FACULTY OF SCIENCE

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (HONS) BIOMEDICAL SCIENCE

UDDD1214

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY II

EXPERIMENT TITLE

( RENAL PHYSIOLOGY )

TAN YEU LUN

STUDENT NAME :
16ADB02666
STUDENT ID :

LECTURER : DR. MICHELLE NG YEEN TAN

PRACTICAL GROUP : P1

DATE OF SUBMISSION : 21.2.2018

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Introduction

The urinary system also known as renal system which consists of a pair of kidneys, ureters,
urinary bladder and urethra. The main function of the urinary system is produces, stores and
eliminates urine which composed of toxic metabolic waste products which are nitrogenous based
compounds such as urea and creatinine. It helps to regulate the body fluid balance in term of
osmolality, volume and acid-base balance. Kidney also produces hormone that help in regulation of
homeostasis in body (Zimmermann, 2016).

The primary organs of the urinary system are kidneys, which are bean-shaped organs
located in a retroperitoneal position in the superior lumbar region and extend from the 12th thoracic to
the 3rd lumbar vertebrae. The functional unit of kidneys is nephron which functions in glomerular
filtration, tubular reabsorption and tubular secretion to form urine to be excreted. Each nephron
divides into two parts: renal corpuscle and renal tubules. The blood supply to the kidney enters
nephron through the afferent arteriole then enters the glomerulus. The blood in the glomerulus is
filtered out to the Bowman’s capsule. The glomerular filtrate which is protein-free plasma then flow
to the proximal convoluted tubule, through to the loop of Henle to the distal convoluted tubule, and
finally enter to the collecting duct which the urine will be excreted.

Reabsorption and secretion of water, solutes and ions occur in the kidneys particularly in
renal tubules which facilitate the regulation of fluid balance. Reabsorption is the movement of
substances such as nutrients, water, and ions move from the filtrate in the renal tubules back to the
blood of peritubular capillaries. Reabsorption mainly occurs in the proximal convoluted tubule
(PCT) and some in the distal convoluted tubule (DCT). In the PCT, glucose is completely reabsorbed
and it cannot be found in the healthy adult’s urine (Khan Academy, 2016). The glucose only can be
found in urine when the person is suffered from disease. 70% of water and sodium are reabsorbed in
PCT.

The loop of Henle plays an important role to concentrate the urine by reabsorbing water and
ions. The descending limb is only permeable to water while the ascending limb is only permeable to
ions. The distal convoluted tubule reabsorbs water and other ions. Although collecting duct is not a
part of nephron, reabsorption of ions, water, urea, and bicarbonate occurs in collecting duct. The
reabsorption of water is strongly regulated by antidiuretic hormone (ADH) which is a vasoconstrictor
that raise the blood pressure, increases water reabsorption at the end of DCT and collecting duct,
increases the blood volume, urine specific gravity, and decreases urine flow rate.

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Objectives

1. To determine the osmotic regulation of the kidneys in keeping fluid balance in the body with
the association of hormone regulation.
2. To determine the effects of different treatments of subjects which consists of different fluids
on the volume of urine samples, pH value, specific gravity measurement, temperature and
sodium concentration.
3. To determine the urine production rate, urinary solids and concentration of sodium chloride in
the urine sample after treatment of different subjects.

Materials and Methods

Refer to the Anatomy & Physiology II Lab Mannual.

Results

Volume of urine Temperature Specific Silver Nitrate

Subject Samples pH
produced (ml) (°C) gravity added (drop)
I 140 31 6.79 1.009 3
1 II 220 34 6.55 1.007 1
III 260 34 6.36 1.007 1
I 160 31 6.66 1.007 2
2 II 240 35 6.69 1.006 2
III 47 33 6.17 1.012 5
I 150 32.5 6.45 1.007 2
3 II 180 34 6.86 1.008 1
III 85 32 7.64 1.007 2
I 240 33 6.68 1.014 1
4 II 245 35.5 6.70 1.008 1
III 195 35.5 6.66 1.006 1
Table 1 Measurement of urine sample of each subject.

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Calculation:

1. Urine production rate in ml/min

Urine production rate = volume of urine/30 mins
Subject 1
Volume of pre-treatment urine sample = 140 mL
Volume of 1st post-treatment urine sample after 30 minutes of treatment = 220 mL
Volume of 2nd post-treatment urine sample after 60 minutes of treatment = 260 mL
The urine production rate before treatment is:
Urine production rate = 140 mL/30 mins
= 4.67 mL/min
The urine production rate after 30 minutes of treatment is:
Urine production rate = 220 mL/30 mins
= 7.33 mL/min
The urine production rate after 30 minutes of collection of 1st post-treatment sample is:
Urine production rate = 260 mL/30 mins
= 8.67 mL/min
Subject 2
Volume of pre-treatment urine sample = 160 mL
Volume of 1st post-treatment urine sample after 30 minutes of treatment = 240 mL
Volume of 2nd post-treatment urine sample after 60 minutes of treatment = 47 mL
The urine production rate before treatment is:
Urine production rate = 160 mL/30 mins
= 5.33 mL/min
The urine production rate after 30 minutes of treatment is:
Urine production rate = 240 mL/30 mins
= 8.00 mL/min
The urine production rate after 30 minutes of collection of 1st post-treatment sample is:
Urine production rate = 47 mL/30 mins
= 1.57 mL/min

