Process, Plant and Equipment UP-TIME

F o r p l a n t o p e r a t o r s a n d m a i n t a i n e r s .
From www.feedforward.com.au – Continuous engineering education of plant operators and maintainers that lifts equipment reliability and personal quality.
field induces an electric current in the conducting metal bars
(like a transformer). When a magnetic field cuts through a
conductor carrying an electric current a force is developed in
Volume 3 Edition 8 topics the conductor at right angles to the magnetic field. When the
circulating stator field energises the metal bars in the rotor
Key topics for the month they are forced to move and the rotor turns (See article 262
• Moving slurries about. Electric motor problems and 334 Electric motor current
• Belt conveyor tuning. protection saves your plant).

Special features It is important to understand that there must be relative

movement between the conductor and the magnetic field.
• Process Control Talk The force is only developed if the magnetic field cuts the
Effect of process changes on electric motors. conductor. In a motor the rotor runs slower than the rotating
• From the Mechanical Workshop stator magnetic field. This means the magnetic field cuts the
Pump life extension – the impeller. rotor conductors. The difference between the speed of the
• Asset Management magnetic field and the speed of the rotor is called ‘slip’.
Equipment criticality The greater the difference between the stator magnetic field
speed and the rotor speed (the ‘slip’) the more often the
Process Control Talk magnetic field cuts through the conductor and the greater the
force generated on the conductor.
Effect of process changes on electric motors.
Electric motor torque and power characteristics.
Abstract Because an electric motor rotates it can only deliver a torque
Effect of process changes on electric motors. This article (a turning force) through its shaft. It also means that an
explains the effect of changing process loads on AC electric motor will experience all equipment loads on it as a
induction electric motor performance. The motor’s torque. The motor shaft will turn and the attached
behaviour is a response to the load imposed on it by the equipment will move only as long as the motor can generate
equipment connected to it. The equipment’s behaviour is the required torque. Figure No. 1 shows the performance
itself a response to the duty and service it has to perform. curves for a squirrel cage induction motor (the most common
Where the equipment duty and service is adjustable by the AC motor). They show that as the rotor speed drops because
operator, or fluctuates as the process changes, the motor will of an increased load the rotor slips more, the torque
react to those changes. When the changes are so excessive generated rises and the current draw in the stator increases.
that they are beyond the motor’s ability to handle them the
motor stops and the equipment or process stops with it.
Keywords: squirrel cage motor, overload
Alternating current (AC) induction electric motors are a
common source of driving power used throughout industry.
The motor shaft is connected to the equipment by a coupling,
drive belt or gear. When electric power is provided to the
motor it turns the attached equipment. The equipment is the
load on the motor. The load on the equipment is the process
duty it must perform.
For example a centrifugal pump moves liquid from a low
pressure to a higher pressure. Similarly a fan takes gas in at
low pressure and pushes it to a region of higher pressure.
The motor provides the necessary electrical energy to drive
the impeller or blades that cause the change in the fluid’s
pressure energy state. When more fluid is needed (i.e. when
the load increases) the electric motor responds by working
harder. You will soon learn how it does that.
If an electric motor is forced to work beyond its ability it will Figure No 1. Electric motor characteristics
either heat up and burn out or it will overload the electrical
It is also interesting to look at the formulas for electric motor
supply and cause a fault in the supply circuitry.
torque and power to see what factors affect each of them.
Operation of an induction electric motor. We will not use the formulas except to note the relationship
An induction electric motor works when AC power is turned between the current, torque and power.
on. Each phase of the alternating current goes into motor
T = 1 _ Z p Ia
windings positioned around the outer stator. The position of
2! a
the stator windings and the rise and fall of the alternating
current produce sequentially rotating electric and magnetic Where T = motor torque _ = flux per pole
fields inside the stator. The rotor is free to turn inside the Z = active contactor p = number of poles
stator. Within it the rotor has metal bars. The stator electric Ia = armature current a = parallel paths
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Because the authors, publisher and resellers do not know the context in which the information presented in the flyer is to be
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 reverse relationship and neither stay constant when the other
P=2!NT
changes.
60
Effects on the motor when flow and pressure changes.
Where P = motor power N = revs per minute
We can now use all of the above diagrams and relationships
T = load torque ! = pie (3.142)
to explain what happens to the electric motor when process
The formulas indicate that an increase in power due to an flows and pressures change i.e. when loads change.
increase in the service load requires a proportionate rise in
Changing the flow (i.e. changing the load) through a pump
the torque so it can match the load. This increased torque
or fan changes the power needed from the motor. From the
draws a bigger electrical current into the motor.
pump power equation and characteristic curves it is seen that
