Working Paper 004

‘WATER’ – A Heritage
Perspective

S. Manasi and K.V. Raju

September 2012
 Manasi. S has long time research experience
in water resources management and has
been working on integrated water resources
management, livelihoods, land and water use
interactions, urban water planning, pollution
abatement, both in the rural and urban contexts.
Her other research interests are management
of land resources, waste management and climate change.
Currently working as Assistant Professor in Centre for Ecological
Economics and Natural Resources, Institute for Social and
Economic Change, Bangalore, India. email: manasi@isec.ac.in

K.V. Raju over the last four years, he has been

working as Economic Advisor to the Chief
Minister, Government of Karnataka. He is
specialised in the area strategic studies, policy
research and advocacy related to development
and natural resources management. Currently
working as Professor, Centre for Ecological
Economics and Natural Resources, Institute for Social and
Economic Change, Bangalore. email: kvraju2008@gmail.com
 ‘WATER’ – A HERITAGE PERSPECTIVE1

S. Manasi and K.V. Raju

Abstract
The current paper provides an historical overview of water management over
time and space and also makes an attempt to understand the values that the
ancient texts and scriptures laid on ‘water’ in specific, further detailing out
challenges in water management in the current context and suggesting future
options for improved water management. The focus is to see how ‘water’ was
and is perceived and the influence it had and has on ‘water management’. There
are references made in Vedas and in early scholarly manuscripts to several aspects
of water management viz. technologies in water management and use, irrigation
water management, water allocation and pricing, medicinal properties of water,
and conservation of water for sustainable use. All this was perceived through
viewing water as a ‘divine component’ where emphasis was on reverence for
water, belief systems, religious practices through which they created a sense of
awareness and respect towards water usage which helped conserve it as well.
There are also several simple and sustainable technologies that were in practice
and are found effective even to this day. Further, the paper describes the
challenges encountered in water management in the current context due to
competing water uses within and across sectors in view of urbanization and
population explosion capturing illustrations from Karnataka. Besides providing a
historical view and looking at these two contexts, efforts are made to draw some
lessons from the traditional water management practices and other literature as
well, for future water management.

1.0. Background
The roots of civilizational-cultural landscape of India can be located
historically in terms of an inalienable and harmonious existence with
nature over time and space. Our ancient scriptures such as Vedas make
several reverential references to nature as an all inclusive embodiment
of existence (both animate and inanimate). Further in the Indian socio-
cultural context, flora and fauna are considered valuable entities of nature

1
This paper was presented in ISEC-DF workshop on 25-1-2012 and revised
based on comments received. We thank Prof. N.S.S. Narayana and two
anonymous reviewers for their valuable suggestions and comments.

1
considering their relevance to the sustainability of a healthy eco-system.
Protecting the environment has been closely related to safeguarding
the earth as well. There are several examples that indicate that cultural
traditions have played a significant role in conserving many of our water
and forest resources even to this day. The ancient Indian scriptures
often emphasize the importance of a harmonious coexistence between
human beings and nature. -”Do strengthen me. May all beings regard
me with eyes of a friend. May I regard all beings with the eyes of a
friend. With the eyes of a friend do we regard one another.” YV 36.18
(Sharma, 2000).

As Shadananan Nair (2003) observes, ‘Ancient Indian literature

points towards an intuitive understanding of nature and natural
processes’. However, many of the ideas are presented philosophically,
so skill and effort are needed for tracing the meaning of many such
lines. The Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas, Epics and scholarly writings such
as “Mayurchitraka” “Brihat Samhita” are vast treasure troves of scientific
and environmental knowledge. The ancient scriptures, particularly the
Vedic literature stresses on maintaining the importance of natural
resources. Protection of environment is articulated through informal rules
in the form of traditions/daily rituals/prayers along with compassion
towards all forms of life with a particular emphasis on human wellbeing
wherein pious actions would result in nature’s blessings, (the earth -
mother and the atmosphere above - father would protect and provide
one with a long and peaceful life) while erroneous actions could harm
nature and its functions.

The natural forces have been associated with specific names of

deities - Indra as the god of water (and heaven), Marut as god of winds
while Aryaman, Mitra, Varuna and Soma as the expediters of water,
Aditi as universe, Fire (Agni) also regarded as a god. In Vedic cosmology,
the earth (Prithivi) symbolizes the material base while the upper sky or

2
heaven (Dyaus) symbolizes the unmanifested immortal source also known
as the ‘Universal Atman’ which together and between them, provides
the environment (paryavaran)’. In Atharva Veda also, earth is referred
to as mother, while the sky or heaven (dyaus) as father, and atmosphere
between them as brother while seeking forgiveness for any inadvertent
harm that may have been caused to these ‘relatives’. The Rig vedic
hymns clearly describe the Dyava Prithivi (Heaven and Earth) as `full of
water’, `decorated with ornaments of water’, `abundantly blessed with
love of water’, `conservator of waters’, etc (Sharma, 2000).

Given this broad background, the paper makes an attempt to

understand the significance that the ancient texts and scriptures have
attributed to ‘water’ in specific, with a view to explore how ‘water’ has
been perceived and the influence it has and can have on ‘water
management’. There are several references made in Vedas and in early
scholarly manuscripts to the various aspects of water management which
are not available in a compiled version. From a broader perspective, the
review would aid in a better understanding of ‘water management
practices’ as prevailing in the ancient times apart from helping us realize
its relevance to the current context of water management. Although
the contexts and the challenges are entirely different, we still hope to
find some answers and draw lessons from the past experiences for future
water management practices. The paper is divided into three sections –
section 1 is a review of ancient scriptures/historical documents on water
management and related aspects – viz. technologies in water
management and use, irrigation water management, water allocation
and pricing, medicinal properties of water, and water conservation for
sustainable use and so on, while section 2 highlights the current
challenges in water management in the context of population explosion
and urbanization in addition to issues such as water scarcity due to
competing water uses, water quality, environmental flows and so on.

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Several studies indicate that there is an urgent need for addressing the
current water crisis and that the situation of water management looks
bleak, in spite of several initiatives being undertaken throughout the
country for its protection and sustenance. The state’s effort in meeting
the water requirements in terms of quality and accessibility continues to
remain a challenge. Section 3 proposes certain possible future water
management options.

Section 1: Traditional Water Management

Approaches and Practices

1.1. ‘Water’ in Ancient Scriptures

1.1.1. Water – As a philosophical component of life

Water, or the water element, finds cited in the Vedas, Upanishads and
other ancient literature abundantly (Box 1). In the Vedas, water occupies
the highest place amongst the five basic elements of nature2. In all the
four Vedas, water is seen as a form of god fit to be worshipped,
considering its life giving properties. Rig-Veda contains several ‘shlokas’
in praise of ‘Water’. Water is seen as an embodiment of self-awareness.
Besides, water is referred to as a source of life, protector of earth and
environment, nectar, honey, generator of prosperity, cleanser of sins
and so on. Water is regarded as the first important element that gave
rise to the subsequent evolution of the universe. In Yajur Veda, water is
referred to as - ‘The Earth revolves with its mother water in its orbit,
The Earth revolves around its father, the Sun’ – (Yajur Veda 3/6).

1
All living and non-living bodies are made up five basic, gross elements of
Nature, called ‘Panchamahabhuta’. The substance capacity later in the five basic
elements (Bhutas) manifests in the following order — Ether or Space or Firmament
(Akash), Air (Vayu), Energy or Fire(Tej or Agni), Water (Aapah) and Earth (Prithivi).

4
Rig Veda says, on this planet, all life forms have evolved from apah
(water); and water is a basic need of all living creatures of this earth’.
Sheetam (cold to touch), Suchihi (clean), Shivam (replete with useful
minerals and trace of useful elements), Istham (transparent), Vimalam
Lahu Shadgunam (its acid-base balance should not exceed normal limits)
- these properties symbolize water as ‘divyajal’. Further, water is seen
as nectar and revered as pure, faultless, rain-shedding, sweet essence
of the earth, which the devout have first consecrated as the beverage of
Indra (RV 7.47.1). Water is also referred to as an intermediate component
between all pervasive air and localised earth. ‘Agni Vaisvanara is the
Universal God, who has entered into the heart and spirit of water, hence
considered as the life and the awareness’. Offerings are made to waters
of wells, pools, lakes, ponds, tanks, marshes, rains, streams, rivers and
ocean (Taittriya Samhita vii-4-13).

Similarly, the Taittariya Upanishad (II-i) says - ‘From the Self,

verily, space arose, from space air, from air fire, from fire water, from
water the earth, from the earth herbs, from herbs food, from food semen,
from semen the person’. From water earth was formed, i.e. out of water
sprang forth the embryonic state of the universe. Chhandogya Upanishad
(7.10.1) says “it is the waters which pervade everything, big or small,
the earth, the atmosphere, the heaven, the mountains, gods, men,
animals, birds, grass, plants, dogs, worms, insects, ants. All these (worldly
manifestations) are waters indeed” (Sharma, 2000).