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Subject 3
Volume of pre-treatment urine sample = 150 mL
Volume of 1st post-treatment urine sample after 30 minutes of treatment = 180 mL
Volume of 2nd post-treatment urine sample after 60 minutes of treatment = 85 mL
The urine production rate before treatment is:
Urine production rate = 150 mL/30 mins
= 5.00 mL/min
The urine production rate after 30 minutes of treatment is:
Urine production rate = 180 mL/30 mins
= 6.00 mL/min
The urine production rate after 30 minutes of collection of 1st post-treatment sample is:
Urine production rate = 85 mL/30 mins
= 2.83 mL/min

Subject 4
Volume of pre-treatment urine sample = 240 mL
Volume of 1st post-treatment urine sample after 30 minutes of treatment = 245 mL
Volume of 2nd post-treatment urine sample after 60 minutes of treatment = 195 mL
The urine production rate before treatment is:
Urine production rate = 240 mL/30 mins
= 8.00 mL/min
The urine production rate after 30 minutes of treatment is:
Urine production rate = 245 mL/30 mins
= 8.17 mL/min
The urine production rate after 30 minutes of collection of 1st post-treatment sample is:
Urine production rate = 195 mL/30 mins
= 6.50 mL/min

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2. Urinary solids (mass of solute in the urine) in g/L
Mass = (specific gravity- 1) x 1000 x 2.66 g
Subject 1
Urinary solids of pre-treatment urine sample = (1.009 - 1) x 1000 x 2.66g
= 23.94 g/L
Urinary solids of 1st post-treatment urine sample = (1.007 - 1) x 1000 x 2.66g
= 18.62 g/L
Urinary solids of 2nd post-treatment urine sample = (1.007 - 1) x 1000 x 2.66g
= 18.62 g/L

Subject 2
Urinary solids of pre-treatment urine sample = (1.007 - 1) x 1000 x 2.66g
= 18.62 g/L
Urinary solids of 1st post-treatment urine sample = (1.006 - 1) x 1000 x 2.66g
= 15.96 g/L
Urinary solids of 2nd post-treatment urine sample = (1.012 - 1) x 1000 x 2.66g
= 31.92 g/L

Subject 3
Urinary solids of pre-treatment urine sample = (1.007 - 1) x 1000 x 2.66g
= 18.62 g/L
Urinary solids of 1st post-treatment urine sample = (1.008 - 1) x 1000 x 2.66g
= 21.28 g/L
Urinary solids of 2nd post-treatment urine sample = (1.007 - 1) x 1000 x 2.66g
= 18.62 g/L

Subject 4
Urinary solids of pre-treatment urine sample = (1.014 - 1) x 1000 x 2.66g
= 37.24 g/L
Urinary solids of 1st post-treatment urine sample = (1.008 - 1) x 1000 x 2.66g
= 21.28 g/L
Urinary solids of 2nd post-treatment urine sample = (1.006 - 1) x 1000 x 2.66g
= 15.96 g/L

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3. Sodium chloride content
Each drop of silver nitrate = 1.0 g/L
Subject 1
Sodium chloride content of pre-treatment urine samples = 3.0 g/L
Sodium chloride content of 1st post-treatment urine sample = 1.0 g/L
Sodium chloride content of 2nd post-treatment urine sample = 1.0 g/L

Subject 2
Sodium chloride content of pre-treatment urine samples = 2.0 g/L
Sodium chloride content of 1st post-treatment urine sample = 2.0 g/L
Sodium chloride content of 2nd post-treatment urine sample = 5.0 g/L

Subject 3
Sodium chloride content of pre-treatment urine samples = 2.0 g/L
Sodium chloride content of 1st post-treatment urine sample = 1.0 g/L
Sodium chloride content of 2nd post-treatment urine sample = 2.0 g/L

Subject 4
Sodium chloride content of pre-treatment urine samples = 1.0 g/L
Sodium chloride content of 1st post-treatment urine sample = 1.0 g/L
Sodium chloride content of 2nd post-treatment urine sample = 1.0 g/L

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 Urine Production
Subject Sample Urinary solids (g/L) Sodium chloride (g/L)
Rate (mL/min)
I 4.67 23.94 3.0
1 II 7.33 18.62 1.0
III 8.67 18.62 1.0
I 5.33 18.62 2.0
2 II 8.00 15.96 2.0
III 1.57 31.92 5.0
I 5.00 18.62 2.0
3 II 6.00 21.28 1.0
III 2.83 18.62 2.0
I 8.00 37.24 1.0
4 II 8.17 21.28 1.0
III 6.50 15.96 1.0
Table 2 Summary of calculation of each subject.

