with a constant velocity of +5 m/s for a time
period of 5 seconds and then accelerates to a final velocity of +15 m/s over the
next 5 seconds. Such a verbal description of motion can be represented by a
velocity-time graph. The graph is shown below.
The horizontal section of the graph depicts a constant velocity motion,

consistent with the verbal description. The positively sloped (i.e., upward
sloped) section of the graph depicts a positive acceleration, consistent with the
verbal description of an object moving in the positive direction and speeding up
from 5 m/s to 15 m/s. The slope of the line can be computed using the rise
over run ratio. Between 5 and 10 seconds, the line rises from 5 m/s to 15 m/s
and runs from 5 s to 10 s. This is a total rise of +10 m/s and a total run of 5 s.
Thus, the slope (rise/run ratio) is (10 m/s)/(5 s) = 2 m/s2. Using the velocity-
time graph, the acceleration of the object is determined to be 2 m/s2 during the
last five seconds of the object's motion.The displacement of the object can also
be determined using the velocity-time graph. The area between the line on the
graph and the time-axis is representative of the displacement; this area
assumes the shape of a trapezoid. As discussed in Lesson 4, the area of a
Page 87 of 100
trapezoid can be equated to the area of a triangle lying on top of the area of a
rectangle. This is illustrated in the diagram below.
The total area is then the area of the rectangle plus the area of the triangle. The
calculation of these areas is shown below.
Rectangle Triangle
Area = base * heightArea = 0.5 * base * heigh
Area = (10 s) * (5 m/s)Area = 0.5 * (5 s) * (10 m/
Area = 50 m Area = 25 m
The total area (rectangle plus triangle) is equal to 75 m. Thus the displacement
of the object is 75 meters during the 10 seconds of motion.
The above discussion illustrates how a graphical representation of an object's
motion can be used to extract numerical information about the object's
acceleration and displacement. Once constructed, the velocity-time graph can
be used to determine the velocity of the object at any given instant during the
10 seconds of motion. For example, the velocity of the object at 7 seconds can
be determined by reading the y-coordinate value at the x-coordinate of 7 s.
Thus, velocity-time graphs can be used to reveal (or determine) numerical
values and relationships between the quantities displacement (d), velocity (v),
acceleration (a) and time (t) for any given motion.
Example Problem - Solution Using Kinematic Equation
Page 88 of 100
Now let's consider the same verbal description and the corresponding analysis
using kinematic equations. The verbal description of the motion was:
An object that moves with a constant velocity of +5 m/s for a time period of 5
seconds and then accelerates to a final velocity of +15 m/s over the next 5
seconds
Kinematic equations can be applied to any motion for which the acceleration is
constant. Since this motion has two separate acceleration stages, any
kinematic analysis requires that the motion parameters for the first 5 seconds
not be mixed with the motion parameters for the last 5 seconds. The table
below lists the given motion parameters.
t=0s-5s t = 5 s - 10 s
vi = 5 m/s
vf = 5 m/svi = 5 m/
vf = 15 m/
t = 5 s
t=5s
a = 0 m/s2
Note that the acceleration during the first 5 seconds is listed as 0 m/s2 despite
the fact that it is not explicitly stated. The phrase constant velocity indicates a
motion with a 0 acceleration. The acceleration of the object during the last 5
seconds can be calculated using the following kinematic equation.
vf = vi + a*t
The substitution and algebra are shown here.
15 m/s = 5 m/s + a*(5 s)
15 m/s - 5 m/s = a*(5 s)
10 m/s = a*(5 s)
(10 m/s)/(5 s) = a
a = 2 m/s2
Page 89 of 100
This value for the acceleration of the object during the time from 5 s to 10 s is
consistent with the value determined from the slope of the line on the velocity-
time graph.
The displacement of the object during the entire 10 seconds can also be
calculated using kinematic equations. Since these 10 seconds include two
distinctly different acceleration intervals, the calculations for each interval
must be done separately. This is shown below.
t=0s-5s t = 5 s - 10 s
d = vi*t + 0.5*a*t2d = ((vi + vf)/2)
d = (5 m/s)*(5 s) +0.5*(0 m/s2)*(5 s)2d = ((5 m/s + 15 m/s)/2)*(5
d = 25 m + 0 md = (10 m/s)*(5
d = 25 m d = 50 m
The total displacement during the first 10 seconds of motion is 75 meters,
consistent with the value determined from the area under the line on the
velocity-time graph.
The analysis of this simple motion illustrates the value of these two
representations of motion - velocity-time graph and kinematic equations. Each
representation can be utilized to extract numerical information about unknown
motion quantities for any given motion. The examples below provide useful
opportunity for those requiring additional practice.

