Questions on Nuclear Physics MS

1. Sketch graph:
Acceptably shaped exponential decay curve drawn (1)
Activity halving every 8 days (1) 2
80
Activity/MBq
60

40

20

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time/days
Description and differences
I contains 53 protons (1)
and 78 neutrons (1)
eg. β are fast electrons/γ electromagnetic waves (1)
β charged; γ uncharged (1) 4
Explanation:
Cat emits β, γ which are hazardous to employees (1) 1
Calculation:
λ = ln2 / half life
= ln2 / (8 × 24 × 60 × 60) (1)
= 1.0 × 10–6 s–1 (1)
Use of activity = (initial activity) e–λt
So t = ln (80/50) ÷ 1.0 × 10–6s
=4.7 × 105s (1) 4
(= 5.4 days)
Assumption:
Cat does not excrete any 131I (1) 1
or daughter product not radioactive
[12]

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2. Nuclear equations
X = 2 (1)
Z = 2 (1) 2

Physics of nuclear fission and fusion

Any 5 from the following:
• either/both transform mass into energy
• products formed have greater binding energy/nucleon
• either/both reaction(s) have a mass defect
• fission – splitting nucleus; fusion joining nuclei together
• fission used in nuclear reactors; fusion reactors not yet available
[ or only in bombs/stars]
• fusion needs high pressure and temperature/high energy particles
• fission forms radioactive products AND fusion forms stable products
• explanation of either involving strong nuclear force Max 5
[7]

3. Calculation of age of the Moon

Any six from:
λ = ln 2 / half-life (1)
= ln 2 / 1.3 × 109 y
5.3 × 10–10 y–1 (1)
Original mass of 40K = 0.10 + 0.840 = 94 µ g (1)
Use of N = N0e– λ t (1)
So 0.10 = 0.94 e– λ t (1)
So ln(0.10/0.94) = – λ t (1)
So t = 4.2 × 109 y (1)
[A valid assumption may be given a mark]
[Max 6]

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4. Binding energy
Energy released when separate nucleons combine to form a nucleus (1) 1
[OR energy required to split nucleus into separate nucleons]
Binding energy of a nucleus of uranium-235
Reading from graph: 7.2 ± 0.2 MeV (1)
Hence binding energy = 7.2 × 106 × 235 = 1.7 × 109 eV (1) 2
[Second mark is for multiplying graph reading by 235]
Energy released
Half-sized nucleus has binding energy/nucleon = 8.2 (± 0.2) MeV (1)
so released energy/nucleon = (8.2 – 7.2) × 106 × 1.6 × 10-19
(=1.6 × 10-13 J) (1)
Total energy released = 235 × 1.6 ×10-13 J =3.8 × 10-11 J (1) 3

Energy released by fission

(2).6 × 1024 × 4.0 × 10-11J = 1.0 × 1014 J
[Allow e.c.f from candidate's numbers, within range] (1) 1
[7]

5. Nuclear radiation which is around us

Background (1) 1
Source of radiation
e.g. Sun / rock (eg granite) / cosmic rays [not space] / nuclear power stations (1) 1
Why exposure greater today
Nuclear power stations/nuclear bomb tests/X–rays/
Radon from building materials (1) 1
Beta radiation
(i) Any two from:
• γ more difficult to shield
• β lower range (than γ)
• β more ionising (than γ) (1) (1)
(ii) α stopped by a few cm of air or has a short range/much
lower range (than β) / β radiation has a long range (1) 3
Why gamma radiation is suitable
Any two from:
· γ will pass through (metal of) wing / α and β cannot pass through the wing
· but passes more easily through cracks
· hence crack shows as darker mark on photo or increased count
on detector (1) (1) 2
[8]

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6. Plutonium-238
238 protons + neutrons [OR nucleons] in the (nucleus of the) atom (1) 1
Why plutonium source caused concern
If accident at launch, radioactive Pu would be spread around Earth (1) 1
Activity of plutonium source
λ = ln2/88 × 3.16 × 107 s = 2.5 × 10–10 (s–1) (1)
Use of dN/dt = –λN (1)
= 2.5 × 10–10 s–1 × 7.2 × 1025 = 1.8 × 1016 (Bq) (1) 3

Power delivered by plutonium

Use of power = activity × energy per decay (1)
= 1.79 × 1016 Bq × 5.6 × 106 × 1.6 × 10–19 s
[conversion of MeV to J] (1)
= 1.6 × 104 (W) (1) 3
[2 × 1016 Bq gives 1.79 × 104 (W)]
Whether power can be relied upon
Large number of nuclei present, so decay rate (almost) constant (1) 1
Percentage of power still available after 10 years
Percentage = N/N0 × 100 = 100 e–λt (1)
= 100 e –10 × ln2/88 = 92% (1) 2
[After 10 y, N = N0 e–λt = 7.2 × 1025 × 0.92 = 6.65 × 1025 (1)]
Why plutonium was chosen for Cassini mission
Examples:
• long (enough) half–life for duration of mission
• Power constant / no orientation problems compared with solar
• α-emitting, so energy from particles easily transferred
• availability (1) 1
[12]

7. Why gamma radiation used

γ is the most/more penetrating (1) 1
(OR α/β less penetrating)
Factors controlling amount of radiation
Any 2 from:
• Strength/type of radiation source/half-life/age of source
• speed of conveyor belt/exposure time
• shape/size of food packages/surface area
• distance from radiation source (1) (1) Max 2
Suitable material for wall
Concrete/lead (1)

