Al-Idah 2011 The Origin and Evolution of Sufism 21

The Origin and Evolution of Sufism


Dr. Farida Khanam

ABSTRACT:

The early Sufis believed that there were two dimensions to the
revelations received by the Prophet, words of the Qur’an in
their appearance, and the divine inspiration in his heart. This
divinely inspired knowledge in the heart, Sufis claim, was
gifted to only a chosen few, who contemplated and longed for
nearness with the creator. The early Sufis also laid emphasis
on one of the basic tenets of Islam i.e. i+san. I+san is that
level of devotion where the devotee is completely absorbed in
the worship of God. The ultimate aim of the Sufis is to raise
the level of i+san to experience the presence of God. Since
the Last Prophet (s.a.w.) was paragon of virtues including
i+san, it was assumed that Sufism or Ta~awwuf originated
from the Prophet himself. This paper aims to focus on the
point of origin of ta~awwuf, on the one hand and the need
for its revival, on the other.

Sufism (ta~awwuf) is the name given to mysticism in Islam.

The term is taken from the root word in Arabic ‘~ūf’ which means
‘wool’.1 It basically denoted the ones who renounced the world, chose a
mystic way of life and wore coarse woolen clothes. The explanation for
this is also found in the oldest extant Arabic treatise on Sufism by Abu
Nasr al-Saraj, who declared that “the woolen raiment is the habit of the
prophets and the batch of the saints and the elect”.2 This act of devoting
oneself to a mystic life is called ‘sufism’ in Islam. @ūfīs themselves


Associate Professor, Department of Islamic Studies, Jamia Millia Islamia, Delhi,
India.
Al-Idah 2011 The Origin and Evolution of Sufism 22

prefer to say that their name is derived from ‘~afa’ which meant
‘purity’.3 The term Sufism embraces the philosophy and practices which
aim at direct communion with God and those who practice these are
called Sufis.
According to Khāliq Ahmad Nizami4, those who dedicated their
lives to religious studies and religious devotion after the times of the
tābii were called zāhid – ‘the pious’ - and <abd – ‘the servant (of
Allah)’. It is only in relation to the succeeding generations that one
comes across the term Sufi. According to Abdur Rahmān Jāmi,5 who
quotes earlier sources, the first spiritualist to be given the title of ~ūfi
was Sheikh Abu Hāshim Kūfi (d. 776).6
Let us examine the etymological meaning and origin of the term Sufi.
It is made up of three Arabic letters: s- w- f, but there is much scholarly
dispute surrounding it. One view is that the word Sufi is derived from the
Arabic word ~aff, which means line or row, referring here to those early
Muslim contemporaries of the Prophet who stood in the first row during
prayer, having reached the mosque well in time. Others contend that the
word is derived from the word ~uffah, the verandah or porch of the
Prophet’s mosque in Madīnah. The traditions say that a number of the
companions of the Prophet who had no home stayed in this verandah.
They spent their time in worship, in learning by heart the verses of the
Qur’an and memorizing the words of the Prophet. They disengaged
themselves from worldly activities. The Prophet and his companions
looked after their needs. Since the porch of the mosque had virtually
become their home, they came to be called A~+āb-i @uffah or ‘People of
the Porch’.
Al-Idah 2011 The Origin and Evolution of Sufism 23

The Beginnings of Sufism:

The Sufis trace the origin of Sufism or ta~awwuf to the Prophet of Islam.
They believe that there were two dimensions to the revelations received
by the Prophet: one took the form of the words of the Qu’ran, the other
that of the divine inspiration within his heart. The religious scholars or
<ulama (sing. <ālim) were experts in the knowledge of the Qur’an and
hadith, but it was claimed that ‘the knowledge of the heart’ remained
with those called the @ūfīs.
The claim of the Sufis that ta~awwuf had its source in the life
of the Prophet and his companions based on certain facts. The Prophet
led an extremely simple life. He avoided all luxuries. Any valuable
presents received by him were immediately disposed of in charity. His
personal possessions, even at the time when the whole of Arabia
acknowledged his supremacy, comprised of no more than an ordinary
mattress to sleep on and a pitcher to keep water in. He fasted for months
and slept little preferring to spend the major portion of the night in
prayers7. His very life was the proof and the example of his knowledge
and commitment to both the theoretical concepts of Islam as well as its
everyday practice.
The faith and practice of Islam is made up of three elements, which
together form the basis of Islamic religion. These are: īmān, or belief in
the revealed word of God; i%ā<ah, or compliance with the shahādah
(Islamic creed); and i+sān, or the practice of virtue and sincerity.
<Umar, a companion of the Prophet and the second Caliph,
narrates a tradition, which elucidates these elements: “One day,
when we were with the Prophet of God, there came to him a man
Al-Idah 2011 The Origin and Evolution of Sufism 24

