CPA Cap. 1

Programming Essentials in C++
1. Introduction to computer programming

Chapter 1 Objectives
After completing this module, the student will be able to:
 Explain how a sample C++ program works
 Explain the concept of include and using directives
 Explain the concept of integers, floating-point numbers, operators and arithmetic operations in C++
programming
 Discover and fix basic syntax errors
 Modify the structure of a C++ program
 Perform basic calculations
 Understand the precedence and associativity of C++ operators and the proper use of parentheses
 Use the shortcut and pre/post increment/decrement operators
 Build simple expressions
 Translate verbal description into programming language
 Test code using known input and output data
 Compare values using relational operators
 Build Boolean expressions using logical operators
1.1. Different languages for different purposes
1.1.1 Natural language vs. programming language
We're here to show you what the C++ language is and what we can use it for. Let’s consider for a
moment what language itself is, not only the C++ language, but any language people use. We’ll try not
to use scientific sounding definitions and we’ll try to speak informally. We can say that a language is a
tool for expressing and recording human thoughts. We really like this definition. In other words, it's a
mechanism known to us and to our partners, allowing us all to understand and to be understood. We use
language for speaking, writing, reading, listening and thinking.
At least one language accompanies us throughout our entire lives - it's our native language (our
mother tongue), which we learn almost unconsciously from the very beginning. Many of us will learn
other languages too, mostly as a result of a conscious decision, forced by social conditions or business
needs. The languages we use to communicate with other people are called natural languages. They
were created over many centuries and still are subject to change. If we ignore languages that have been
created artificially, such as Esperanto or even Quenya (the language used by elves in Tolkien's world),
their development is almost independent of their speakers and evolves naturally, in a way that gives us
little to no control over it.
However, there are languages whose creation and development were (and often continue to be)
dictated by some specific needs, and whose development is fully subject to control by very wide groups
of people like international committees or work groups. The shape of these languages is defined by
international standards, and although they may be understood by many people, the exchange of
thoughts between human-beings is not their priority.
Such languages are, among others, programming languages. You are probably familiar with this
concept already. A programming language is defined by a certain set of rigid rules, much more
inflexible than any natural language. For example, these rules determine which symbols (letters, digits,
punctuation marks, and so on) could be used in the language. This part of the definition of language is
called lexicon. Another set of rules determines the appropriate ways of collating the symbols - this is
the syntax of the language. We also need to be able to recognize the meaning of every statement
expressed in the given language, and this is what we call semantics. Any program we write must be
error-free in these three ways: lexically, syntactically and semantically, otherwise, the program won’t
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run, or it will produce unacceptable results. You can be sure that you’ll encounter all of these errors, as
to err is human and it’s these fallible humans who write the computer programs.
The expressive power of programming languages is much, much weaker than natural languages.
We can’t (although we can try to) use such a language to express human emotions, and it’s hard to
imagine a declaration of love encoded inside a programming language. This is because the message
embedded inside a computer program is not intended for a human, but for a machine.
You might be asking yourself why we need to use a programming language at all, and that's a good
question. Let’s try to answer it.

A computer, even the most technically sophisticated one, is devoid of even a trace of intelligence.
You could say that it is like a well-trained dog – it responds only to a predetermined set of known
commands. And sometimes, like a dog, it just shuts down and refuses to do what it’s told. The
recognized commands are very simple. We can imagine that the computer responds to orders like “take
that number, add to another and save the result”.
A complete set of well-known commands is called an instruction list, sometimes abbreviated to
IL. Different types of computers may vary depending on the size of their ILs and the instructions
themselves can be entirely different in different models.
The IL is in fact an alphabet that is commonly known as machine language. This is the simplest
and the most primary language we can use to give commands to our computer. We can say it's the
computer’s mother tongue.
Computer programming is an act of composing the selected commands (instructions) in an order
that will cause a desired effect. The effect itself can be different in every case – it's up to the
programmer's intention, imagination, knowledge and experience.
It is possible (and this is often done in practice) for a computer program to be coded directly in
machine language using elementary instructions (orders). This kind of programming is tedious, time-
consuming and highly susceptible to a programmer's mistakes. During the early stages of computer
technology, it was the only available method of programming, and it very quickly revealed its serious
flaws.
Programming in machine language requires full knowledge of a computer’s hardware design and
its internal structure. This also means that replacing the computer with one that differs in design from
its predecessor can make the programmer’s entire knowledge unusable. Also, the old programs could
be completely useless if the new computer used a different IL. Thus, a program written for a specific
type of computer could be completely useless to other computers and vice versa. Secondly, programs
written in machine language are very difficult to understand for humans, including experienced
programmers. It is also the case that to develop a program in machine language takes a lot of time and
is very costly and cumbersome.
All these circumstances lead to a need for some kind of bridge between the people's language
(natural language) and computer language (machine language). That bridge is also a language – an
intermediate common language for both humans and computers working together. Such a language is
often called a high-level programming language.
A language like this is at least somewhat similar to a natural language: it uses symbols, words and
conventions readable to humans. This language enables humans to express complex commands for
computers.
You may be asking how to persuade a computer to understand programs written in this way. Try
as you might, encouraging the computer is just not enough, but you can translate your program into
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machine language. Moreover, the translation can be done by a computer, making the whole process fast
and efficient.
How great is that? You don’t need to learn a whole bunch of different machine languages – you
just need to know one high-level programming language. If there is a translator designed for a specific
computer, you can run your program without any problems. In other words, the programs written in
high-level languages can be translated into any number of different machine languages, and thus enable
them to be used on many different computers. This is called portability.

The translation we are referring to is made by a specialized computer program called a compiler.
The process of translation from a high-level language into machine language is called compilation.
Now let's get back to more interesting issues related to the process of creating a new program. We
already know that our main task is to write the program in accordance with the rules of the chosen
programming language. This program (which in fact is just a text) is called the source code, or simply
source, while the file that contains the source is called the source file.
To write the source code, you will need a text editor that allows you to manipulate text without
any formatting information (for this reason Microsoft Word isn't a good choice – Notepad is better).
This code is placed in a file and the name of the file should imply its content. For example, it’s
common for a file containing the source code in the C++ language to have its name ending with the
suffix .cpp, so if you write a computer program and decide to name it proggie, it would be a good idea
to put the source code into a file named proggie.cpp. Some platforms may prefer other suffixes like cc,
cp, cxx, c++ or even C (note that this is a capital letter). Please consult your compiler documentation
for details.
Next, your source code needs to be compiled. To do this you need to run an appropriate compiler
and instruct it where you stored the source code you want it to translate into machine language. The
compiler reads your code, makes some complex analysis, and then determines whether or not you made
any errors during the coding process. If you have, it will tell you. This is not to make you feel bad –
these analyses are very insightful and helpful. But remember that they are made by a machine, not a
human, and you shouldn’t expect too much from them. Okay, if your mistake was that you tried to add
up two numbers using # instead of +, the compiler will kindly inform you of your mistake. However, if
you typed - instead of +, the compiler can’t guess that your intention was to add two numbers, rather
than to subtract them. The compiler will not think for you. But that’s okay too. If the compiler did
everything, developers wouldn’t have jobs.
If the compiler doesn’t find any mistakes in your source, the result will be a file containing your
program translated into machine language. That file is commonly called an executable file. The name
of the file depends on the compiler you use and the operating system you are working with. For
example, most compilers designed for Unix/Linux system create an output file named “a.out” by
default. Compilers designed for use in MS Windows® can name the same name to this file as the
source file, while only changing the suffix from .cpp to .exe.
Of course the whole process is actually a bit more complicated. Your source code might be huge
and divided among several or even dozens of source files. It may also be that the program was not
written by you alone, but by a whole team, in which case the division of sources into multiple files is
simply a must. In this case, the compiling process splits into two phases: a compilation of your source
in order to translate it into machine language and a joining (or gluing) of your executable code with the
executable code derived from the other developers into a single and unified product. The phase of
“gluing” the different executable codes is commonly known as linking, while the program that
conducts the process is called a linker.
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What is the most common use of C++? It is the so-called object programming language, i.e.
suitable mostly for large, complex applications, especially those working in graphic environments.
Knowing the C++ language is very helpful if you want to learn C# or Java. The conceptual apparatus
used by the C++ language is common for all object programming languages, as C++ is one of the
oldest languages of that class.
Compiler
1.1.4 Further readings

If you take the learning of the “C++” language seriously (and we expect nothing less of you), you
will certainly not end your education with this awesome course.
Among the hundreds of books written on the C++ language, there is one that we recommend in
particular. The book has been issued dozens of times all around the world and is available in over 20
different (natural) languages. The book’s title is simply “The C++ Programming Language”. It was
the first book to describe the C++ programming language, written by the language’s creator, Bjarne
Stroustrup. Stroustrup began developing C++ in 1979 and currently – not surprisingly – is considered
the most important authority in this field.
Another book worth reading is “Thinking in C++” by Bruce Eckel. This book is available to
download for free. You can find it here:
http://www.mindview.net/Books/TICPP/ThinkingInCPP2e.html.
One of the recently published books that we particularly enjoy is one written by Alex Allain,
called “Jumping into C++.” It’s a great book for beginners, presenting a step-by-step guide to
becoming a C++ programmer.
Last but not least, for those who aim to improve their programs and learn more about best
practices in C++, there is a great book by Scott Meyers, “Effective C++.”
For a more comprehensive list of good C++ books, you may wish to check this thread at
stackoverflow.com.
If you know any other good books worth recommending, please feel free to contribute to this
thread on our Facebook page.
Once you're a proficient programmer, you may want to have a source of knowledge through
which you can quickly find the answers to emerging questions, or just fill in the gaps in your memory.
Instead of a handbook, you’ll want a book that briefly describes the language standards - everything
that’s really important and nothing more. You need what is called a report (permanently improved and
updated), published by the ISO standardization committee. You can find the most recent version of
the standard at https://isocpp.org/std.
But hey, it’s too soon for that. Look into that when you finish this course. No sooner.
1.2.1 Your first program (1)

