Global Heavy Haul Experience

and Indian Railways

M. M. Agarwal
Former Chief Engineer, Northern Railway.

K. K. Miglani
Deputy Chief Engineer (TP), Northern Railway.

Prologue

The phrase ‘Heavy Haul Operation’ came The authors have examined the problems
into prominence with the first Heavy Haul faced by some of the important heavy haul
Conference held in Perth in Western systems in the world railways, in
Australia in 1978. A large number of Heavy construction and operation, with special
Haul Trains are being operated in America, reference to Indian Railways. The main
Australia, Africa, Europe, Brazil, problems which require to be addressed
Scandinavia and UK for the last 3 to 4 have been highlighted in the Paper along
decades. Fortescue Railway in Western with possible remedial measures. The
Australia is possibly the world’s latest experience gained from these railways
heavy haul line which opened in 2008. can be useful during the induction of heavy
haul trains on Indian Railways.
- Editor

Introduction

The phrase “Heavy Haul” (HH) operation probably came into prominence with
the first Heavy Haul Conference, held in Perth, Western Australia in 1978. Heavy Haul
(HH) trains operate in some of the world’s most difficult conditions of terrain and
climate, with rail temperatures up to 75oC in North West Australia, down to minus 50
degrees C in Canada, and with annual ranges of up to 80oC. Trains can be of 250
vehicles giving a trailing weight of some 30,000 tonnes and train lengths of more than
3 kms., with track curvature of 220m and grades of 2%.

By 1975-1980, Heavy Haul trains were being operated in Africa, Australia,

Brazil, North America, Europe and Scandinavian countries. The growth has been

RITES Journal 19.1 January 2010

 19.2 Global Heavy Haul Experience and Indian Railways

phenomenal since then and in most of the developed nations, these Heavy Haul
Trains are running as an economic necessity.

It is proposed to take case studies of a few typical railways and discuss the
various problems faced by them as well as remedial measures in construction as well
as in operation and maintenance.

It may be brought out that some studies of Heavy Haul trains relate to earlier
years. Though there have been many technical developments since then, yet some of
the problems brought out in earlier days are still relevant in the present day context.

The case studies discussed in this Paper for running of Heavy Haul trains in
different countries of the world not only relate to construction and maintenance of the
track but also of some specific issues concerning the track. The case studies
discussed in the paper are:

(i) Burlington Railway of North America for maintenance of Heavy Haul

Railway lines.

(ii) Harmersley Railways of North-West Australia for maintenance of Heavy

Haul Railway lines.

(iii) Fortescue Railways of Western Australia for construction of Heavy

Haul Railway Line.

(iv) Economics of running Heavy axle load and longer trains in Sweden
(Europe).

(v) Maintenance of Heavy Haul Corridor of Union Pacific Railway.

(vi) Track Transition solutions for Heavy axle load service – American Rail
Roads.

(vii) Effect of Heavy axle load on Bonded Insulation Joints – Research

Study by TTCI (American Rail Roads).

(viii) Heavy Haul operation on Narrow Gauge in Australia, Brazil & South
Africa- 9th International Heavy Haul Conference.

It is felt that experience gained by different Railway systems of the world

may be of considerable help to Indian Railways specially for running of 25 tonnes axle
load trains on nominated sections of Indian Railway as well as for the Dedicated
Freight Corridors.

The various case studies are discussed in subsequent paras along with the
conclusions.
M. M. Agarwal & K. K. Miglani 19.3

Burlington Railway of North America

Introduction

Burlington Railway of North America is one of the oldest Heavy Haul operated
railway, constructed in the decade 1970-1980. The traffic carried on the railway was
mostly coal and mixed traffic with an axle load of 30 tonnes and a maximum speed of
75 km per hour. The annual tonnage was 50 HGT. The gauge adopted was standard
gauge of 1435mm.

Track Structure

The track consisted of 68 Kg per metre rail & with mostly wooden sleepers
with cut spikes and also mono block concrete sleepers with special clips; maximum
curvature was 220 metres radius.

Problems Faced

A study carried out indicated the following problems with the track on account
of Heavy Axle loads :

(i) Rails
Rapid rail wear, Rail end batter and dipped joints, Cracked rails,
Corrugation of rails.

(ii) Sleepers
(a) Wooden Sleepers - By far the most common wooden sleeper fastener
used was cut spike and rail anchor. The problem faced was sleeper
degradation causing deformation of track geometry and lesser sleeper
life.
(b) Concrete Sleeper – The concrete sleeper fasteners were embedded
in housing forming an integral part of the sleeper, with a self-tensioning
spring clip located in the housing. In case of concrete sleeper there
was no problem of any type except for the fastenings.

(iii) Fastenings – Different problems existed on different type of fastenings:

a) Wooden Sleeper –Problems experienced were lifting and lateral
movement of the spikes giving poor gauge.
b) Concrete Sleeper - The problems faced were of low clamping force
(toe load) and low rail creep resistance values. Also, the rubber pads
suffered from abrasion, cutting and permanent set.
 19.4 Global Heavy Haul Experience and Indian Railways

Conclusion

It may be brought out that subsequent upgradation of track structure and

deployment of new technology has sorted out many of these initial problems caused
during Heavy Haul operation.

