Digital PID Controller Design for DC-DC Buck Converter

Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment for the award degree of

Master of Technology
in

Electrical Engineering
(Specialization: Control & Automation)

by

Ashis Mondal

Department of Electrical Engineering

Department of al Engineering
Electric

National Institute of Technology, Rourkela.

May- 2014

i
Digital PID Controller Design for DC-DC Buck Converter

Thesis Submitted in partial fulfillment for the award degree of

Master of Technology
in

Electrical Engineering
(Specialization: Control & Automation)

by

Ashis Mondal
(212EE3235)

under the supervision of

Dr. Susovon Samanta

Department
Department of of Electrical
Electric Engineering
al Engineering

National Institute of Technology, Rourkela.

May- 2014

ii
 National Institute Of Technology, Rourkela

Certificate
This is to certify that the report entitled, “Digital PID controller Design for DC-DC Buck
Converter” submitted by Ashis Mondal to the Department of Electrical Engineering, National
Institute Of Technology, Rourkela, India, during the academic session 2013-2014 for the award of
the degree of Master of Technology in “Control & Automation” specialization, is a bona-fide
record of work carried by him under my supervision and guidance. The thesis has fulfilled all the
requirements as per the regulations of this institute and in my opinion reached the standard for
submission.

………………..………………..……....
Dr. Susovon Samanta
Department of Electrical Engineering,
NIT,Rourkela -769008 (India)
Place : Rourkela, India
Date: May, 2014

i
 Declaration

I, Ashis Mondal, declare that:

1. The work contained in this thesis is original and has been done by me under the guidance of my
supervisor Dr. Susovon Samanta
2. The work has not been submitted to any other Institute for any degree or diploma.
3. I have followed the guidelines provided by the institute in preparing the report.
4. I have conformed to the norms and guidelines given in the Ethical Code of Conduct of the
Institute.
5. Whenever I have used materials (data, theoretical analysis, figures and text) from other sources,
I have given due credit to them by citing them in the text of the report and giving their details in
the references.

Department of Electrical Engineering .....................................................

NIT,Rourkela, (Ashis Mondal)
Rourkela-769008

ii
 Acknowledgement

First of all I like to thanks from deep of my heart to my supervisor Dr. Susovon Samanta
for the confidence that he accorded to me by accepting to supervise this thesis. I express my warm
gratitude for his precious support, valuable guidance and consistent encouragement throughout the
course of my M. Tech.

My heartiest thanks to Dr. Bidyadhar Subudhi, an inspiring faculty and Dr. A. K. Panda, Head of
Department of Electrical Engineering, NIT, Rourkela.

Special thanks to Green, Gour, Gaurav for their support, care and love. I would like to extend
special gratitude to my friends in NIT Rourkela, without whom, this journey would not have
been this enjoyable.

Finally, I dedicate this thesis to my family: my dear father, my dearest mother who supported me
morally despite the distance that separates us. I thank them from the bottom of my heart for their
motivation, inspiration, love they always give me. Without their support nothing would have been
possible. I am greatly indebted to them for everything that I am.

iii
 Abstract

DC-DC converters with computerized digital control methods picked up ubiquity because of their
high productivity, low power utilization, higher resistance to natural changes, for example,
temperature and maturing of parts, capacity to interface effortlessly, of programmability and to
actualize advanced control plans. Their requisitions incorporate compact electronic gadgets, for
example, computer and smart phones others.

Various techniques have been developed to meet the requirement of output voltage and at the
same time it is also necessary to get more resolution to increase precision. The other is to develop
new control methods that can utilize the advantages of the digital controller so as to improve the
dynamic performance of the switching power converters.
The objective of this thesis is to study current techniques of DPWM generation and to develop
new techniques using 8052 for low cost implementation and PID controller implementation. Usage
of computerized PID controllers for DC-DC converters is talked about in this thesis. The essential
preferences of digital control over analog control are higher invulnerability to ecological changes,
for example, temperature and maturing of parts, expanded adaptability by changing the product,
more praiseworthy control procedures and lessened number of segments. Simple PID controller
was initially planned utilizing frequency response techniques, and then changed over into digital
control.

iv
Contents
Chapter 1 ....................................................................................................1
Introduction ................................................................................................1
1.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................................................1
1.1.1. Linear Regulators .............................................................................................................................1
1.1.2 Switching Regulators .........................................................................................................................2
1.2 Digital Controllers ................................................................................................................................3
1.3 Objective...................................................................................................................................................5
1.7 Thesis Structure ........................................................................................................................................5
Chapter 2 ....................................................................................................6
Synchronous Buck Converter design ..........................................................6
2.1 Synchronous Buck converter ....................................................................................................................6
2.2 Inductor selection .....................................................................................................................................7
2.3 Selecting the Capacitor .............................................................................................................................9
2.4 Selecting the MOSFET ...........................................................................................................................10
2.5 Driving of the MOSFET .........................................................................................................................11
2.6 Simulation Result ...................................................................................................................................14
2.7 Shoot through effect of MOSFET ..........................................................................................................16
2.8 Hardware model .....................................................................................................................................17
2.8 Hardware result ......................................................................................................................................18
Chapter 3 ..................................................................................................20
Pulse Width Modulation Techniques ..........................................................20
3.2 Microcontroller based technique: ...........................................................................................................21
3.2.1 Microcontroller ................................................................................................................................21
3.2.2 Sequential approach technique ........................................................................................................22
3.2.3 Time multiplexed approach .............................................................................................................23
3.3 NI MULTISIM Simulation diagram closed loop buck converter using sequential approach technique 25
3.4 Simulation result.....................................................................................................................................26
PID controller design ................................................................................27
Chapter 4 ..................................................................................................27
4.1 Small Signal Analysis of Buck Converter ..............................................................................................27
4.2 State Space Description for Each Interval ..............................................................................................28
4.3 State Space Averaging ............................................................................................................................30