Process load torque and power characteristics. increasing the flow through a constant speed pump or fan by
An electric motor will try and match its torque output with opening valves and dampers means more power is needed.
the torque load requirements of the equipment in the process. While decreasing the flow reduces the load and the power
If the equipment’s load changes the motor will draw enough requirements. Conversely increasing the pressure by closing
electric current to make a torque that matches the load. valves and dampers decreases the load on the motor.
In order to note what actually happens to the motor when Opening valves and dampers lifts the load on the motor and
process variables (like flow rate and pressure) change the closing valves and dampers decreases the motor load. This
load, we will use centrifugal pumps and centrifugal fans as is only true for a constant speed impeller. If the impeller
examples. Figure No. 2 shows stylised performance curves speed is variable it becomes more complex to analyse but the
for a centrifugal pump (centrifugal fans are a similar shape principles remain the same.
but the gas pressures are much less than those for liquids).
As the load rises the torque applied to the motor slows it
down and ‘slip’ increases. The stator magnetic field cuts the
rotor conductors more often. More force is generated on the
rotor and the rotor torque increases. From the electric motor
graph and formulas it is seen that that as slip increases the
motor correspondingly draws more electrical current. The
greater the current the hotter the motor gets. If it runs too
hot or for too long above its design abilities it will burn out
or overload the circuitry or trip out on high temperature if
thermistors are installed in the motor and in use.
When the motor sees a sudden change in load, like an
equipment jam or a rapid valve opening, the change in slip is
massive and the rise in the torque is rapid. Correspondingly
the change in electric current draw is also rapid. The speed
and size of the electric current rise can produce an overload
Figure No. 2 Centrifugal pump characteristic curves. and blow fuses, trip circuit breakers or burn motor windings.
The pump curves in Figure No. 2 for a constant speed Proper handling of motor load changes.
impeller indicate that flow and pressure affect each other in In all cases loads on electric motors should be increased
the relationship shown by the shape of the ‘head’ curve. If slowly and must be less than the abilities of the motor to
the flow increases by opening valves and dampers, the generate the required torque. If pump or fan motors trip out
pressure from the pump or fan falls. If flow decreases by check that the valves or dampers are positioned to keep
closing valves and dampers the pump or fan pressure rises. flows within the motor’s load capacity. If motors on
equipment trip or burnout, then somewhere there must be
The power needed to turn a pump and produce the required something causing a big load. Find the load and remove it
discharge flow rate and pressure is found from the formula: before again starting the motor.
P=_QgH One way to assist people in monitoring loads on electric
_o motors is to install current monitoring read-outs and set
Where P = shaft power _ = liquid density working limits for the motor that are not to be exceeded.
Q = flow rate g = gravity acceleration People can then monitor the affect on the motor of process
H = head of liquid _o = conversion efficiency flow, pressure or load changes that they make.
The efficiency factor is necessary because there are losses Mike Sondalini – Equipment Longevity Engineer
from mechanical (friction, rubbing, etc), hydraulic References: A. Mychael, Electric Circuits and Machines Edition 2,
McGraw-Hill Book Company
(recirculation, eddy vortexes, shock) and volumetric (reverse
flows) inefficiencies in the pump.
The formula tells us that for a constant speed impeller Moving slurries about.
increasing the flow (i.e. a bigger load) requires more power.
Similarly if the flow stayed constant and the pressure ABSTRACT
increased then the needed power also rises. Moving slurries about. Slurry is solid particles in a liquid.
Concentration can vary from mostly liquid to mostly solid.
However we know from the performance curves that flow Slurries are usually transported through pipe work using
and pressure in a centrifugal pump or fan are affected in a pumps, pressurised gas or steam. Different concentrations
and different particulate produce different flow
FEED FORWARD PUBLICATIONS, PO Box 578, BENTLEY, West Australia, 6102 Web: www.feedforward.com.au E-mail: info@feedforward.com.au
Because the authors, publisher and resellers do not know the context in which the information presented in the flyer is to be
used they accept no responsibility for the consequences of using the information contained or implied in any articles.
characteristics. Successful slurry transport requires across the top of the settled particles and try entraining the
knowledge of the particulate, its transport behaviour in the top layer of sediment. An alternative is to introduce
liquid at different concentrations and speeds, the nature and compressed gas (such as air if it is safe to do so) into the
friction effects of the pipe work system and selection of the liquid flow to create maximum turbulence across the top of
right motive method for the application. This article the sediment. With liquid flowing quickly across the top of
provides information for transporting slurries of up to 60% the sediment it is sometimes possible to mechanically
solids concentration. hammer the outside of the pipe and bounce the particulate up
Keywords: Dense phase transport, rheology, viscosity. into the flow stream. In the case of crystal slurry is it
possible to dissolve the crystal into the liquor by using hot
Pumps or pressurised blow tanks are usually used to move liquid or liquid with a low concentration of product?