Hamersley Railway of North Western Australia

Introduction

Hamersley Railway of North Western Australia used to transport iron ore over
a standard gauge (1435 mm), single track of 388 kms, joining mines at Tom Price and
Paraburdoo with two ship-loading points.

Trains consisted of three 2700kw diesel electric locomotives and up to 210

cars with a 30t axle load. Train length was over 2kms, and gross weight about 26,000
tonnes. On 100km an adverse grade of 0.4% existed between Paraburdoo and Tom
Price.

Problems Faced

(i) Embankments: These were constructed in a short span of about one

year without proper consolidation and as such gave problems of
settlement, slippage and even failure.
(ii) Track: Degradation resulting in poor track geometry, fastening becoming
loose, widening of gauge affecting cross levels and other track parameters.
(iii) General:
• The heavy axle loads, rising tonnage and train frequency had two
important effects: increasing track degradation and decreasing time
for repairs.
• By the mid-70’s, with tonnage at 55 MGT/year and expected to further
increase, it seemed that track maintenance would limit the capacity
of the system.

Remedial Measures

(i) Up gradation of track by using rails of 68kg/m, and proper consolidation

of embankment. Improving quality of ballast and providing higher ballast
cushion; use of Malaysian treated sleepers and better quality of fasteners.
(ii) Rail Profiling by proper rail grinding machine.
(iii) Monitoring of Track tolerances: Laying standard track tolerances and
proper monitoring of the same.
(iv) Better track management system.
M. M. Agarwal & K. K. Miglani 19.5

Conclusions

The up gradation of the track technology and better track management system
gave dramatic improvement in wear rates, lesser input for maintenance, lesser use of
man hours, lesser rail failures and improvement in track geometry.

Fortescue Railways of Western Australia

Introduction

Fortescue Railways of Western Australia is the world’s newest Heavy- Haul

railway which was competed in April 2008.

Construction of the Project

The railway project started in November 2006, construction of the formation

could not start until July 2007 as a cyclone destroyed the recently-built construction
camps which had to be replaced. This forced Fortescue to complete the railway in
less than nine months to meet the target date.

Fortescue Railway opened in April 2008. It is designed to operate four 2.8km-

long 240-wagon trains a day to enable it to carry 55 million tones a year initially.
Trains are handled by two locomotives, with banking units for the first part of the trip.

Key Design Objectives

There were four key design objectives for the new railway:

• Minimize the impact on the environment

• Keep the overall track length to a minimum

• Minimize adverse gradients, although this was not entirely possible as

banking locomotives are needed to push the trains out of the mine, and

• Achieve maintenance excellence and efficiency.

Track Structure

(i) Formation was mostly on embankments using local earth duly treated.

(ii) Rails of 68 kg per meter were imported from China with a tensile strength
of 1100 Mpa.
 19.6 Global Heavy Haul Experience and Indian Railways

(iii) Turnouts – Two types of turnouts are installed on the railway: 1:20 swing-
nose tangential mainline turnouts designed for 70km/h operation, and
1:12 rail cast manganese tangential 40km/h turnouts for use in yards
and sidings.

(iv) Sleepers & Ballast – Pre-stressed monoblock sleepers were laid at

intervals of 675mm. The ballast was initially laid to a depth of 150mm
and then work-hardened and super-lifted to 250mm.

Problems in Construction

(i) Formation: Fortescue faced a number of construction challenges. It

was difficult to produce a good formation on some parts of the railway.
There was also a lack of a suitable formation capping material and 1%
cement-stabilised sand had to be used in some areas. The formation
capping is a minimum of 200mm with 97% compaction.

(ii) Ballast: The quality of ballast also faced problems. The ballast had to
be work hardened and the depth increased from 150mm to 250mm.

(iii) Rails & Turnouts: Special rails had to be imported from China with 68 kg
per meter weight. Modern turnouts were used so that speed could go
upto 70 km/h

(iv) General: A key factor in designing the railway was to minimize operating
and maintenance costs. Driver-only operation is the norm with train control
situated in Perth, 1600km from the Pilbara.

Conclusion

Fortescue railway has set a new benchmark in heavy-haul railway operation,

and no doubt other heavy-haul railways will be keeping a close eye on Fortescue to
see how 40-tonne axle-load operation works in the long term.

Economics of running Heavy Axle Loads and Longer Trains in Sweden

Background

This is basically a study on the Economics of running heavier axle load

and longer trains in Sweden.

Under increasing international competition, the movement of iron ore from

mines in Northern Sweden to ports in Norway and Sweden, was looking for ways to
reduce transportation costs and increase competitiveness.

As European railways came under increasing pressure to reduce operating

costs, and to even show a profit in their freight (goods) operations, it was only natural
M. M. Agarwal & K. K. Miglani 19.7

that they look at the costs and benefits associated with heavier axle loads and see if
the benefits experienced elsewhere can also be realized in the European environment.