Box 1: Mythological Anecdotes

The physical and aesthetic properties of water give it a unique mythical-

religious niche and, therefore, has played an important role in myths
and religious rituals.
- Lord Vishnu, the God of existence, also known as “Narayan”, is
the one who resides in water. The origin of life from water and

5
 the development of species explained through the ten
incarnations of Lord Vishnu, constitute a Hindu theological
concept of the evolutionary of life in Vedic history. The
incarnations through the ages are of various forms tortoise,
boar, lion and so on till he is a perfect human being.

- The importance of rivers and water bodies is highlighted

throughout “Ramayana” and “Mahabharata”, epics there exist
several legends about water and water bodies. The epic
“Ramayana” (Valmiki) explains a lot about the river Sarayu
(Ganges) into which Lord Sri Rama disappeared on the way to
heaven.

- Saints appearing in epics always lived in the vicinity of rivers,

as physical purity associated with mental purity was believed a
must in realizing the eternal truth.

1.2. Benefits from Water

1.2.1. Water – Source of Happiness, Inspirer and Motivator -
Water is seen as a source of happiness and strength also represents
splendor (Atharva Veda Samhita iii – 13-5). Water is also seen as
loving like mothers who care for their children. As regards wisdom and
happiness, “Since waters are the source of happiness, grant to us to
enjoy abundance, and a great and delightful perception”. (RV 10.9.1).
“I invoke for protection the divine waters of excellent wisdom, discharging
their functions – flowing by day and flowing by night” (RV).

Water is seen as an inspirer and motivator to achieve one’s goal,

full of vigour and strength besides following the right path with clarity,
as in the rig veda that, ‘ceaselessly they flow from the depths, pure,
never sleeping to reach the ocean, where King Varuna resides. Waters
may pour from heaven or run along channels dug out by men; or flow

6
clear and pure having the Ocean as their goal. ln the midst of the Waters
is moving the Lord, surveying men’s truth and men’s lies. How sweet
are the Waters, crystal clear and cleansing! From whom King Varuna,
Soma, and all the Deities drink exhilarating strength, into whom the
Universal Lord has entered, now may these great divine Waters quicken
me’ ( RV VII, 49).

1.2.2. Water - Embodiment of Prosperity – Prayers were

offered as water was considered divine, purifier, gratifier as it provided
people with food, aided to pursue the path of the gods, offered oblation
to the rivers for their incessant flows. Water is vaporized by the sun’s
rays, while Indra opens a path to bestow upon us wealth; and cherish
us with blessings.” (RV 7.47.3-4). Earth, in which lie the seas, the rivers
and other waters, in which food and cornfields have come to be, in
which lives all that breathes and that moves, may she confer on us the
finesse of her yield (Atharva Veda – Hymns to the Earth – Bhumi-Sukta).
Similarly, rain plays an important role and without rain, there cannot be
water flows and even the wealth of the wide seas gets reduced. The
continuance of timely rainfall will help the world preserve its existence
for bestowing fortune. In the case of failure of rainfall, the results
would be disastrous with respect to hopes and, hunger and distress
situation would prevail. The farmers will not be able to plough their
lands, resulting in the loss of lives including livestock due to scarcity of
fodder, and hence there can be no celebration of annual festivals and
daily prayers (Sharma, 2000).

1.2.3. Water as ‘Purifier’ - The position of water as a life

giving and life sustaining element is very high. Water is considered a
cleanser of sins besides being regarded as divine and a protective power.
Water is seen as a means of purification and as per “Yajur Veda” clean
water has the potential to purify all things through rain: “may waters,
like mother, purify our bodies”. “The waters, with their ocean-chief,

7
proceed from the midst of the firmament, purifying (all things), flowing
unceasingly; may the divine waters, whom the thunder-bearing Lord
Indra, showered, sent forth, protect me here (on earth)” (RV 7.49.1-2).
“May the maternal (earth’s) waters purify us, may the shedders of water
purify us with effusion; for the divine (waters) bear away all sin: I come
away from them purified” (to heaven). (RV 10.17.10). “(Waters)! the
plants flourish by means of water, by prayer is effectual through water;
the essence of water is vigorous through water; purify me with it.” (RV
10.17.14). Similarly, in the Yajur Veda, the sages pray for purification, –
“O Water, thou art the reservoir of welfare and propriety, sustain us to
become strong. We look up to thee to be blessed by thy kind nectar on
this earth. O water, we approach thee to get rid of our sins. May the
water cleanse the earth, the earth cleanse me. May the holy waters
make me devoid of sins and remove my bad deeds. The waters that
keep Agni (fire) inside them, bless us. The waters that generate all
prosperity on earth and heaven and those which dwell in different forms
in the atmosphere, those who irrigate the earth, may those waters be
kind to us and bless us. O Water, kindly touch me with thy divine self
and establish strength, radiance, intellect and wisdom in me.”

“Earth, in which the waters, common to all, moving on all sides,

flow unfailingly, day and night, may she pour on us milk in many streams,
and endow us with luster” (Atharva Veda – Hymn to the Earth – Bhumi
Sukta). “Waters bear off all defilements and cleanse people (Vajasaneya
Samhita iv.2). ‘Water cleanses humanity of the evil of pollution committed
by it’ (Atharva Veda Samhita xii-2-40) (Sharma, 2000). Similarly, the
popular ‘Tirukulals’ indicate the importance of water in a person’s life
wherein he/she, without water cannot go about the daily routine and
discharge one’s duties of life.

1.2.4. Water as Procreator - Water has always been highly

respected and treated with great reverences and is prayed to grant men

8
procreative power (RV 10.9.3). It mentions- “All creatures are born from
the waters” (RV 1.23.16, 10.17.10). Waters have been considered as
the producers of all that is stationary and all that moves” (RV 6.50.1).
They are also hailed as mothers of all beings (RV 1.23.10, 6.50.6,
10.17.10). Waters as friends of man, give full protection to his progenies
(Rig Veda Samhita vi-50-7).

1.2.5. Water’s Medicinal Properties - Water’s medicinal and

healing properties are highlighted in Vedas. Vedas encourage and inspire
people to explore and acquire the knowledge of nature cure. Water is
seen as the reservoir of all curative medicines. ‘Varuna’ is a cosmic ruler
as well as the deity that dwells in waters, presides over them and is,
therefore, prayed to for granting strength and virility to people’. Rigveda
hails waters as the reservoir of all curative medicines. It offers oblations
to deities presiding over the flowing waters- “O Water, which we have
drunk, becomes refreshing in our body. May you be pleasant to us by
driving away diseases and pains – O divine immortal waters” (RV 63).

Atharva Veda and other several hymns (6.23; 24 & 57) specifically
mention the medicinal value of waters and as a dispeller of diseases,
Atharvaveda and Rigveda (1.161.9) state – ‘there exists no better
element other than water “Water is sovereign of precious treasures,
hence requested to act as a healer and remove all ill health” (RV 10.9.5).

1.3. Promoting Conservation and Protection

1.3.1. Sustainable Practices - Water conservation, use and
management were given considerable importance in ancient India
(Shadananan Nair, 2003). Conservation, Protection and Judicious use of
water have been well documented in the Vedas and Upanishads. The
ancient teachers have specified the conservation of water keeping in
view the future generations. ‘Plants and water are treasures for
generations’ (Rig Veda Samhita vii.70-4). ‘Waters and herbs should have

9
no poison’ (Rig Veda Samhita vi – 39-5). ‘Waters are to be freed from
defilement’ (Atharva Veda Samhita x-5-24’). The environmental protection
was closely related to the protection of heaven (atmosphere) and the
earth. During the Vedic times, the sages prayed for the maintainance of
a required balance in the functioning of all entities of nature - the
mountains, lakes, heaven and earth, the forests, the waters in the
firmament. People were ordained to use their life sustaining waters most
judiciously and with greatest reverence. Generating respect for water
among the masses acted as a regulatory measure for curtailing water
pollution. Water in all its various forms was considered divine and blissful.

1.3.2. Water Purification Practices - It is also interesting to note

that there existed several methods for assessing and maintaining water
quality and also treatment methods as revealed by the Vedas and also
books on “Ayurveda”. In Brihat-Samhita, written and compiled by
Varahamihira, several methods for obtaining potable water from
contaminated sources, using plants, metals and heat are described
besides the purification process of ground water has been dealt with at
length. A powder mix extracted from herbs like Anjan, Bhadramustha,
Khas (vetiver), Amla (emblica officinalis, gooseberry) and Nirmali (bhui
amla / kataka), was in use in measured quantities for purifying water in
wells. Sushruta, the famous Indian physician provided a detailed practical
guidance for water purification. He showed that with herbs and other
natural substance muddy water could be purified, using Nirmali seeds,
roots of Kamal (lotus/water lily), rhizomes of algae and three stones,
Gomed (garnet) Moti (pearl) and Sphatik (quartz crystal). He suggested
exposing contaminated water to the sun or immersing a red hot iron rod
or hot sand in it, for purification purpose. Table 1 provides details on
traditional practices in maintaining water quality.