slurry. If a pump is used it is best put below the outlet
nozzle of the supply tank. With a blow tank either a dip pipe Mechanical cleaning is another possibility. Devices such as
goes into a sump at the bottom of the tank or the outlet a plumber’s screwing ‘pipe snake’ can cut the particulate up
nozzle is at the lowest point of the tank. The surface of the and drag it out. The last resort is to open up the pipe section-
slurry in the blow tank is pressurised to force it out the vessel by-section and clean each out.
and through the pipe work. Wear: The high flow velocities attained through pipes and
Because slurry is solid particles in liquid the particles will equipment and/or the hardness and shape of the particulate
want to settle out. The particles are pulled down by gravity can cause extremely high wear rates. High wear occurs
and will follow the direction of gravity. The only where the flow changes direction and/or where localised
mechanism available to keep the particles suspended while velocities are extreme.
moving through the pipe is turbulence within the pipe. Typically inside pumps the impeller walls and vanes see
In slurries where the concentration of particles are so high high local velocities and speed changes. Often an open
that there is not enough liquid movement available to impeller is used with slurries. In an open impeller there is no
suspend them, or the particles are to big, it becomes wall on the inlet side to the impeller. Also the impeller may
necessary to use equipment that mechanically forces the have fewer but thicker and deeper vanes. This provides
product through the piping. more sacrificial material to wear away and larger spaces
between the vanes to more easily handle lumps. With an
Requirements when moving slurry. open impeller the pump volute on the open side experiences
The entrance flow into the motive device is important. In the high flows across it will wear as the impeller spins. Usually
case of a pump the suction must always run full to be sure changeable volute liners are installed in the pump or it is
the slurry will be drawn through to the pump. Bubbles, made of hard, wear resistant material.
froth, slugs of gas or cavitation will allow the slurry to settle
out and block the pipe. If gas or froth enters the pump the Pipe walls can wear away. If the particulate mostly slides
impeller spins in empty space. If too much gas or froth is along the bottom of the pipe it will cut a groove into the pipe
present suction is lost. Insure that only slurry is in the wall. Where the flow changes direction the impact will
suction port at the pump. A vent pipe can be fitted at the gouge away the pipe. Some options to address wear are to:
pump suction and vented back to the top of the supply tank. ß Provide plenty of sacrificial wall material or a
Flow velocities are critical to particulate movement. The sacrificial liner,
liquid must move fast enough to pick up the particles and ß On bends use bulbous elbows with a cavity that let
move them forward. The heavier the particles the faster the product build-up to form a solid surface over which the
flow of flushing liquid. It maybe necessary to conduct lab flow rubs as it turns. Deflector plates surfaced with hard-
trials to determine the slowest flow velocity that prevents face weld can be fabricated and mounted into the flow
particle dropout. Never go below that velocity else you will path.
get blocked pipes! Size pipes to insure flow velocities stay ß Change the material to one harder than the
above the dropout velocity. particulate (possibly use hard stainless steels, cast Nihard
steels or Bisalloy steels instead of carbon steels),
Flow pathways need to be smooth and unobstructed to ß Change the material to one that absorbs the impact
minimise friction losses. Select valves that are straight- and bounces back (rubber lining and soft urethane are
through designs and that have internal contours causing little examples),
effect on flow and pressure loss. Use bends in preference to ß Line the pipe with an extremely hard surface such
elbows when changing pipe direction. Select as ceramic or trowel on coating designed for impact and
instrumentation that does not protrude into the flow path. wear.
Pressure losses in slurry flows are significantly higher than if ß Use slippery surfaces to minimise friction (some
the liquid were flowing alone. It is necessary to calculate the plastics, such as polyethylene, have this property).
losses accurately so that the proper sized motive equipment ß It maybe necessary to ‘mix-and-match’ materials to
and piping is installed. In the process of designing and get the best properties of each. For example it might be
determining the equipment to use it is wise to assume that better in a slurry pump to have a rubber or urethane
there will be dropout incidences (power loss is a typical impeller for its impact properties but a hard metal volute
situation). Determine how the particulate will be re- liner for its surface wear properties.
entrained and design the method into the process/plant. Mike Sondalini – Equipment Longevity Engineer
Issues to consider when moving a slurry.
Settlement: It is critical to prevent settlement in the pipe. If Belt conveyor tuning.
it does occur there are few options to try. If the pipe is not
totally blocked it may be possible to force high-speed liquid
FEED FORWARD PUBLICATIONS, PO Box 578, BENTLEY, West Australia, 6102 Web: www.feedforward.com.au E-mail: info@feedforward.com.au
Because the authors, publisher and resellers do not know the context in which the information presented in the flyer is to be
used they accept no responsibility for the consequences of using the information contained or implied in any articles.
ABSTRACT Once a belt conveyor is designed and installed it is there for
Belt conveyor tuning. A belt conveyor is a moving surface used to years to come! The very best practice to adopt to promote