Study for Increase of Axle load and Longer Trains

a) A study was undertaken to increase axle load from the then 25 tonnes to
30 tonnes and also increase the length (size) of the train.

In addition, the effect of introducing new equipment, with radial trucks,

and improved net to tare ratios, was incorporated in the analysis as also
the effect of increasing operating speed from the existing 50 km/hr to 60
km/hr.

b) The approach used was based on a methodology previously developed

by ZETA-TECH and used in a series of heavy axle load studies on North
American railroads. This methodology used for analysis track component
behavior observed on several North American railways, which indicates
that, on a per-axle basis, track cost increases can be non-linear with
increases in axle loads. In the analysis of the track and its key
components, this heavy axle load effect was addressed through the
development of a set of damage factors, with separate damage exponents
and damage factors calculated for each track component and component
failure mechanism.

Results of the Study

The analysis showed the following results

a) Operation of 68-wagon trains with 100 tonne load capacity (30 tonne
axle load) produced a reduction of approximately 30% in direct operating
costs over the base case (52 wagons of 80 tonne capacity), taking into
account the expected increase in track maintenance costs as a
consequence of the increase in axle loads.

b) Assuming a “worst case” increase in track costs, savings remained in

the range of 27%.

c) The increase to 30 tonne axle loads reduces costs by about 50% more
than simply increasing train length, without increasing axle loads.

d.) The increase in axle loads also reduces the number of trains that must
be operated to carry the current and future volumes of iron ore, freeing up
line capacity for other traffic and allowing more efficient scheduling of
maintenance work.
 19.8 Global Heavy Haul Experience and Indian Railways

Conclusions

• Based on the results of this study, a decision was made to purchase

new heavier axle load equipment, with 100 Tonne capacity (30 tonne
axle load) and radial bogies.
• Prototype orders were also placed, with 68 train-sets of 68 wagons each,
to be ordered upon completion of acceptance tests.

Maintenance of Heavy Haul Corridor of Union Pacific Railway

Introduction

A study was undertaken by The American Railway Engineering and

Maintenance-of-Way Association (AREMA) of four important Heavy Haul routes of
Union Pacific Railway sometimes in 2003. Out of four corridors, one corridor of Heavy
coal route had 80% traffic having 34 to 37 tonnes axle load.

The weight of these Heavy Haul trains have been increasing year by year and
in the year 2003, there were about 35 Heavy Axle Load (HAL) trains and each train
was carrying about 15,000 tonnes.

Track Structure : UPRR HAL Standard Track Section

Track Structure consisted of (i) 141# Rail Section (ii) Concrete Ties (iii) 12”
Ballast under Concrete Ties (iv) 18” Shoulder Ballast (v) Concrete Bridges (vi) Concrete
Crossings (vii) Concrete Turnouts (viii) Moveable Point Frogs.

Track Maintenance

(i) The track was being maintained mechanically with the help of Heavy
Track Machines consisting of Tamper, Track Finishing Machine, Primary
Surfacing Unit, Undercutter, Rail Grinder, Switch Grinder.

(ii) The rail joints were mostly welded by Flash Butt Welder and only at few
locations the welding at site was done by Thermit Welding.

(iii) Ultrasonic inspection of Track was done with the help of Mobile Rail
Testing Trolley.

(iv) Rail detection was done with the help of Rail Testing Cars.

(v) Trench Drains – Special Ballast filled Trench Drains were provided as
shown in Fig.1.
M. M. Agarwal & K. K. Miglani 19.9

Ballast filled Trench Drains

Fig. 1

The benefits of the Trench Drains were (i) Removes Water From Subgrade (ii)
Opportunity to Observe Subgrade (iii) Minimal Interruptions to Train Operation.

Problems of Heavy Axle Load Track and Remedial Measures

(i) Failure of Glued Bonded Joint : The problem arises because either the
insulation gets broken or there is failure of glue which bonds the joint.
(ii) Failure of Concrete Tie Plate: The tie plate gets damaged or broken
particularly on receiving end. This happens because of the heavier loading
conditions. The solution lies in providing second generation TIE, which
gives about 25% less stress on the plates (Fig. 2).

Second generation tie

plates - FEA shows 25% less
stress on plate

UHMWPE sheet bonded to

top of plate for insulation

Fig. 2
19.10 Global Heavy Haul Experience and Indian Railways

(iii) Failure of Concrete Ties on Bridges : The concrete ties got damaged due
to Heavy Axle Loads. Cracks developed on the Ties particularly on bridges
as seen in the picture. (Fig. 3)

Concrete Ties on Concrete Bridge - HAL Line

Fig. 3
The remedial measure lies on providing the following:
• 100-ft. Long, 8” Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) Underlayment
• 100-ft. Long, 8” Geocell Subballast Reinforcement.
• Cement Stabilized Backfill, 6.75 ft. Deep, 10 ft. Long with a 2:1 Taper,
Upward
• Standard Track Construction (12” ballast on compacted
embankment)
(iv) Failure of rubber pads (Fig. 4) : There is also the possibility of rubber
pads failure as shown in the picture.