v
 4.4 Linearization ...........................................................................................................................................32
4.5 Exact Tuning of the PID Controller .......................................................................................................36
4.5.1 Motivation .......................................................................................................................................36
4.5.2 Objective .............................................................................................................................................36
4.5.3 Method of tune ................................................................................................................................37
4.5.4 Validation of above described method ............................................................................................38
4.6 Hardware model .....................................................................................................................................41
4.7 Hardware result of different reference voltage .......................................................................................42
Conclusion ................................................................................................43
5.1 Suggested Future work ...........................................................................................................................43
References ............................................................................................................................................44

vi
 List of figure
Figure 1 Synchronous buck converter ................................................................................................................3
Figure 2 block diagram of closed loop synchronous buck converter .................................................................4
Figure 3 Synchronous buck converter with driver .............................................................................................6
Figure 4 inductor current vs. time(t) in CCM .....................................................................................................8
Figure 5 Buck converter ..................................................................................................................................11
Figure 6 IR2110 IC with bootstrap capacitor ...................................................................................................12
Figure 7 Simulation model of the synchronous Buck converter ......................................................................13
Figure 8 Simulation model of the synchronous Buck converter ......................................................................14
Figure 9 Waveform of inductor current(Y axis) vs. time(X axis) ....................................................................14
Figure 10 Waveform of high side MOSFET gate voltage(Y axis) vs. time(X axis) ........................................15
Figure 11 Waveform of low side MOSFET gate voltage (Y axis) vs. time(X axis) ........................................15
Figure 12 Delay between two PWM signals ....................................................................................................16
Figure 13 Hardware model ...............................................................................................................................17
Figure 14 waveform of high side MOSFET gate voltage (Y axis) vs. time(X axis) ........................................18
Figure 15 waveform of low side MOSFET gate voltage (Y axis) vs. time(X axis) .........................................18
Figure 16 Waveform of output voltage (Y axis) vs. time(X axis) ....................................................................19
Figure 17 Flowchart for sequential approach ...................................................................................................23
Figure 18 Flowchart for time multiplexed approach ........................................................................................24
Figure 19 NI MULTISIM Simulation diagram closed loop SBC using 8052 ..................................................25
Figure 20 simulation result with load disturbance............................................................................................26
Figure 21 reference voltage tracking ................................................................................................................26
Figure 22 ON time circuit.................................................................................................................................34
Figure 23 Off time circuit .................................................................................................................................34
Figure 24 Bode plot of uncompensated system ................................................................................................38
Figure 25 Bode plot of compensated system ....................................................................................................39
Figure 26 flow chart of digital PID controller ..................................................................................................40
Figure 27 hardware circuit................................................................................................................................41
Figure 28 Hardware output voltage when reference voltage is 3V .................................................................42
Figure 29 Startup transient responses when reference voltage is 3V ...............................................................42
Figure 30 flow chart of adaptive PID controller............................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 31 Hardware output voltage when reference voltage is 2V .................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

vii
 Chapter
Chapter 1 1
Introduction
Introduction

1.1 Introduction

The electronics industry, the fastest growing industry in this planet and would be remain

so due to advancement and revolution in VLSI technology. This digital technology makes life of

people very comfort and easy, and because of this Digital technology become most popular

among all. Nowadays without electronics gadget like computer, cell phone, digital sound system,

home appliances our life become like hell. That is why the electronics generating maximum

revenue and growing faster with the new technological advancement. As the application of

different devices is different, the power supply, current and voltage rating would be different as

per as their specification. For that for that we need fixed regulated power supply. There is two

type of voltage regulation method in general.

 Linear Regulator

 Switching Regulator

1.1.1. Linear Regulators

This regelation is done by using variable resistor. It is made by connecting a variable

resistor series with the load resistor and the change in the value of resistance is done as per as the

load. The advantage of this type of regulator is that it is simple and less costly but it is less

efficient due power dissipation in the resistor has made unpopular. The regulation can also be

done with ZENER diode but major problem is less efficient.

1
1.1.2 Switching Regulators

The switching regulator is become very popular nowadays because of its high power

conversion efficiency. The efficiency can be achieved by the use of switching regulator up to

90%. This type of regulator also has great design flexibility. A switching regulator generally use

a power switch by turning on & off it transfer energy partly from source to the load. This switch

is controlled by controller and that is responsible for desire output. As it is using the controlled

switch to regulate the power supply it is called switching regulator.

The loss of energy in this scheme is very less because of absence of resistor .this reason

lead the switching regulator more efficient as compared to linear regulator. Also the output

voltage of this regulator does not depend upon the load .