transport product from one end to the other. In its basic form it long, trouble-free life is to be sure that the designer has
consists of a driving head pulley, a tail pulley, the moving belt, designed it with quality components that can handle the
support rollers, cleaning devices, tensioning mechanisms and a entire range of forces generated in its use. One way to insure
structural frame. Though simple in concept its many components
that is to engineer every part taking a load and then review
need to work together as a system to get the best performance and
operating life. Critical to that is an understanding of how to care the design calculations and the component selection using
for a belt conveyor and tune it for successful operation. independent, experienced equipment users and maintainers
Keywords: materials handling, bulk material transport querying the designer for the assumptions, reasons and proof
behind each design selection.
Belt conveyors are used to transport anything from matches
to bulk material such as iron ore and quarried stone. The The list below highlights some of the issues and problems
belt can be made of natural fibres, rubber, plastic or metal. with belt conveyor installations. Once you are aware of
Regardless of its construction and purpose there are basic them you can be on the watch-out and get to them fast.
requirements to its successful operation that must be met. ß Belt wear and gouging from product impact at
How a Belt Conveyor Works loading zones, from belt drag across solid surfaces, from
Figure No 1 is a simple sketch of a belt conveyor. An scrapper rubbing, from the belt touching caught product,
electric motor and gearbox turn the head drum (or head from product hardening on scrappers, from drive pulleys
pulley). The belt is pulled tight to produce friction between slipping during start-up or during a belt jam, from product
it and the head drum. The friction overcomes the load and build-up on trough and return rollers.
drag forces and the belt moves around the circuit from the ß Frayed belt at edges due to rubbing against
head pulley to the tail pulley and back to the head pulley. structures, due to rubbing against product caught in
structures, from rubbing against seized rollers.
ß Belt Stretch from excessive belt tensioning, from
belt aging, from high product impact, from overloading
with product, from running the belt beyond belt design
speed, from too much stop-start inertia forces.
ß Belt distortion due to out-of-square joining, due to
a join being too thick, due to ripping and buckling within
the belt material as internal fibres tear because of
overloads, due to loading one side of the belt.
ß Bad tracking due to head pulley misalignment, due
to no head pulley crowning, due to trough and return roller
misalignment, due to roller seizure producing more drag.
Also can be due to the last upper roller being too close to
Figure No. 1. A Basic Belt Conveyor the head pulley and lifting the belt so it makes first contact
far around on the head pulley circumference.
Only friction is used to drive the belt. If the friction falls the ß Gearbox/drive mounting deflection causing shaft
belt will slip or stop moving even though the head pulley misalignment by support frame and load carrying members
keeps turning. The friction between the belt and pulley being undersized and insufficiently braced for the
depends on the friction properties of the surfaces in contact, operating forces and inertia force changes.
the amount of surface in contact (the arc and width in ß Cut belts from impact of product, from dragging
contact) and the tension in the two lengths of the belt. across jammed sharp objects, from tearing due to sudden
The loaded side of the belt is the tight side and the return overloads, from bolts and foreign metal objects gouging.
side is the loose side. The tight side needs to carry as much ß Scrapper failure from product build-up on the
tension as possible to minimise the load on the drums, the scrapping edge, from jammed scrapper parts, from wrong
shafts and the bearings. Getting the maximum friction set-up.
possible between belt and head pulley does this. ß Slipping belt due to product jam, due to loss of belt
tension, due to dust/dirt/moisture under head drum.
Often a head pulley will be herringbone grooved or coated in
rubber (or other such treatment) to increase the friction. Proper Belt Conveyor Set-Up and Use
Another option is to increase the arc of contact. A jockey Become familiarised with the manufacturers recommended
(snubber) pulley is placed under the slack side close to the operating practice and then get operators and maintainers
drum. By lifting the return belt higher so it comes off the together to discuss how to achieve them in-house.
head pulley further around the circumference the contact In the simplest of ways decide how to:
area and hence the friction is increased. ß Make sure the belt is tracking properly and to detect
Tensioning the belt also increases friction. This can be by when it is going off-track. Crown the pulleys (1% to 1.5%
jacking the head and tail pulleys further apart and forcing the of the pulley width), align guide and troughing rollers
belt harder against the drums or by making the slack (loose) square to the belt, on short conveyors insure the head and
side tighter. Tightening the slack side goes against the ideal tail drum centers are aligned to within 0.25 millimeter.
of keeping the slack side tension low and the tight side Keep guide rollers and pulleys clean of product build-up.
tension high. If the loose side is used for tensioning, the load ß Make sure the scrapper is working well. If
carrying components are made larger to take greater forces. necessary change designs. Maybe water jet spray instead
of a solid edge scrapper. (Be wary of brush scrappers for
Maximising Belt Conveyor Operating Life. powdered and damp products. Fine particles build up in

