1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

A Hovercraft is a vehicle that flies like a plane but can float like a boat,
can drive like a car but will traverse ditches and gullies as it is a flat terrain. A
Hovercraft also sometimes called an air cushion vehicle because it can hover
over or move across land or water surfaces while being held off from the
surfaces by a cushion of air. A Hovercraft can travel over all types of surfaces
including grass, mud, muskeg, sand, quicksand, water and ice .Hovercraft
prefer gentle terrain although they are capable of climbing slopes up to 20%,
depending upon surface characteristics. Modern Hovercrafts are used for many
applications where people and equipment need to travel at speed over water but
be able load and unload on land. For example they are used as passenger or
freight carriers, as recreational machines and even use as warships. Hovercrafts
are very exciting to fly and feeling of effortlessly traveling from land to water
and back again is unique.

Fig. 1.1. Hovercraft

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CHAPTER 2

HISTORY

Hovercraft as we know them today started life as an experimental design to

reduce the drag that was placed on boats and ships as they ploughed through
water. The first recorded design for an air cushion vehicle was put forwarded
by Swedish designer and philosopher Emmanuel Swedenborg in 1716. The
craft resembled an upturned dinghy with a cockpit in the centre. Apertures on
either side of this allowed the operator to raise or lower a pair of oar-like air
scoops, which on downward strokes would force compressed air beneath the
hull, thus raising it above thesurface. The project was short-lived because it
was never built, for soon Swedenborg soon realized that to operate such a
machine required a source of energy far greater than that could be supplied by
single human equipment. Not until the early20th century was a Hovercraft
practically possible, because only the internal combustion engine had the very
high power to weight ratio suitable for Hover flight. In the mid 1950s
Christopher Cockrell, a brilliant British radio engineer and French engineer
John Bertin, worked along with similar line of research, although they used
different approaches to the problem of maintaining the air cushion. Cockrell
while running a small boatyard in Norfolk Boards in the early 1950s began by
exploring the use of air lubrication to reduce the hydrodynamic drag, first by
employing a punt, then a 20 knot ex-naval 20launch as a test craft.

Fig. 2.1.Christopher Cockrell Fig. 2.2. S.R. N1 Hovercraft

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CHAPTER 3

PRINCIPLE OF WORKING

The principle of working of a Hovercraft is to lift the craft by a cushion

of air to propel it using propellers. The idea of supporting the vehicle on a
cushion of air developed from the idea to increase the speed of boat by feeding
air beneath them. The air beneath the hull would lubricate the surface and
reduce the water drag on boat and so increasing its speed through water. The air
sucked in through a port by large lifting fans which are fitted to the primary
structure of the craft. They are powered by gasturbine or diesel engine. The air
is pushed to the under side of the craft. On the way apportion of air from the lift
fan is used to inflate the skirt and rest is ducted down under the craft to fill area
enclosed by the skirt.

Fig. 3.1 Principle of working

At the point when the pressure equals the weight of the craft, the craft lifts up
and air is escaped around the edges of the skirt. So a constant feed of air is
needed to lift the craft and compensate for the losses. Thus craft is lifted up.
After the propulsion is provided by the propellers mounted on the Hovercraft.
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CHAPTER 4

DEVELOPMENT OF AIR CUSHION BYMOMENTUM

CURTAINEFFECT

Stability of the Hovercraft on its cushion of air remained a real

problem despite some design efforts and new approach was needed. To
solve these problems, plenum chamber with a momentum curtain was
developed by Sir Christopher Cockrell.His first experiments were
conducted with the aid of two cans and a vacuum cleaner (with blower
end). The cans were drilled and bolted so that one can was inside the
other with open ends facing down to some weighing scales, the top of
the larger can was open and had a tube connected to it so that air could
be forced in to the top can and around the smaller can inside.

Fig 4.1 - Air Cushion

The air traveled around between the inside of the bigger can and outside
of the smaller can and was then let out towards the scales in a narrow ring of
air, the cans were mad4e so that it was possible to remove inner can so the air
could be directed in two ways.
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The experiment was conducted in two steps. First the smaller can was
removed and blower switched on. The scales measured the amount of thrust the
air from the one can produced down onto the scales. The smaller can was now
replaced inside the larger can so that the ring of air was produced. Again the
blower was switched on and the scales measured amount of thrust the ring of air
produced down onto the scales. Here is the key discovery because Cockrell
observed that the two cans nested inside each other produced more thrust onto
the scales than the simple open can or plenum chamber did, he had discovered
the momentum curtain effect and this was the key ingredient that he patented.
In the full size craft the plenum chamber was also filled in so that a slot round
the bottom edge of plenum chamber wall was former where the air fed in at the
top. The slot produced a curtain of flowing air that was inclined. The high
pressure air from the slot angled inwards towards the centre of the craft helped
to contains and sustains the air cushion. Using this method a stable air cushion
could be created. The craft was still riding on a plenum chamber of sorts but it
was created and maintained by the high pressure ring of air surrounding the
lower pressure air in the center.