There is various type of switching regulator but our discussion is limited to Buck

Regulator. The schematic diagram of buck converter is shown in Fig. 1.3.As this converter uses

two power switch an operated synchronously i.e.one after another it is called synchronous Buck

regulator. Buck converter, one type of step down chopper where output voltage is less than the

input voltage. Here the regulation is done by using simple switches (with ideally no on resistance

or very low on resistance). These switches goes ON and OFF at a fixed rate called as switching

frequency, to keep the output at desired level.

The output of DC-DC buck converter is given as

𝑉𝑜 = 𝐷 × 𝑉𝑖𝑛 (1.1)

Where, D is duty ratio is defined by the ratio of on time of the switch (𝑇𝑂𝑁 ) to the operating time
period (T)

2
 Figure 1 Synchronous buck converter

From the equation no. 1.1 we can say that the output voltage is the function of 𝑇𝑂𝑁 when the

switching period T is fixed ,Thus by controlling the switch by controlled PWM signal we can control

the output voltage.

1.2 Digital Controllers

Various type of controller is used to control the switch such as analog, digital, fuzzy etc.

among these controllers Digital controller is very popular nowadays. There is plenty advantage

digital control has over analog controller such as it is less sensitive to environmental changes,

like change in temperature, humidity etc.it is more robust than analog controller as it is less

sudden small short time change in the system. Another most important advantage is that if there

is any change specification we don’t need to change the component like analog controller, just

3
we need to change the program so, flexibility is greater than analog controller. It is also very

compact and requires less area and mostly it is not very costly. But nothing is perfect in the

world the digital controller has many advantage too. Such as there is always a delay incorporated

with the system due to sampling process that makes the system nonlinear. Fig 1.4 shows the

block diagram of digitally controlled synchronous buck converter operating in Voltage Mode

Control.

Figure 2 block diagram of closed loop synchronous buck converter

4
1.3 Objective

In this thesis various DPWM technique using different microcontroller are studied and various controlling

method of DPWM signal is implemented experimentally. the main aim of this project is to design low

cost ,efficient and convenient controlled DPWM technique using various type of microcontroller such as

8052, Audrino etc. This thesis is also meant to compare the designed method with the existed

methods to checks its efficiency and performances.

1.7 Thesis Structure

 In order to analyze and check the performance of DPWM generation techniques, for a

DC-DC converter the proper design of power stage parameters of DC-DC buck converter

are necessary. Chapter 2 discusses designing of parameters viz. L, C, R of DC-DC buck

converter.

 Chapter 3 presents the principle of Pulse Width Modulation (PWM). It also discusses

present techniques of PWM generation in analog as well as digital domain. In this chapter

the basics of microcontroller and its way of exploitation for PWM generation also

included.

 Chapter 4 presents the PID controller design for controlling the voltage of the SBC and its

hardware implementation.

 At last Chapter 5 contains conclusion to the thesis. Scope of future work extending the

study further is suggested in this chapter.

5
 Chapter 2
Synchronous Buck Converter design

This chapter deals with the design of synchronous buck converter. By this chapter we are

able to describe how to select the inductor and capacitor, various problems for designing Buck

Converter.

2.1 Synchronous Buck converter

Figure 2.1 shows the general configuration of synchronous buck converter. It uses two

switches which is nothing but a MOSFET or we can use IGBT .In this thesis we use MOSFET

to design the Buck converter. In some buck converter the low side MOSFET Q2 is replaced by

schottkey diode or any general purpose diode such type of converter is called asynchronous

Buck convereter

Figure 3 Synchronous buck converter with driver

6
 To determine the proper value of inductor and capacitor following parameter information are

nessecery.

1. Applied DC voltage: 𝑉𝐼𝑁

2. Nominal output voltage: 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇

From fig 2.1 it can be conclude that it works like LC filter like that receives a voltage

square wave at its input which is producing by controlled switching action of two MOSFET and

after proper filtering produces a regulated output voltage 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 .

2.2 Inductor selection

The fundamental property of an inductor is to oppose the change in the magnitude of

current passing through it. In buck converter the switching action of MOSFET is done at very high

speed. Hence switch produces discontinuous output current, but it is the inductor, which

overcome this problem. During the ON state of MOSFET an electric current flows in the circuit

and energy is stored in the inductor (charging). As soon as the switch is turned off, there are no

current flows to the circuit. At this time inductor released the entire energy which is stored in

ON time. At steady state condition, the average inductor current 𝐼𝐿 is equal to the output current

𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔.

Figure 2.2 shows the inductor current vs. time in CCM where the inductor current

never reached to its zero value. It can be seen from the figure, the inductor current is not

constant, but varies around 𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 between a maximum value 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 and a minimum value 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛

whose difference 𝛥 𝐼𝐿 is the peak-to-peak inductor current ripple.

7
 Figure 4 inductor current vs. time(t) in CCM

For choosing the value of inductor key factor need to be concern that the peak to peak ripple

current 𝛥 𝐼𝐿 of inductor should not cross the permissible value there is a thumb rule that the peak to

peak inductor ripple current 𝛥 𝐼𝐿 should be around 30% to 40% of average inductor current 𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 or

output current.