whose clothes were of an exceeding whiteness, and his hair was of

an exceeding blackness, nor were there any signs of travel upon
him. Although none of us had seen him before, he sat down
opposite the Prophet. He asked the Prophet to tell him what is
meant by surrender to God (Islam). The Prophet answered: ‘The
surrender is that you should say prayers five times, fast during
Ramadan, pay zakat and, if you can, go on the pilgrimage to the
Sacred house (the Ka<bah).’ He said: ‘You have spoken truly.’
We were amazed that, having questioned the Prophet, he should
corroborate what he said.
“Then he said: ‘Tell me what faith (īmān) is.’ Then the Prophet
said: ‘It is that you should believe in God, in angels and the books,
the prophets and the Last Day, and you should believe that no
good or evil comes but by His providence.’ ‘You have spoken
truly,’ he said. Then he said, ‘Tell me what excellence, i+sān,
is.’ The Prophet answered, ‘It is that you should worship God as if
you saw Him, or if you do not see Him, truly, He sees you.’ Then
the stranger went away. ‘Umar Fārūq, the Prophet’s companion,
says that he stayed there long after that person had gone, until the
Prophet said to him, ‘O ‘Umar, do you know who the questioner
was?’ He said, ‘God and His Prophet know best, but I do not know
at all.’ ‘It was Gabriel,’ said the Prophet. ‘He came to teach you
your religion”.8
The @ūfīs lay most emphasis on i+sān. Put most simply,
i+sān can be described as that level of devotion at which the devotee is
completely absorbed in the worship of God. The Sufis strongly believe
that there are many levels of excellence in the actual practice of i+sān,
and the objective of the Sufi practice is to raise this level of excellence.
Al-Idah 2011 The Origin and Evolution of Sufism 25

That is why they define true i+sān as the attainment of that level of
devotion at which one begins to experience the presence of God.
The Qur’an indeed lays down that the path of virtue lies between
hope and fear. It is very clear on this point when it says: “And pray to
Him with fear and hope; His mercy is within reach of the righteous.”.9
However, according to the Sufi definition, consciousness of the fact that
the Lord is watching our every movement and knows the innermost
recesses of our hearts corresponds only to the lower level of devotion
and prayer. When one is conscious of God’s ever-watchful eye, one
cannot but desist from evil actions. It is in this sense that prayer keeps us
from indecency and evil, as stated in the Qur’an.10
However, only a prayer inspired by true intention (niyyah) can
yield the desired result. Some merely wish to lead a pious life aimed at
salvation in the next life. This is the first level of piety: God is watching
us and, as a result, we desist from sin. Some aim at experiencing Him
face to face in this life. This is the second level of piety according to the
Sufis. Thus, when one whose heart is filled with love of God prostrates
himself before Him and at that moment has the experience of seeing God
face to face, this state of total absorption results in ecstasy.
The Sufis strive for and attest to having the experience of seeing
God, Whom they call their Beloved One, face to face. There are
instances of Sufis falling senseless when possessed by the ecstasy of
extreme love. The Sufis say that the Prophet and some of his companions
were totally absorbed in their prayers every time they prayed and that
this complete absorption in prayer is the foundation of ta~awwuf.
According to the Sufis this higher level of excellence in worship,
which might lead to ecstasy, may be achieved through dhikr. The Qur’an
Al-Idah 2011 The Origin and Evolution of Sufism 26