Now we’re going to show you a very simple (and, at the same time, completely useless) program
written in the C++ language. We’re going to use this example to present you some basic rules
governing the language. The program itself will be modified many times, as it becomes enriched by
various additional elements in expanding our programming knowledge. Ready? All right then, let’s go.
First we need to define our expectations for the program. They’ll be very modest. We want a
short text to appear on the screen. Let's assume that the text will state:
It's me, your first program.
That’s all we want at the moment.
What further steps does our first program need to perform? Let's try to enumerate them here:
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 to start
 to write the text on the screen
 to stop
This type of structured and semi-formal description of each step of the program is called an
algorithm. Sources of the word algorithm can be traced back to the Arabic language and originated in
early medieval times, and for us, this represents the beginning of computer programming.
Now, it's time to see our program. Here it is →
It looks a bit mysterious, doesn't it? Let’s check out each line of the program carefully, and
uncover its meaning and purpose. The description is not particularly accurate and those of you who
know a little C++ already will probably conclude that it’s too simplistic and somewhat childish. We did
this on purpose – we’re not building Rome in a day. Not even in a week!
Let's move on.
source_01_02_01_itsme.cpp
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main(void) {
cout << "It's me, your first program.";
return 0;
}

Pay attention to the character # (hash) at the beginning of the first line. It means that the content
of this line is the so-called preprocessor directive. We’re going to tell you more about the
preprocessor later, but for now we’ll only say that it’s a separate part of the compiler whose task is to
pre-read the text of the program and make some modifications in it. The prefix “pre” suggests that
these operations are performed before the full processing (compilation) takes place.
The changes the preprocessor will introduce are fully controlled by its directives. In our program,
we are dealing with the include directive. When the preprocessor meets that directive, it replaces the
directive with the content of the file whose name is listed in the directive (in our case, this is the file
named iostream). The changes made by the preprocessor never modify the content of your source file
in any way. Any alterations are made on a volatile copy of your program that disappears immediately
after the compiler finishes its work.
So why do need the preprocessor to include the content of a completely unknown file called
iostream? Writing a program is similar to building a construction with ready-made blocks. In our
program, we are going to use one such block and it will happen when we want to write something on
the screen. That block is called cout (you can find it inside our code), but the compiler knows nothing
about it so far. In particular, the compiler has no idea that cout is a valid name for that block while cuot
isn't. The compiler must be warned about it – it needs to be aware of the fact.
A set of preliminary information that the compiler needs is included in header files. These files
contain a collection of preliminary information about ready-made blocks which can be used by a
program to write text on the screen, or to read letters from the keyboard. So when our program is going
to write something, it will use a block called cout, which is able to do the trick (and much more). We
don't want the compiler to be surprised, so we need to warn it about that. The compiler’s developers put
a set of this anticipatory information in the iostream file. All we have to do is use the file. This is
exactly what we expect from the include directive.
But where is the iostream file located? The answer is simple, but not as clear as you might want:
that’s not our problem. The preprocessor knows where it is. Good job, preprocessor!
#include <iostream>
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int main(void) {
return 0;
}

In the C++ language, all elements of the standard C++ library are declared inside the namespace
called std. A namespace is an abstract container or environment created to hold a logical grouping of
unique entities (blocks).
An entity defined in a namespace is associated only with that namespace. If you want to use
many of the standard C++ entities (we’re going to tell you all about them later) you must insert the
using namespace instruction at the top of each file, outside of any function. The instruction should
specify the name of the desired namespace (std in our case). This will make the standard facilities
available throughout the program.
#include <iostream>
int main(void) {
return 0;
}

We’ve already said something about the blocks. Now let's go a little deeper. One of the most
common types of blocks used to build C++ programs are functions.
If you associate a function with mathematics, you’re on the right track. Imagine a function as a
black box, where you can insert something into it (though this is not always necessary) and take
something new out of it, as if from a magic hat. Things to be put into the box are called function
arguments (or function parameters). Things to be taken out of the box are called function results. In
addition, a function can do something else on the side.
If this sounds rather vague, don't worry, we’ll talk about functions many times and in much more
detail later.
Back to our program. The standard of the C++ language assumes that among many different
blocks that may be put into a program, one specific block must always be present, otherwise the
program won't be correct. This block is always a function with the same name: main.
Every function in C++ begins with the following set of information:
 what is the result of the function?
 what is the name of the function?
 how many parameters does the function have and what are their names?
Take a close look at our program and try to read it properly, accepting the fact that you won’t yet
fully understand everything.
 the result of the function is an integer value (we can read it from the word int, which is short for
integer)
 the name of the function is main (we know why already)
 the function doesn't require any parameters (which we can read from the word void).
This set of information is sometimes called a prototype, and it’s like a label affixed to a function
announcing how you can use that function in your program. The prototype says nothing about what the
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function is intended to do. It’s written inside the function and the interior of the function is called the
function body. The function body begins with the first opening bracket { and ends with the
corresponding closing bracket }. It might sound surprising, but the function body can be empty, which
means that the function does exactly nothing.
We can even create a function that is lazy – it can be encoded like this:
void lazy(void) { }
This drone provides no result (the first void), its name is “lazy”, it doesn't take any parameters
(the second void) and it does absolutely nothing (the blank space between brackets).
By the way, the names of the functions are subject to some fairly rigid constraints. More on this
later.
#include <iostream>
int main(void) {
return 0;
}

Inside the main function body we need to write what our function (and thus the program) is
supposed to do. If we look inside, we find a reference to a block named cout.
Firstly, note the semicolon at the end of the line. Each instruction (more precisely, each
statement) in C++ must end with a semicolon – without it the program will be incorrect.
This particular statement says: instruct the entity named cout to show the following text on the
screen (as indicated by the << digraph, which specifies the direction in which the text is sent). You
might ask – how do we know that cout will do that for us? Well, we know it because it says so in the
C++ language standards.
The cout entity (in fact, it's an object, but we don't want to bring up this word too soon – more on
it later) must be fed with something that is intended to be shown on the screen. In our example, the feed
is just text (string). For simplicity, we can assume that strings in the program in C++ are always
enclosed in quotes – that way the compiler recognizes the text that is sent to the user of the program,
and the text that is intended to be compiled is translated into machine language. This distinction is very
important. Take a look:
int main(void);
The line above is the main function prototype.
"int main(void);"
The line above is not the main function prototype, but a string that only looks like part of a source
code. The compiler is not interested in what is between the quotes, and therefore doesn’t recognize
such strings as code.
How does it work? We can picture it like this: the execution of our main function is suspended
(we can say that the main function falls asleep) and during that time cout, together with << (this kind
of symbol is named operator) prints the text on the screen. When the text is printed, the main function
wakes up and continues its activity.
The above form of source code is the most natural and perhaps the most easily read by humans,
but you’re still free to write it in a different way. For example:
cout
<<
"It's me, your first program."
;
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In the C++ language it isn’t necessary to write just one statement per line. You can place two (or
more) statements on the same line, or split one statement into several lines, but bear in mind that
readability (for humans) is a very important factor. However, compilers, unlike humans, will never
complain about your style.

We’re almost at the end now. There’s only one line left in our program. This is:
return 0;
This is another (beside the function invocation) statement of the C++ language. Its name is just
return and that’s what it does. Used in the function, it causes the end of function execution. If you
perform return somewhere inside a function, this function immediately interrupts its execution.
The zero after the word return is a result of your function main. It's important - this is how your
program tells the operating system the following: I did what I had to do, nothing prevented me from
doing this, and everything is okay.
If you were to write:
return 1;
this would mean that something had gone wrong, it did not allow your program to be performed
successfully and the operating system could use that information to react appropriately.
So is that all? Yes, that’s it! Let's look again at our program and see what’s happening step by
step:
 we introduced the function named main into our program - it will be executed when you start the
program;
 we made use of an entity named cout inside the main function - it will print the text on the screen;
 the program finishes immediately after printing, indicating that everything you expected to achieve
has been achieved.
So hopefully it wasn’t as difficult as it seemed at first glance. Now let’s try to persuade the
computer to compute something for us – after all, that’s what they’re for.
1.3.1 Numbers and how computers see them