(𝑉𝐼𝑁 −𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 )𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡

𝐿= (2.1)
𝑉𝐼𝑁 𝐹𝑆𝑊 𝛥𝐼𝐿

Where

• 𝑉𝐼𝑁 Input voltage (in V)

• 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 Output voltage (in V)
• 𝐹𝑆𝑊 Switching frequency (in Hz)
•𝐿 Inductance (in H)
• 𝛥𝐼𝐿 Peak-to-peak inductor current (in A)

8
When selecting a value of inductor three is another parameter need to be consider , that is the

saturation current 𝐼𝑆𝐴𝑇 of the inductor, which should never be exceeded in the operation.

Operating the inductor above 𝐼𝑆𝐴𝑇 would cause a significant inductance loss and a steep increase

of the inductor current during the charging phase.

2.3 Selecting the Capacitor

The main function of capacitor is to maintain constant output voltage.it makes the output voltage

ripple free. As ideal capacitor is almost practically impossible to construct there always an ESR

incorporated with it and this ESR affects the output voltage. The best practice is to use low-ESR

capacitors to minimize the ripple on the output voltage.

For a certain peak-to-peak output voltage ripple (𝛥𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇,𝑅𝐼𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐸 ), the required maximum ESR

of the output capacitor can be calculated by using the following equation [5]

𝛥𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇,𝑅𝐼𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐸
𝐸𝑆𝑅 = 𝛥𝐼𝐿
(2.2)

Where, 𝛥𝐼𝐿 is the inductor peak to peak ripple current

The equation for calculating the value of capacitor is as follows [5],

2
𝐿 𝐼𝐿,𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐶= 2 (2.3)
(𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 +𝛥𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇,𝑂𝑉𝐸𝑅𝑆𝐻𝑂𝑂𝑇 )2 −𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇

Where
 𝛥𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇,𝑂𝑉𝐸𝑅𝑆𝐻𝑂𝑂𝑇 : Peak overshoots voltage allowed on the output.
 1
𝐼𝐿,𝑚𝑎𝑥 : Peak inductor current.

9
 Because of this ESR in the capacitor the loss of power takes place and due to this the

capacitor gets heated up. This temperature rise negatively affects the lifetime & reliability of the

capacitor. Since excessive temperature negatively affects the reliability and the lifetime of a

capacitor, an output capacitor with an adequate current rating should be selected.

In order to achieve better output voltage regulation, low-ESR capacitors are required.

Ceramic capacitors generally have very low ESR.

2.4 Selecting the MOSFET

Figure 2.1 shows the power stage of DC- DC Converter. The MOSFET Q1 High Side

MOSFET, Q2 is the Low Side MOSFET. Basically both MOSFETs have to withstand the input

voltage. The MOSFETs also have to have a capability to handle additional voltage spikes caused

by parasitic inductances. The maximum current seen by both MOSFETs is the output current

plus 50 % of the ripple current. Since both MOSFETs are switched dynamically their power

dissipation results partly out of the static losses contributed by the on resistance and the current

and partly out of the switching losses [6]. The MOSFET should be chosen which satisfy above

criteria the voltage and power rating of MOSFETs can be obtained from its datasheet.

Once the power and voltage rating criteria is satisfied and 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡, load current , switching frequency

etc. determine the operating condition. The selection of the MOSFET is as follows:

 Lower value of the RDS (on) have less power dissipation better converter will

work.

10
  The rise and fall time for MOSFET. By the thumb rule, the time required to on &

off a MOSFET, should be 100 times less than the switching period of the

converter.

2.5 Driving of the MOSFET

One of the most crucial parts of the designing buck converter is to driving the

MOSFET. From Fig 2.1 it is easily seen that the source of low side MOSFET Q2 is the grounded

but the source of high side MOSFET Q2 is connected with the inductor or it can be said that the

source Q2 is floating in this case because of this the gate voltage of high side MOSFET is required

10V - 15V higher than supply DC voltage (𝑉𝐼𝑁 ).

Figure 5 Buck converter

By using KVL ,

-𝑉𝐼𝑁 − 𝑉𝐺𝑆 + 𝑉𝐷𝑆 + 𝑉𝐺 =0 (2.4)

Or, 𝑉𝐺 = 𝑉𝐼𝑁 + 𝑉𝐺𝑆 - 𝑉𝐷𝑆 (2.5)

Hence an extra driver circuitry is need to provide this 𝑉𝐺 to high side MOSFET.one of the most

popular driver IC is used as a driver in Buck Converter is IR2110 [6].

11
A bootstrap capacitor is connected between pin no. 7 & 6. During the off time of high side

MOSFET Q2, the low side MOSFET is on, the bootstrap capacitor gets charged. During the on time

of high side MOSFET Q2, the low side MOSFET is off. The bootstrap capacitor discharged through

and desired MOSFET gate voltage is obtained [7]

For proper driving of the MOSFET the value and the type of the bootstrap capacitor

must be chosen carefully [8].

Figure 6 IR2110 IC with bootstrap capacitor

12
2.5 Simulation of the synchronous Buck Converter

The PSICE simulation model of synchronous buck converter and the corresponding result is

shown in respective Fig.