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Table 1: Traditional Practices of safeguarding Drinking Water

Use of Alum in Water Aluminium sulfate or Alum is used as an

aflocculant for removing unwanted colour
and turbidity from water supplies. It has been
used since ancient times for this purpose and
its use together with filtration is a standard
practice in conventional water treatment
processes around the world.
Using cloth for In Dhoti method, a thin piece of cloth is used
filtering for filtering water
Keeping Tortoises in Tortoises are known to have a much longer
open wells life span than humans. It has been a
traditional practice particularly in India to
keep tortoises in drinking water wells so that
they feed on organisms harmful to humans
while keeping water safe for drinking.
Use of Moringa Seeds Moringa tree seeds are crushed into powder
and used as a water-soluble extract in
suspension, resulting in an effective natural
purification agent for highly turbid and
untreated pathogenic surface water.
Rain water Harvesting rain water through simple
harvesting filtration methods such as using cloth pieces.
Combination of local Raw water is filtered through powdered seeds
plant and filtration of local plant materials including Moringa
methods oleifera and Phyllanthus emblica—natural
flocculants—and through coarse sand,
charcoal, and gravel, which reduce the total
aerobic mesophilic bacterial, E coli, coliform,
pseudomonas, and yeast counts, and
turbidity, consistent with World Health
Organization acceptable standards for potable
water.http://hopebuilding.pbworks.com/w/
page/19222829/Tamil-Nadu-group-finds-
simple-way-to-purify-drinking-water

11
 It has been scientifically proved by researches that storing drinking
water in brass vessels is good for health, a system which was also in
practice in ancient times. Microbiologists suggest that rather than using
plastic containers for storing water, it is better to use brass containers
which help combat many water-borne diseases.

“The scientific principle involved in this is the fact that any metal
or alloy tends to disrupt biological systems. The element acts by
interfering with the membranes and enzymes of cells; for bacteria, this
can mean death. Pots made of brass, (an alloy of copper and zinc), shed
copper particles into the water that they contain. But the miniscule
amount that circulates into the water, while destroying bacteria does
not harm human beings”. http://www.indiaheritage.org/science/
edviron.htm

1.4. Imbibing Awareness through Belief Systems

1.4.1. Use of Water in Social and Religious Traditions

In all the cultures of the world, water is given a high prominence.

Similarly, in respect of the socio-religious-cultural tradition of India, water
is accorded a very high and unique status. This can be observed during
religious/social customs and practices, festivals and so on. Water is the
most important requirement for performing religious rituals and social
ceremonies as it is considered the basic means for purification of body
and soul in Indian culture since ancient times. On auspicious occasions
like marriage and other religious functions, metallic pitchers, symbolizing
rivers, are used. Water and fire are considered as the divine witnesses
to all human deeds; hence all rituals and rites are performed in their
presence (Sharma, 2000). Several beliefs and practices are observed
(Box 2).

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Box 2: Dogmas and Practices

- Associated with every Hindu temple and ashrams, are big ponds
and wells. There is a popular belief that bathing in holy rivers
or drinking some drops of water from these rivers before the
last breath, helps absolve oneself of all the sins committed
through evil deeds during the present lifetime and also through
several lives.

- There is also a popular belief that a dip in the sacred waters at

Kumbha Mela ensures one salvation or freedom from the cycle
of births and deaths.

- On specific occasions like the solar and lunar eclipses or specific

planetary configurations a dip in the holy rivers is an essential
part of Hindu culture, as it is considered to have Cosmo-
biological effect on the human body and mind.

- According to Agni Purana and Padma Purana, the Ganga

descended to the earth on Ganga Dussehra day and a bath in
the holy river on this day is said to purify one of all sins. To die
on the banks of the Ganga is considered most auspicious. If
that is not possible, then ashes after cremation are immersed
in the river Ganga as it is believed to release one from the cycle
of births and re-births.

- There is a common belief among the locals that girls who take
a holy dip in the river Ganga on Makara Sankranti day get
handsome grooms and the boys beautiful brides.

- On the banks of the river Ganga, Haridwar, India, there is a

practice going on even to this day, every morning and evening
a daily Ganga worship with lighted lamps in the presence of
thousands of devotees, and with holy music and chants of
mantras is performed.

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 - In all religious practices, the sprinkling of divine water is an
inevitable part. The water is purified with “mantras”, invoking
the presence of seven sacred rivers. This divine water is used
for anointing idols, which is then distributed to devotees.

- At the functions following funerals and during offerings to

ancestors, bathing and dipping in holy water bodies, including
the ocean, is considered of great religious and spiritual value.

- Praying with a handful of water in the mornings and the evenings

is part of one’s daily life. There are several water bodies
considered sacred in different States of India.

- Former generations used to give due consideration to the right

of all creations for using water. Open wells have been in use for
centuries. Near the well, they used to construct small pits to be
filled with water so that birds, reptiles or animals could drink.

- A certain class of Brahmins even judges the behaviour of a

newly-wedded girl by asking her to water the sacred plant “tulsi”
while watching to see if she leaves some water in the container
for other creatures. The custom is not to empty the bucket
until sunset.

1.4.2. Respect to ‘Rivers’ in Scriptures and Mythological

Descriptions Rivers are considered divine in the Indian civilization and
worshipped as Goddesses as revealed in mythological descriptions. The
rivers are worshipped like goddesses, considered as holy and seen as
life sustaining having medicinal value and as a cleanser of sins. The
traditional ‘chants’ invoke all the major rivers of India to purify and
absolve them of their sins. In Rigveda, river Sarasvati is compared to
the celestial cow (Kamadhenu) that nurtures people with its nutritive
milk. More references to rivers, their waters, their behaviors and the
bliss they bestow on people are to be found in the Vedas. The rivers are

14
considered as the daughters of the Sun and cloud and the “mantras” of
the “Rig Veda” denote that the creation started with the origin of water.
The knowledge of Geography, Geomorphology and stream flow has been
well developed in the ancient times. “Atharva Veda” mentions that rivers
originate in mountains and are perennial while during the summer river
flow is maintained by the snow-covered mountains (Nair, 2004).

1.4.3. Water Festivals of India - Several water-related festivals are

organized with millions of people participating for a holy dip in the sacred
rivers, even to this day though the celebration of these festivals varies
across cities (Table 2). During these festivals thanks giving ceremony
to God for providing food, water and shelter is also conducted. The faith
behind this indicates that Lord Shiva showers his grace in terms of
providing water in times of extreme drought conditions. Most of these
legends about rivers relate to religious, cultural, and social events in
history. For instance, Pushkaram festival occurs in any particular year
with respect to one of the twelve important rivers3 which is based on
the zodiacal sign Jupiter. The first twelve days are knows as Adi
Pushkaram and the last twelve days are known as Anthya Pushkaram.
There is a belief that during these twenty four days ‘Pushkar’ the person,
who is imbued with the power to make any river holy will travel with
Jupiter as Jupiter moves from one Zodiac house to another.

1
Ganges, Narmada, Saraswati, Yamuna, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, Bhima,
Brahmaputra, Tungabhadra, Indus, Pranahita

15
Table 2: Water Festivals across States

Maharashtra “Kumbh Mela” considered the greatest of the

Indian fairs with the highest state of water

Uttarkhand symbolism, attracts the largest congregation of

religious pilgrims from all over the world.
Symbolically speaking, the forces of creation are
Madhya
collected in one vessel (Kumbh) and a celebration
Pradesh
(mela) ensues, hence called “Kumbh Mela”. Millions
of piligrims take a dip in the holy rivers in order to
wash away their sins. The month long festival
represents a time when the river is believed to turn
into purifying nectar, allowing the devotees to
cleanse their souls as they bathe. It is a very
important occasion that takes place every 3 years
at the following four locations in India: (a) Allahabad
(Prayag), at the confluence of rivers Ganga, Yamuna
and mythical river, Saraswati (b) Haridwar, where
the River Ganga enters the plains from the
Himalayas; (c) Ujjain, on the banks of the river
Shipra; (d) Nasik, on the banks of the river Godavari.
• The “Ardh (half) Kumbh Mela” is held every 6
years at Allahabad and Haridwar
• “Purna (complete) Kumbh Mela”, the biggest and
the most auspicious fair, is held every 12 years.
• “Purna Kumbh Mela” is always held at Allahabad,
considered exceptionally sacred because of the
confluence of holy rivers.”Maha Kumbh Mela”
occurs every 144 years. In addition, the “Magh
Mela” or the Annual Mini Kumbh (in the month
of Magh in the national calendar i.e. falls during
January-February) is held every year at
Allahabad, excepting the years of “Puma Kumbh
Mela”.