Do you know how computers perform calculations on numbers? Maybe you've heard of the
binary system and know that it’s the system computers use for storing numbers and that they can
perform any operation upon them. We’re not going to go the intricacies of positional numeral systems
here, but we will say that the numbers handled by modern computers are of two types:
 integers, that is, whole numbers or those which are devoid of the fractional part,
 floating-point numbers (or simply floats) that contain (or are able to contain) the fractional part.
This definition is quite simplistic, but good enough for our purposes. This distinction is very
important and the boundary between these two types of numbers is very strict. Both of these kinds of
numbers significantly differ in how they are stored in a computer memory and in the range of
acceptable values. Additionally, the characteristic of a number which determines its kind, range and
application is called type.
So now we know two types of the C++ language – an integer type (known as int) and a floating
point type (known as float).
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For now, let's leave the floating-point numbers aside (that’s right: more on them later) and let’s
consider a question that’s maybe a bit banal at first glance: how does the C++ language recognize the
integers?
Well, it’s almost the same as when you write them on a piece of paper – they’re simply a string
of digits that make up a number. But there’s a catch – you can’t include any characters that are not
digits inside the number.
Take for example the number eleven million one hundred and eleven thousand one hundred and
eleven. If you took a pencil in your hand right now, you would probably write the number like this:
11,111,111
or (if you’re a Pole or a German) like this:
11.111.111
or even like this:
11 111 111
For sure, this makes it easier to read if the number consists of many digits. However, C++doesn’t
like this at all. You have to write this number as follows:
11111111
If you don’t, the compiler will shout at you. And how do you code negative numbers in C++? As
usual, by adding a minus. You can write:
-11111111
Positive numbers don’t need to be preceded by the plus sign, but you can do it if you want. The
following lines describe the same number:
+123
123
For now we’ll deal only with integers – we’ll introduce floating-point numbers very soon.
There are two additional conventions, unknown to the world of mathematics. The first of them
allows us to use the numbers in an octal representation. If an integer number is preceded by the 0 digit,
it will be treated as an octal value. This means that the number must contain digits taken from the 0 to 7
range only.
0123
is an octal number with the (decimal) value equal to 83.
The second allows us to use hexadecimal numbers. Such number should be preceded by the
prefix written as 0x or 0X.
0x123
is a hexadecimal number with the (decimal) value equal to 291.
1.3.2 A variable is variable (1)

So the C++ language allows us to write numbers. It probably won't surprise you that we can do
some arithmetic operations with these numbers too: add, subtract, multiply and divide. Contain your
excitement – we’ll be doing that soon enough. But it’s quite normal to ask how to store the results of
such operations in order to use them in other operations. There are special “containers” for that purpose
and these containers are called variables. As the name variables suggests, the content of a container
can be varied in (almost) any way.
What does every variable have?
 a name
 a type
 a value
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Let's start with the issues connected with a variable’s name. Variables don’t magically appear in
our program. We (as developers) decide how many, and which variables, we want to have in our
program. We also give them their names, almost becoming their godparents. If you want to give a
name to the variable, you have to follow some strict rules:
 the name of the variable can be composed of upper-case or lower-case Latin letters, digits and the
character _ (underscore),
 the name of the variable must begin with a letter,
 the underline character is a letter (strange but true),
 upper- and lower-case letters are treated as different (a little differently than in the real world - Alice
and ALICE are the same given names, but they are two different variable names, and consequently,
two different variables).
These same restrictions apply to all entity names used in C++.
The standard of the C++ language does not impose restrictions on the length of variable names,
but a specific compiler may have a different opinion on this matter. Don't worry; usually the limitation
is so high that it’s unlikely you would actually want to use such long variable names (or functions).
Here are some correct, but not always convenient, variable names:
i
 t10
 Exchange_Rate
 counter
 DaysToTheEndOfTheWorld
 TheNameOfAVariableWhichIsSoLongThatYouWillNotBeAbleToWriteItWithoutMistakes
_
The last name may be ridiculous from your perspective, but your compiler thinks it’s just great.
And now let's have a look at some examples of incorrect names:
 10t (does not begin with a letter)
 Adiós_Señora (contains illegal characters)
 Exchange Rate (contains a space)

The type is an attribute that uniquely defines which values can be stored inside the variable.
We’ve already encountered the integer (int) and floating point (float) types. The value of a variable is
what we have put into it. Of course, you can only enter a value that is compatible with the variable’s
type. Only an integer value can be assigned to an integer variable (or in other words, to a variable of
type int). The compiler will not allow us to enter a floating-point number here.
Let's talk now about two important things – how the variables are created and how to enter a
value inside them (or rather – how to give them a value).
The variable exists as a result of a declaration. A declaration is a syntactic structure that binds a
name provided by the programmer with a specific type offered by the C++ language. The construction
of such a declaration (or the declaration syntax) is simple: just use the name of the desired type, then
the variable name (or variable names separated by commas if there are more than one). The whole
statement ends with a semicolon.

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Let’s try to declare a variable of type int named Counter. The relevant portion of the program will
look like this:
int Counter;
What is declared by the following fragment of a program?
int variable1, account_balance, invoices;

It declares three variables of type int named (respectively) variable1, account_balance and
invoices.
Remember that you are allowed to use as many variable declarations as you need to achieve
your goal.
int Counter;

And how do we give a value to the newly declared variable? You need to use the so-called
assignment operator. Although this sounds rather mysterious, the operator has a simple syntax and
unambiguous interpretation.
The assignment operator looks very familiar - here it is:
=
Let's look at some examples:
Counter = 1;
The above statement says: assign the value of 1 to a variable named Counter or, a bit shorter,
assign 1 to Counter.
Some programmers use a different convention and read such a statement as: Counter becomes 1.
Counter = 1;

Another example →
In this case, the new value of the variable Result will be the result of adding 100 to 200, but you
probably already guessed that, right?
Result = 100 +200

And now a slightly more difficult example →
Seeing this, a mathematician would probably protest - no value may be equal to itself plus one.
This is a contradiction.
But in the C++ language the sign = does not mean is equal to, but assign a value.
So how do we read such a record in the program?
Take the current value of the variable x, add 1 to it and store the result in the variable x
In effect, the value of variable x is incremented by one, which has nothing to do with comparing
the variable with any value.
x=x+1
1.3.8 Keywords
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Take a look at the right side of the screen – you’ll see a list of words that play a very special role
in every C++ language program. They are called keywords or (more precisely) reserved keywords.
They are reserved because you can’t use them as names: neither for your variables, nor for your
functions or any other named entities you want to create. The meaning of the reserved word is
predefined and can’t be changed in any way.
Fortunately, because the C++ compiler is case-sensitive, you can modify any of these words by
changing the case of any letter, thus creating a new word, which is not reserved any more.
For example – you can't do this:
int int;
You can’t have a variable named int – it’s prohibited.
But you can do this instead:
int Int;
The compiler will be happy, very happy.
1.3.9 Comments on the comments (1)

Now we’re going to make some comments. We don't mean comments on either your
achievements or our achievements, although we’re sure you have many achievements to be proud of.
We’re referring to other comments, namely comments on the program and inside the program at the
same time.
The developer may want to add a few words addressed not to the compiler but to humans, usually
to explain to other readers of the code how the tricks used in the code work, or the means of variables
and functions, and possibly, to store information on who the author is and when the program was
written.
Good and responsible developers describe each newly created important entity; in particular,
explaining the role of the parameters and the values modified or returned as results, as well as
explaining what the code actually does.
How do we leave something like this in the source code? We have to do it in a way that won't
force the compiler to interpret it as part of the code. The remark inserted into the program, which is
omitted at the time of compiling, is called a comment.
If we want to be precise, we should say that each comment is lexically equivalent to one space.
Whenever the compiler encounters a comment in your program, the comment is completely transparent
to it - from its point of view this is only one space (regardless of how long the real comment is).
The C++ language supports two ways of inserting comments:
// line comments
and
/*block comments*/
A line comment discards everything from where the pair of slash signs (//) is found up to the end
of that same line.
In the C++ language a block comment is a text that begins with a pair of the following
characters:
/*
and ends with a pair of the following characters
*/
The comment can span several lines or can occupy only one line or part of a line.
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On the right, you can see an example in which everything from the pair of slash signs on is
ignored by the compiler. The line comment can start anywhere on the line. This could be a blank line
too, with no content at all.
int Counter; // counts the number of sheep in the meadow

On the right you can see an example of a similar comment, but introduced into the code using the
second method.
Any new developer reading the program will be aware of the true meaning of the variable. The
developer will read the code faster and it’ll take less time to understand it.
/* Counter variable counts the number of sheep in the meadow */

int Counter;

Developers often place a note at the beginning of the source informing when they write the
program stating who amended it and why. The note may appear like this →
Note that, despite the complicated structure and the multitude of stars, the condition stating how
the comment should be started and finished is fully met.
Comments may be useful in another respect - you can use them to mark a piece of code that
you currently don’t need for whatever reason. We often do this during the testing of the program in
order to isolate the place where an error could be hidden.
/*************************************************
Counting sheep version 1.0 Author: Ronald Sleepyhead, 2012 email: rs@insomnia.org Changes: 2012-
09-13: Ginny Drowsy: counting black sheep improved
*************************************************/

We’ve just got one more thing to say about comments. Compilers differ in assessing whether
another comment may be placed within a single comment. Consider the following program →
The question is: are you allowed to nest one block comment (like /* int j; */) inside another
block comment?
The answer is no.
You can’t use such a construction in your code.
/* int i; /* int j; */ int k; */
1.4.1 Floating-point numbers (1)

A word (or 2.0 words) about floating-point numbers in real life and in the C++ language.
Previously, we became acquainted with the concept of data type, and learned that one of the
basic types known in the C++ language is the integer type named int. Now it's the time to talk about
another type, designed to represent and store the numbers that (as a mathematician would say) have a
non-empty decimal fraction.
These are the numbers that have (or may have) a fractional part after the decimal point, and
although this is a very simplistic definition, it is sufficient for our purposes. Whenever we use a term
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like “two and a half” or “zero point four” we think of numbers which the computer considers to be
floating numbers.