says “Remember God always so that you may prosper.”11 At yet another
place, it says: “Believers, be ever mindful of God: praise Him morning
and evening”.12 The Sufis gave dhikr a formal, well-defined shape by
attaching greater importance to its popular rather than the Qur’anic
meaning. They invented a number of ways for calling out the name of
God—silently, loudly, and even accompanied by music or the beating of
drums—as a means of achieving their goal.
The <ulama, representing the orthodox point of view, objected to
the Sufis giving such great importance to the mere recitation or chanting
of the words of the Qur’an. They held that for the understanding of the
message of Islam, it is not the recitation of the words which is important,
but rather the spirit of prayer, the attachment to God, and the willingness
to surrender one’s will to His will by pursuing and reflecting upon the
meaning of the divine words. And that, when the spirit is fully observed,
the desired spiritual benefit can be achieved from the words of the
Qur’an.
Sufi links with Orthodoxy:
The Sufis, like all other followers of Islam, consider the Prophet
Muhammad to be the most perfect embodiment of their ideas and beliefs,
and trace the roots of Sufism back to his life. Indeed, the life of the
Prophet of Islam does provide a Sufi with a perfect example to follow.
The traditions narrate a life of poverty, sincerity, submission to God’s
will, deep devotion, contemplation, nightlong vigils and prayers,
nearness to God, divine inspiration and other-worldly visions. Though
there are also traditions that tell us that the Prophet discouraged people
from spending all their time in ritual worship and admonished them for
not taking any interest in worldly activities, the Sufis do not consider
Al-Idah 2011 The Origin and Evolution of Sufism 27

these hadith very relevant. They rather link themselves to those

companions of the Prophet who lived in the porch of the mosque of
Madīnah, more bent on total devotion than the pursuit of worldly affairs,
and prefer to remember the fact that both the Prophet and his
companions supported them and saw to it that they did not lack the
necessities of life. This shows that the Prophet did not disapprove of
their full-time engagement in acts of worship.
The Sufis always laid emphasis on ~afa,13 that is, purification.
The Qur’an has this to say: “He indeed shall be successful who purifies
himself’14 and ‘He will indeed be successful who purifies his soul, and
he will indeed fail who corrupts his soul.”15
We learn from the Qur’an that God made the human soul perfect
and endowed it with an understanding of what is right and wrong16 But,
unfortunately, human life being a trial, it is beset with pitfalls and the
soul is corrupted during its sojourn on earth. To bring it back to its
pristine state requires purification. This action is most pleasing to God,
for it shows a desire to return to and follow the path laid down by Him.
Thus the purification of the soul is essential to attain divine approval.
The only way to win divine approval and become one with the
divine will is to sacrifice one’s life for God: the rite of purification is a
necessary step for one who wants to follow this way. The Sufis call this
way a spiritual path, the path of those “others who would give away their
lives in order to find favour with God. God is compassionate to His
servants.”17
The Sufi way (^arīqah):
In Sufism, therefore, there is the road (sing. %arīqah, pl. %uruq;18
this term went on to refer a Sufi order) and mystic travel, or sulūk.19 One
Al-Idah 2011 The Origin and Evolution of Sufism 28

who undertakes a journey along this road is called a sālik, or traveller.

The mystical path is, in principle, open to everyone. According to the
Sufis anybody can attain the higher forms of religious knowledge, but if
one is to do it the Sufi way, it must be done under the guidance of a
sheikh, also called a murshid or pir. The sālik receives the rite of
initiation from his sheikh or murshid, who in turn has received it from his
sheikh and so on, with the chain of transmission of spiritual influence
(barakah) going back to the Prophet himself. The @ūfis believe that the
Prophet conferred this right on only some of his companions, in
particular the caliphs Abu Bakr and Ali, who in turn passed it on to their
followers. In this way, this right has been passed on in unbroken
succession up to the present day. This chain of succession is known in
Arabic as silsila,20 and it is a living tradition transmitted personally from
master to disciple. A disciple is thus above all a seeker, or %alib,21 then a
traveller, or sālik, and finally, if God so pleases, a gnostic, or ārif. But
the spiritual realization cannot be achieved without the initiation,
counsel, and guidance of the sheikh, or spiritual master.
Those aspiring to follow the Sufi path approach a sheikh to be
initiated into a spiritual lineage or, silsila. As every lineage goes back to
the Prophet, all the orders (silsilas) are necessarily traced to one or the
other of the companions whom the Prophet initiated himself. In the early
phase of Sufism there were many great Sufi masters and they had their
followers, but the movement was not institutionalized. The regular
orders began to be established only in the 11th and 12 century AD and the
first great Sufi order was the Qadri order, or %ariqah, founded by
Shaykh Abdul Qadir Jilani (1071-1166). This was followed by the
Suhrawardi order of Abu’l Najib Suhrawardi (1098-1168) and the
Al-Idah 2011 The Origin and Evolution of Sufism 29