Figure 7 Simulation model of the synchronous Buck converter

13
2.6 Simulation Result

Figure 8 Simulation model of the synchronous Buck converter

Figure 9 Waveform of inductor current(Y axis) vs. time(X axis)

14
Figure 10 Waveform of high side MOSFET gate voltage(Y axis) vs. time(X axis)

Figure 11 Waveform of low side MOSFET gate voltage (Y axis) vs. time(X axis)

15
2.7 Shoot through effect of MOSFET

The lower value of the Qgd/Qgs ratio of the low-side MOSFET, the better the synchronous buck

will be to dV/dt shoot-through. To resolve this purpose the ratio should be <1. Ideal MOSFET is

hardly feasible in real-life.as buck converter uses two MOSFET at any instant of time one

MOSFET get turn on another get turn off. The MOSFET usually takes some time to get turn on

and off may be in the order of ns but it takes. Hence there should have enough time delay between

turning on of one MOSFET and turning off one MOSFET .Otherwise two MOSFET get turn off in

a single time and the shoot through effect is take place which is not desire.

Figure 12 Delay between two PWM signals

16
2.8 Hardware model

Figure 13 Hardware model

17
2.8 Hardware result

Figure 14 waveform of high side MOSFET gate voltage (Y axis) vs. time(X axis)

Figure 15 waveform of low side MOSFET gate voltage (Y axis) vs. time(X axis)

18
Figure 16 Waveform of output voltage (Y axis) vs. time(X axis)

19
Chapter 3
Pulse Width Modulation Techniques

In recent time it is seen that digital controller is far more advantageous over analog

controller. For switching action of the MOSFET of the converter, high resolution digital pulse-

width modulator (DPWM) is required in order to achieve appreciable output voltage regulation

and to eliminate errors due to the quantization effects of the ADC and the DPWM. In recent

years, several methods are proposed for PWM generation as explained in [1].

3.1 Pulse Width Modulation

Pulse width Modulation is the most commonly used technique for controlling the electric

power to electric devices .For PWM voltage or current, supplied to the load can be varied

according to switch “ON” or “OFF” state. For a higher “ON” state of the switched corresponds

to high voltage or current which transfer a high power to the load. Duty cycle of a PWM signal

is the measure of “ON” time of the signal so duty cycle is proportion of “ON” time to its period.

In general duty cycle is expressed in the term of percentage so 100% denotes fully “ON” state.

The crucial point of PWM is that power dissipation in the switch in devices is very small

during the “off” time there is practically no current flows through the switching device hence

there is no voltage drop. And during its on time voltage drop across the switch is zero. As we

know power loss is the product of voltage and current so in both cases power dissipation is zero.

Because of its on-off nature it works very well in digital control. By using this PWM technique

we can easily set a desired duty ratio.

20
The average value is given as-

1 𝑇
𝑌𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡) dt
𝑇 0

Assuming the pulse waveform has low value 𝑌𝑚𝑖𝑛 and high value 𝑌𝑚𝑎𝑥
1 𝐷.𝑇 𝑇
𝑌𝑎𝑣𝑔 = (∫ 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑇 0
dt + ∫𝐷.𝑇 𝑓(𝑡) dt ) (3.1)

𝑌𝑎𝑣𝑔 = D*𝑌𝑚𝑎𝑥 + (1-D) 𝑌𝑚𝑖𝑛 (3.2)

If 𝑌𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0 then 𝑌𝑎𝑣𝑔 = D* 𝑌𝑚𝑎𝑥

Hence it can be concluded that a signal is directly dependent on duty ratio.

There is two type of methods by which we can generate PWM signal one is analog method

another is digital method. In this project only digital method of PWM generation with

microcontroller is discussed.

3.2 Microcontroller based technique:

3.2.1 Microcontroller

Microcontroller used microprocessor as its CPU, in addition with fixed amount of RAM .ROM,

input output port, Timer, Serial port, Interrupt and clock circuit embedded on a single chip.

Microcontroller is the device that is usually dedicated to a particular application. For example TV

remote control, mobile phone. Since microcontroller is powerful digital processor the degree of

control and programmability they provide significantly enhance the effectiveness of the application.

The 8051 is the first microcontroller of MCS-51 family introduce by Intel Corporation at the end of

1970.8051 is an 8 bit processor with 64 kb ROM and 128 byte RAM along with two timer, one

21
serial port, Six interrupt sources. The 8051 become widely popular after Intel allowed the other

manufacturer to make a market any flavors of 8051.They please with the condition that they remain

code-compatible with the 8051[10].

There are mainly two general programming approaches for generating PWM signal popularly used
that are explained below.

 Sequential approach Technique

 Time multiplexed Technique

3.2.2 Sequential approach technique

In this approach microcontroller core processor monitors the timing generation for “ON”

and “OFF” status. The algorithm and flowchart for this approach is explained below. Flowchart

given below shows the algorithm used in this approach. The program flow is sequential and

processor of 8051 is engaged in the time slot generation for PWM signal. The input to this

program is the digitized error signal generated from the plant. Digital version of the error signal

is generated from the A to D converter used prior to this system.

The program can be explained as the input in the form of 8 bits is obtained from the plant

and then Ton, Toff timing values are calculated depending on the error. These timing values

are fed to timer of the 8051 controller and the processor of the 8051 monitors these values and

make the PWM output from the 8051 high and low representing “ON” and ”OFF” status of the

pin. The algorithm for this method is in flowchart of fig 3.5. Drawbacks of this method are the

processor is engaged in the time slot generation which can be done on other way and hence this

method is not efficient.