Damage of
Rubber Pads

Fig. 4
M. M. Agarwal & K. K. Miglani 19.11

The solution lies in providing ‘New Three Part Pad’ (Fig. 5).

New Three Part Pad

Fig. 5
(v) Spalling on Rails: The spalling on rails takes place particularly on curves
(Fig. 6).

• Spalling
- Low Rail on Curves
• Rail
- Premium Quality Steel
- Superior Wear
Characteristics

Spalling on New Premium Rails

Fig. 6

The solution lies in providing premium quality steel for rails having superior
wear characteristics.
 19.12 Global Heavy Haul Experience and Indian Railways

Track Transition Solutions for Heavy Axle Loads Service –

American Rail Roads

Introduction

Track transition areas such as bridge approaches, level crossings, and special
track work can give significant maintenance problems under heavy axle load traffic
and can generate impacts that contribute to accelerated degradation and shortened
component life.

The Transportation Technology Center, Inc. (TTCI), Pueblo, Colorado, a

subsidiary of the Association of American Railroads (AAR), made a study and evaluated
the effectiveness of currently accepted track transition designs.

Some of the important findings of this study are discussed in subsequent

paras.

Main Problems in Track Transition Areas

One important problem in mainline track is the performance of track transition

such as those found at bridge approaches, level crossings, and special trackwork. In
these locations, the track structure, and often the load environment, changes
significantly over a very short distance. This can result in increased dynamic loading
and needs track maintenance.

Problems at a track transition can be divided into three categories:

(i) Differential Settlement: Differential settlement is where two segments of

track settle at different rates, such as the bridge to bridge approach
track transition. Railroad bridges are built on deep foundations and are
relatively immune to subgrade settlement. In contrast, the approach
consists of fill and has a large amount of settlement compared with the
bridge structure. The running surface deviation that develops in this
situation can contribute to high dynamic loads as high as three times
the static wheel load.

(ii) Track stiffness case : The track stiffness case is the abrupt stiffness
change that occurs in the track transition.

One typical case is of a concrete span ballasted deck bridge with concrete
ties and can have a very high track modulus compared with the
surrounding track. The abrupt stiffness change by itself does not contribute
to higher dynamic loads, but coupled with a running surface deviation,
can induce high impact loads.

(iii) Track damping case: The track damping case addresses energy
dissipation of high dynamic loads. Track damping differs between different
M. M. Agarwal & K. K. Miglani 19.13

track structures at a track transition. For example, on a bridge approach

energy is dissipated through the track structure, subgrade, and surrounding
ground. On a bridge structure, some energy is dissipated in the ballast
layer, but much of the energy can reach the bridge structure. It is important
to understand the types of impacts and design damping into the track
structure to alleviate potential damage. Two types of impacts viz. wheel
dynamic impact & wheel balance are generated at track transition with
running surface defects, wheel impact and wheel bounce.

Research Studies

Research studies are being done for all the three Parameters viz. settlement,
stiffness, and dampening track transition cases mentioned earlier. Apart from
theoretical work, predictive tools are being developed to aid in designing effective
track transitions. Field evaluations are being conducted to monitor the effectiveness
of track transitions in place.

As far as theoretical work is concerned, parametric studies have been done

using NUCARS™ and Geotrack™ software to look at the effects of track damping
and stiffness. A differential settlement model has been developed to help predict
settlement for different track structures.

The research studies have been done under the following main topics (i)
Geotrack™ study (ii) NUCARS™ study (iii) Differential settlement model (iv) Laboratory
& field testing (v) Fast & revenue service testing for bridge approach transitions (vi)
Study for special track work transitions

Conclusions

(i) Theoretical work suggests there are opportunities to improve performance

of track transition areas. NUCARS™ modeling suggests that adding
damping to a track structure can improve impact attenuation by up to 30
percent. Different ways to add damping to the track are being investigated.
Rail seat pads, tie plate pads, ballast mats, and subgrade treatments
are all potential solutions. Some typical damping pads are given in Fig.
7.

(ii) The parametric study using Geotrack™ suggests the best method for
raising approach track stiffness is subgrade treatment. The study also
suggests the best method of reducing bridge track stiffness is to alter tie
to pad properties.