Naqshbandi order of Khwaja Baha’ ud din Naqshbandi (1318-1389).

Another great order, the Chishti order, traces its origin to Chisht near
Herat, where the spiritual founder of the order, Khwaja Abu Ishaq Shami
(d. 940) dwelled. However it was Muinuddin Chishti (d.1236) who
brought the silsila to India and laid its foundations by establishing a
flourishing centre in Ajmer.
Both the physical and the spiritual life of a Sufi revolves around
his sheikh and the sheikh dispenses any guidance his disciple might
require, starting from the exigencies of everyday life and ending with the
spiritual guidance that aims at losing oneself in God. Such guidance is
personalized and tailored to the individual capacities and needs of the
disciple, gradually introducing him to techniques that would effectively
enable him to attain the spiritual goal. Of these techniques the most
numerous are those pertaining to dhikr – remembrance of God.
Dhikr:
Dhikr literally means ‘remembering’22 God. The Qur’an attaches
the utmost importance to remembering God by invoking His name.
‘Remember your Lord and dedicate yourself to Him utterly’.23 ‘Truly, in
the remembrance of God, hearts find rest’.24 ‘Remember Me and I shall
remember you’.25 The Qur’an further explains: ‘Remember God always,
so that you may prosper’,26 admonishes: “Believers, be ever mindful of
God: praise Him morning and evening”,27 and instructs: ‘Prayer fends
off lewdness and evil. But your foremost duty is to remember God’.28
The Sufis hold that at the time of the Prophet and his
companions, the obligatory prayers were performed with full
concentration and in complete remembrance of God, and thus constituted
the true dhikr. The practices of succeeding generations were but a pale
Al-Idah 2011 The Origin and Evolution of Sufism 30

reflection of this earlier practice. In a bid to reproduce that earlier

spirituality and devotion, the Sufis attached great importance to the
practice of dhikr, to the extent that it was given even more importance
than the canonical prayers. They turned dhikr into an effective tool for
honing the excellence of their worship, of making their i+sān better, and
enabling them to see God face to face. Thus dhikr found itself at the
centre of Sufi practice. It is embarked upon and perfected under the
guidance of a spiritual master and is performed both in gatherings and in
the privacy of a spiritual retreat (khalwah).29
Besides the above-mentioned organized occasions, dhikr is to be
done silently at all times of the day, even when one is engaged in other
activities. A rosary, or tasbīh, may be used to facilitate dhikr.
A shift in emphasis:
The Qur’an mentions 99 names of God. Each name points to a
particular attribute of God. All the names can be used while performing
dhikr, for, as the Qur’an observes: ‘you may call on God or you may call
on the Merciful: by whatever name you call on Him, His are the most
gracious names.’30
The Prophet’s companions and the Companions of the
Companions regarded all forms of prayers other than compulsory prayers
as nawāfil (sing. nafl), or works of supererogation. In early Islam this
term was used in the general sense of doing ‘good’ in addition to the
performance of one’s obligatory duties and did not refer specifically to
prayer. Islam enjoins a certain amount of minimum obligatory duties to
31
be discharged by the believers and these are called farai# (sing.
fard – duty). Anyone who enters the fold of Islam has to discharge
these minimal duties, but if he does more than that then, by his additional
Al-Idah 2011 The Origin and Evolution of Sufism 31

