Notes On Color of Inorganic Complexes

Color of Transition Metal Complexes
The variety of color among transition metal complexes has long fascinated the chemists.
For example, aqueous solutions of [Fe(H2O)6]3+ are red, [Co(H2O)6]2+ are pink,
[Ni(H2O)6]2+ are green, [Cu(H2O)6]2+ are blue and [Zn(H2O)6]2+ are colorless. Although
the octahedral [Co(H2O)6]2+ are pink, those of tetrahedral [CoCl4]2- are blue. The green
color of [Ni(H2O)6]2+ turns blue when ammonia is added to give [Ni(NH3)6]2+. Many of
these facts can be rationalized from CFT.
Why we see Color?

When a sample absorbs light, what we see is the sum of the remaining colors that strikes
our eyes. If a sample absorbs all wavelength of visible light, none reaches our eyes from
that sample, and then the sample appears black. If the sample absorbs no visible light, it
is white or colorless. When the sample absorbs a photon of visible light, it is its
complementary color we actually see. For example, if the sample absorbed orange color,
it would appear blue; blue and orange are said to be complementary colors.
The Color Wheel

The visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum contains light of wavelength 380-750
nm. The color wheel below gives information on the wavelength of different color and
also the complementary
color. For example: If red
light is absorbed, the

complex appears green; If
purple light is absorbed, the complex appears yellow.
Color of Coordination Complexes
The color of coordination complexes arises from electronic transitions between levels
whose spacing corresponds to the wavelengths available in the visible light. In
complexes, these transitions are frequently referred to as d-d transitions because they
involve the orbitals that are mainly d in character (for examples: t2g and eg for the
octahedral complexes and e and t2 for the tetrahedral complexes). Obviously, the colors
exhibited are intimately related to the magnitude of the spacing between these levels.
Since this spacing depends on factors such as the geometry of the complex, the nature of
the ligands, and the oxidation state of the central metal atom, variation on colors can
often be explained by looking carefully at the complexes concerned. Below are a few
examples to illustrate this point.

[V(H2O)6]3+ [V(H2O)6]2+
V(III) = d2 ion V(II) = d3 ion
violet light absorbed yellow light absorbed

complex appears yellow complex appears violet
eg
eg
∆oct ∆oct
t2g
t2g
∆ small
∆ large

The variation in the color of the Cr(III) complexes can be explained following
similar argument
We observe the appearance of a shoulder in the case of [Ti(H2O)6]3+. Perfectly

octahedral [Ti(H2O)6]3+ should give only one d-d Transition. However, distortion
occurs to eliminate the degeneracy of the system. If a complex distorts from
regular octahedral geometry, the t2g and eg levels are split, the consequence of
which is the appearance of a shoulder as shown in the figure right.
dz 2
dx2-y2
dxz dyz
dxy
Complexes that contain metal ions of d10 electron configuration are usually
colorless. Examples are [Cu(PPh3)4]+ and [Zn(H2O)6]2+. One would expect a
metal complex with no d-eletron to be colorless as well. However, a few of such
complexes are strongly colored, for example, MnO4- or [Cr2O7]2-. The origin of
the color in these complexes is not the d-d transitions, rather due to ‘charge
transfer’ that we will briefly discuss later.
Multi-electron systems exhibit multiple transitions and the assignment of
absorption bands is not straightforward. The complexity arises due to inter-
electron repulsions that we will not discuss in this course but will take a simpler
approach to understand the color of coordination complexes.
Selection rules for electronic transitions
The Beer-Lambert Law
A = log10(Io/I) = εcl
where ε is the molar extinction coefficient ( in L cm-1 mole-1 ), c is concentration in mole
L-1 and l is the path length in cm. A is known as ‘Absorbance’ and it is dimensionless.
To explain the absorption spectra of coordination complexes, it is necessary to know the

selection rules that govern electronic transitions. Any transition in violation of selection
rule is said to be ‘forbidden’, but we will see how some rules are ‘more forbidden than
others’. We shall not pursue the theoretical basis of the rules but merely outline simple
tests for their application.
The Laporte Rule. In a molecule or ion possessing a centre of symmetry, transitions are
not allowed between orbitals of the same parity, for example d to d. In other words, there
must be change in parity (∆l=±1), i.e. the orbital quantum number should differ by 1. The
forbidden transitions are s → s, d → d, p → f. etc. The geometries affected by this rule
include octahedral and square-planar complexes. The rule is not applicable to tetrahedral
complexes as it does not contain a center of symmetry.
The key element here is that there are mechanisms by which selection rules can be
relaxed so that transitions can occur, even if only at low intensities. Unsymmetrical
vibrations of an octahedral complex can transiently destroy its center of symmetry and
allow transitions that would otherwise be Laporte forbidden. In cases where the rule
applies, the colors of the complexes are usually relatively pale. As examples, consider
[Cu(H2O)6]2+ which is a rather pale blue color vs [Cu(NH3)4]2+ which is an intense dark
blue.
Spin Allowed - Spin Forbidden Any transition for which ∆S≠0 is strongly forbidden;
that is, in order to be allowed, a transition must involve no change in spin state. Consider
the case of the high spin d5 complex [Mn(H2O)6]2+. Electronic transition is not only
Laporte forbidden but also spin forbidden. Absorptions that are doubly forbidden
transitions are extremely weak. It is understandable, then, that dilute solutions of Mn(II)
are colorless.
Charge-Transfer (CT) Bands. Similar to d-d transitions, charge-transfer (CT)

transitions also involve the metal d-orbitals. CT bands are observed if the energies of
empty and filled ligand- and metal-centered orbitals are similar. The direction of the
electron transfer is determined by the relative energy levels of these orbitals: i) Ligand-
to-Metal charge transfer (LMCT) like in MnO4-, CrO42- etc. For MnO4-, the d-electron
count on Mn(VII) is d0. The origin of the color in this species is not due to d-d transition,
rather, charge transfer from O2- to Mn(VII), described as LMCT band. ii) Metal-to
Ligand charge transfer (MLCT) like in [Fe(bpy)3]2+. In this complex the charge transfer
occurs from Fe(II) to the empty π* orbitals of bpy ligand.
Below is a table that shows typical ε values for different types of transitions.

Notes On Color of Inorganic Complexes

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Color of Transition Metal Complexes

Why we see Color?

The Color Wheel

light is absorbed, the

violet light absorbed yellow light absorbed

We observe the appearance of a shoulder in the case of [Ti(H2O)6]3+. Perfectly

To explain the absorption spectra of coordination complexes, it is necessary to know the

Charge-Transfer (CT) Bands. Similar to d-d transitions, charge-transfer (CT)

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