Let's go back to the values we quoted a moment ago. “Two and a half” looks normal when you
write it in a program, although if your native language uses a comma instead of a point in the number,
you should make sure that your number contains points and not commas. The compiler will either
not accept it or (in very rare circumstances) will misunderstand your intentions, as the comma itself has
its own reserved meaning in the C++ language.
If you want to use a value of just “two and a half”, you should write it as shown in the picture →
Note once again – there is a point between “2” and “5” - not a comma.
2.5

As you can probably imagine, you can write the value of “zero point four” in C++ as →
Don’t forget this simple rule – you can omit zero when it’s the only digit in front of or after the
decimal point. In essence you can write the value 0.4 like on the right.
.4

For example: the value of 4.0 could be written as 4. without changing its type or value.
Note: the decimal point is essential to recognize floating-point numbers in C++. Look at these
two numbers:
4
4.0
You might think that they’re exactly the same, but the C++ compiler sees them completely
differently:
4 is an int.
4.0 is a float.
We can say that the point makes a float. Don't forget that.
4.

When you want to use any numbers that are very large or very small, you can use so-called
scientific notation. Take, for example, the speed of light expressed in meters per second. Written
directly it would look like:
300000000
To avoid the tedious job of writing of so many zeros, physics textbooks use an abbreviated form,
which you’ve probably seen already:
3 · 108
It means: three times ten to the power of eight
In the C++ language, the same effect is achieved in a slightly different form – take a look:
3E8
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The letter E (you can also use the lower case letter e - it comes from the word exponent) is a
concise representation of the phrase times ten to the power of.
Note:
the exponent (the value after the “E”) must be an integer.
the base (the value in front of the “E”) may or may not be an integer.
SPEED OF LIGHT
300000000 M/S

Let's see how this convention is used to record numbers that are very small (in the sense of their
absolute value which is close to zero).
A physical constant called Planck's constant (denoted as h), according to the textbooks, has the
value of
6.62607 · 10-34
If you would like to use it in a program, you would write it this way:
6.62607E-34
And that’s it. Not so hard, right?

Let's go back to the floating-point values. We already know what a variable is, and we also know
how to declare an integer variable, so now it’s time to declare variables of a floating-point type.
We do this using the keyword float. Knowing that we can declare two floating-point variables,
named PI (we can't name it Π because - as you already know - the C++ language freaks out when
variable names are written with Greek letters) and Field →
As you can see, the difference in declaring the integer and float variables is quite small from the
syntax's point of view.
flost PI, Field;

This difference in terms of semantics is significant, as you can see in the example →
With a little thought, we can figure out that the symbol (more precisely - the operator) that
performs the mathematical division is a single character / (slash). Take a look at this code →
It might be a bit surprising for you to know that the value that will be entered in the variable i is 2
(yes - just 2!) while the variable x will be equal to 2.5. Look at this example carefully, because it
illustrates a very important difference between these two data types.
int i;
float x;
i = 10 / 4;
x = 10.0 / 4.0;

What happens when we have to convert integer values into float values or vice versa? We can
always transform from int into float, but it can lead to a loss of accuracy.
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Consider the example →

After changing from int to float, the value of the variable f is 100.0, because the value of type int
(100) is automatically converted into a float (100.0).
The transformation affects the internal (machine) representation of those values as computers
use different methods for storing floats and ints in their memory.
int i;
float f;
i = 100;
f = i;

Let's consider the opposite situation now.
As you’ve probably guessed, these substitutions will result in a loss of accuracy - the value of the
variable i will be 100. Twenty-five hundredths has no meaning in the ints world. Furthermore,
converting a float into an int is not always feasible.
Integer variables (like floats) have a limited capacity. They cannot contain arbitrarily large (or
arbitrarily small) numbers.
For example, if a certain type of computer uses four bytes (i.e. 32 bits) to store int values, you can
only use the numbers from the range of -2147483648 to 2147483647.
int i;
float f;
f = 100.25;
i = f;

The i variable is unable to store such a large value, but it isn’t clear what will happen during the
assignment. Certainly a loss of accuracy will occur, but the value assigned to the variable i is not
known in advance.
In some systems it may be the maximum permissible int value, while in others an error occurs,
and in others still the value assigned can be completely random.
This is what we call an implementation dependent issue. It's the second (and uglier) face of
software portability.
int i;
float f;
f = 1E10;
i = f;
1.4.12 Operators
An operator is a symbol of the programming language, which is able to operate on the values. For
example, an assignment operator is the = sign. We already know that it can assign values to variables.
Now let’s look at some other operators available in the C++ language and find out which rules
govern their use and how to interpret the operations they perform. Let’s begin with the operators
associated with widely recognizable arithmetic operations. The order of their appearance is not
accidental. We’ll talk more about this afterward.
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+ - / * %
1.4.13 Multiplication
An asterisk * is a multiplication operator. If you take a look at the code here, you’ll see that the
variable k will be set to the value of 120, while the z variable will be set to 0.625.
int i,j,k;
float x,y,z;
i = 10;
j = 12;
k = i * j;
x = 1.25;
y = 0.5;
z = x * y;
1.4.14 Division
A slash / is a divisional operator. The value in front of the slash is a dividend, while the value
behind the slash is a divisor.
Look at the snippet of the program; of course, k will be set to 2, z to 0.5.
int i,j,k;
float x,y,z;
i = 10; j = 5;
k = i / j;
x = 1.0;
y = 2.0;
z = x / y;
1.4.15 Division by zero (1)

As you’ve probably guessed, dividing by zero is strictly forbidden, but the penalty for violating
that rule will come to you at different times.
If you dare to write something like that, the compiler will go nuts – you’ll get a compilation error,
runtime error or some message at runtime, possibly also a few choice words about your programming
capabilities. OK, the last one was a joke. Still, in some cases you won't be able to run your program. As
a general rule, you shouldn't divide by zero.
float x;
x = 1.0 / 0.0;
1.4.16 Division by zero (2)

In the following example the compiler won't tell you a thing, but when you try to execute that
code, the result of the operation may be surprising. It’s not a number. It’s a special featured value
named inf (as in infinitive). Generally, this kind of illegal operation is a so-called exception.
When you find exceptions in your program, you should react accordingly. We’ll discuss this later.
float x,y;
x = 0.0;
y = 1.0 / x;
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1.4.17 Addition
The addition operator is the + (plus) sign, which most of us already know from maths class.
Again, take a look at the snippet of the program – as you can surmise, k is equal to 102 and z to
1.02.
int i,j,k;
float x,y,z;
i = 100;
j = 2;
k = i + j;
x = 1.0;
y = 0.02;
z = x + y;
1.4.18 Subtraction
The subtraction operator is obviously the – (minus) sign, although you should note that this
operator also has another meaning – it can change the sign of a number.
This is a good time to show you a very important distinction between unary and binary
operators (in the C++ language there is also a ternary operator – more on that a bit later).
As usual, let’s get acquainted with a snippet of the program – you can guess that k will be equal
to -100, while z will be equal to 0.0.
int i,j,k;
float x,y,z;
i = 100;
j = 200;
k = i - j;
x = 1.0;
y = 1.0;
z = x - y;
1.4.19 Unary minus

In “subtracting” applications, the minus operator expects two arguments: the left (a minuend in
arithmetical terms) and right (a subtrahend).
For this reason, the subtraction operator is considered to be one of the binary operators, just like
the addition, multiplication and division operators. But the minus operator may be used in a different
way - take a look at the snippet →
As you’ve probably guessed, the variable j will be assigned the value of 100. We used the minus
operator as the unary operator, as it expects only one argument - the right one.
int i,j;
i = -100;
j = -i;
1.4.20 Unary plus

The same dual nature can be expressed by the + operator, which we can also use as a unary
operator – its role is to preserve the sign. Take a look at the snippet →
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Although such a construction is syntactically correct, using it doesn’t make much sense and it
would be hard to find a good rationale for doing it.
int i,j;
i = 100;
j = +i;
1.4.21 Remainder
The remainder operator is quite peculiar, because it has no equivalent among traditional
arithmetic operators.
Its graphical representation in the C++ language is the % (percent) character, which may look a
bit confusing. It’s a binary operator (it performs the modulo operation) and both arguments cannot be
floats (don't forget that!).
Look at the example →
The k variable is 3 (because 2 * 5 + 3 = 13).
Oh, and one more thing you need to remember: you cannot compute the remainder with the
right argument equal to zero. Can you guess why?
You probably remember what we said earlier about dividing by zero. And because division by 0
invokes undefined behaviour, the modulo operation, which relies on division, is undefined, too.
Well, that’s what the C++ Standard says. We have to accept that.
int i,j,k;
i = 13;
j = 5;
k = i % j;
1.4.22 Priorities
So far, we’ve treated each operator as if it had no connection with the others. Of course, in real
programming, nothing is ever as simple as that. Also, we very often find more than one operator in an
expression and then things can get very complicated very quickly. Consider the following expression.
If your memory hasn't failed you, you should remember from school that multiplications precede
additions. You probably remember that you have to multiply 3 by 5, keep the 15 in your memory, add it
to 2, thus getting the result of 17.
The phenomenon that causes some operators to act before others is known as the hierarchy of
priorities. The C++ language precisely defines the priorities of all operators and assumes that
operators of larger (higher) priority perform their operations before the operators with lower
priority.
So if we know that * has a higher priority than +, we can figure out how the final result will be
computed.
2+3*5
1.4.23 Bindings
The binding of the operator determines the order of computations performed by some operators
with equal priority, put side by side in one expression. Most operators in the C++ language have the
left-sided binding, which means that the calculation of this sample expression is conducted from left
to right, i.e. 3 will be added to 2, and 5 will be added to the result.
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Now at this point you might be snorting and saying that all children know perfectly well that
addition is commutative and it doesn’t matter in which order the additions are performed. And yes,
you're right, but not quite. Additions performed by the computer are not always commutative. Really.
We’ll show you this in more detail later. But for now, be patient and trust us.
2+3+5
1.4.24 List of priorities (1)

Since you're new to C++ language operators, presenting a complete list of operators' priorities
may not be a good idea. Instead, we’ll show you its truncated form, and we’ll expand on it consistently
during the introduction of new operators.
This table now looks as follows →
Note: we’ve gone through the operators in order from the highest to the lowest priority.