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 Suitable thickness
30 cm – 1 m/1 – 10 cm (1) 2
[thickness mark dependant on named material]
Source of natural radiation
Rocks, soil, cosmic rays, named radioactive element, sun, space, air (1) 1
[6]

8. Age of part of the stalagmite

λ = ln2/t1/2 = 1.2 × 10–4 years–1 (= 3.8 × 10–12 s–1) (1)

Use of N = N0e–λt (1)

1 = 256 e–1.2 × 10 – 4t
[allow 255 instead of 1 for this mark but do not carry forward]
t = 46 000 years ( = 1.45 × 1012 s) (1) 3
[OR recognise 1/256 (1)
8 half-lives (1)
45 800 years (1)]
Carbon-14 concentration
Carbon-14 measurement would be greater (1) 1
Validity of radio-carbon dating
3 points, e.g.
• not valid
• twice original concentration gives greater proportion measured now
• object seems younger than it actually is
• older parts could have more carbon-14 than younger parts
• technique relies on constant levels, therefore unreliable
• mixture of old and young carbon-14 in 1 stalagmite makes dating
impossible (1) (1) (1) 3
[7]

9. Proton numbers:
55 and 94 (1) 1
Fuel for the power station:
(i) (Nuclear) fission (of 235U) (1)
(ii) Absorption of a neutron by(238)U(followed by β-decay) (1) 2
[not bonding, not fusion, allow combining] [Any other particle
mentioned in addition to neutron loses the mark]

Calculate emission rate:

Use of λ = ln 2 / t½ [allow either Cs t½] (1)
See 1.5 × 106.e–0.023 × 20 [allow ecf of λ for this mark] (1)
Correct answer [9.5 × 105(Bq m–2)] (1)
[2040(Bq m–2) scores 2/3]
OR
Work out number of half lives (1)
Use the power equation (1)
Correct answer (1) 3

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 Example of calculation:
λ = ln 2 / 30 = 0.023 yr–1
R = 1.5 × 106.e–0.023 × 20 Bq m–2
R = 9.5 × 105 Bq m–2
Assumption:
the only source in the ground is 137Cs / no 137Cs is washed out of(1) 1
soil / no clean-up operation / no further contamination / reference to
weather not changing the amount
Scattered isotopes:
(131)I and 134 Cs (1)
For either isotope: many half lives have passed / half life short 2
compared to time passed / short half life therefore now low emission (1)
Comment:
Even the isotopes with a thirty year half life are still highly
radioactive [eg accept strontium hasn’t had a half life yet] (1)
Plutonium will remain radioactive for thousands of years (as the
half life is very large) [accept the alpha emitting isotopes for
plutonium] [accept plutonium half lives much longer than 20 years] (1) 2
[11]

10. 3 (1)
Sum of reactant mass nos. = 236. Products must have same total mass no. (1) 2
Actual mass of products is slightly less (by ∆m) than mass of reactants, and
products have more kinetic energy (∆E) than reactants. The two are related by
∆E = c2 where c is the speed of light (1) 2
[Explanation in terms of binding energy is also acceptable]
N/N0 = e–λt
λ = ln2/t ½ = 2.84 × 10–5 years (1)
λt = 2.84 × 10–2 (1)
–2 )
N/N0 = e – ( 2.4×10 = 0.97 (1) 3
3% (1) 1
The products of the decay will themselves be radioactive so will contribute to
the overall activity of the sample (1) 1
[9]

11. Number of protons and neutrons in isotope of cadmium

Protons: 48 (1)
Neutrons: (122 – 48) = 74 (1) 2
Process which occurs in a fission reaction
3 points, e.g.
• starts with large/heavy nucleus/atom
• nucleus captures/absorbs neutron
• (becomes) unstable

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 • splits into (two) smaller nuclei (and more neutrons)
• with emission of energy (from mass defect)
• increased binding energy (per nucleon) (1) (1) (1) 3
Calculation of change in mass
Use of ∆E = c2∆m (1)
∆m = ∆E/c2
∆m = 3.2 × 10–11 J/(3 × 108 m s–1)2
= 3.6 × 10–28 kg (1) 2
Calculation of number of fissions required each second
Correct use of efficiency (1)
e.g. fission energy required = 660 MW × 100/30 = 2200 MW
No. of fissions per second = 2200 × 106 J/3.2 × 10–11 J = 6.9 × 1019 (1) 2
Why it is necessary to have a lot more fuel in nuclear reactor
2 points, e.g.
• reactor needs to run for longer than 1 second
• need sustained chain reaction
• fuel must last for years
• only a small proportion of U-235 undergoes fission
• only small proportion of uranium is U-235
• greater certainty/frequency of neutron collisions (1) (1) 2

12. Warm river

How radioactive nuclei heat,
e.g. by decay/ionising/nuclear radiation 1
α, β and γ radiation
α helium nucleus [or equivalent] (1)
β (fast) electron (1)
γ electromagnetic wave (1)
[Accept an answer that fully differentiates between the types of radiation
by describing their properties] 3
Most hazardous nuclei
α emitting (1)
When ingested, α particles damage body cells
[e.c.f. from previous β or γ linked to penetration & damage] (1) 2
Source of radioactivity
e.g. rocks, Sun, cosmic radiation 1
[7]

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