(iii) Field testing indicated that different tie materials can provide effective
ways to improve the track stiffness transition. Plastic ties installed on
bridges in concrete tie territory have been successful in eliminating the
stiffness differential for the first 240 MGT.
 19.14 Global Heavy Haul Experience and Indian Railways

Rail Seat Pad The Plate Pad

Ballast Mat Under Tie Pad

Various Types of Damping Tools

Fig. 7
Concrete ties with rubber pads also helped in lowering the modulus below
that of the approach and increasing the damping properties of the bridge
structure. Thus, this method appears capable of addressing both track
stiffness and damping issues and is a promising solution because the
desired properties can be designed into the pads.
(iv) A good number of predictive tools is being developed to provide a way to
design effective track transitions to address stiffness, damping, and
differential settlement. Field testing has proved that these are effective
ways to address each of these issues.
Effect of Heavy Axle Load on Bonded Insulation Joint-Research Study
by TTCI (American Rail Roads)
Introduction
Heavy Axle Load (HAL) coal traffic, with higher speeds and higher traffic
densities, places a significant performance demand on bonded insulated rail joints
(bonded IJs) (Fig. 8).

Typical Main Line

Bonded Insulation
Joint

Fig. 8
M. M. Agarwal & K. K. Miglani 19.15

While bonded Insulated Joints (IJ) are essential as an operational need they
also introduce weak points in the track which cause increased maintenance and
service disruptions. Bonded IJs are also a potential safety risk. These things get
further aggravated when Heavy Axle Loads pass on these joints.

It may be brought out that Bonded IJ performance on heavy haul coal routes
has significantly declined as the load environment has become more servere. Today,
bonded IJ service life may be as short as 200 MGT. This short service life is lower than
virtually all other running surface components including turnout frogs and switch points.

On high tonnage routes, bonded IJs may be replaced within as little as 12 to

18 months with direct costs of thousands of dollars per mile per year. Indirect costs
such as crew labor and schedule disruption due to train delay can be higher, especially
on lines running to full capacity. With such short service lives, the economics of
developing a longer life bonded IJ are compelling and is a technical requirement.

In order to critically examine the design of existing bonded insulation joints,

their failure modes, recent design evaluation, a research study was done by the
Transportation Technology Centre (TTCI), Pueblo, Colorado, in collaboration with some
other organizations.

Service Life of Bonded Insulation Joints

The research studies taken on specific projects brought out that the following
important factors adversely affect service life of these joints due to Heavy Axle Loads.

• Higher average wheel loads from larger capacity cars.

• Higher dynamic loads from higher speeds and a stiffer track

structure.

• Higher longitudinal forces from elimination of other rail joints and better
rail anchoring.

• Higher traffic density which reduces opportunities to perform bonded IJ

maintenance activities such a surfacing and running surface flow grinding.
The service life of a bonded Insulated Joints is classified differently from
many other track components because it can deteriorate and fail rapidly.

Effect of Axle Load, Dynamic Load, and Traffic Volumes

The effects of static load (axle load), dynamic load, and traffic rates are
interwoven in evaluating bonded IJ performance on HAL routes. As the railways have
 19.16 Global Heavy Haul Experience and Indian Railways

increased car capacity, they have also increased traffic rates, raised train speeds,
increased track stiffness, increased tensile stress in the rail.

With these conditions in mind, it was perceived that the heavier loads and
higher speeds were generating more mechanical component defects. The effect of all
three factors (static load, dynamic load and traffic rates) have been significant in
raising the severity of the service environment experienced by track components
such as bonded IJs.

Failure Mode Analysis

In order to better understand failure mechanisms, a sample of 20 IJs removed

from revenue service was collected and examined by TTCI. The joints were from lines
that carry coal traffic predominantly in 286 Kip cars.

Some of the important results arrived after examination of the sample were :

(i) Many joints have more than one defect.

(ii) There are several common modes that limit service life for bonded IJs in
HAL service. Some of these are related to quality control issues in
components and assembly.

There are also service life-reducing aspects related to the design and
capacity of the joint. These occur with structural aspects of the joint or
components within the joint. These situations begin with the joint becoming
a running surface discontinuity. This discontinuity generates dynamic
loads at the joint which damage the foundation. Due to lower stiffness of
joint, the deflection becomes significantly larger than deflections typically
found in surrounding track.

(iii) Cause of the poor foundation condition in this case is the dynamic loading
generated by the running surface discontinuity of the IJ. The combination
of high dynamic forces and larger deflections at the IJ cause the foundation
to fail here before it does in open track. The foundation condition causes
cracking in the glue or epoxy at the top-centre of the joint bar to rail
interface.

(iv) The weakened epoxy bond allows moisture intrusion and larger deflections.
Due to this, the situation becomes that of a disassembled bonded IJ with
glue debonding and water intrusion. As the glue debonds, the joints
become subjected to “pull-apart” because of the longitudinal forces in
the rails. “Pull-apart” damages insulating components such as thimbles
and end posts as well as mechanical joint components such as bars
and bolts. (Fig. 9)
M. M. Agarwal & K. K. Miglani 19.17

Broken Glue Failure

Insulation

Fig. 9

Conclusions

(i) Improving performance of Insulated Joints

(a) Improving the performance of bonded IJs can be accomplished

by improving any of the weaknesses in current designs, mainte-
nance and operations. The efforts to improve the design is based
on the following points:

(i) Reducing deflections

(ii) Reducing component relative movement
(iii) Increasing the strength of failure prone components.

(b) Reducing Deflections.