FEED FORWARD PUBLICATIONS, PO Box 578, BENTLEY, West Australia, 6102 Web: www.feedforward.com.au E-mail: info@feedforward.com.au
Because the authors, publisher and resellers do not know the context in which the information presented in the flyer is to be
used they accept no responsibility for the consequences of using the information contained or implied in any articles.
 the bristles and clog the entire brush making the bristles the parts were carried as spares and changed out before
rigid and stiff, which then scratches the belt.) failure or the plant item is put on a condition monitoring
ß Prevent overloading product by slowing loading program. Those failures that caused production loss or affect
rates to below removal rates. Install deflection plates in quality is also not allowed to happen or put into a condition-
loading chutes to take the momentum of falling product monitoring program. And those failures that didn’t matter
and stop it from pounding into the belt. Install more rollers are treated as a breakdown.
in the loading section to distribute the pounding forces.
ß Prevent product jams. The flowchart (kindly provides by Sumitomo Chemicals of
ß Keep friction low by detecting and replacing seized Japan) lets one arrive at a rating and a corrective action for
rollers. Reduce transfer station skirt-to-belt contact. If each piece of equipment and component. If an equipment or
dust is a problem keep skirt contact area and pressures low component loss produces dangerous situations, or if the
enough to minimise the amount of dust escape. Higher failure stops production or affects quality, it is either
pressures force the skirt hard into the belt and both parts changed out before the end of its working life or put on a
wear. monitoring program.
When you sort the issues out write down how it was done
Mike Sondalini – Maintenance Engineer
and make them standard operating procedure so the
discoveries are not lost.
Mike Sondalini - Equipment Longevity Engineer
References: Applied Mechanics, A K Hosking, M R Harris, H & H
Publishing.