acts, he earns the double favour of God. This is known as nafl (extra).
The Prophet himself used to perform supererogatory prayers, such as for
example the midnight prayers. But both he and his companions
interpreted nafl in a very general sense and understood it to mean all
good actions (and not only prayer) performed over and above one’s
duties. So did the early ascetics. The later Sufis restricted the word nafl
to the narrow sense of saying prayers over and above the obligatory
prayers.
The Sufis did the same with ‘remembrance of God’ by limiting
the meaning of the word dhikr to mean only the act of repeating the
names of God and not every act, which, by its righteousness and
adherence to God’s commands, came earlier under the rubric of the
remembrance of God. This change took place imperceptibly and soon
these new notions came to be accepted as the norm by the general public.
The early Sufis, first and foremost, laid stress on the renunciation
of worldly pleasures. They also emphasized the fear of God and
Judgment Day, and the need to centre one’s thoughts on the fact that on
the Day of Judgment one would be judged according to his good and bad
deeds. Thus there are the famous early Sufis like Abu Darda (a
companion of the Prophet), Hasan al-Ba~ri (642-728) and others,
who used to remember God most of the time, pray to Him and cry to
seek His pardon. When asked why they did so, they would reply that
even if they had not made any intentional mistake that required
repentance, they might have made an unintentional mistake. For this they
sought God’s forgiveness by resorting to nafl prayer, remembering God,
reciting the verses of the Qur’an and living in fear of Him.
Al-Idah 2011 The Origin and Evolution of Sufism 32

The most characteristic aspect of the life of the early Sufis was
their desire for non-involvement in the matters of the world. This was the
point of departure from the spirituality of the Companions of the
Prophet, for we find that the Prophet and his companions, as well as their
companions, performed all their worldly duties and, in doing so, they
remembered God. They believed that if they continued to remember God
in the midst of performing all the necessary mundane activities, their
reward would be doubled – they would receive one reward for
discharging the obligatory duties and another for remembering God at
times other than those of formal worship.
The early Sufis were known for their asceticism. Poverty was
their ideal. They thought that it was the world that distracted their
attention from God. So, if they desisted from accumulating worldly
things, they would be spared distraction, be able to achieve a high level
of concentration and, as a result, their prayers would attain an
exceptional quality.

Notes and References:

1
. (Suhrawardi, 1973) P. 8.
2
. (Arabi, 1980)101, p. 29-21.
3
. (Arabi, 1980) 82, p. 10.
4
. Khaliq Ahmad Nizami (born 1925), an Indian historian, religious scholar, and
diplomat, was best known for his work on the history of medieval India.
5
. (Teheran, 1918-1919), p. 31-32. Abdur Rahman Jami was a prominent Sufi of the
Naqshbandi order (see the chapter on the Naqshbandi order in his book).
6
. (Rizvi, 1975) Vol. 1,p 31; (B.A.Dar, 1961)p.336.
7
. The Qur’an 73:20
8
. (Al-Nīsābūrī M. b.-Q., 1955) Book: 1, ḥadīṯh No: 10
9
. The Qur’an 7:55
10
. The Qur’an 29:45.
Al-Idah 2011 The Origin and Evolution of Sufism 33

11
. The Qur’an 62:10
12
. The Qur’an 33:41-42
13
. Indeed, some scholars tried mistakenly to link the term @ūfi with the word ~afa, or
purity.
14
. The Qur’an 87:14
15
. The Qur’an 91:9-10
16
. The Qur’an 91:7-8
17
. The Qur’an 2:207
18
. (Glasse, 1989) p. 397.
19
. Ibid p. 381.
20
. Ibid p. 371.
21
. From the Arabic root, t-l-b, to seek.
22
. (Glasse, 1989) p 97.
23
. The Qur’an 73:8
24
. The Qur’an 13:24
25
. The Qur’an 2:152
26
. The Qur’an 62:10
27
. The Qur’an 33:41
28
. The Qur’an 29:45
29
. (Glasse, 1989) p. 221
30
. The Qur’an 17:11
31
. Obligatory duties in Islam.

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