Several methods have proved effective in reducing maximum
bonded IJ deflections. These include:

(i) Supported bonded IJs

(ii) Multiple tie plates
(iii) Longer Joint bars
(iv) Larger (cross section) joint bars.

(ii) Performance requirements of bonded Insulation Joints

Research studies have suggested draft performance requirement of
Insulated Joints. These requirements are a first draft based on the observed
problems with existing bonded IJS in HAL service and the service
environment measurements made. These have been tentatively laid down
by American Rail-Roads.
 19.18 Global Heavy Haul Experience and Indian Railways

(iii) Advanced design for bonded Insulation Joint

Based on the research studies, a design has been developed based on
observation of current designs, analysis and modeling work, and the
requirements of the draft performance guidelines. This design will have
the following features:

• Reduce bonded IJ-caused dynamic loads with less running surface

and more damping running surface design from AAR Frog.
• Longitudinal profile.
• More damping: Mitigates effects of dynamic loads.
• Lower Deflections: by having Foundation with larger bearing area on
ties and ballasts, continuous support.
• Components: having Stronger insulator and more environmentally
stable epoxy.
• Assembly with improved rail and bar surface preparation: to eliminate
surface contamination.

Heavy Haul Operation on Narrow Gauge in Australia, Brazil & South Africa
(9th International Heavy Haul Conference)

Introduction

A research study was done to examine the competitiveness and sustainability

of narrow-gauge heavy-haul railways in the globalized economy. The details of this
research were discussed in the 9th International Heavy Haul Conference held in Shangai
in 2008.

Key Narrow Gauge Issues

(I) Several parameters constrain narrow gauge railways, in particular axle

load and, axiomatically, distance between rails.

• First, Standard gauge railways have attained 40 tonnes, while narrow

gauge railways have not advanced beyond 30 tonnes:
Competitiveness and sustainability are constrained pro rata.

• Second, the distance between rails influences vehicle stability vis-à-

vis centre of gravity height and train speed.

• Third, back-to-back distance between locomotive wheels determines

how large a traction motor will fit. This influences locomotives and
cars.

(II) Problem of Gauge Dependence: Locomotives’ narrow gauge traction

motors cannot match the performance of standard gauge traction motors.
M. M. Agarwal & K. K. Miglani 19.19

In addition, low tractive effort locomotives do not cost materially less to

maintain than high tractive effort locomotives. Since the narrow gauge
locomotive fleet to perform a given transport task is larger than for standard
gauge the cost of locomotive maintenance is also higher.

(III) Problem of Gauge Dependence Cars

Because of lesser carrying capacity & lower load-to-tare ratio, a narrow
gauge railway could need up to 30% more cars than a standard gauge
railway for the same throughput.

Study Conducted

A research study was conducted in Australia, Brazil & South Africa concerning
viability of using Narrow gauge for Heavy Haul Operation.

Following were the results of the study.

a) Queensland, Australia
• 26-tonne axle load just beats the heavy haul threshold. Locomotives
are relatively light and expensive.
• The short haul distance reduces turnaround time to offset a possibly
higher cost structure due to higher rolling stock prices.

b) Brazil
Its 25-tonne axle load is on the heavy haul threshold, but it has recognized
the challenge of increasing it, and looks set to lead this parameter in due
course.

c) South Africa
South Africa will need to work on overall competitiveness in iron ore
haulage.

Conclusions

(i) Narrow gauge heavy haul railways have lagged the crucial axle load
parameter: International Heavy Haul Association (IHHA) conference
proceedings suggest they have not yet tried to catch up.

Even if narrow-gauge axle load were to increase, the question arises-

whether space between the wheels accommodate traction motors that
could develop sufficient torque to utilize a materially higher axle load.

(ii) Narrow gauge heavy haul railways have lagged in the axle load contest.
To compensate, they have maximized train length. However, as long as
locomotive traction motors must fit between the wheels they drive, they
would trail standard gauge ratings.
 19.20 Global Heavy Haul Experience and Indian Railways

(iii) In conclusion, unless the railways innovate, globalization could move

narrow-gauge heavy-haul railways from mainstream to margin, as has
already happened in the double stack and high-speed intercity market
spaces.

Summary and Conclusions

Track Defects on Account of Heavy Axle Loads

(i) Formation
• Problems of settlement, slippage and even failure.
• Special problems in yielding formation & bad quality soil.

(ii) Rails
• Defects develop in rail; cracked Rails.

• Develops high contact stresses between rail & wheel causing wheel
burn, wheel scabbing.
• Rapid rail wear; excessive wear of rail on curves.
• Scabbing of rail is more prominent particularly on steep gradients.

(iii) Sleepers
• Wooden Sleepers: Fast deterioration causing poor track geometry;
lesser sleeper life.
• Concrete Sleepers: Generally satisfactory but get damaged, cracked
or even broken in special locations like bridge approaches, on bridges
and such other locations.

(iv) Ballast
• Ballast not of desirable quality; lesser ballast cushion.
• Pulverization of ballast & clogging of shoulder ballast on account of
heavier axle loads & droppings from the wagons.