22
 Figure 17 Flowchart for sequential approach

3.2.3 Time multiplexed approach:

For this approach, the concept of interrupts is exploited. Interrupts are explained as

follows.

The time multiplexed approach is the proposed approach in for PWM generation in this

thesis. This approach uses timer and external interrupt of 8051. These interrupts will produce an

interfere to current process and make the processor to respond it. To respond the interrupt the

microcontroller executes an interrupt handler program which is also called as Interrupt Service

Routine (ISR). At this location the respective instructions are saved which will be executed when

23
 the processor transfers the program control here.

Here at the ISR of timer 0, instructions for toggling the status of PWM output

depending on Ton and Toff are saved and at the ISR of external interrupts a small program

is written to update the Ton and Toff. The flowchart which is given below will explain the

algorithm in detail.

Figure 18 Flowchart for time multiplexed approach

24
3.3 NI MULTISIM Simulation diagram closed loop buck converter using
sequential approach technique
The closed loop model of SBC using above listed DPWM technique is shown below.

Figure 19 NI MULTISIM Simulation diagram closed loop SBC using 8052

25
3.4 Simulation result
The simulation result of closed loop synchronous buck converter with 5V applied voltage
and 50% duty cycle is shown below.

Figure 20 simulation result with load disturbance

Figure 21 reference voltage tracking

26
Chapter 4

PID controller design

Usage of computerized PID controllers for DC-DC converters is talked about in this chapter. The

essential preferences of digital control over analog control are higher invulnerability to ecological

changes, for example, temperature and maturing of parts, expanded adaptability by changing the

product, more praiseworthy control procedures and lessened number of segments. Simple PID and

PI controllers were initially planned utilizing frequency response techniques, and then changed

over into digital controllers.

4.1 Small Signal Analysis of Buck Converter

Small signal analysis is carried out to know the dynamics of the system and configuration the

compensators for the switching converters. The small signal models incorporate different transfer

functions, for example, control to o/p, o/p impedance and so forth. In this way we can design the

compensator as per our desire with respect to any of these normal for transfer function. The

principle reason for doing small signal analysis is to see the real behavior of the switching converter

around a fixed operating point.

There are various methods that model these time variant systems into linear time invariant systems.

State space averaging, Circuit averaging, Current injected approach are some of them. For our

analysis we will take into account only state space averaging technique.

27
4.2 State Space Description for Each Interval

Here it is assumed that the buck converter is in continuous conduction mode. Therefore two circuits

are considered, one for the on time and other for the off time of the converter. During 𝑇𝑜𝑛 the switch

is on and supply is connected to load through the inductor as shown.

So for on time our equation for inductor voltage and capacitor current are,

vl  t  =vg (t)-vc (t) (4.1)

ic (t)  i l (t)  i o (t) (4.2)

By expanding above equation we get,

dil
L  v g ( t )  vc ( t ) (4.3)
dt

dil v g (t )  vc (t )
 (4.4)
dt L

Similarly for the capacitor current,

dvc
C  il  t   io (t ) (4.5)
dt

dvc il (t ) vc (t )
  (4.6)
dt C RC

Now the above equations can be written as,

 dil 
 dt   0 1/ L   il   1/ L 
 
   v    0  vg  (4.7)
 c 
dv 1/ C 1/ RC  c  
 dt 

28
 i 
y   0 1  l  (4.8)
vc 

They may be written as,

x  Aon x  Bonu (4.9)

y  Con x  Donu (4.10)

Here, Don =0

Now we analyze the off time circuit,

During off time the switch is open and the load current is supplied by the inductor stored energy.

And this path is completed through the diode.

During this time inductor voltage is,

vl  t   vc (t ) (4.11)

dil v (t )
 c (4.12)
dt L

Similarly for capacitor current,

ic (t )  il (t )  io (t ) (4.13)

dvc il (t ) vc (t )
  (4.14)
dt C RC

29
These can also be written as,

 dil 
 dt   0 1   il (t )  0 
       vg  (4.15)
 dvc   1/ C 1/ RC  vc (t )  0 
 dt 

 i (t ) 
y   0 1  l  (4.16)
vc (t ) 

Above equations can be rewritten as,

x  Aoff x  Boff u (4.17)

y  Coff x  Doff u (4.18)

Here Doff  0

From above equations we can see that Aon  Aoff and Boff  0

4.3 State Space Averaging

Let the converter switch be on for the time d nT i.e. 𝑡𝑜𝑛 and d n' T is the interval for which switch is

off i.e. toff  dn' T  (1  dn )T .

The state space description can be written as

ON: x  t   Aon x  t   Bonu (t ) for time t   nT , nT  dnT  , n=1, 2, 3… (4.19)

30
 OFF: x  t   Aoff x  t   Boff u (t ) for time t   nT  d nT ,(n  1)T  n=1, 2,3… (4.20)

The solutions to the above equations can be found by taking the integration over each interval of

operation,

x  n  dn  T  e Aon dnt x  nT   Aon1 (e Aon dnt  I )Bonu (4.21)

x  n  1 T  e x  nT  dnT   Aoff
Aoff dn' T 1 Aoff dn' T
(e  I ) Boff u (4.22)