16
Uttarpradesh Ganga Dashara Sagara means the location of the
ocean, and the island where the river Ganga enters
Bihar the ocean. A fair is held with people coming from
long distances for bathing and later they worship
West Bengal Goddess Ganga. The legend has it that Ganga
entered the ocean at this point to wash away the
bones of 60,000 sons of Sagara, in whose memory
the island is named. Ganga Dussehra is celebrated
on the tenth day of Jyeshtha. The river Ganga is
worshipped as a mother/ Goddess, by people of Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, and Bengal where it flows. On this
day, if a devotee is unable to visit and bathe in the
river Ganga, then Ganga Jal (water) kept in most
Hindu homes is used for purification. It is believed
that bathing in the river will wash away one’s sins.
People have a ceremonial bath in the river Bhagirathi
before offering worship to mother Ganga and
distributing alms to beggars, supposedly to earn a
bonus of religious merit.

West Bengal Makara Sankranti – A dip in the ocean, where

the Ganga drains into the sea is considered to be of
religious significance on the Makara Sankranti day
when the sun makes a transition to Capricorn from
Sagittarius and becomes home to vast fairs, drawing
visitors from all over the state. After they are done
with the ritual obligations, they head towards the
Kapilmuni Temple situated nearby, to worship the
deity as a mark of respect.

17
Kerala Boat festivals- Certain competitive races are held
across villages of central Kerala featuring smaller
churulans, oadis, and irrutukuthies by way of
providing an expression to the spirit of athletics. On
the backwaters of Kerala, fierce Vallom Kallies (boat
races) and water carnivals are held annually that
are witnessed by thousands of spectators. The water
carnivals and snake boat races herald the week of
the great harvest festival of Onam.

Tamil Nadu Adiperukku- This unique festival is celebrated

during mid July-August, 18th day of Tamil month,
Aadi, by women. The festival pays rich tributes to
water’s life-sustaining properties.

Himachal Minjar - Celebrated during July-August at Chamba,

Pradesh is kind of a thanks giving ceremony to the rain god.
It is also a prayer for good harvest, held for 7 days
and is one of the major monsoon festivals in
Himachal Pradesh.

Karnataka Tula Sankramana - It is believed that, on this day,

Goddess Cauvery provides her ‘Darshan’ to devotees
in the form of an upsurge of water in a small tank.
It is considered a very sacred moment with
thousands of devotees visit Kodagu for receiving
Goddess Cauvery’s blessings. Taking a bath in the
tank by devotees is the most important ritual of the
day. It is said that, taking a dip in the tank purifies
one’s body and soul. Devotees also take holy water
to their homes.

18
Orissa Kartika Purnima: The massively popular fair is held
on the banks of Mahanadi river in the fort area of
Cuttack from where the traders of yesteryears
(sadhaba) undertook voyages along the beaten trade
route in huge boats called “Boita”. To relive the glory
of ancient times – the opulence associate with the
thriving trade and the prosperity, the people of
Cuttack as well as those of the entire state small
boats in the river while recalling the by gone times
.In consonance with the “bidding adieu” practice in
those days when the wives prayed for the successful
return of their husbands, married women and
children today, wearing colorful costumes, gather
near the water bodies carrying tiny boats made of
paper or thermocol . They then place small lighted
lamps inside them as a mark of memory of the
merchants who had ventured out into the unknown
in search of prosperity and launch them on the gentle
waves of the water amidst the blowing of the
conches, ululations and occasional bursting of fire
crackers. The entire stretch of Mahanadi flowing
beside the Gadgadeswar Temple in Cuttack, which
was once the starting point of the trade route to the
Bali island, turns into a conundrum of activity early
in the morning on this day of Kartik Purnima.

Madya Kumbha Mela - Ujjain has the honor of holding

Pradesh the famous Kumbha fair once in twelve years.
Ganga Dashmi- The festival falls on the tenth day
of the second fortnight of Jyaistha (May-June).

19
 In Surguja region, the occasion is practiced by the
Adivasis and non-Adivasis. The classes of the Hindu
fold celebrate it because on this day the river Ganges
had made its descent on the earth. They take a dip
in any nearby river and make offerings. The tribal
people go in batches with their women to the
riverside for drinking and dancing. Games and local
competitions are arranged.

Haryana Teej - This is celebrated on Sawan Sudi - 3 (Jul-

Aug),by way of welcoming ‘Sawan’ or the rainy
season. After the first showers of Sawan, a small
red insect called Teej in Haryana comes out from
earth’s soil. Swings are set up in the open courtyards
and Teej gets the first swing of the season. Girls
apply henna on their hands and feet and hence are
excused from household chores on this day. On Teej,
girls receive new clothes from their parents and
mothers send bayas or gifts. A puja is performed in
the morning. The baya which consists of a variety
of foodstuff, is placed on a thali at the place of
worship, a decorated chowk (square) with an idol
or a picture of Parvati installed. The evenings are
set aside for singing and dancing.

Chetar Chaudas Mela

The festival is annually held in Pehowa, which has
the holy Saraswati tank also called ‘Saraswati
Teertha’ or ‘Prithudak Teertha’. This ‘Teertha’ also
finds mention in the ancient Hindu texts. Here at
this place, the Chetar Chaudas Fair is held during

20
 the spring season. Pilgrims, both Sikhs and Hindus,
flock to this place for offering ‘pinds’ to their
ancestors. It is claimed that here in this holy spot,
Yudhister had offered ‘pinds’ in memory of all his
relatives killed in the Mahabharat war. Pilgrims take
bath in the Saraswati tank during this fair.

Madlia Naumi This is celebrated at the beginning

of the rainy season.

Bihar Chhath or Surya Puja is the main festival of Bihar,

held after six days of Diwali; it is a festival of prayers
and propitiation observed with solemnity. It is an
expression of thanks and seeking blessings from the
forces of nature, mainly the Sun and river. The belief
is that a devotee’s desire is always fulfilled during
Chhath when people worship the Sun God. On the
first day, the house is cleaned, with family members
going in for a holy dip and eating strict vegetarian
food and sleep on the floor. All earthen vessels are
reserved for this day only. The persons observing
Chaath also known as Parvatis, observe dawn to
dusk fast which concludes with partaking of sweets.
This is followed by another fast for 36 hours till the
dawn of the final day when puja starts at the river
bank much before sunrise. These parvatis remain
in water from late midnight until the first ray of dawn.
The rivers are flooded with offerings to the sun which
is followed by breakfast and distribution of sweets
among those gathered. Fresh paddy, sweets and
fruits are also offered by the devotees to the Sun
God for a good harvest at the sun temple in Baragaon
near Nalanda.

21
Manipur Yaoshang (Holi)- A riot of colours and water and
the various chantings of devotees of Lord Krishna
characterize this festival. Another feature of this
premier festival is the Thabal Chongba (Dancing in
the Moonlight). Boys from various places come to
the site of the festival and dance with girls holding
hands while moving in circles. It is celebrated for
five days starting from the full moon of Phalguna
(February/March).

Uttar Ganga Mahotsav is a five day event celebrated on

Pradesh the banks of the river Ganges in Varanasi. This
festival is celebration of Varanasi as the cultural
and spiritual capital of India and the Ganges as
India’s lifeline, considered worthy of highest
reverence by the Hindus. Ganga gives a sense of
belonging to the people of India especially those
living near its banks.

Gujarat Rishi Panchami According to is a legend Ganga

came down to the earth on Rishi Panchami, the fifth
day of Bhadra (September) at Tarnetar. There is a
sacred tank where people congregate for a holy bath
on that day.

Source: See Foot Note4

http://www.festivalsofindia.in/ganga_mahotsav/
1
http://www.whereincity.com/india/west-bengal/festivals.php, http://
www.indiasite.com/manipur/fairs-festivals.html
http://www.indovacations.net/english/BiharFestival.htm, http://www.haryana-
online.com/culture/fairs_&_festivals.htm
http://www.onlytravelguide.com/madhya-pradesh/fairs-festivals/ganga-
dashmi.php, http://www.indialine.com/travel/karnataka/fairs-festivals.html, http:/
/www.indiaatitsbest.com/kerala/festivals.html
http://scraps.oriyaonline.com/blog/?tag=fairs-and-festivals-of-orissa, http://
www.walkthroughindia.com/festivals/the-10-major-monsoon-festivals-in-india/,
http://www.indiatraveltours.net/fair-festivals-in-india/fairs-of-madhya-
pradesh.html

22
1.4.4. Local Awareness through Proverbs and Sayings
Proverbs across Indian languages related to nature, rainfall, water etc.
are treasures of wisdom simple and popular and are easily passed on
through generations. Collecting those simple connotations amounts to
a huge task says Shadananan Nair. This knowledge has been developed
through keen observations of nature and events. A review of behaviour
of 165 birds and animals is taken as an indicator of the nature of
forthcoming rainfall and the availability of resources. Citing examples
from proverbs in Kerala, Shadananan Nair summarizes that, “If planted
in ‘njattuvela’ (break monsoon), even dry sticks will grow”. The break
monsoon gives rain and strong sunshine alternately several times a day,
and this is considered a good time for planting small plants and trees.
“Water should be inside ‘thundams’ (heaps of sand) in the ‘thulavarsham’
(winter monsoon)”. The winter monsoon marks the end of the rainy
season with the detention of water enhancing groundwater recharge.