The momentum curtain arrangement achieved higher hover heights with

less power. It also solved some of the stability problems. The box structure in
the center of the craft around which air escaped was closed to the design was
exactly what was used in first publicly demonstrated Hovercraft the SRN1, built
by Saunders Roe in the United Kingdom it served as a test bed for many years
during Hovercraft development.
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CHAPTER 5

MAINPARTS

Fig 5.1 – MainParts

Lower hull- It is the basic structure on which the Hovercraft floats when the
engine isstopped while moving over water. It supports the whole weight of the
craft.

Skirts-They are air bags inflated by air are fitted around the perimeter of the
crafthold air under the craft and thus upon a cushion of air. It enables to
obtain greater Hover height. The material used is rib stop nylon or Terylene.

Lift fan-It is fitted to the primary structure of the Hovercraft. The air is
pumpedunder the craft between the skirt space to produce a cushion of
air.

Propeller-It is used to obtain the forward motion of the craft. It is fitted to the
top ofthe craft and is powered by a powerful gas turbine or diesel engine.

Rudders-They are similar to that used in an aircraft. Rudders are moved by

hydraulicsystems. By moving the rudders we can change the direction of the
craft.
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5.1 HULL CONSTRUCTION

The lower hull of the craft includes the craft floor, side panels,
forward and aft panels till the top skirt attachment line. Most commercially
build craft in polyester resin will use this section to transfer to the top hull.
The lower hull.

 Needs to have adequate size for the total weight of the craft and
payload
 Must be strong enough to support craft off cushion
(on landing pads)

 Have enough freeboard to support craft in displacement mode on

water
 Must be watertight and as smooth as possible.

The lower hull can be build out of all boat building materials. From simple
plyvery complicated composite panels.

5.2HOVERCRAFT SKIRTS

Despite the momentum curtain being very effective the hover height was
still too low unless great, and uneconomical, power was used. Simple
obstacles such as small waves, or tide-formed ridges of shingle on a beach,
could prove to be too much for the hover height of the craft. These problems
led to the development of the skirt

A skirt is a flexible shaped strip fitted below the bottom edges of the
plenum chamber slot. As the Hovercraft lifts, the skirt extends below it to
retain much deeper cushion of air. The development of skirts enables a
Hovercraft to maintain its normal operating speed through large waves and
also allows it to pass over rocks, ridges and gullies.
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Skirt is one of the most design sensitive parts. The design must be just
right or an uncomfortable ride for passengers or damage to craft and skirts
results. The skirt material has to be light flexible and durable all at the same
time. For skirt to meet all of the requirements the design and use of new
materials has slowly evolved.

There are three types of skirts

 Bag skirt
 Finger skirt
 Bag and finger skirt

5.3 A HOVERCRAFT SKIRT IS REQUIRED TO FULLFILL THE

FOLLOWING FUNCTIONS

 Contain the cushion of air beneath the craft at required Hover height
 Have the ability to confirm or contour effectively over obstacles so as to
 keep minimum, the loss of cushion air
 Return to its original shape after having been
deformed Give adequate stability
 Offer little resistance to passage of obstacles
beneath

Have the ability to absorb a large portion of the energy which is produced
on impacts or collision with obstacles greater than hover height or cushion
depth.
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5.4 THE LIFTING FAN

In the enclosed space fan operates in a propeller would not be suitable. Firstly
the volume of air needed is very large and a propeller is designed to be most
efficient in open air like on an aircraft. Propellers again are not efficient in
applications when an air backpressure will be applied to the propeller blades as
they rotate.

Because of this the lifting on most Hovercraft uses what is known as

a centrifugal fan. This is a fan in which two discs are fitted together and
looks rather like a doughnut with angled slat at their edges.

Fig 5.4.1 - Lift Engine

When the assembly is rotated at high speed air is sucked in to the center
hole in the fan and the slats force it out at the edges. The advantages of the fan
are two fold. They operate efficiently in an environment when back pressure is
high and they will move larger volumes of air for a given rotation speed than a
propeller with the same speed and power input.
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The lifting fan is coupled via a gearbox to the engine. The engine also
drives the propeller on the craft, which provides thrust for forward motion of
the Hovercraft.

5.5 THE ENGINE

The engines used in Hovercraft have evolved like the skirt design. The
SRN 1 and other early craft used piston type engines. As models like the SRN 4
and SRN 6 were brought into service they tended to favor the use of gas
turbines. This type of engine is smaller and lighter for a given horsepower and
has been used extensively in turbo prop aircraft.

Fig. 5.5.1 Line diagram of TurboProp Engine

The engine has a main shaft on which is mounted a compressor and turbine.
A starter motor is connected to one end and the other end is connected to the lift
fan. Both the compressor and turbine look like fans with large number of
blades.