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Discussion

Kidneys is the vital organs in human body to maintain the fluid balance in the body. There
are several mechanisms and hormones that facilitate the regulation of fluid balance. These include
renal autoregulation and renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS). The hormones that help in
control of fluid balance are atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone
(ADH). Antidiuretic hormone also known as vasopressin is the hormone that directly control the
water balance in the body. Secretion of the ADH by hypothalamus caused the insertion of aquaporins
in the membrane of collecting duct result in water reabsorption, concentrated urine is produced when
the person experienced with dehydrate. The sodium level in the body is also regulated by the renin-
angiotensin-aldosterone system. When the body under low blood pressure or low level of sodium,
RAAS is stimulated. Renin is released by the granular cells and it converts angiotensinogen into
angiotensin I. Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) released by the lungs further converts
angiotensin I into angiotensin II. Angiotensin II activates the constriction of smooth muscle of
arterioles throughout the body increase the systemic blood pressure (OpenStax, 2017). It also
stimulates reabsorption of Na⁺ followed by Cl⁻ and water in renal tubules and indirectly stimulates
the release of aldosterone. Aldosterone is the hormone that released when the Na⁺ level drops or
blood volume and pressure decrease. It stimulates the principal cells located in collecting duct to
reabsorb Na⁺ and Cl⁻ in the collecting duct and secrete K⁺ simultaneously. Atrial natriuretic peptide
is a peptide hormone that released by the cardiac muscle cells in the atrial wall when blood volume
and blood pressure is high. It is a peptide hormone that inhibits the reabsorption of Na⁺ which means
that reabsorption of water will also be inhibited.

Salt is a white crystalline solid which composed of sodium chloride (NaCl) that is one of the
important component in body fluid which responsible in regulation of fluid balance. A healthy adult
human body will contain about 250 g of salt and the excess NaCl present in body will be excreted.
The sodium chloride is the component of the extracellular fluid which is important in water retention.
With the help of NaCl, it will stimulate RAAS which is responsible in maintain a delicate balance in
body. If the water level or blood volume is too low in the body, it will stimulate the reabsorption of
sodium ion and water follow (Nall, 2017). Sodium chloride also facilitates in stimulation of muscle
contraction. This help in prevention of muscle from cramping. Saline is a mixture of sodium chloride
and water is used to treat dehydration. However, if the sodium chloride in excess in the body, it will
raise the blood pressure as heart needs to work harder to move the increased amount of blood
throughout the body.

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 Sodium bicarbonate is a white crystalline also known as baking soda, NaHCO₃ which is
slightly alkaline when dissolved in water with approximate pH of 8.0. It composed of sodium ions
and bicarbonate ions (HCO₃⁻). Sodium ions as mentioned before which is vital in balancing body
fluid while bicarbonate ions help in neutralization of acid in the body. Bicarbonate is one of the
important component of body’s buffer systems which resists the slightly changes of pH in the body
fluid (Busch, 2016). The role of the bicarbonate buffer system is to neutralize the acid to avoid the
body fluid from become too acidic which affecting the tissue and organ performance. Sodium
bicarbonate is act as an antacid which can increase the urinary pH in order to increase the solubility
of certain weak acid. When the body is in alkalosis, the excess HCO₃⁻ ions will be secreted through
tubular cells and reabsorb H⁺ which can acidify the blood pH. The secreted HCO₃⁻ will form NH₄⁺
excreted out of the body through urine.

From the results of the experiment, the volume of urine produced in subject 1 is higher
compared to others. The volume of urine produced also keep increasing along the urine collected.
The urinary pH is almost at constant as expected. The low and value of specific gravity indicates the
urine produced in subject 1 is diluted. This is due to the participant in subject 1 did not experienced
dehydration, the 700 mL of water drunk is in excess and hypotonic to the body fluid. The excess
water will cause the osmolality of the blood decrease which the blood is diluted. The low osmolality
of extracellular fluid inhibits the secretion of ADH in hypothalamus. The low level of ADH released
lead to low number of aquaporin which is the water channel insert into the membrane of the end
distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct. This result in decreased permeability to water and low
water is reabsorbed into the blood causing more water is excreted as urine. The volume of urine
produced is pale yellow in color and dilute as the amount of water increase as compared to the
amount of solute dissolved remain unchanged. This can be indicated by the decreased value of
specific gravity. Moreover, aldosterone is released to increase the reabsorption of Na⁺ and Cl⁻ to
raise the osmolality of blood until reaching the normal plasma osmolality.