Asset Management Equipment

Equipment criticality
ABSTRACT
Equipment criticality - How do you decide what level and
Hazardous, Safety,
type of maintenance to use on an individual item of plant and Environmental
dangers from
its sub-assemblies? Not all equipment is equally important process
to your business. Some are critical to production and
without them the process stops. Others are important and
will eventually affect production if they cannot be returned
Breakdown, stops Breakdown, stops
to service in time. While other items of plant are not production, affects production, affects
quality quality
important at all and can fail and not affect production for a
very long time. Keywords: risk based maintenance,
preventative maintenance

As a maintainer and operator you want to know which Affects downstream Affects downstream
plant plant
equipment in your plant falls into each of those categories so
you can determine your response. Furthermore you want to
know which sub-assemblies in each item of equipment are
critical to the operation of the machine.
Can be fixed Can be fixed
From this information you can decide which spares to hold on-line on-line
on-site and which to leave as outside purchases. The
equipment criticality also determines what level of
preventative maintenance to use, what type and amount of
condition monitoring to use and what type and amount of
observation is required from the operators. You can also use
it to justify on-line monitoring systems to protect against S A B C
catastrophic failure.

The two approaches often used to determine criticality is

either Reliability Centered Maintenance or Risk Based
Maintenance. Both methods determine the consequences of
failure and then address the appropriate response to prevent
the failure. One other way of determining equipment
criticality is to consider knock-on effect of a failure and the
severity of the consequences. It is the same intention as the
previously mentioned methods but it arrives at the rating and
the response in a quick four-step process.

People from operations and maintenance work through it

together, equipment by equipment, using the simple flow
chart below. Those failures that cause safety and
environmental risks were not allowed to happen and either
FEED FORWARD PUBLICATIONS, PO Box 578, BENTLEY, West Australia, 6102 Web: www.feedforward.com.au E-mail: info@feedforward.com.au
Because the authors, publisher and resellers do not know the context in which the information presented in the flyer is to be
used they accept no responsibility for the consequences of using the information contained or implied in any articles.
 In fact the pump does not ‘suck’. Rather the pump inlet
From the Mechanical Workshop pressure is lower than the pressure at the supply point and
the higher supply pressure tries to equalise the pressure
Pump life extension – the impeller. imbalance. The high pressure flows to the low pressure. As
ABSTRACT long as the pump keeps creating the low-pressure region at
Pump life extension – the impeller. A spinning pump impeller its impeller inlet the liquid will flow into it. The pressure
provides the means to draw incoming product through the pump, does not even need to be a vacuum (i.e. less than atmosphere
energise it, and then force it out under pressure. The impeller pressure); it only needs to be at a lower pressure than the
coverts the electrical energy from the motor into hydraulic energy supply point pressure.
of the liquid. It does this by taking the liquid into the center of the
impeller and flinging it outward at high speed. To efficiently Properties of the liquid.
continue to do this the impeller must remain in the same condition Successful operation of the impeller is also dependent on the
as it was when first installed. If the impeller deteriorates the properties of the liquid being pumped. The three main liquid
conversion from electrical to hydraulic energy becomes inefficient. properties affecting the impeller are the viscosity
Power is wasted, flow and pressure fall and the pump cannot do its
(slipperiness), the corrosiveness and the pressure at which
designed duty.
Keywords: impeller design, delivery pressure, delivery head the liquid becomes a gas (vapour pressure).