1. Rennata Gas is driving through town at 25.0 m/s and begins to accelerate at
a constant rate of -1.0 m/s2. Eventually Rennata comes to a complete stop.
a. Represent Rennata's accelerated motion by sketching a velocity-time graph.
Use the velocity-time graph to determine this distance.
b. Use kinematic equations to calculate the distance that Rennata travels while
decelerating.
See Graph and Answer
Page 90 of 100
2. Otto Emissions is driving his car at 25.0 m/s. Otto accelerates at 2.0
m/s2 for 5 seconds. Otto then maintains a constant velocity for 10.0 more
seconds.
a. Represent the 15 seconds of Otto Emission's motion by sketching a velocity-
time graph. Use the graph to determine the distance that Otto traveled during
the entire 15 seconds.
b. Finally, break the motion into its two segments and use kinematic equations
to calculate the total distance traveled during the entire 15 seconds.
3. Luke Autbeloe, a human cannonball artist, is shot off the edge of a cliff with
an initial upward velocity of +40.0 m/s. Luke accelerates with a constant
downward acceleration of -10.0 m/s2 (an approximate value of the acceleration
of gravity).
a. Sketch a velocity-time graph for the first 8 seconds of Luke's motion.
b. Use kinematic equations to determine the time required for Luke Autbeloe to
drop back to the original height of the cliff. Indicate this time on the graph.
4. Chuck Wagon travels with a constant velocity of 0.5 mile/minute for 10

minutes. Chuck then decelerates at -.25 mile/min2 for 2 minutes.
a. Sketch a velocity-time graph for Chuck Wagon's motion. Use the velocity-
time graph to determine the total distance traveled by Chuck Wagon during the
12 minutes of motion.
Page 91 of 100
b. Finally, break the motion into its two segments and use kinematic equations
to determine the total distance traveled by Chuck Wagon.
5. Vera Side is speeding down the interstate at 45.0 m/s. Vera looks ahead and
observes an accident that results in a pileup in the middle of the road. By the
time Vera slams on the breaks, she is 50.0 m from the pileup. She slows down
at a rate of -10.0 m/s2.
a. Construct a velocity-time plot for Vera Side's motion. Use the plot to
determine the distance that Vera would travel prior to reaching a complete stop
(if she did not collide with the pileup).
b. Use kinematic equations to determine the distance that Vera Side would
travel prior to reaching a complete stop (if she did not collide with the pileup).
Will Vera hit the cars in the pileup? That is, will Vera travel more than 50.0
meters?
6. Earl E. Bird travels 30.0 m/s for 10.0 seconds. He then accelerates at 3.00
m/s2 for 5.00 seconds.
a.Construct a velocity-time graph for Earl E. Bird's motion. Use the plot to
determine the total distance traveled.
b. Divide the motion of the Earl E. Bird into the two time segments and use
kinematic equations to calculate the total displacement.
Page 92 of 100
Solutions to Above Questions
Solution to Question 1
a. The velocity-time graph for the motion is:
The distance traveled can be found by a calculation of the area between the
line on the graph and the time axis.
Area = 0.5*b*h = 0.5*(25.0 s)*(25.0 m/s)
Area = 313 m
b. The distance traveled can be calculated using a kinematic equation. The
solution is shown here.
Given: Find:
vi = 25.0 m/s vf = 0.0 m/s a = -1.0 m/s2 d = ??
vf2 = vi2 + 2*a*d