1.5. Technologies in Water Management

1.5.1. Awareness regarding Water Cycle and Hydrology
The Vedas have made references to hydrological cycle indicating
the conversion of water from one form to another was well understood
and documented in a scientific way during the vedic times. In Puranas,
Bruhat Samhita, Meghmala and other literature, the intake of water by
plants, division of water into minute particles by sun rays and wind,
clouds of different types, their heights, their rainfall capacities etc., with
the calculation of rain-fall quantity in advance through observation of
natural phenomena are described.

The early studies on weather and water in India can be traced

back to thousands of years. The Sukla Yajur Veda Mantra is used
traditionally in the Vedas to invoke Mars (Angaraka) which has reference
to water. The early philosophical writings contain descriptions of the

23
earth’s revolution around the Sun, the seasons, and the processes of
cloud formation and rain. The ‘Arthashastra’ and Panini’s ‘Astadhyayi’
refer to rain gauges during the 700 BC besides the rainfall quantity in
different parts of India. “Arthashastra” contains records of scientific
measurements of rainfall in various parts of India and its application to
the country’s revenue and relief work.

By the time of Kautilya (4th century B.C.), instrumental devices

for measuring rainfall were developed. This raingauge was known as
Varshaman. Kautilya was acquainted with the distribution of rainfall in
various areas. He furnishes a very accurate scientific description of the
same with statistics. The quantity of rain that falls in the country of
Jangala (desert countries) is 16 dronas (4 Adak = 1 drona and one adak
equals nearly 7 lb, 11 oz), half as much in moist countries (the countries
which are fit for agriculture), 13.5 dronas in the countries of Asmakas
(Maharashtra); 23 dronas in Avanti, and an immense quantity in the
western countries, the border of the Himalayas and the countries where
water channels are used in agriculture (Arth, Chapter XXIV, Book II, P.
130).

It also classifies climate and identifies the zones suitable for

agriculture. It appears that fire and flood control measures for protecting
farms and villages were also practiced in respect of rainfall and water.
As Shadananan Nair points out ‘Many of the hydrological concepts
developed in the last few centuries were known and well documented in
them by 3000 BC. Only a small fraction of the scientific knowledge
contained in them has so far been studied in detail. A valuable attempt
at undertaking this work was carried out by the National Institute of
Hydrology (1990). Similarly, the “Vayu Purana” and the “Matsya Purana”
mention the rainfall potential of clouds and the formation of clouds by
cyclonic, convectional and orographic effects. The “Vishnu Purana”
discusses the glorious sun that exhales moisture from seas, rivers, the

24
Earth and living creatures. The great poet Kalidasa of the 7th century
BC, in his work “Meghdoot”, mentions the date of onset of the monsoon
over central India and the path of the monsoon clouds (India
Meteorological Department, 2003).

There was familiarity about the phenomena of infiltration,

interception; stream-flow, geomorphology, artesian wells and erosive
action of water were also well understood. According to Bruhat Samhita,
the development of ground water and quality had got sufficient attention.
The management of water and conservation, well organized water pricing
system, methods of construction and materials of dam, tanks etc., and
protection measures mentioned in the ancient books reveal the expertise
in the development of water resources management and hydrology in
ancient India (Lochan, online).

1.5.2. Traditional Sustainable Practices

Societies and cultures have traditionally developed sustainable
techniques for conserving and managing nature and natural resources.
India has a fascinating and significant ancient tradition of conserving
land and water and even today, local people follow several such traditional
conservation practices. India’s diversity in respect of its climate conditions
led to innovative ways of water conservation and management which
are locale specific. Technologies in water management were practiced
with regard to irrigation water management (Box 3) and urban contexts
with drinking water and sanitation given due importance. Biodiversity-
related cultural phenomena exist by different local names in different
parts of India. For example, making small heaps of sands before the
end of the winter monsoon in the central part of Kerala was, in fact, a
multi-purpose method involving water and agricultural management.
Water trapped in between the heaps infiltrates in to groundwater, so
that there is no serious water shortage in the dry months. In addition,

25
the weeds get removed and soil becomes loose to fit the land for
agriculture. Similarly, in some parts of Karnataka, where Arecaunut is
grown, the husk is spread evenly on the earth to contain moisture and
retain groundwater. Unfortunately, because of fast changing life styles,
the rising cost of labour and the shortage of land availability due to an
ever increasing population, this sustainable and environment-friendly
method are becoming uncommon (Shadananan Nair, 2003).

Box 3: Lakes

Artificial ponds and lakes had been created in the ancient times by
stopping the outlets of streams and rivers. From such water-bodies,
water was lifted by counterpoised ‘sweeps’, or other devices, and fed
into smaller channels. These, in turn, carried the water into fields.
Artificially fabricated lakes were built across India and it has been
estimated that, over time, there exist nearly 1.3 million human-made
lakes and ponds. The Earliest Artificial Lake known is ‘Sudarshan’
lake, Gujarat’s Girnar area, (early period of Mauryan dynasty
emperors). Largest Artificial lake (250 sq miles, 65,000 ha) in Bhojpur,
near Bhopal, had been built during the middle of the 11th century, by
king Bhoj Parmar, of Dhar. This was built across two hills fed by 365
streams and springs. Another Artificial lake the Raj Samand in
Rajasthan, built at the command of Maharana Raj Singh of Mewar,
in 1676 AD. This is a large water-body of conserved fresh-water,
created, in part, through damming the waters of a small rivulet, and
augmented by the excavation of a large tract in which rain-water
could be collected. Ana Sagar Lake, Ajmer, Rajasthan, 12th century
Ghadsisar reservoir-lake, Jaisalmer in 1367 AD by Bhati ruler, Rawal
Ghadsi are some of the most popular old lakes known among the
various lakes of Udaipur city.

Source: Hooja Rima, 2010

26
 Agriculture was practiced on a large scale, with extensive networks
of canals for irrigation (Box 4 and 5). Irrigation systems were based on
formal and informal rules laid down by traditional societies which helped
conserve and sustain water. Traditional systems of water storage – tank
systems, numerous types of wells, low cost water harvesting techniques
lay a great stress on the need for considering the elapsed acumens
gained from past knowledge. The reservoirs built in 3000 BC at Girnar,
Bhojsagar, the artificial irrigation lake at Madhya Pradesh constructed in
the 11th century, an artificial lake fed by Kaveri river indicate finer skills
associated with water management practices in the past. Temple tanks
that dot the popular south Indian temples are to be found exceptionally
in good condition. In India (western part) since fifth to the nineteenth
centuries, water was collected and stored in stone cisterns; these glorious
structures are known as step wells or stepped ponds. They are
outstanding architectural structures; few are profound as nine stories
with intricate carvings, ornamented towers, and elaborate sculptures
depicting the local culture and environment. Over the past 500 years,
step wells held a center-stage for communities as sites for drinking,
washing, bathing besides colorful festivals and sacred rituals. Distinctive,
often highly decorated communal Hindu architectural structures, with
origins in the seventh century in the semiarid regions of Gujarat and
Rajasthan, step wells reached their peak from 900 to 1300 C.E. as
elaborate water buildings were invested with ritual and social meanings.
These water collection systems which were designed to preserve
monsoon rains, and modified by Muslims and Mughals in the mid-19th
century, were effectively shut down by the Britishers (Agarwal and Sunita,
1997).

For several thousands of years, Indians have recognized the

importance of groundwater development and utilization, as life was and
is dependent on agriculture and because many parts of North India

27
used to experience dry climatic conditions. In Bhagavad-Gita, Lord Krishna
discusses the importance of sinking wells for water as great work (yagna)
and emphasizes on the role of water in the evolution (Ramakrishnan,
2000). Information on infiltration can be found in “Taitariya Samhita”
and in “Mahabharata”. The Vedas mention clearly the use of water
abstracted from wells. Three chapters of “Brihat Samhita” of Varaha
Mihira, of the 5th century AD, are fully devoted to meteorology and
climatology, while one chapter is fully dedicated to groundwater
exploration, exploitation and equipment. Physiographic features, termite
mounds, soils, flora, fauna, rocks and minerals, were used for detect
groundwater. It is interesting to note that the estimation of the depth of
the water table was based on the presence of termite mounds and certain
trees near them (Shadananan Nair, 2003).

Box 4: Tank and Canal Irrigation Practices

Practices like contour-bunding and local-level lift-irrigation schemes

have used available water-resources in ways suitable to the local
terrain and economy. These include the khadin-based cultivation,
tankas, nadis etc of Rajasthan, bandharas and tals of Maharashtra,
the bundhis common to Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh, and
Bihar’s ahars and pynes. These also include the kuhls known in
Himachal Pradesh and the kuhals of Jammu & Kashmir, the ponds
used in the Kandi belt of Jammu, the eris of Tamil Nadu, surangams
of Kerala, and the kattas of Karnataka, which are still in use today.

Sringaverapura, Allahabad, - Series of tanks, 1st century BC -

The Sringaverapura tank-complex obtained water from the nearby
river Ganga during the monsoon season, when the level of the river
usually rose by about 7-8 metres. As a result, excess water used to
spill over from the Ganga into an adjoining stream. From this stream,
a 11m wide and 5m deep canal carried the water further into the
Sringaverapura tanks.