(v) Fittings & Fastenings

• Fastenings get loose very fast thereby affecting track geometry.
• Rubber pads get damaged early. Heavy crushing of rubber pads.
• Glued Insulated Joint start failing because either insulation gets broken
or failure of glue (which bonds the joints) takes place.
M. M. Agarwal & K. K. Miglani 19.21

• Short Service life of bonded Insulation joint which is sometimes as

short as 12 to 18 months; This is almost the lowest than possibly all
other surface components.

(vi) Points & Crossings

• Quick wear, frequent renewal necessary.

• Breakage of CMS crossings at few locations.

• Lesser speed adversely effecting the traffic output.

(vii) Track Maintenance

• Track geometry deteriorates very early due to heavy loads.

• Existing maintenance system may not be able to cope with the

increase in work load due to heavy axle load & allied problems.

• Increase in weld failures specially of thermit welded joints.

(viii) Bridges
• Signs of distress on some of the bridges resulting in cracks &
deterioration of other bridge components. Sleepers get cracked on
bridges in some cases.

(ix) Track Transition areas (Bridge approaches, Level crossings & special
track works)

• Due to differential settlement, extra track stiffness and differential

damping Track Components gets damaged quite early.

• Increased dynamic loading & need for extra track maintenance.

Suggested Remedial Measures

(i) General

• The operation of heavy axle load trains is a economic and technical

necessity & as such Heavy Haul trains today run on most of the
developed Railways of the World.

• For Narrow Gauge, the running of heavier axle load beyond 30 Tonnes
has technical problems because of limitation of Gauge. Instead longer
trains are suggested for N.G. to meet the traffic demands.
19.22 Global Heavy Haul Experience and Indian Railways

(ii) Formation

• Soil stabilization by proper mechanical means during construction.

• In case the soil is not good, soil treatment of top capping soil should
be done. Refer case of Fortescue Railway of North-West Australia
where 1% cement stabilization was done of top 200 mm soil and
with 97% compaction.

• Special treatment of formation/back fill to be done on bridges.

• Yielding formation & poor quality of soil require special treatment. In

some situations, even provision of Ballast filled Trench drains may
help as done in case of Union Pacific Railway (See Fig. 1)

(iii) Rails

• Up to 25 tones axle load, 60 kg 90 UTS rails are sufficient; For

higher axle loads, special heavy rails to be procured.

• It may be brought out that as per survey carried by JRP-2 initiated by

UIC there is a relationship between rail section & axle load (See
Fig.10). 60 kg rail section would suffice for an axle load up to 25
tonnes.

Relationship between Axleload and Rail Section used

Rail Section (kg/m)

Axleload (t)

Fig. 10

• Rail Grinding Machine: Reprofiling to be done by Rail Grinding

machine for prolonging rail life as well to prevent defects in rail head.

• Mechanised USFD Testing of rails: Use improved and mechanized

USFD technology (Spurt cars etc.) for testing of rails.

• Roll longer rails to reduce welds and also to improve performance.

M. M. Agarwal & K. K. Miglani 19.23

(iv) Sleepers

• Mono block PRC sleepers are quite satisfactory in ordinary situations.

• At special locations Special sleepers like “Second Generation Tie”
to reduce stress on plates as done on Union Pacific Railway (See
Fig. 2).

(v) Ballast
• Better quality of ballast with full ballast cushion of 25 cm to 30 cm. If
necessary, work hardening of ballast to be done to improve quality of
ballast.
• More frequent deep screening of ballast to be done by mechanized
methods.

(vi) Fittings & Fastenings

• Quality of fitting & fastening and rubber pads to be improved.

• Develop better design of rail pads like ‘Three Point Pad’ as done
by Union Pacific Railway (See Fig. 5)
• Bonded Insulated Joints are worst effected & their design needs to
be further improved by looking after the problems in current design,
maintenance & operation. The bonded insulation joint should be
designed based on standard ‘Performance Requirement’ for HAL
Service and particularly ensuring reduced dynamic loads, lower
deflections & stronger insulator & other components.

(vii) Points & Crossings

• To be modernized to cater for higher speeds of 75 kmph to 100
kmph. Refer Swing Nose Turnouts 1:20 designed for 70 kmph for
Fortescue Railways of Western Australia.

(viii) Track Maintenance

• Complete mechanization of track maintenance & track renewal works.
• Fixing proper tolerances for HAL trains & better monitoring of track
tolerances.

(ix) Bridges
• Bridges should be designed for heavier loading. Quality of bridge
construction requires to be improved.
• As cracks sometimes develop in concrete ties on bridges, it is
 19.24 Global Heavy Haul Experience and Indian Railways

necessary that sub-base of bridge requires to be strengthened by

making it a compacted embankment. The sub-base can be upgraded
by providing hot mix as under layment, Geocell sub-ballast
Reinforcement, cement stabilized back fill & 12” ballast.