Quiz! We want to check if you understand the concept of binding. Try to work through the
following expression →
Both operators (* and %) have the same priority, so you can only guess the result when you know
the binding direction. Are you ready?
2*3%5

Yes, you’re right! The result is 1. Can you hear the sound of trumpets? They’re playing for you!
Congratulations.
1.4.27 Parentheses (1)

Of course, we can always use parentheses, which can change the natural order of calculation. In
accordance with arithmetic rules, subexpressions in parentheses are always calculated first.
You can use as many parentheses as you need and we often use them to improve the readability
of an expression, even if they don't change the order of operations.
Here’s an example of an expression of multiple parentheses →
Now try to figure out the value given to the l variable.
int i,j,k,l;
i = 100;
j = 25;
k = 13;
l = (5 * ((j % k) + i) / (2 * k)) / 2;
1.4.28 Parentheses (2)

Yes, it's 10. Well done!
10
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1.4.29 Operators continued (1)

Here are some operators in the C++ language which you won’t find in maths textbooks. Some of
them are frequently used to increment a variable by one.
This is often done when we’re counting something (e.g. sheep). Let's consider the following
snippet:
int SheepCounter;
SheepCounter = 0;
Every time a sheep runs through our thoughts we want the variable to be incremented, like this:
SheepCounter = SheepCounter + 1;
Similar operations appear very frequently in typical programs, so the creators of the C++
language introduced a set of special operators for these actions. One of them is the ++ (plus plus)
operator.
You can achieve the same effect in a shorter way:
SheepCounter++;
It looks much more elegant now, doesn't it?

Similarly, you can also decrease the value of a chosen variable.
For example, if we can hardly wait for our holiday, our mind does the following operation every
morning:
DaysUntilHoliday = DaysUntilHoliday – 1;
We can write this in a more compact way:
DaysUntilHoliday--;

Sorry, but now it’s time to introduce a few new words:
The ++ sign is called the increment operator.
The -- sign is called the decrement operator.
So we’ve shown you the ++ and -- operators after a variable (a specialist in the syntax of
programming languages would say that they are used as postfix operators).
However, both operators can be put in front of a variable (as prefix operators), like this:
++SheepCounter;
--DaysUntilHoliday;
The effect is exactly the same: SheepCounter will be increased by 1, DaysUntilHoliday decreased
by 1.
There is a fairly significant difference, as described by the names of these operators.
"++" the increment operator.

"--" the decrement operator.
1.4.32 Pre- and post- operators (1)

Ladies and gentlemen, here they are.
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They may seem a little strange at first, but they’ll grow on you. Let's discuss the effects of these
operators.
Operation: ++Variable --Variable
Effect: Increment/decrement the variable by 1 and use its value already increased/reduced.
Operation: Variable++ Variable--
Effect: Use the original (unchanged) variable's value and then increment/decrement the variable
by 1.
The behavior of these operators justifies the presence of the prefix pre- (before) and post- (after)
in their names: pre- because the variable is modified first and then its value is used; and post- because
the variable’s value is used and then the variable is modified.
Variable++ post-increment operator

++Variable pre-increment operator
Variable-- post-decrement operator
--Variable pre-decrement operator

Take a look at two simple examples.
First, the variable i is set to 1. In the second statement we see the following steps:
the value of i will be taken (as we use the post-increment operator),
the variable i will be increased by 1.
In effect, j will receive the value of 1, and i will receive the value of 2.
int i,j;
i=1;
j=i++;

Things will go a bit differently now.
The variable i is assigned the value of 1; next, the i variable is incremented and becomes 2; next,
the increased value is assigned to the j variable.
In effect both i and j will be equal to 2.
int i,j;
i=1;
j=++i;

Look carefully at this program. Let’s trace its execution step by step.
The i variable is assigned the value of 4;
We take the original value of i (4), multiply it by 2, assign the result (8) to j and eventually
(post-)increment the i variable (it’s now equal to 5);
We (pre-)decrement the value of j (it's now equal to 7), this reduced value is taken and multiplied
by 2, and the result (14) is assigned to the variable i.
int i,j;
i = 4;
j = 2 * i++;
i = 2 * --j;
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1.4.36 Pre- and post- operators (priorities)

What else do you need to know about the new operators?
Well, firstly, their priority is quite high - higher than the *, /, and % operators.
Secondly, they have right-side binding. Our priority table is currently as follows →
1.4.37 Shortcut operators (1)

Now it's time for the next set of operators, ones that make a developer's life easier. The one’s
we’ve already described deal with addition and subtraction of one.
However, we often need something other than addition or subtraction, or we want to use a
different value; we can use this operator when we want to calculate a series of successive values of
powers of 2.
i=i+2;

We use this expression when our herd is extremely numerous.
SheepCounter = SheepCounter + 10;

In the C++ language there is a short way to write these operations. You can write them as follows
→
i*=2;
SheepCounter += 10;

Let's try to present a general description for such operations. If op is a two-argument operator
(this is a very important condition!) and the operator is used in the following context:
variable = variable op expression;
It can be simplified and shown as follows:
variable op = expression;
Take a look at the examples here →
Make sure you understand them all. And relax, because we still have a lot of work ahead.
1.5.1 Character type (1)

So far we have treated the C++ language (and the computer itself) as a tool for performing
calculations on numbers. This is consistent with a common belief that a computer is just a calculator,
albeit a very smart one. You know it’s not true, as the computer can be easily used for word processing,
too.
We can define a “word” as a string of characters (letters, numbers, punctuation marks, etc.). We
dealt with such strings in the first lesson when we used cout to write some text on the computer screen.
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Now, however, we’ll ignore the string consisting of multiple characters and we’ll focus our
attention on single characters. We’ll come back to the problem of processing strings when we start
working on arrays, because in the C++ language all strings are treated as arrays.
1.5.2 Character type (2)

To store and manipulate characters, the C++ language provides a special type of data. This type is
called char, which is an abbreviation of the word “character”.
Let's try to declare a variable for storing a single character.
Looks familiar, doesn't it? Now let's talk a bit about how computers store characters.
char Character;
1.5.3 ASCII code

Computers store characters as numbers. Every character used by computers corresponds to a
unique number, and vice versa, and there are way more characters than you might expect. Many of
them are invisible to humans but essential to computers.
Some of these characters are called “white spaces”, while others are named “control characters”
because their purpose is to control the input/output devices.
An example of a white space that is completely invisible to the naked eye is a special code, or a
pair of codes (different operating systems may treat this issue differently), that are used to mark the
ends of lines inside text files.
Humans don’t see these signs, but they can see the effect of their application where the lines are
broken.
We can create virtually any number of character assignments, but a world in which each
computer type uses different character encoding would be an extremely inconvenient world indeed.
Computers wouldn’t be able to agree on anything and they wouldn’t be able to get any work done
– a bit like elected politicians. This has lead to a need for a universal and widely accepted standard,
implemented by (almost) all computers and operating systems all over the world.
ASCII (short for American Standard Code for Information Interchange) is the most widely used
and nearly all modern devices (like computers, printers, mobile phones, tablets, etc.) use it. The code
allows for 256 different characters, but we’re only interested in the first 128.
If you want to check how the code is constructed, have a look at the table →
Look at it carefully, because there are some interesting things going on here. Let’s look at one in
particular. Check out what the code is for the most common character, the space. Yes – it’s 32. Now
check out what the code is for the lower-case letter “a”. It’s 97, right? And now let's find the upper-case
“A”. It’s 65. Now subtract the code for “a” from “A”, and what do you get? 32! Yes, that's the code for
a space. We’re going to use this interesting feature of the ASCII code soon.
Also note that the letters are arranged in the same order as in the Latin alphabet.
By the way, ASCII code is being superseded (or rather extended) by a new international standard
named UNICODE.
Fortunately, the ASCII set is a UNICODE subset. UNICODE is able to represent virtually all
characters used throughout the world. We’ll spend a little more time on this later.
Character Dec Hex Character Dec HexCharacter Dec HexCharacter Dec Hex
(NUL) 0 0 (space) 32 20 @ 64 40 ` 96 60
(SOH) 1 1 ! 33 21 A 65 41 a 97 61
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(STX) 2 2 " 34 22 B 66 42 b 98 62
(ETX) 3 3 # 35 23 C 67 43 c 99 63
(EOT) 4 4 $ 36 24 D 68 44 d 100 64
(ENQ) 5 5 % 37 25 E 69 45 e 101 65
(ACK) 6 6 & 38 26 F 70 46 f 102 66
(BEL) 7 7 ' 39 27 G 71 47 g 103 67
(BS) 8 8 ( 40 28 H 72 48 h 104 68
(HT) 9 9 ) 41 29 I 73 49 i 105 69
(LF) 10 0A * 42 2A J 74 4A j 106 6A
(VT) 11 0B + 43 2B K 75 4B k 107 6B
(FF) 12 0C , 44 2C L 76 4C l 108 6C
(CR) 13 0D - 45 2D M 77 4D m 109 6D
(SO) 14 0E . 46 2E N 78 4E n 110 6E
(SI) 15 0F / 47 2F O 79 4F o 111 6F
(DLE) 16 10 0 48 30 P 80 50 p 112 70
(DC1) 17 11 1 49 31 Q 81 51 q 113 71
(DC2) 18 12 2 50 32 R 82 52 r 114 72
(DC3) 19 13 3 51 33 S 83 53 s 115 73
(DC4) 20 14 4 52 34 T 84 54 t 116 74
(NAK) 21 15 5 53 35 U 85 55 u 117 75
(SYN) 22 16 6 54 36 V 86 56 v 118 76
(ETB) 23 17 7 55 37 W 87 57 w 119 77
(CAN) 24 18 8 56 38 X 88 58 x 120 78
(EM) 25 19 9 57 39 Y 89 59 y 121 79
(SUB) 26 1A : 58 3A Z 90 5A z 122 7A
(ESC) 27 1B ; 59 3B [ 91 5B { 123 7B
(FS) 28 1C < 60 3C \ 92 5C | 124 7C
(GS) 29 1D = 61 3D ] 93 5D } 125 7D
(RS) 30 1E > 62 3E ^ 94 5E ~ 126 7E
(US) 31 1F ? 63 3F _ 95 5F 127 7F
1.5.4 Character type values (1)