28
 Hathigumpha inscriptions, dating back to the 2nd century BC
contain descriptions of the major irrigation works of Kalinga, Orissa.
Artificial reservoirs or tanks too were built for irrigation purposes
through damming smaller streams. A complex network of irrigation
and water management systems had been established by the Gond
kingdom of central India together with the necessary social and
administrative systems needed to sustain them.

Various Sultans of the Delhi Sultanate, including Iltutmish,

Alauddin Khilji, Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq and Feroz Shah Tughlaq built
and repaired various tanks, water-collection systems, and canals etc.
during the 13th to 15th centuries.

Kalhan’s 12th century text, the ‘Rajatarangini’ (composed around

1148-1150 AD), while chronicling the history of Kashmir, refers to a
well-conceived and maintained irrigation system. ‘Rajatarangini’ also
provides information regarding various canals, irrigation channels,
embankments, aqueducts, circular dykes, barrages, wells and
waterwheels, and details of numerous hydraulic works executed during
the reigns of various rulers of Kashmir.

In the 8th century AD, king Lalitaditya Muktapida of the Karkota

dynasty, constructed a series of arghat or waterwheels. These
waterwheels were constructed to lift waters from the river Vitasta
(Jhelum), for their distribution to villages.

In the desert areas of the Thar region, now belonging to the

states of Rajasthan and Gujarat, tanks, kunds, step-wells or baolis/
baoris, vavs, wells, ponds etc., were built. Besides these, specific
indigenous water-harvesting and collection methods were developed
/ evolved in direct response to the local geo-physical conditions. This
led to the development and maintenance of systems like johadhs,

29
anicuts, check-dams, khadins, tankas, adlaz, jhalara, modhera, vapi,
medhbandhi the virdas of the Kutch region, etc. Water-lifting devices
like draw-wells, ‘rahat’ and ‘dhekli’ systems were developed too.

Adalaj Step Well, located in Gandhinagar district, Ahmedabad, built

during the reign of Queen Rudabai, a muslim ruler in 1499. It is five
storey step well directly reaching out to the water table wherein it is
exposed to the fresh water that varied across the seasons and rainfall
patterns. It was also used as a resting place for pilgrims for hundreds
of years. The opening in the ceilings above the landing allows the
light and air to enter the octagonal well. Direct sunlight does not
touch the flight of steps except for a brief time during noon. This
step well is a spectacular example of Indo-Islamic architecture and
design.

The southern part of India, under several dynasties such as the

Chola, Pandya, Pallava, Chera, Vakataka, Kakatiya, etc. developed a
vast network of tanks and canals, famed the world over, for irrigating
crops and enhancing agrarian production. Under the Vijayanagar
kingdom, a mighty reservoir was built using the labour of 20,000
men during the reign of king Krishna Deva Raya.

In northeastern areas of the Sub-Continent, including the the

foothills and lower slopes of the Himalayas different local communities
had devised indigenous methods of collecting and channeling
rainwater towards meeting their agricultural and drinking water
requirements.

Source: Hooja Rima, 2010

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adalaj_Stepwell

30
Box 5: The Sanchi Dams Project - Major Buddhist hilltop,
UNESCO World Heritage site Sanchi, Central India.

It is a very well preserved and most studied Buddhist site in

India. The establishment of Sanchi was closely tied to the spread of
the Mauryan Empire and related processes of urbanisation, the latter
well-represented by the early historic city-site of Vidisha.

According to the edicts writing of Asoka; during the later 2nd century
BCE and early 1st century CE a number of building works were taken
up financed by the collective patronage of the powerful families and
guilds. The contribution of land and villages recorded in the inscriptions
during the Gupta and post-Gupta periods, show that the Buddhist
sangha was involved in a sustainable exchange system with local
agricultural communities. To maintain water levels in the main
reservoir, two smaller tanks at Karondih and Dargawan in the shorter
valleys to the west had been designed as part of an upstream irrigation
system.

Throughout the Sanchi area, similar dams can be found. All have
earthen cores with stone facing, on the upstream side, with heights
of 1 to 6 m, and lengths of 80 to 1400 m. The volume of early reservoir
ranges between 0.03 to 4.7 m3 x 106. At Sanchi built on sloping terrains,
act as inundation tanks for upstream irrigation, while for downstream
irrigation dams built across deeper valleys in the eastern part.
Devrajpur shows evidence of the latter category with spillways and
clean gates.

Between 1998 and 2001 during a wide archaeological survey, dams

spread across 750 km2 around Sanchi, were recorded four distant
Buddhist sites recognized by Alexander Cunningham in the 19th
century which included Satdhara, Sonari, Morel Khurd and Andher.

31
The aim was to place the monuments within their archaeological
landscape, with religious changes taken place during the late centuries
BCE to other key processes such as urbanization, state-formation,
and agricultural innovation. About 35 Buddhist sites, 145 settlements,
17 irrigation works and numerous sculptures were recorded.

A study of surface residue, local present-day hydrology and ancient

pollen sequences, has led to many assumptions regarding the dams’
chronology and functions, usage of crops, and their relationship to
the urban at Vidisha and the history of Buddhism at Sanchi and
adjacent sites. A summary of the study observations is given here:

i) Following the chronology of the primary monument at Sanchi and

adjacent Buddhist sites, it is assumed that 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE
the first dam was constructed.

ii) Dams were built to provide irrigation, principally for rice cultivation
in view of the increased population.

iii) Their position within a broader archaeological landscape warrants

their being viewed as part of a cultural package that had accompanied
the spread of Buddhism, urbanization and the development of
centralized state polities during the late centuries BC; and

iv) Like the inter-site pattern in Sri Lanka, where the monastic
landlordism is found attested from c. 2nd century BC onwards, the
Sanchi dams were under a similar system of exchange between
Buddhist monks and local agricultural communities.

http://www.basas.org.uk/projects/sanchi.htm

32
1.6. Water Use and Management in Ancient Indian
Civilizations
Urban centres were usually planned near rivers or around the
coastal areas. The great and well planned cities had excellent
infrastructure facilities with arrangements made for public and private
baths, sewerage through underground drains built bricks precisely laid,
and an efficient water management system with numerous reservoirs
and wells. Under the remarkable drainage systems, drains from houses
were connected to the larger public drains.

The Indus Valley civilization, one of the earliest civilizations and

the first major settlements of the Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa civilizations,
were found along the Indus River and its tributary, the Ravi. The Indus
Valley Civilization, which flourished on the banks of the river Indus and
across parts of the western and northern India about 5,000 years ago,
had one of the most intricate urban water supply and sewage systems
in the world. The towns were well acquainted with hygiene and sanitation
as evident from the covered drains along the streets of the ruins at both
Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. One of the best known examples of this is
the ‘Great Bath’ at the site of Mohenjodaro. Explorations in the recent
decades have disclosed several sites along the dry bed of a huge river.

Evidences from the excavations at the Harappan Culture site of

Dholavira, in Gujarat, also indicate the existence of a complex system
for collecting and storing rainwater within the vicinity of several reservoirs,
and in part within a partially encircling moat that might have served as
a supportive mechanism. Dholavira lies in an area that presently receives
less than 160 cm of rainfall annually with a history of prolonged droughts.

The excavations at Inamgaon – a chalcolithic site in Maharashtra/

with three successive cultures dating back to 1600 to c.700 BC – reveal
the presence of a stone rubble and a mud embankment and a channel
suggesting that during the c.1400-1000 BC period, artificial irrigation
probably facilitated agriculture at this site (Dhavalikar 1988).

33
 For example, during the 4th century BC, Nanda dynasty kings (c
363-321 BC), built irrigation canals for carrying water from rivers to
agricultural tracts. Their successors, the Mauryan dynasty rulers (c.321-
185), built many more irrigation works for facilitating agriculture (besides
providing wells for public use alongside roads accompanied traveller’s
rest-houses).
In Naneghat, about 130 km off from Pune (in Western Ghats)
the oldest water harvesting systems has been found. There existed a
number of rock-cut tanks for supplying water to tradesmen who travelled
through this ancient trade route. In the form of rock-cut cisterns, ponds,
tanks and wells every fort in the area had water harvesting and storage
systems which were in use every day.
In Western Rajasthan houses were constructed with a rooftop
water harvesting system. The rainwater from these rooftops was directed
into underground tanks. Even today in all the forts, palaces and dwelling
houses of the region these systems are found in use. For the maintenance
of these structures and for the transportation of water to distant places
earthen pipes and tunnels, (placed underground) were used. In places
like Burhanpur (Madhya Pradesh), Golconda (Andhra Pradesh), Bijapur
in Karnataka, and Aurangabad in Maharashtra these systems are found
still functioning.