(x) Special case for Track Transition Areas

(Bridge approaches, Level Crossings & Spl. Track work)
• Improving Track structure for track transition area such as Bridge
approaches, level crossing & special track works.

• The studies suggest that proper damping devices on track can improve
track impact by 30%. Provide special damping devices like Rail seat
pads, Tie Plate pads, Ballast pads, etc., to improve track performance.
(See Fig. 7)

• Development of Predictive tools to provide a way to design effective

Track Transitions to address stiffness, damping & differential
settlement.

• Installation of Plastic ties installed on bridges in concrete. Tie

Termitary can be successful in eliminating the stiffness differential.

• Concrete Ties with rubber pads can help in lowering track stiffers &
damping issues and as such improve track performance.

(xi) Track Management cum Information System

• To introduce better track management cum information system so

that monitoring of track maintenance & other aspects of track
management can be supervised/controlled.

World Railways’ Experience and Indian Railways

Introduction

Indian Railway took a bold decision in the year 2001-02 to run heavier axle
load than the existing axle load of 20.32 tonnes in an effort to enhance the traffic
capacity of Railways to handle the increased traffic as well as to increase its financial
viability.

A pilot project of (CC+8+2) with an axle load of 22.9 tonnes was implemented
on 20 routes initially and later on 14 more routes after a positive feed back from the
different railways. The major routes are on the South Eastern Railway, East Coast
Railway, SEC Railway and Eastern Railway. Presently CC+6+2T is in operation nearly
on 26000 route kms and CC+8+2T on 5000 kms.
M. M. Agarwal & K. K. Miglani 19.25

The experience gained by IR in a short span of a few years was almost on

similar lines as experience gained by other railway systems of the world. Heavy wear
& tear of rails, cracked rails, more frequent renewal of fittings & fastenings such as
support clips, insulation joints, rubber pads, poor track geometry due to axle loads,
problems on bridges, etc., are some of the typical examples.

Remedial Measures Suggested

The remedial measures suggested to mitigate the effects of heavier axle load
based on experience gained by different Railways have been brought out earlier.
These remedial measures are quite detailed and some of them are very special and
these can be of immense use to Indian Railways for running of heavier axle loads.
Indian Railways have already nominated some lines for running of heavier axle load of
25 tonnes (called feeder lines). Dedicated freight corridors with an axle load of 30
tonnes have been planned on the golden quadrilateral out of which two corridors
(Mumbai & Howrah corridors) are already sanctioned. The work on these projects is
likely to start shortly.

Concluding Remarks

It is felt that the experience of more than three decades gained by different
railway systems of the world could be of considerable use to Indian Railways for
running of heavy axle loads.

References

1. Kher, Amold D.: Rail Road Track Mechanics & Technology, Pergamon
Press, New Delhi, 1984.

2. Track Technology – Proceedings of a Conference Organized by Institution of

Civil Engineers, University of Nottingham, 1984.

3. Agarwal, M. M. : Indian Railway Track, Prabha & Co., New Delhi, 2009.

4. The Impact of Track Technology on Heavy Haul operations-WR, Lecture in

Conference by I.C.E. held at University of Nottingham, 2006.

5. Proceedings of Ist International Heavy Haul conference, Western Australian,

1978.

6. Proceedings of 9th International Heavy Haul Conference, Shanghai, 2008.

7. Turnround of Indian Railway by increasing axle load – A Joint Study by IIM

Ahmedabad & Railway Staff College, Vadodara, July 2006.
 19.26 Global Heavy Haul Experience and Indian Railways

8. Heavy Axle load maintenance on Union Pacific Railway – A Report by AREMA,

2004.

9. Fortescue New Line raises the bar for Heavy Haul-International Railway Journal
Volume 49, issue of September 2009.

10. Wheel-rail interface-Transnet gets to grips with wheel wear data-New system
transformation wheel–rail Interface – International Railway Journal – Volume
49, Issue of September 2009.

11. Zarembskir, Allan M. (ZETA-TECH, USA) & Bortange, Bjorm Paulsson Banverket
(Sweden) : Introduction of Heavy Axle Load in Europe – The Economics of 30
Tonne Axle Load Operations in the Main Stress, 2006.

12. Chopra, Rakesh & Suthar, H. L.: Introduction of ‘Heavy Axle Load on IR –
Paper, 2007.

13. Singh, Mahavir (Dy CECTS WR) & Meena, K. L. (DyCE/NWR) : Review of
works involved for running of 25 Tonne Axle Load on IR, IRICEN, Pune.

14. Technical Paper on Increase of Axle Load on IR Track Design concepts, RDSO,
Lucknow.

15. David, D. : ‘Bonded Insulated Joint Performance in Main Line Track’, Technology
Digest TD04-006, TTCI, Pubelo, Colorado, May 2004.

16. Gemeiner, G. : ‘Concrete Tie Design for Heavy Axle Load Application’, AREMA
Annual Conference, 2004.

*****

Humanity is acquiring all the right technology for all the wrong reasons.
– R. Buckminster Fuller