How do we use values of type char in the C++ language? We can do it in two ways, both of
which are slightly different from each other.
The first way allows us to specify the character itself but enclosed in single quotes
(apostrophes). Let’s assume that we want a variable from a few slides earlier to be assigned the value
of the upper-case letter “A”.
This is how we do it →
Character = 'A';

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If you want to use single character on the right side you can’t omit apostrophes under any
circumstances. If you try, the compiler might not like it.
Now let’s assign an asterisk to our variable. Like this →
Character = '*';

The second method is to assign a non-negative integer value that is the code of the desired
character. That means that the assignment you see on the right → will put an “A” into the Character
variable.
This second method, however, is less recommendable, and if you can avoid it, you should. Why,
you ask?
Well, firstly, because it’s illegible to humans. Without knowing the ASCII code, it’s impossible to
guess what that “65” really means. It might be the code for a character, but it might equally be that a
sociopathic programmer has done this to save the number of sheep already counted.
And secondly, strange but still true, there are a significant number of computers in the world
which use codes other than ASCII. For example, many of the IBM mainframes use a code commonly
called EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code), which is very different from
ASCII, and is based on radically different concepts.
Character = '\'';
1.5.7 Literals
Okay, we think you’re ready for a new term: a literal. The literal is a symbol that uniquely
identifies its value. Some people prefer to use a different definition: the literal means itself.
Choose the definition that you think is clearer and look at the following simple examples:
 Character: this is not a literal; it’s probably a variable name; when you look at it, you cannot guess
what value is currently assigned to that variable
 'A': this is a literal; when you look at it you immediately know its value; you even know that it is a
literal of the char type
 100: it's a literal, too (of type int)
 100.0: it's another literal, this time of the float type
 i + 100: this is a combination of a variable and a literal joined together with the + operator; such a
structure is called an expression.
Character = '\\';
1.5.8 Character literals (1)

If you’re an inquisitive person (and we think you are), you’re probably asking this question: if a
literal of type char is given as the character enclosed in apostrophes, how do you code the apostrophe
itself?
The C++ language uses a special convention that also extends to other characters, not only to
apostrophes. Let's start with an apostrophe anyway. An apostrophe looks like this →
The \ character (called backslash) acts as a so-called escape character because by using the \ we
escape from the normal meaning of the character that follows the slash.
In this example, we escape from the usual role of the apostrophe (i.e. delimiting the literals of
type char), and the apostrophe that follows the \ is simply an apostrophe character.
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Character = '*';
1.5.9 Character literals (2)

You can also use the escape character to escape from the escape character.
Yes, we know, it’s weird, but the example on the right should make it clear.
This is how we put a backslash into a variable of type char →
Character = '*\\;
1.5.10 Escape characters (1)

The C++ language also allows us to escape in some other circumstances. Let's start with those
that denote literals representing white spaces.
\n - denotes a transition to a new line and is sometimes called an LF (Line Feed), as printers react
to this character by moving the paper forward by one line of text.
\n

\r - denotes a return to the beginning of the line and is sometimes called a CR (Carriage Return –
“carriage” was the synonym of a “print head” in pre-digital times); printers respond to this character as
if they’ve been told to re-start printing from the left margin of the already printed line.
To make a printer start printing a new line, you have to send those two characters in a particular
order: LF to eject the paper and CR to move the head to the beginning of the new line.
\r

\a (as in alarm) is a relic of the past when teletypes were often used to communicate with
computers (do you know what a teletype is?); sending this character to a teletype turns on its ringer,
hence the character is officially called BEL (as bell); if you send this character to the screen, you’ll hear
a sound – it won't be a real ringing but rather a short beep.
The power of tradition persists even in the IT world.
\a

\0 (note: the character after the backslash is a zero, not an O): called null (from the Latin word
nullus - none) is a character that does not represent any character; despite first impressions that it might
be very useful.
\0

Now let’s try to escape in a slightly different direction. The first example explains the variant
when a backslash is followed by two or three octal digits (the digits from the range of 0 to 7). The
number coded in this manner will be treated as an ASCII value.
And it may look like this →
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47 octal is 39 decimal. Look at the ASCII code table and you'll find that it’s the ASCII code for
an apostrophe, so this is equivalent to
'\''
(but only for computers implementing the ASCII code).
Character = '\47';

The second escape refers to the situation when \ is followed by the letter X (lower case or upper
case – it doesn't matter).
Here we need either one or two hexadecimal digits, which will be treated as ASCII code. Here's
an example →
As you’ve probably guessed, 27 hexadecimal is 39 decimal.
Character = '\x27';
1.5.16 Char values are int values (1)

There is an assumption in the C++ language that may seem surprising at first: the char type is
treated as a special kind of int type. This means that:
You can always assign a char value to an int variable;
You can always assign an int value to a char variable, but if the value exceeds 127 (the top-most
character code in pure ASCII, but, 255 could be valid for many modern encodings) you’ll get a loss of
value;
Value of the char type can be subject to the same operators as the data of type int.
We can check this by using a simple example. We said earlier that in ASCII, the “distance”
between upper and lower case letters is 32, and that 32 is also the code of the space character. Look at
this snippet →
This sequence of subsequent addition and subtraction will bring the Char value to its original
value (“A”). Can you see why? If not, don’t worry. All will become clear soon enough.
char Char;
Char = 'A';
Char += 32;
Char -= ' ';

All of the assignments on the right are correct. Try to figure out their meanings →
Char = 'A' + 32;

Char = 'A' + ' ' ;
Char = 65 + ' ';
Char = 97 - ' ';
Char = 'a' - 32;
Char = 'a' - ' ';

Well done! Here are the answers: 97, 97, 97, 65, 65, 65.
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Char = 'A' + 32;

Char = 'A' + ' ' ;
Char = 65 + ' ';
Char = 97 - ' ';
Char = 'a' - 32;
Char = 'a' - ' ';
1.6.1 One who asks does not err

A programmer writes a program and the program asks questions. A computer executes the
program and provides the answers. The program must be able to react according to the received
answers. Fortunately, the computer knows only two kinds of answer: yes, this is true and no, this is
false. You will never get a response like “I don't know” or “Probably yes but I don't know for sure”. If
you do receive these answers, then consult your therapist about them.
To ask questions, the C++ language uses a set of very special operators. We’ll list them one after
another, illustrating their effects on some simple examples.
1.6.2 Question: is x equal to y?

Question: are two values equal?
To ask this question you use the == (equal equal) operator.
But don't forget this important distinction:
 = is an assignment operator
 == is the question “are these values equal?”
It’s a binary operator with a left-side binding. It needs two arguments and checks if they’re equal.
Now let’s ask a few questions. Try to guess the answers.
==
1.6.3 Is x equal to y?
The question is trivial. Of course 2 is equal to 2. The computer will answer “true”.
2 == 2

This one is trivial, too. The answer will be “false”.
1 == 2

Here we’re not able to find the answer if we do not know what value is currently stored in
variable i.
If the variable has been changed many times during the execution of your program, the answer to
this question can be given only by the computer and only at run time.
i == 0

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Here we have another developer who counts black and white sheep separately and can only fall
asleep when there are exactly twice as many black sheep as white ones.
The question is as follows →
Due to the low priority of the == operator, this question is treated as equivalent to this one:
BlackSheepCounter == (2 * WhiteSheepCounter)
BlackSheepCounter == 2 * WhiteSheepCounter
1.6.7 Question: is x not equal to y?
To ask this question, we use the != (exclamation equal). It’s a very close relative of the ==
operator. It’s also a binary operator and has the same low priority. Imagine we want to ask whether the
number of days left to the end of the world is currently not equal to zero →
If the answer is “true”, that gives us the chance to go to the theater or to visit our friends. If the
answer is “false”…well, that’s bad.
DaysUntilTheEndOfTheWorld != 0
1.6.8 Question: is x greater than y?

