What Is Metacognition?

Metacognition is one’s ability to use prior knowledge to plan a strategy for approaching a
learning task, take necessary steps to problem solve, reflect on and evaluate results, and
modify one’s approach as needed. It helps learners choose the right cognitive tool for the task
and plays a critical role in successful learning.

Metacognition refers to awareness of one’s own knowledge—what one does and doesn’t
know—and one’s ability to understand, control, and manipulate one’s cognitive processes
(Meichenbaum, 1985). It includes knowing when and where to use particular strategies for
learning and problem solving as well as how and why to use specific strategies. Metacognition
is the ability to use prior knowledge to plan a strategy for approaching a learning task, take
necessary steps to problem solve, reflect on and evaluate results, and modify one’s approach
as needed. Flavell (1976), who first used the term, offers the following example: I am engaging
in Metacognition if I notice that I am having more trouble learning A than B; if it strikes me that I
should double check C before accepting it as fact (p. 232).

Cognitive strategies are the basic mental abilities we use to think, study, and learn (e.g.,
recalling information from memory, analyzing sounds and images, making associations between
or comparing/contrasting different pieces of information, and making inferences or interpreting
text). They help an individual achieve a particular goal, such as comprehending text or solving a
math problem, and they can be individually identified and measured. In contrast, metacognitive
strategies are used to ensure that an overarching learning goal is being or has been reached.
Examples of metacognitive activities include planning how to approach a learning task, using
appropriate skills and strategies to solve a problem, monitoring one’s own comprehension of
text, self-assessing and self-correcting in response to the self-assessment, evaluating progress
toward the completion of a task, and becoming aware of distracting stimuli.

Examples of metacognitive activities include planning how to approach a learning task, using
appropriate skills and strategies to solve a problem, monitoring one's own comprehension of
text, self-assessing and self-correcting in response to the self-assessment, evaluating progress
toward the completion of a task

Fogarty (1994) suggests that Metacognition is a process that spans three distinct phases, and
that, to be successful thinkers, students must do the following:
 1. Develop a plan before approaching a learning task, such as reading for comprehension
or solving a math problem.

2. Monitor their understanding; use “fix-up” strategies when meaning breaks down.

3. Evaluate their thinking after completing the task.

Instructors can model the application of questions, and they can prompt learners to ask themselves
questions during each phase. They can incorporate into lesson plans opportunities for learners to practice
using these questions during learning tasks, as illustratetd in the following examples:

 During the planning phase, learners can ask, What am I supposed to learn? What prior knowledge will
help me with this task? What should I do first? What should I look for in this reading? How much time do I
have to complete this? In what direction do I want my thinking to take me?
 During the monitoring phase, learners can ask, How am I doing? Am I on the right track? How should I
proceed? What information is important to remember? Should I move in a different direction? Should I
adjust the pace because of the difficulty? What can I do if I do not understand?
 During the evaluation phase, learners can ask, How well did I do? What did I learn? Did I get the results
I expected? What could I have done differently? Can I apply this way of thinking to other problems or
situations? Is there anything I don’t understand—any gaps in my knowledge? Do I need to go back
through the task to fill in any gaps in understanding? How might I apply this line of thinking to other
problems?

Rather than viewing reading, writing, science, social studies, and math only as subjects or content to be
taught, instructors can see them as opportunities for learners to reflect on their learning processes.
Examples follow for each content area:

 Reading: Teach learners how to ask questions during reading and model “think-alouds.” Ask learners
questions during read-alouds and teach them to monitor their reading by constantly asking themselves if
they understand what the text is about. Teach them to take notes or highlight important details, asking
themselves, “Why is this a key phrase to highlight?” and “Why am I not highlighting this?”
 Writing: Model prewriting strategies for organizing thoughts, such as brainstorming ideas using a word
web, or using a graphic organizer to put ideas into paragraphs, with the main idea at the top and the
supporting details below it.
 Social Studies and Science: Teach learners the importance of using organizers such as KWL charts,
Venn diagrams, concept maps , and anticipation/reaction charts to sort information and help them learn
and understand content. Learners can use organizers prior to a task to focus their attention on what they
already know and identify what they want to learn. They can use a Venn diagram to identify similarities
and differences between two related concepts.
 Math: Teach learners to use mnemonics to recall steps in a process, such as the order of mathematical
operations. Model your thought processes in solving problems—for example, “This is a lot of
information; where should I start? Now that I know____, is there something else I know?”

The goal of teaching metacognitive strategies is to help learners become comfortable with these
strategies so that they employ them automatically to learning tasks, focusing their attention,
deriving meaning, and making adjustments if something goes wrong. They do not think about
these skills while performing them but, if asked what they are doing, they can usually accurately
describe their metacognitive processes.