1.7. Water Management during various dynasties’

rule (Mauryans, Satavahanas, Guptas, Pallavas,
Cholas and Mughals)
The Mauryan Empire’s success is also seen in terms of its
extensive development of water resources through the construction of
several dams for irrigation. Kautilya’s Arthashastra gives a good account
of water management practices in purview of levying taxes from
cultivators which was based on the type of irrigation. The tax levied
varied across sources was 25 per cent of the produce in respect of
water drawn from natural resources, 20 per cent of tax for water drawn

34
manually and 25 per cent of tax for water drawn with the help of bullocks
and 33 per cent of tax for water diverted through channels. There were
special benefits given when cultivators intended to build or improve
irrigation facilities subject to certain specifications viz, 5 years for new
tanks and bunds, 4 years for renovation of old constructions and 3 years
for de-weeding. Privately owned water bodies like reservoirs, and tanks
were common with the owners being free to sell or lease them out.
They were also entitled to sell water in exchange for produce. These
water bodies were maintained by the villagers in the absence of the
owner. Violators were fined in cases like damage caused to neighbour’s
fields through water over flows, damage to gardens, parks, bunds etc,
sharing issues when high reach tank owners prevented low reach tank
owners from filling water, failure to maintain water bodies, misusing
water access, encroachment, misuse of water bodies meant for common
purposes and so on.

Brick and ring wells were introduced during 1st century BC to

2nd century BC by the Satavahanas. Similarly, lake and well irrigation
was developed during the Pandya, Cehra and Chola dynasties (1st to 3rd
century AD). During the Gupta period a lot of water resource
development took place (300-500 AD) and during the Pallava period,
(7th century AD) irrigation system was intensified and the during Chola
dynasty tank systems were developed, specifically tank cascades. The
Rajput dynasty (1000-1200 AD) largely progressed through irrigation
works in North India. During the medieval period, Mohammend bin
Tughlaq (1325-1351 AD) promoted rain water harvesting systems while
Shahjahan was known for the construction of canals.

The canals built during the Vijayanagar Empire (1336-1546 AD)

are in use even to this day and during the Bahamani kingdom, (1388-
1422 AD) canal irrigation was first introduced (see Box 6).

35
 Box 6 : Vijayanagar System of Canals and Tanks

Tungabhadra river which was the lifeline of the Vijayanagar kingdom

paved the way for the construction of several canals involving colossal
engineering skills. These canals fed cultivated areas within and beyond
the city and had advanced features. A majority of the population
depended on agriculture; plantations of coconut, areca and betel
were also common. The major canals constructed by the Vijayanagar
kings include the Raya Canal (King’s canal), Basavanna Canal (Nandi
or Bull Canal), Turthu Canal (Fast Canal), Anegundi Canal and the
Kamalapura Water Tank. Although most of the canals are old and
need further maintenance, they are still in use.

Name Canal Length Total area

in kms irrigated (in Ha)
Raya Canal 27.20 2,226.70
Basavanna Canal 16.00 1,240.48
Kalaghatta 7.200 237.25
Turtha 18.00 931.58
Anegundi 37.00 NA

The urban areas were provided water from private and community
tanks. Large tanks such as Bukkasamudram, Vyasasamudram,
Krishnarayasagara, Sadashivasagara, Maiviru Magada,
Kamalapurasagara, Rayavakaluve, Basavanakaluve were constructed.
The royal palaces enjoyed the most sophisticated water distribution
and recirculation systems. Water pipes were sealed with brick and
lime plaster. Within the royal area, a number of stone aqueducts
connecting around 20 wells and ponds are to be seen indicating the
engineering skills. The giant aqueduct on the north bank of
Tungabhadra at Virupapur Gadde is an outstanding example. Water
conservation and recirculation were given prominence.

Source: http://waterresources.kar.nic.in/irri_in_kar.htm

36
There were several indigenous architectural approaches to maintain
natural cooling in palaces using water, made it very comfortable
(Table 3).

Table 3: Devises used in Palaces

Palaces of the Mughals, Systems of copper pipes carrying water for

Rajputs, and other cooling terrace pavilions, channels flowing
ruling dynasties through royal chambers, fountains and
water-gardens, and under-water collection
tanks were extensively designed.
Amber Fort, Jaipur, There are an ascending chain of water-
Rajasthan and other lifting devices dating back to the 16th
medieval fortresses of century. These served to lift water from a
South Asia reservoir at the base of the fort to its very
peak, to the upper-most chambers of the
hilltop palaces.
Deegh palace, Entire palace is surrounded by water for
Bharatpur maintaining coolness
Mauryan dynasty Kautilya’s ‘Arthashastra’ makes a reference
to the cooling device that was manually
operated during the 400 BC.
Source: Hooja Rima, 2010

The reviews of traditional knowledge have highlighted several

aspects of significance that are relevant to the current context as well.
Perceiving water as a divine component has always played a major role
as it imbibes a sense of respect in the mindsets of people towards the
resource. The tradition and practices had inculcated a sense of discipline
and values towards the resource that a major source of life while
consciously reminding them of the need for protecting the resource for
future sustenance. Besides this, the judicious use of the resource is
obviously seen in the technological advancements made for sustainable
use. An in-depth knowledge and understanding of water resources are
visible in the varied documentations. In brief, a holistic approach towards
the management of water resources was evidently followed.

37
Section 2: Current Status of Water Supply
India’s average annual surface run-off generated by rainfall and
snowmelt is estimated at 1869 billion cubic meter (BCM). It is also
estimated that only 690 BCM (37%) of the surface water resources can
be mobilised as around 90 per cent of the annual flow of the Himalayan
rivers transpire in a brief period of four months and the potential to
capture such resources is complex, given the limited and suitable reservoir
sites. The average annual rainfall in India amounts to about 1170 mm
with vast variation in rainfall over time and space. Most of the rainfall
occurs in the monsoon season (June to September) necessitating the
maximum possible utilisation of surface runoff. Regional variations remain
extreme ranging from a low value of 100 mm in Western Rajasthan to
over 11000 mm in Meghalaya in North Eastern India (see Table 4).

Table 4: Land and Water Resources of India

Land and Water Resources Details

Geographical area 329 million ha
Flood Prone Area 40 million ha
Ultimate Irrigation Potential 140 million ha
Total Cultivable Land Area 184 million ha
Natural runoff (surface and Ground water) 1869 cubic km
Estimated utilisable surface water potential 690 cubic km
Ground water resource 432 cubic km
Available ground water resource for irrigation 361 cubic km
Net Utilisable Ground water resource for irrigation 325 cubic km

Source: Water Resources India, National Institute of Hydrology website

India’s rechargeable annual ground water potential has been assessed

at around 431 BCM in aggregate terms with 30 per cent of the ground
water potential being tapped for irrigation and domestic uses. The
regional situation varies with large parts of the country overexploiting
the water resources beyond their carrying capacity of their dynamic

38
recharge. Depleting ground water tables are more visibly prominent in
Rajasthan, Gujarat and most of Western Uttar Pradesh and all the Deccan
States.

Over time, the usage of both surface and ground water resources
has assumed alarming proportions resulting in water scarcity and limited
development options. India’s situation with respect to its water resources
has become increasingly precarious in view of their over exploitation
coupled with the increasing competing water demands across and within
sectors. Total annual demand for water estimated from 552 BCM in
1997 to 1050 by 2025. The population explosion has added immensely
to the problem of water scarcity as the difference in demand to the
projections made for 2025 amounts to 30% of the availability levels
made compared to time of India’s independence. (per capita availability
over 5000 cubic meter per year for 400 million population; 200 cubic
meter per year with 1 billion population in 2000; and with 1500 cubic
meter per year by 2025).

Although the water availability index includes only surface water,

ground water is an important source of water availability which supplies
80 per cent of water for domestic use in rural areas and about 50 per
cent of water for urban and industrial use. Ground water forms a
significant percentage of water supply for irrigation and as well. There
are more than 17,000 energized wells across the country supplying more
than 50 per cent of irrigated area.

Providing safe and quality drinking water has been a challenge

with a growing demand for water due to increasing urbanization,
economic development and an improvement in living standards. The
situation is more alarming in rural areas, where half of the population
does not have a ready access to proper sanitation and water supply
services. Water supply and sanitation sectors in India have been suffering
from inadequate levels of service, increasing demand-supply gaps,

39
deteriorating financial and technical performance. The availability of clean
water has become a scarce good. Water, which was once considered a
public good, is now considered a priced good. There are limitations to
capacities in terms of increasing water supply in relation to the projected
rise in water demand. The competing demands for water are also
continuously altering the opportunity cost of water across different
sectors.

Legal rights with respect to using water (ground) are still not
clear, while dealing with related issues appears ambiguous while fresh
water resources are shrinking; the issues in management of water have
become complex and contextual to a large extent. The adverse health
impacts, as a result of poor access to clean water and poor sanitation
facilities have been alarming. Accessibility to safe drinking water is a
problem that varies across regions while causing inequity and conflicts
between stakeholders. Although resource depletion is obvious, efforts
taken towards an efficient use, reuse are not able to meet the expected
requirements. Technical constraints add to the problem while the critical
crisis in respect of finance has manifested.