You can ask this question using the > (greater) operator. If you want to know that there are more
black sheep than white ones, you can write it as follows →
The “true” answer confirms; the “false” answer denies.
BlackSheep > WhiteSheep
1.6.9 Question: is x greater than or equal to y?

The “greater” operator has another special, non-strict variant but it’s denoted differently than in
the classical arithmetic notation: >= (greater equal). These are two subsequent characters, not one.
Both of these operators (strict and non-strict), as well as another two we mention in the next
section, are binary operators with left-side binding, and their priority is greater than the one shown by
== and !=.
If we want to find out whether or not we can leave our warm hat at home, we ask the following
question →
CentigradesOutside >= 0.0
1.6.10 Question: is x less than (or equal to) y?

As you’ve probably already surmised, the operators we’re using in this case are the < (less)
operator and its non-strict sibling <= (less equal).
Look at this simple example: we’re going to check if there is a risk that we will be fined by the
highway police (the first question is strict, the second isn't).
CurrentVelocity < 110

CurrentVelocity <= 110
1.6.11 How do we use the answer we got?

What can we do with the answer the computer has given us? Well, we have at least two options:
first, we can memorize it (store it in a variable) and make use of it later. How do we do that?
Well, we use an arbitrary variable of type int like this →
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If the answer is “true” because Value1 is greater than or equal to Value2, the computer will assign
1 to Answer (1 is arguably different from zero). If Value1 is less than Value2, the variable Answer will
be 0.
int Answer, Value1, Value2;

Answer = Value1 >= Value2;
1.6.12 The priority table (an update)

The second option is more convenient and far more common: we can use the answer to make a
decision about the future of our program. We use a special instruction for this purpose and we’ll go into
it very soon.
But now we need to update our priority table. It now looks like this →
++ -- + - unary
* / %
+ - binary
< <= > >=
== !=
= += -= *= /= %=
1.6.13 Conditions and conditional executions (1)

We already know how to ask, but we still don’t know how to make reasonable use of the answers.
We need a mechanism to allow us to do something if a condition is met and not to do it otherwise.
It's just like in real life: we do certain things or we don’t when a specific condition is met or not, e.g.
we go for a walk if the weather is good or we stay home if it isn’t.
To make these decisions, the C++ language offers us a special instruction. Due to its nature and
its application, it’s called a conditional instruction (or conditional statement).
There are several variants of it. We'll start with the simplest one and work our way up to the
harder ones.
The first form of a conditional statement, which you can see on the right is written very
informally but figuratively →
This conditional statement consists of the following strictly necessary elements in this (and only
this) order:
 if keyword
 left (opening) parenthesis
 an expression (a question or an answer) whose value will be interpreted solely in terms of “true”
(when its value is non-zero) and “false” (when it is equal to zero)
 right (closing) parenthesis
 an instruction (only one, but we’ll learn how to deal with that limitation)
So how does that statement work?
if the true_or_not expression enclosed inside the parentheses represents the truth (i.e. its value is
not equal to zero), the statement behind this condition (do_this_if_true) will be executed.
if the true_or_not expression represents the falsehood (its value is equal to zero) the statement
behind this condition is omitted and the next instruction executed will be the one after the conditional
statement.
if(true_or_not) do_this_if_true
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In real life we often express a will:
if the weather is good, we will go for a walk
next, we will have lunch
Thankfully, having lunch is not a conditional activity and doesn't depend on the weather.
Knowing what conditions influence our behavior and assuming that we have parameterless
functions, GoForAWalk() and HaveLunch(), we can write the following snippet →
if(TheWeatherlsGood) GoForAWalk();
HaveLunch();

Now back to our friend, the programmer, who falls asleep when he counts 120 sheep.
The sleeping is implemented as a special function named SleepAndDream().
This function does not require any parameters.
We can read it as: “if SheepCounter is greater than or equal to 120 then fall asleep and dream!”
if(SheepCounter >= 120) SleepAndDream();

We said that there can be only one statement after the if statement.
When we have to execute conditionally more than one instruction, we need to use the braces {
and } which create a structure known as a compound statement or (much simpler) a block. The
compiler treats the block as a single instruction.
This is how we can use to circumvent the if statement limitation.
Let’s be a little nicer to our programmer →
if(SheepCounter >= 120) {MakeABed(); TakeAShower(); SleepAndDream();} FeedTheSheepdogs();

Now is the time for some stylistic remarks. Writing out the blocks like the previous example is, of
course, syntactically correct, but very inelegant. It may cause the text of our program to run outside the
right margin of the editor.
There are several ways to code the blocks. We won't try to argue that some are better than others,
but we’re going to use the so-called K & R style.
The letters K and R are the initials of the creators of the C language, Mr. Kernighan and Mr.
Ritchie (the C language is the still living ancestor of C++). They used this style in their articles and we
think it prudent to follow them.
The same snippet, written in accordance with K & R style, looks like this →
Note that a conditionally executed block is indented - it improves the readability of the program
and manifests its conditional nature.
In the next section, we’re going to discuss another variant of the conditional statement, which
also allows you to perform an action only when the condition is not met.
Now feed your sheepdogs, please. They’ve been waiting so long that they’re starting to eye the
sheep.
if(SheepCounter >= 120){ MakeABed(); TakeAShower(); SleepAndDream(); } FeedTheSheepdogs();
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1.7.1 Input and output

Let’s spend some time on two important and extremely useful features that we can use to connect
the computer with the outside world.
When data moves in the direction of the human (user) to the computer program, it’s called the
input. The data transferred in the opposite direction, i.e. from the computer to the human, is called the
output.
We've already learned about one useful entity that serves to output data – can you remember its
name? Yup, it’s the cout stream, and we used it along with the << operator in the very first program we
wrote in the C++ language, right at the beginning of this course.
The << operator itself is sometimes referred to as an insertion operator as it inserts a string of
characters into the character device (e.g. a console).
The actual cout capabilities are much more impressive: it’s capable of writing the data of virtually
any type on a computer screen.
So what do we do if we want to output the value of type int or float, or char, not only a simple
string?
1.7.2 Output (1)

To do this and other more complex tasks, we need to use any of the output streams associated
with the screen (more formally: with the console) and send a value of a variable there.
cout is one of these streams and is ready to work without any special preparations – it only needs
the header file name.
If you want to print the value of an integer variable to the screen, the only thing you have to do is
send it to the cout stream through the << operator, which indicates the desired direction of data transfer.
Both the << operator and the cout stream are responsible for two important actions:
 converting the internal (machine) representation of the integer value into a form acceptable for
humans
 transferring the converted form to the output device e.g. console
Streams are very powerful and convenient tools for both input and output. They can easily output
several values of different types and mix them with the text. They can also easily input many values at
once.
Let's look at streams in a few applications. The first one is trivial - we use cout to print a value of
an int variable. We do it like this →
We can expect that a string consisting of characters ‘1’, ‘1’ and ‘0’ will appear on the screen
immediately.
int herd_size = 110; cout << herd_size;
1.7.3 Output (2)

You can also connect more than one << operator in one cout statement and each of the printed
elements may be of a different type and a different nature.
Take a look at the example on the right. We’re using a string literal (as the former element) and
an integer variable (as the latter element) in one cout operation.
In this example →
this snippet of code results in the string Sheep counted so far: 123 printed on the screen.
int herd_size = 123; cout << "Sheep counted so far: " << herd_size;
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1.7.4 Output (3)

An expression is a legal cout element too. The example on the right demonstrates one such case
→
int square_side = 12; cout << "The square perimeter is: " << square_side;
1.7.5 Output (4)

If you want a value of type int to be presented as a fixed-point hexadecimal number, you need to
use the so-called manipulator. A manipulator is a special kind of entity that tells the stream that the
data form has to be changed immediately. All elements outputted after the manipulator activation will
be presented in the desired form.
A manipulator that is designed to switch the stream into a hexadecimal mode is called a hex. The
snippet on the right will output a string consisting of characters ‘F’ and ‘F’.
Technically, a manipulator is a function that changes one of the output stream’s properties, called
basefield. The property is used to determine what number should be used as a base during the
conversion of any int value into human readable text.
There are two important facts you need to understand here:
any manipulator starts its work from the point it was placed at and continues its work even after
the end of the cout statement; it finishes working only when another manipulator cancels its action;
the name of the manipulator may be in conflict with any other name declared by the programmer;
e.g. you can have your own variable named hex which could hide the manipulator’s name; such
conflicts are resolved by a specialized mechanism called namespace; more on this later.
int byte = 255; cout << "Byte in hex: " << hex << byte;
1.7.6 Output (5)