For the subject 2 which is intake of 350 mL of 300 mOsm NaCl solution, the volume of
urine produced is lower in volume and decreased along the urine collected. This is due to the sodium
ions make the body become more dehydrated. This means the body will reabsorb more water and
less Na⁺ to avoid a complete breakdown in hydration. It will increase the blood pressure which will
inhibit the activity of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS). The inhibition of RAAS further
inhibit the secretion of aldosterone by adrenal cortex (Renee, 2015). Aldosterone is the hormone that
stimulates the principal cells to reabsorb more Na⁺ and Cl⁻. By inhibiting the secretion of

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aldosterone, reabsorption of Na⁺ decrease. When the sodium ions cause the plasma osmolality to
increase, at the same time, secretion of ADH is stimulated. High amount of ADH is released lead to
high number of aquaporin insert into the membrane of the end of DCT and collecting duct allowing
more water to be reabsorbed. This result in low volume of urine is produced and it is concentrated
which appears in deep yellow in color. This can be indicated by the high and increased value of
specific gravity which represent the concentration of urine. Due to low reabsorption of Na⁺ back into
blood, in other words, more Na⁺ is excreted followed by Cl⁻. The high amount of silver nitrate
added indicated the high concentration of Cl⁻ ions in the urine sample. The decreasing of urinary pH
may due to presence of excess salt in body to be excreted.

In subject 3 which is intake of 350 mL of 3% NaHCO₃, the urinary pH is higher and

increased. This is due to bicarbonate ions which is slightly alkaline will neutralize the blood and
urine become more alkaline. Sodium bicarbonate is act as an antacid which can increase the urinary
pH in order to increase the solubility of certain weak acid (Froek, 2017). The excess HCO ₃⁻ ions
will be secreted through tubular cells and reabsorb H⁺ which can acidify the blood pH when the
body is in alkalosis. The secreted HCO₃⁻ will form NH₄⁺ to be excreted out of the body through
urine. This result in slightly alkaline in urine indicated by the increased urinary pH. The volume of
urine produced is decreased as sodium bicarbonate contains Na⁺ ions. The presence of Na⁺ ions in
the body caused the more reabsorption of water in renal tubule leading to less urine produced. In
subject 4, drinking of 350 mL of water is acting as the control experiment. It serves as the result to be
compared by other subjects in order to differentiate the effect of different fluids on the kidney
function.

Last but not least, there are some precautions must be considered when carrying out the
experiment. The participants of the experiment must avoid from eating food before the experiment
that may cause some changes in the result and inaccurate result may obtained. The participants must
avoid from drinking abnormal amount of water or other drinks before the experiment that may affect
the volume of urine produced and urinary pH.

Conclusion

The intake of various fluids and solutions affects the volume of urine produced, urinary pH, urinary
solids and concentration of sodium chloride in urine.

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References

1) Busch, S., 2016. Baking Soda and Electrolytes. [online] Available at:
<http://healthyeating.sfgate.com/baking-soda-electrolytes-12472.html> [Accessed 12
February 2018].

2) Froek, B., 2017. Is Sodium Bicarbonate Good for the Kidneys? [online] Available at:
<https://www.livestrong.com/article/467529-is-sodium-bicarbonate-good-for-kidneys/>
[Accessed 15 February 2018].

3) Khan Academy, 2016. Tubular reabsorption article. [online] Available at:

<https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/organ-systems/the-renal-system/a/tubular-
reabsorption-article> [Accessed 18 February 2018].

4) Nall, R., 2017. Which Foods Contain Potassium, Sodium & Chloride? [online] Available at:
<https://www.livestrong.com/article/264028-which-foods-contain-potassium-sodium-
chloride/> [Accessed: 12 February 2018].

5) Navar, L.G. and Hamm, L.L., 2015. Hypertension and the Kidney. The Kidney in Blood
Pressure Regulation. [online] Available at: <https://www.kidneyatlas.org/book3/adk3-
01.QXD.pdf> [Accessed 14 February 2018].

6) OpenStax, 2017, Anatomy and Physiology. [online] Available at:

<https://opentextbc.ca/anatomyandphysiology/chapter/26-2-water-balance/> [Accessed 14
February 2018].

7) Renee, J., 2015. What Is the Importance of Water & Salt in Body Homeostasis? [online]
Available at: <http://healthyeating.sfgate.com/importance-water-salt-body-homeostasis-
10409.html> [Accessed 13 February 2018].

8) Zimmermann, K.A., 2016. Urinary System: Facts, Functions & Diseases. [online] Available
at: <https://www.livescience.com/27012-urinary-system.html> [Accessed 13 February 2018].

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