Purpose of a centrifugal impeller. Viscosity: High viscosity means a more-thick liquid. As

A standard centrifugal pump impeller is constructed of a viscosity rises the liquid does not move as easily and tends to
group of elongated, solid-walled chambers attached together stick to itself and shear only at the point of the movement.
in the shape of a circular ring. The ring is spun quickly and Imagine pumping grease through a centrifugal pump! The
the liquid that enters the inside end of the chambers is flung grease would not want to move but instead the impeller
out at high speed from the other end. Figure No. 1 shows a would just spin and tear through the grease immediately in
section through centrifugal pump wet-end showing regions contact with it. Where appropriate heating a viscous liquid
of low and high pressures. to make it more ‘flow-able’ can lessen this problem.
Corrosiveness: Chemical attack by the liquid on the
Discharge

impeller will destroy the impeller. In such situations it is

Pump

necessary to use impeller materials that do not chemically

react with the liquid at the process conditions in the pump or
to coat the impeller with a protective surface.
Cavitation Vapour pressure: A liquid can turn to gas (vapour) either
Damage Sudden
Region Pressure by adding heat and boiling it at a given pressure (like in a
Increase
saucepan on a stove) or by bringing the pressure low enough
Pump
Suction
to ‘boil’ it at the surrounding temperature (water boils at
lower temperatures in the mountains than at sea level).
Flow
Direction
If the suction pressure at a pump impeller inlet were so low
that the liquid ‘boiled’ into a gas/vapour then bubbles would
Low appear in the liquid stream (See article 232 Centrifugal
Pressure
Area Pump Cavitation). The bubbles at low pressure would then
Volute move into the spinning impeller chambers and suddenly
Impeller experience high pressure (see Figure No. 1) as it moves
Figure No. 1 Section through a centrifugal pump. through the impeller. The bubbles implode and eject a shot
The longer the chamber (i.e. a bigger diameter), the faster of high velocity liquid at the impeller and gouge a bit of it
the liquid leaves the ring for a given speed. Alternately the out. Cavitation destroys impellers.
faster the ring is spun the faster the liquid is flung out. High If the pressure were brought even lower the liquid would
tip speeds produce higher pressures. The pressure generated instantly become vapour in the suction pipe as it approached
in a centrifugal pump is the result of the high-speed liquid the impeller. The vapour would expand and fill the pump
hitting and stopping at the volute wall and so changing its volute. A centrifugal pump cannot move gas so the pump
energy of motion (momentum) into pressure energy. The would stop pumping. The vapour would then be under
pressure then forces the liquid out the discharge nozzle. higher pressure from liquid in the discharge and suction
To stop the pressure from returning to the suction inlet and pipes flowing into the pump. The vapour cannot exist at that
back through the chambers, the gap between the impeller and pressure and it dissolves back into the liquid. The liquid
the volute is made very small at the suction nozzle inlet. would again flow to the pump. With liquid present and the
Usually wear rings are fitted to the impeller. When the wear impeller spinning the pump starts to pump. The pressure
from the small amount of leakage that does occur gets too again falls at the impeller inlet and the liquid flashes to
bad they are changed over for new. vapour a second time. The cycle repeats and the pump
would deliver slug flow or ‘vapour lock’.
What happens inside the impeller?
As liquid is flung out from an impeller it leaves a space It is critically important that the inlet pressure to the impeller
behind. This space is taken up by the particle of liquid never falls below the vapour pressure. If you pump a liquid
immediately following. By flinging one lot of liquid out, it containing dissolved gas (like carbon dioxide in beer) the
forces new liquid to be drawn in to take its place. Spinning lowest limiting pressure may not be the liquid vapour
the impeller creates a low pressure at the center inlet and the pressure. It may instead be the dissolution pressure of the
pump seems to ‘suck’ liquid from a distance. gas. Keep suction pressure above the dissolution pressure.