The example on the right → demonstrates how manipulators begin and finish their work.
Note: the dec manipulator switches the stream into a decimal form. We don’t have it explicitly in
most cases, since the decimal is the default working mode for output streams.
The snippet will output the three specimens of the same value:
 FF as a hexadecimal representation of 255 (as an effect of the hex manipulator)
 FF again (the previous hex activation is still working here)
 255 (as a result of the dec manipulator activation)
int byte = 255;

cout << hex << byte;
cout << byte << dec << byte;
1.7.7 Output (6)

The oct manipulator switches the stream into the octal mode.
The snippet on the right → will output ‘377’ to the screen. Can you guess why?
Yes, 255 in decimal is 377 in octal. Well done.
int byte = 255;

cout << oct << byte;
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1.7.8 Output (7)

The three manipulators we showed you previously are only one of the methods (probably the
simplest one) of accessing the basefield property. You can achieve the same effect by using the setbase
manipulator, which directly instructs the stream on what base value it should use during conversion.
The only acceptable values for the setbase parameter are 8, 10 and 16. Hopefully you got the
purpose of the three manipulators. If not, go back and look at them a little longer. It’ll come to you
eventually…we hope.
The program on the right → demonstrates the usage of the setbase manipulator.
Note: it requires a header file called iomanip (the three previous manipulators don’t).
#include <iostream> #include <iomanip> using namespace std; int main(void) { int byte = 255; cout <<
setbase(16) << byte; return 0; }
1.7.9 Output (8)

In general, output streams (including cout) are able to recognize the type of the printed value
and act accordingly i.e. they’ll use a proper form of data presentation for char and float values.
The snippet on the right → will cause the stream to print the following text on the screen:
X-2.5
char Char = 'X', Minus = '-';

float Float = 2.5;
cout << Char << Minus << Float;
1.7.10 Output (9)

cout is able to recognize the actual type of its element even when it is an effect of a conversion.
We’ll discuss the conversions later, but for now we only want to mention that a phrase written as:
(newtype)expr
changes the type of the expr expression into the newtype type.
What it means is that we can see the ASCII code of any character stored within a char variable
and vice versa, or see a character whose ASCII code is placed inside an int variable.
The snippet on the right → outputs the following text to the screen:
X 88 88 X
char Char = 'X'; int Int = Char; cout<<Char<<" "<<(int)Char<<" "<<Int<<" "<<(char)Int;
1.7.11 Output (10)

Sometimes we may want to (and sometimes we may have to) break the line being sent to the
screen.
When we present many different results one by one in the same line of text, it doesn’t look nice
and you won’t want to look at it. One line is okay, but a thousand lines written like that will make you
go blind.
We can break the line in two ways. First, we can use one of the control characters called
“newline” and coded as \n (note: we use two characters to write it down but the compiler sees it as one
character – don’t let it fool you).
The newline character forces the console to complete the current line and to start a new one.
We can achieve exactly the same effect by using a manipulator called endl (as “end line”).
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The snippet on the right → illustrates both methods and causes the console to display the
following three lines of text:
cout<< "1\n2" << endl << "2\n";
1.7.12 Output (11)

The output streams try to output float values in a form that is more compact, and a decision is
taken for every printed float value.
For example, the following snippet:
float x = 2.5, y = 0.0000000025;
cout << x << endl << y << endl;
will produce the following output on the screen:
2.5
2.5e-009
The former is referred to as fixed point while the latter as scientific (you might remember that
term when we were talking about floating point literals).
There are two manipulators designed implicitly to choose the desired output depending on the
user’s needs and preferences: Their names are:
 fixed,
 scientific.
Note that initially the streams are set neither to the fixed nor to the scientific mode, but to the
default (automatic) mode.
Using any of the above manipulators switches the stream to the desired mode; however, you can’t
return to the default method of processing floats by using any of the manipulators.
You have to use a special function (but we’re intentionally not going to talk about this here).
The program on the right → will output the following text:
2.500000 0.000000
2.500000e+000 2.500000e-009
float x = 2.5, y = 0.0000000025;

cout << fixed << x << " " << y << endl;
cout << scientific << x << " " << y << endl;
1.7.13 Input (1)

Of course, equally important as data output is data input. Actually, it’s difficult to imagine any
non-trivial program that doesn’t require any data from the user, although you can do the following:
 encode all the data needed inside the source code (which is sometimes called hard coding)
 when you need to repeat the execution of the program with other data, you just modify the program,
compile it and run it again.
This isn’t a particularly convenient solution. It’s far better to get the information from the user,
transfer it to the program, and then use it for calculations. So how does a C++ language program get
data from a human and store it in variables?
The simplest way is to mentally reverse the direction of the transfer and to acknowledge that for
the data input:
we use cin stream instead of cout
we use >> operator instead of <<.
By the way, the >> operator is often referred to as an extraction operator.
The cin stream, along with the extraction operator, is responsible for:
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 transferring the human-readable form of the data from the input device e.g. a console
 converting the data into the internal (machine) representation of the value being input.
1.7.14 Input (2)

Imagine that we want to ask the user about the maximum number of sheep we want to count
before the programmer falls asleep.
The user enters the value from the keyboard and the program stores it in a specified variable
(MaxSheep). That statement looks like this →
You probably see the similarity to emitting data using cout: we have a stream, we have an
operator and we have a variable.
At this point the similarities end and the differences begin. First, the argument for cout may not
be a variable. It can also be an expression. Take a look:
cout << 2 * i;
Here we want the doubled value of i to be printed – and that’s feasible. Using an input stream, we
need to explicitly specify the variable that can store the data entered by the user.
cin >> MaxSheep;
1.7.15 Input (3)

Now we’ll show you a simple but complete program that does the following:
 prompts the user to enter a single integer value,
 squares it,
 prints the result with an appropriate comment.
Analysing this program shouldn’t be a problem for you…we hope!
source_01_07_14_squares.cpp
#include <iostream> using namespace std;
int main(void) { int value,square;
cout << "Give me a number and I will square it!\n";
cin >> value; square = value * value;
cout << "You've given " << value << endl;
cout << "The squared value is " << square << endl;
return 0; }
1.7.16 Input (4)

So you prefer square roots to squares? No problem, but we need to remember two things: first,
there’s no such thing as a square root operator; and second, that square roots of negative numbers
do not exist.
We can solve the first issue by finding a function that knows how to compute the root. This type
of function does exist and takes the argument of the float type.
The result is also a float (of course - the square of an integer is still an integer, but the root of any
number is not always an integer, like the square root of 2).
The function we’re going to use is called sqrtf (square root float) and needs exactly one
argument. Oh, one more thing - to use this function you need to include a header file named cmath.
We need to deal with negative numbers as well. If you’re careless and enter a negative number,
the program will just ignore you and your input completely. It may not be polite, but at least it won’t
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attempt to bend the rules of mathematics. Whether we see the result or not will be decided by the
conditional statement.
Now it’s time to focus on the use of floating point data and the sqrtf function.
Here’s the complete program →
source_01_07_15_squareroots.cpp
#include <iostream>
#include <cmath>
int main(void)
{ float value,squareroot;
cout << "Give me a number and I will find its square root:" << endl; cin >> value;
if(value >= 0.0)
{
squareroot = sqrtf(value);
cout << "You have given: " << value << endl;
cout << "The square root is: " << squareroot << endl;
}
return 0;
}
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Programming Essentials in C++

1. Introduction to computer programming

1.1.2 Natural language vs. programming language

1.1.3 Natural language vs. programming language

1.1.4 Further readings

1.2.1 Your first program (1)

1.2.2 Your first program (2)

using namespace std;

1.2.3 Your first program (3)

1.2.4 Your first program (4)

1.2.5 Your first program (5)

1.2.6 Your first program (6)

1.3.1 Numbers and how computers see them

1.3.2 A variable is variable (1)

1.3.3 A variable is variable (2)

1.3.4 A variable is variable (3)

int variable1, account_balance, invoices;

1.3.5 A variable is variable (4)

1.3.6 A variable is variable (5)

Result = 100 +200

1.3.7 A variable is variable (6)

1.3.9 Comments on the comments (1)

1.3.10 Comments on the comments (2)

int Counter; // counts the number of sheep in the meadow

1.3.11 Comments on the comments (3)

/* Counter variable counts the number of sheep in the meadow */

1.3.12 Comments on the comments (4)

1.3.13 Comments on the comments (5)

/* int i; /* int j; */ int k; */

1.4.1 Floating-point numbers (1)

1.4.2 Floating-point numbers (2)

1.4.3 Floating-point numbers (3)

1.4.4 Floating-point numbers (4)

1.4.5 Floating-point numbers (5)

1.4.6 Floating-point numbers (6)

1.4.7 Floating-point numbers (7)

flost PI, Field;

1.4.8 Floating-point numbers (8)

1.4.9 Floating-point numbers (9)

Consider the example →

1.4.10 Floating-point numbers (10)

1.4.11 Floating-point numbers (11)

1.4.15 Division by zero (1)

1.4.16 Division by zero (2)

1.4.19 Unary minus

1.4.20 Unary plus

1.4.24 List of priorities (1)

1.4.25 List of priorities (2)

1.4.26 List of priorities (3)

1.4.27 Parentheses (1)

1.4.28 Parentheses (2)

1.4.29 Operators continued (1)

1.4.30 Operators continued (2)

1.4.31 Operators continued (3)

"++" the increment operator.

1.4.32 Pre- and post- operators (1)

Variable++ post-increment operator

1.4.33 Pre- and post- operators (2)

1.4.34 Pre- and post- operators (3)

/* int i; /* int j; / int k; /