(0 m/s)2 = (25.0 m/s)2 + 2 * (-1.0 m/s2)*d
0.0 m2/s2 = 625.0 m2/s2 + (-2.0 m/s2)*d
Page 93 of 100
0.0 m2/s2 - 625.0 m2/s2 = (-2.0 m/s2)*d
(-625.0 m2/s2)/(-2.0 m/s2) = d
313 m = d
Return to Question 1
line on the graph and the time axis. This area would be the area of the triangle
plus the area of rectangle 1 plus the area of rectangle 2.
Area = 0.5*btri*htri + brect1*hrect1 + brect2*hrect2
Area = 0.5*(5.0 s)*(10.0 m/s) + (5.0 s)*(25.0 m/s) + (10.0 s)*(35.0 m/s)
Area = 25 m + 125 m + 350 m
Area = 500 m
First find the d for the first 5 seconds:
Given: Find:
Page 94 of 100
vi = 25.0 m/s t = 5.0 s a = 2.0 m/s2 d = ??
d = vi*t + 0.5*a*t2
d = (25.0 m/s)*(5.0 s) + 0.5*(2.0 m/s2)*(5.0 s)2
d = 125 m + 25.0 m
d = 150 m
Now find the d for the last 10 seconds:
Given: Find:
vi = 35.0 m/s t = 10.0 s a = 0.0 m/s2 d = ??
(Note: the velocity at the 5 second mark can be found from knowing that the
car accelerates from 25.0 m/s at +2.0 m/s2 for 5 seconds. This results in a
velocity change of a*t = 10 m/s, and thus a velocity of 35.0 m/s.)
d = vi*t + 0.5*a*t2
d = (35.0 m/s)*(10.0 s) + 0.5*(0.0 m/s2)*(10.0 s)2
d = 350 m + 0 m
d =350 m
The total distance for the 15 seconds of motion is the sum of these two
distance calculations (150 m + 350 m):
distance = 500 m
Page 95 of 100
b. The time to rise up and fall back down to the original height is twice the time
to rise up to the peak. So the solution involves finding the time to rise up to the
peak and then doubling it.
Given: Find:
vi = 40.0 m/s vf = 0.0 m/s a = -10.0 m/s2 tup = ??
2*tup = ??
vf = vi + a*tup
0 m/s = 40 m/s + (-10 m/s2)*tup
(10 m/s2)*tup = 40 m/s
tup = (40 m/s)/(10 m/s2)
tup = 4.0 s
2*tup = 8.0 s
Page 96 of 100
line on the graph and the time axis. This area would be the area of the
rectangle plus the area of the triangle.
Area = brect*hrect + 0.5*btri*htri
Area = (10.0 min)*(0.50 mi/min) + 0.5*(2.0 min)*(0.50 mi/min)
Area = 5 mi + 0.5 mi
Area = 5.5 mi
First find the d for the first 10 minutes:
Given: Find:
vi = 0.50 mi/min t = 10.0 min a = 0.0 mi/min2 d = ??
d = vi*t + 0.5*a*t2
d = (0.50 mi/min)*(10.0 min) + 0.5*(0.0 mi/min2)*(10.0 min)2
d = 5.0 mi + 0 mi
d = 5.0 mi
Now find the d for the last 2 minutes:
Given: Find:
vi = 0.50 mi/min t = 2.0 min a = -0.25 mi/min2 d = ??
d = vi*t + 0.5*a*t2
d = (0.50 mi/min)*(2.0 min) + 0.5*(-0.25 m/s2)*(2.0 min)2
d = 1.0 mi + (-0.5 mi)
d = 0.5 mi
Page 97 of 100
The total distance for the 12 minutes of motion is the sum of these two
distance calculations (5.0 mi + 0.5 mi):
distance = 5.5 mi
line on the graph and the time axis.
Area = 0.5*b*h = 0.5*(4.5 s)*(45.0 m/s)
Area = 101 m
b.
Given: Find:
vi = 45.0 m/s vf = 0.0 m/s a = -10.0 m/s2 d = ??
vf2 = vi2 + 2*a*d
(0 m/s)2 = (45.0 m/s)2 + 2 * (-10.0 m/s2)*d
0.0 m2/s2 = 2025.0 m2/s2 + (-20.0 m/s2)*d
Page 98 of 100
0.0 m2/s2 - 2025.0 m2/s2 = (-20.0 m/s2)*d
(-2025.0 m2/s2)/(-20.0 m/s2) =d
101 m =d
Since the accident pileup is less than 101 m from Vera, she will indeed hit the
pileup before completely stopping (unless she veers aside).
line on the graph and the time axis. This area would be the area of the triangle
plus the area of rectangle 1 plus the area of rectangle 2.
Area = 0.5*btri*htri + b1*h1 + b2*h2
Area = 0.5*(5.0 s)*(15.0 m/s) + (10.0 s)*(30.0 m/s) + (5.0 s)*(30.0 m/s)
Area = 37.5 m + 300 m + 150 m
Area = 488 m
Page 99 of 100
First find the d for the first 10 seconds:
Given: Find:
vi = 30.0 m/s t = 10.0 s a = 0.0 m/s2 d = ??
d = vi*t + 0.5*a*t2
d = (30.0 m/s)*(10.0 s) + 0.5*(0.0 m/s2)*(10.0 s)2
d = 300 m + 0 m
d =300 m
Now find the d for the last 5 seconds:
Given: Find:
vi = 30.0 m/s t = 5.0 s a = 3.0 m/s2 d = ??
d = vi*t + 0.5*a*t2
d = (30.0 m/s)*(5.0 s) + 0.5*(3.0 m/s2)*(5.0 s)2
d = 150 m + 37.5 m
d = 187.5 m
The total distance for the 15 seconds of motion is the sum of these two
distance calculations (300 m + 187.5 m):
distance = 488 m
Page 100 of 100