FEED FORWARD PUBLICATIONS, PO Box 578, BENTLEY, West Australia, 6102 Web: www.feedforward.com.au E-mail: info@feedforward.com.au
Because the authors, publisher and resellers do not know the context in which the information presented in the flyer is to be
used they accept no responsibility for the consequences of using the information contained or implied in any articles.
Modes of centrifugal pump impeller failure. pump and out the pump discharge line. Or else find ways
There are numerous ways an impeller’s performance can be to flow back into the supply tank and bubble up to the
affected. Listed below are some of the more common ones. surface of the liquid. Failing that it is necessary to install
ß Wear – Abrasion and erosion can occur when solid valves along the pipeline that can be opened to vent out the
particles (as in slurry) are present. It may be necessary or trapped gases until liquid appears.
select wear resistant materials. If solid bits of metal, stone
Buy pumps with vertical center discharges instead of side
or rubbish from the process are present it is critical to fit a
discharges as gases can get trapped in the top circular
strainer before the pump AND clean it out regularly before
portion of the volute. Or rotate the volute and piping to
it blocks up and the pump starves and cavitates.
have the outlet at the high point.
ß Cavitation/vapour lock – As noted above keep the
pressure at the impeller inlet above the vapour pressure. Mike Sondalini – Equipment Longevity Engineer
Keep the suction flow velocity low – use big bore pipes;
keep suction pipe insides clear of obstructions; clean
strainers often. Pressurise the suction supply - put the
supply tank way above the pump; put additional pressure
onto the surface of the liquid in the supply tank (but don’t
split the tank) and slow the pump. Cool the liquid so it will
not be hot enough to ‘boil’ at the impeller inlet pressure.
ß Blockages/objects – Solids can block the impeller
vanes. Chunks of wood can get stuck in the vane passage,
gloves, foam cups, dropped tools, nut and bolts, tank floats,
parts of instruments, etc may not pass through the impeller.
An in-line strainer is a must in such cases. An alternative
is to relocate the supply tank outlet nozzle higher up the
tank and let the solids settle to the bottom, and draw liquid
from the cleaner level. The rubbish at the tank bottom can
be drained out a lower nozzle or the tank manually cleaned.
ß Loss of running clearances/recirculation – If the
wear ring clearance between impeller and volute becomes
too great the liquid will recirculate from the high pressure
at the impeller outlet to the low pressure at the inlet. The
flow from the pump falls because liquid is instead drawn
back into the suction inlet and just goes in circles.
ß Material of construction/corrosion – The impeller
must be impervious (unaffected) to chemical attack.
ß Change of service duty – If a pump is moved from
one position to another or from one service to a different
service, it may not pump. Each impeller is sized to a
specific flow and pressure. If the pump is move from its
original duty it must be engineered for the new duty (See
article 112 Changing the Service Duty of a Pump).
ß Direction of rotation – The vanes on centrifugal
pump impellers are designed to rotate in only one
direction. They can still generate pressure if turned the
wrong way but the pressure and flow are very much less
that if they were going the right way. Changing any two
phases on a 3-phase electric motor reverses its rotation.
ß Air locks – Trapped gas and air around an impeller
will stop it from pumping. If the impeller is spinning
inside a volute with the top part of the volute full of gas the
ejected liquid is not compressed against the volute wall and
cannot convert its velocity into pressure. The pump will
run but nothing will come out. The air, gas or vapour in
the top of the volute must be removed.
If the air lock is in the suction pipe the pump will try to
draw liquid and pull the air with it. However the air is
always at the top of the pipe and fills part of the pipe. The
liquid must then flow in the remaining part of the pipe. If
this area of pipe is to small then not enough liquid will get
to the pump and it will stop pumping till more arrives.
Slug flow develops. In the worst air lock case no liquid
gets to the pump. Air, gas or vapour must be removed.
Best practice is to slope the suction pipe so that any gas
caught inside it finds a way to naturally flow through to the

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