Substituting (3) in (4)

x  n  1 T  e  Aoff dn' T
e Aon d nt
x  nT   Aon1 (e Aon dnt  I ) Bonu  Aoff
1
(e  Aoff d n' T
 I ) Boff u

 e Aon dnt x  nT   Aon

1
e  Aoff d n' T
e Aon dnt  e
Aoff d n' T
B u  A
on
1
off (e
Aoff d n' T
 I ) Boff u (4.23)

Then we get

x  n  1 T  e
A
0 n d n  Aoff  x nT  A1 e A
d n' T
  on  off d n' T
e Aon dnt  e
Aoff d n' T
B u
on

1
 Aoffe
Aoff d n' T

 I Boff (4.24)

Now introducing the linear ripple approximation,

e AT  I  AT

Applying this we can get,

 
x  n  1 T  x  nT   Aon dn  Aoff d n' Tx  nT   d nTBonu  d n' TBoff u (4.25)

31
Expanding through Euler’s approximation we can approximate derivatives as follows,

x  nT  T   x(nT )
x
T

Applying this to the equation (7) we get,

 
x  Aon dn  Aoff dn' x  ( Bon dn  Boff dn' )u (4.26)

 
y  Con dn  Coff dn' x  ( Eon dn  Eoff dn' )u (4.27)

Intrinsically the d is a discrete quantity with single value over a cycle. Therefore 𝑑𝑛 (𝑡) can be

replaced by d(t) assuming a very small variations occur that can be neglected.

 
x  Aon d (t )  Aoff d ' (t ) x  ( Bon d (t )  Boff d ' (t ))u (4.28)

 
y  Con d (t )  Coff d ' (t ) x  ( Eon d (t )  Eoff d ' (t )) (4.29)

4.4 Linearization
The equations derived above are non-linear and we have to linearize them. To linearize and obtain

small signal model we have to perturb them around an operating point (D, X, U).

Let,

d  D  dˆ , x  X  xˆ,u  U  uˆ

(12)For small signal model we consider only first order terms and we obtain,

yˆ  Cxˆ  Euˆ (4.30)

Where A  DAon  D Aoff , B  DBon  D B0 ff , C  DCon  D Coff , E  DEon  D Eoff

' ' ' '

32
The steady state value of duty ratio and state variables are obtained by considering the constant

terms equal to zero and given as:

AX  BU  0 (4.31)

Y  CX  EU (4.32)

So using equation (14) & (15) we get,

Y  CA1BU  EU (4.33)

Now extracting the small signal model:

Applying Laplace transform to the equation and considering initial conditions to zero we get,

sxˆ  s   Axˆ  s   Buˆ  s   ( A1  A2  X   B1  B2 U )dˆ (4.34)

(sI  A) xˆ  s   Buˆ  s   ( A1  A2  X   B1  B2 U )dˆ (4.35)

x̂  s   (sI  A)1  Buˆ  s   ( A1  A2  X   B1  B2 U )dˆ  (4.36)

 

By solving for above equation we get control to output transfer function we get,

v0 RVg
Gvd   2 (4.37)
dˆ ( s RLC  sL  R)

33
If all the non-ideal case is considered, then during on time the converter circuit will be like this.

Figure 22 ON time circuit

The corresponding state space equation,

 1 Rrc 1 R  1 rc R 
 ˙    (rL  rdson    0   vg 
R  rc L ( R  rc )  iL   L
 L( R  rc )
 iL    L    iload  (4.38)
˙  R 1  vc   R  
vc    0  vd 
 C ( R  rc ) C ( R  rc )  0
 C ( R  rc ) 

 Rrc R   rc R  v 
v0     iL  0 0  g 
 i    R  rc R  rc   
 v 
R  rc i
  load 
(4.39)
 L  1 0   c  0 0   vd 
 0

When the switch is off the circuit of converter shown below

Figure 23 off time circuit

34
  1 Rrc 1 R   rc R 1
 ˙    (rL  rd     0     vg 
R  rc L ( R  rc )  iL  L( R  rc ) L 
 iL    L    iload  (4.40)
˙  R 1  vc   R  
vc     0 0   vd 
 C ( R  rc ) C ( R  rc )   C ( R  rc ) 

 Rrc R   rc R  v 
v0     iL  0 0  g 
 i    R  rc R  rc   
 v 
R  rc i
  load 
(4.41)
 L  1 0   c  0 0   vd 
 0

By using state space averaging as done in above ideal case and after linearizing the equation it can

be write that,

Rrc R
V0  IL  Vc (4.42)
R  rc R  rc

DpVg (1  Dp )Vd RDpVg R(1  Dp )Vd

Where, IL   and Vc   (4.43)
a a a a

By putting the value of 𝐼𝐿 and 𝑉𝑐 in equation no. (5)

Rrc DpVg Rrc 1  Dp Vd R RDpVg R R 1  Dp Vd

V0         (4.44)
R  rc a R  rc a R  rc a R  rc a

Now, ron  rL  rdson roff  rL  rd and a  R  DP ron  DP roff

So, for a given output voltage and input voltage the duty ratio with parasitics is derived as,

V0  R  roff   Vd R
Dp  (4.45)
V0  roff  ron   R(Vg  Vd )

After obtaining steady state values of 𝐷𝑃 , 𝐼𝐿 and 𝑉𝑐 , all the transfer function arising out of the state

space model can be derived for open loop power stage. Assume that the state of the incremental

linearizing model is zero initially.