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Kinematics

1. Lesson 1 - Describing Motion with Words

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The Direction of the Acceleration Vector

In a vector diagram, the magnitude of a vector quantity is represented by the

The Meaning of Shape for a p-t Graph

Contrasting a Constant and a Changing Velocity

If the position-time data for such a car

If the position-time data for such a car

The Importance of Slope

Contrasting a Slow and a Fast Motion

Representing an Accelerated Motion

The principle of slope is an incredibly useful principle for extracting relevant

The Meaning of Slope for a p-t Graph

If the position-time data for such a car

Determining the Slope on a p-t Graph

So that was easy - rise over run is all that is involved.

Check Your Understanding

The Meaning of Shape for a v-t Graph

Constant Velocity versus Changing Velocity

If the velocity-time data for such a

Positive Velocity versus Negative Velocity

Speeding Up versus Slowing Down

Analyzing a Constant Velocity Motion

Analyzing a Changing Velocity Motion

Analyzing a Two-Stage Motion

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Determining the Slope on a v-t Graph

Using the Slope Equation

For points (5 s, 50 m/s) and (0 s, 0 m/s):

For points (5 s, 50 m/s) and (2 s, 20 m/s):

For points (4 s, 40 m/s) and (3 s, 30 m/s):

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Determining the Area on a v-t Graph

The shaded area is representative of the displacement during from 0

The shaded area is representative of the displacement during from 0

Calculating the Area of a Rectangle

Now try the following two practice problems as a check of your

See Practice A Answer

See Practice B Answer

Calculating the Area of a Triangle

Now try the following two practice problems as a check of your

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