When the engine is started the compressor compresses air from the engine
intakes and pushes into the combustion chambers mounted around the engine.
Fuel is squirted into the combustion chamber and is ignited. The compressed air
then rapidly expands as it is heated and forces its way out through the turbine to
the exhaust. As the gas pressure raises the turbine speeds up, there by driving
the compressor faster. The engine speed increases until it reaches engines
normal operating speed.
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However the use of these engines results in very high level of engine noise
outside the craft. In the SRN6 this meant that it was possible to hear the craft
traveling across the Solent between the Portsmouth and the isle of Wight in the UK
several miles away. The current AP188 crafts that runs on the old SRN6 routes has
nowmoved back towards the piston engines and uses marine diesel engines that are
much quieter and fuel efficient.

5.6 THE THRUST PROPELLER

The propeller used to drive the Hovercraft along is usually an aircraft

type with variable pitch blades. Its speed of rotation must remain fixed to that
the engine and the lift fan. This is because the amount of lift air requires
dictates the engine speed to drive the lift fan. In turn the amount of
propulsion which the propellers provide must be obtained by varying the
propeller pitch and not its rate of rotation. This system is termed integrated
lift. Hovercraft having more than one lift fan and propeller generally has a
separate engine for each fan and propeller unit.

Fig 5.6.1-Propeller
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The propellers used on hovercraft can vary from four bladed versions and about
nine feet in diameter on the smaller craft to the four propellers on the SRN4 cross-
channel Hovercraft. These are four bladed and nineteen feet in diameter.

5.7 RUDDERS AND CONTROL OF HOVERCRAFT

Control of a Hovercraft is accomplished by primarily though the use of

rudders like the type used on aircraft. The main difference would be,
however, that Hovercraft generally utilizes many rudders rather than just one.

Fig 5.7.1 -Rudder Controller

On the SRN4 the pylons on which they are mounted can be rotated to change
the direction of thrust. Another method of control is through ‘puff ports’ or
dual thrust fans where you would slow one down and speed up the other to
turn in the direction desired.

The hovercrafts are designed to float like a boat with the engine turned off. To
stop the Hovercraft-Reducing engine RPM will reduce the air cushion height and
increased drag between the skirt and the surface will slow and stop the Hovercraft.
Alternatively, the Hovercraft can be turned 180 degrees and the engine accelerated
till the craft stops. In an emergency situation on most surfaces turning the engine off
will stop the Hovercraft.
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CHAPTER 6

APPLICATIONS OF HOVERCRAFT

•A Hovercraft travel over the surface of water without concern for depth or hidden
obstacles

• It can travel with great speed of up to 60 knots

• Hovercraft are unaffected by small waves and offer a comfortable smooth ride

• It is safe around swimmers as there are no propellers in water

• Many Hovercraft have sufficient hover height, ranging from 8 in to 18 in to pass

right over a person in water

• The air cushion enables Hovercraft to operate over environmentally sensitive areas
such as mudflats without disturbing the surface

• The lack of wake on water minimizes the potential for bank erosion

• It can load and unload peoples and equipments on land

• Unlike many boats, engine exhaust fumes are not directed into water and
poisonous antifouling compounds are not required on Hovercraft.
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CHAPTER 7

ADVANTAGES OF HOVERCRAFT

 Travel over any surface.

 Shortcutting routes.

 Travel Rivers up as fast as down, irrespective of the current.

 Travel in dry water-beds.

 No collision with debris, logs etc.

 Access to 75% of coastal area instead of only 5% with ceremonious vessels.

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CHAPTER 8

DISADVANTAGES OF HOVERCRAFT

 Steep grade can be issue.

 They move a lot of air and can be relatively loud (Nois pollution).
 Potential of skirt damage.
 Not exactly agile (eg: cornering).
 The hovercraft is bulky and its high speed make it difficult to control while
on land.
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CHAPTER 9

FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS

By using the hover principle many designs have arise. One is the hover
concept by replacing the cushion of low pressure air as inform the modern
Hovercraft by high pressure pad it was thought that the pads of high pressure
could replace the wheels of the car. but there are two difficulties.

1. It is difficult to lift.
2. New method of propulsion is required.

Then moved towards Hover train. Here rails provide smooth surface for
high pressure air and guidance from the track overcomes the problem of
steering.
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CHAPTER 10

CONCLUSION

The unique capabilities of Hovercrafts are recognized and appreciated by a

diverse group of its end users. Hovercrafts are in use worldwide with search
research groups, fire departments, airport emergency response units and scientific
research teams. Hovercrafts are an integral part of numerous commercial operations
including driving, tourism, water taxi, ferry service, ice breaking, goods delivery,
survey, environmental monitoring and guide outfitting. The Hovercraft as a vehicle
is still in common use but not in large volumes. As engine and materials technology
progress the Hovercraft may yet make a comeback but for now it is a special vehicle
for special applications.
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CHAPTER 11

REFERENCES

[1] “UNIVERSAL HOVERCRAF “,WWW.HOVERCRAFT.COM

[2] “HOW DO HOVERCRAFT WORK

“,WWW.HOWHOVERCRAFTWOR.COMM

[3] “FASTEST HOVERCRAF” ,WWW.HOVERCRAFT-WORLD.COM