35
Then the transfer function is,

R(Vg  Vd  I L  roff  ron ) 1  sCrc 

Gvd  s   (4.46)
( s )

Where,

    
  s   s 2 LC  R  rc   s  L  RC  rc  roff   Dp  ron  roff   rcC Dp  ron  roff   roff   R  Dp ron  Dp roff

(4.47)

By putting all the value of parameter in equation no. the transfer function can be re written as,

6.014  e5 s  62
Gvd  s   (4.48)
5.066  e7 s 2  5.734  e4 s  10.04

4.5 Exact Tuning of the PID Controller

4.5.1 Motivation
The primary inspiration to utilize this method is that it serves to plan the controller on the mixture

of the phase margin with bandwidth and gain margin with phase margin. It likewise serves to fuse

the steady state performance. This technique likewise has the focal point of figuring the parameters

by utilization of pen, paper and the calculator.it might be connected to the systems where the plants

careful model is not known however a little learning of the plants bode response will bail us out of

the issue..

4.5.2 Objective
To plan a controller that fulfills our requirements of desired frequency response characteristics in

programming (MATLAB) and likewise in equipment additionally with a little blunder and

alteration.

36
4.5.3 Method of tune
The loop transfer function should satisfy two main condition:

1. The transfer function should be proper and it should not contain any right pole.

2. The polar plot of the L(𝑗𝜔) for ω≥0 intersects the unit circle and negative semi-real axis only

once.

3. If this criteria is met then proceed to the method described below

Transfer function of PID controller:

 1 
CPID  K P  1   Td s  (4.49)
 Ti s 

The equation can be written in polar form

CPID  j   M   e j  (4.50)

Also plant can be represented as

G  j  | G( j ) | e jG ( j ) (4.51)

Now loop transfer function becomes

L  j  | G  j  | M ( )e j ( G ( j )) (4.52)

Now parameters will be calculated as follows:

K P  M g cos   g  (4.53)

tan g  tan 2 g  4
Ti  (4.54)
2g

Td  Ti (4.55)

Here M g  M g  

37
  g  PM    G( j )

Td
 𝜎 = degree of freedom= this ratio affects the position of zeroes of PID
Ti

4.5.4 Validation of above described method

The above is applied to the buck converter to verify whether the parameter values obtained from the

previous method gives the satisfactory result or not.

Component values of the Buck converter:

Inductor (L) =.0.522mH, 𝑟𝐿 = 0.02 Ω, Capacitor(C) =94µF, 𝑟𝐶 = 0.01 Ω load resistance (R) = 5𝛺, Switching
Frequency=10 kHz

Input voltage=5V, Output voltage=2.5V, Output current=0.5A

We choose PM=60° , steady state gain = 30 dB ,𝑓𝑐 = 1𝑘𝐻𝑧 and we get controller parameters as follows,

 For  1  5 , K P  0.175 , K I  9196 , K D  6.66 105

Figure 24 Bode plot of uncompensated system

38
Figure 25 Bode plot of compensated system

39
Flowchart of PID algorithm in digital domain

Start

Declare working variable

Set input, PWM output,

Reference

Set 𝐾𝑃 , 𝐾𝐼 , 𝐾𝐷

𝑒(𝑘) = 𝑉𝑟 − 𝑉𝑜 (𝑘)

𝑃 = 𝐾𝑃 𝑒[𝑘]

I= 𝐾𝐼 T ∑ki=0 e[i]

𝐾
D = T𝐷 {e[k] − e[k − 1]}
Update PWM
duty cycle No change in
PWM duty cycle
PID = P + I + D

YES NO
If PID = 0

Figure 26 flow chart of digital PID controller

41
40
The transfer function of an integrator can be obtain by using backward difference method

Tz
M  z  E z (4.56)
z 1

As the differentiator is the reciprocal of integrator transfer function. Hence,

Tz z 1
Gc  z   K P  K I  KD (4.57)
z 1 Tz

To calculate the duty cycle required difference equation for digital PID controller is,

k
KD
u  k   K P e  k   K I T e[i ]  {e  k   e[k  1]} (4.58)
i 0 T

4.6 Hardware model

Figure 27 hardware circuit

41
4.7 Hardware result of different reference voltage

Figure 28 Hardware output voltage when reference voltage is 3V

Figure 29 Startup transient responses when reference voltage is 3V

42
Chapter 5

Conclusion

DC-DC converters proselyte unregulated DC data voltage into controlled DC output voltage.

Advanced digital control of DC-DC converters has a few preferences over simple analog control.

The favorable circumstances incorporate higher resistance to ecological progressions, expanded

adaptability by changing the software, more developed control methods, integration of power

management function and diminished number of component.

Advanced PID is executed on the ARDUINO microcontroller for a model synchronous

buck converter and trial results were exhibited. Exploratory results show that the digital PID and

PI controllers could attain quick transient reaction without overshoot and great dismissal to load

aggravations in relentless state.

The digital adaptive PID is model free since the gain factor β(k) is only on the normalized error

eN (k) and normalized error change ∆eN (k)

 It can be implemented to any other converter topology

 This scheme is easily be implemented using DSP or FPGA

5.1 Suggested Future work

The immediate future work would be to use a suitable state feedback controller for

efficient controlling and make the system more stable

43
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46