Misuse and encroachment of natural water bodies is a area of

concern. Pollution is causing contamination problems leading to
environmental and health risks. Lack of awareness regarding the
seriousness of the crisis among the public has led to wastage and
inefficient usage of water. Lack of trained personnel for scientific planning
and utilization of modern techniques have contributed to further
constraints with respect to efficient water management. Besides, Climate
change effects could add to sustainability issues as water related disasters,
with an increase in the frequency of floods and droughts, can result in
the imbalance use of water resources. It is also expected that Climate
change would further increase sea levels leading to salinity ingress in
ground water aquifers/surface waters besides causing increased floods
in coastal areas.

40
 Investments in water can be an engine for accelerating economic
growth, sustainable development, improved health and finally reduction
of poverty. In view of these facts, the Millennium Development Goal
(MDG) was to “Halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without
sustainable access to safe drinking water and sanitation”. In the context
of India, the government has committed itself to meeting the MDGs.
Lately, the focus has been on using resources effectively and efficiently,
while making way for transparency. It has been argued that there is a
need for critical sector reforms. Since independence, the major sources
of investment have been government agencies (Central, State and local
governments), and donor agencies. Initially, more funds were provided
for urban water supply, but since 1980s, funds for rural water and
sanitation are earmarked largely because of the focus on the
“International Decade for Water Supply and Sanitation”.

Water being a state subject, the role of the Central government

is limited to special schemes, hence, there is a huge financial pressure
on the State government. The Government has been addressing this as
a priority issue since the beginning of the of first five-year plan. Although
there have been constraints, the State government still provides
increasing budgetary allocations to the water supply and sanitation
sectors every year. However, the cost recovery and revenue generation
have remained inconsistent in relation to the government expenditure
and investment, while the financial returns from the sector are too meagre
to ensure sustainability.

2.1. Key Issues

The issues pertaining to water management are dealt in further
depth in this section. The first section described at length on the
traditional ways of water management in India, however this section
will mainly draw from Karnataka’s experiences as water is a state subject,

41
besides, challenges encountered and approaches adopted vary across
states. Hence, Karnataka is taken as an illustration to provide a better
picture on the water challenges at the state level.

2.1.1. Dependency on Groundwater - Depletion Evident

In view of the failure of municipal corporations to supply adequate
volume of water, the dependency on ground water is increasing.
Groundwater serves 85 per cent of the rural population’s drinking water
requirements and nearly half of the urban and industrial requirements.
For instance, in Karnataka, of the 208 Urban Local Bodies (ULB), 47 are
dependent on ground water sources. The private investment on bore
wells has increased tremendously with new upcoming urban areas. For
instance, the dependency on groundwater in Dharwad amounts to 30
per cent, Hubli 51 per cent, Belgaum 37 per cent, Bangalore 45 per cent
and Kolar depends entirely on ground water (Raju K.V. et.al, 2007).
With an intense dependency on groundwater, the sources are declining
very fast in the state with 72 taluks considered critical due to over
exploitation. Owing to over exploitation of groundwater, a number of
dug wells have dried up resulting in economic losses to farmers. Even
bore wells drilled up to 1000 feet have dried up in the dry areas. On the
other hand, the geologists of the Department of Mines and Geology
observe concluded that this has led to the scarcity of drinking water,
increased unit cost of wells, increased energy consumption, a drop in
the efficiency of pumps while at the same time productive lands have
become fallow (Reddy et.al, 2000).

A number of complex legal issues are involved with regard to the

integrated development and utilisation of and ground water, water rights
and people’s participation are considered. All ground water coming
under private property is fully under the control of the land owners.
Inadequate regulatory restrictions on the exercise of private property
rights in respect of ground water have resulted in excessive withdrawals
in many areas.

42
2.1.2. Declining Traditional Sources
The traditional sources of water include open dug wells, step
wells, tanks, ponds, lakes and other sources. In fact, Karnataka has
been in the forefront in respect of traditional water harvesting structures
with about 40,000 such structures existing even to this day (Agarwal
and Sunita, 1997). However, these traditional water sources have declined
over the years due to a to decline in the social values attached, inefficiency
of the government in tank management, financial crunch, poor
accountability, political interference, increased access to alternative
source of water, changed user expectations from the tanks owing to a
shift in emphasis on food production, the state’s emphasis on major and
minor irrigation and so on (Raju K V et.al, 2003). The traditional sources
are significantly concentrated in the western ghats and hilly areas, while
in the plain areas, the traditional water sources have dried up due to
less rainfall and an over extraction of ground water for agriculture and
industrial uses. Further, the traditional sources, such as tanks and ponds
have gradually got filled with silt, thus affecting the storage capacity of
these sources, which in turn indirectly affects ground water levels. A
ISEC study on Rural Water Supply (Raju, et.al, 2003) highlights the
present status of traditional sources, in that traditional sources have
either dried up completely or have been neglected mainly because piped
water supply has taken over their place. Similarly, negligence of tanks
has led to a poor recharging of ground water.

2.1.3. Inadequate and Unreliable Water Supply

An inadequate water supply service prevails in both rural and
urban areas. Surface water supply has been poorly managed due to
various inefficiencies in terms of supply duration, quantity supplied and
water demand pressure. For instance, in Karnataka, according to the
Karnataka Urban Water Supply and Drainage Board, the municipal
corporations are found unable to provide the recommended norm of

43
135 LPCD as prescribed in the state water policy with about 77 per cent
of 208 ULBs (i.e. 161 ULBs) accounting for an inadequate water supply.
The per capita of water supply in Bangalore city comes to about 115
LPCD, which is less than the norm of 150 - 200 LPCD, recommended by
Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering Organization
(CPHEEO). Apart from covering habitations for supply of an adequate
quantity of drinking water, it is essential to see whether the stipulated
norm of adequacy has been compiled with or not; and also whether the
water supply schemes initiated so far are functioning properly or not.
Generally, the claim of having covered the habitations with respect to
an adequate quantity of water supply appears to relate to the potential
distribution created under various water supply schemes rather than
the actual supply service provided to the villagers. The physical distance
involved in fetching the drinking water from far off sources in the rural
areas is another issue that needs a serious attention as sources situated
far off consumes a larger share of the productive time of households,
resulting in a loss of productivity, besides being a further burden on the
part of women and girl children.

2.1.4. Booming Water Markets

In view of the failure of water supply agencies in providing
adequate and safe drinking water, water markets have flourished.
Packaged drinking water produced by using high-tech water purifiers is
assumed to be a pure source of drinking water. In India, with an increasing
demand for clean drinking water, the numbers of bottled water
manufacturers has increased. The bottled water industry is estimated
to be a gigantic Rs 1,000 crore business with a growth rate of 40-50 per
cent annually. The water quality standards maintained by the packaged
drinking water companies is another issue that needs further probing.
The mushrooming of illegal companies is becoming increasingly a major
concern. Similarly private water tankers supply water to consumers

44
without adhering to regulations regarding quality control. In Bangalore
there are around 120 water tanker companies with 3500 tankers. In
addition, a large number of bore well drillers work informally. None of
the bore well drilling companies is found accountable to the number of
bore wells to be drilled, the extent of drilling, rules or regulations to be
followed in the process (Raju et.al, 2007). Based on various parameters,
a rough estimate arrived at in respect of Bagepalli taluk, Kolar district,
amounts to Rs.120.25 million per year just for drilling bore Wells (Raju,
et.al, 2005). However, ‘The Karnataka Groundwater (Regulation and
Control of Development and Management) bill 2011 brings new hope
with constitution of the Karnataka Groundwater Authority and also
mandates that permission has to be taken from the authority for drilling
a borewell in private properties.

2.1.5. Inefficient use – increase in Non revenue water

Lacunae associated with operation, maintenance and poor
distribution systems limit the availability of safe drinking water. Non
revenue water (NRW) is water that is ‘lost’ before it reaches the customer.
Losses can be real losses (leaks,) or apparent losses (theft or metering
inaccuracies). NRW although is referred to as Unaccounted for water
many a times, are not identical as revenue water includes authorized
unbilled consumption (for instance – firefighting, use in religious
institutions) but not included in Unaccounted for water. Although accurate
data is not available on non-revenue water, the estimates vary between
30-70 per cent in respect of most Urban Local Bodies (ULBs). The
implications of increased UFW are the reduced per capita availability of
water, an increase in supply cost, a decrease in revenue and a relatively
low efficiency of service. For instance, the UFW are estimated at 40 per
cent in Hubli-Dharwad and Belgaum. In Bangalore, a large proportion
of piped water is lost in transmission, mainly due to leakage across the
network of pipes, from distribution mains, service pipes to stand posts

45
(EMPRI, 2008). Of the total gross supply of 1,059 Million Liters’ per Day
(MLD), sourced primarily from Cauvery, only 550 MLD is billed while 508
MLD remains unaccounted for amounting to 48% of loss, 4th highest in
India. The unaccounted for water has increased from 16 per cent to 48
per cent between 1990 to 2009 even though the supply has increased
from 375 MLD to 1,059 MLD indicating the per capita availability for
domestic use at just 75 LPCD which is half of the World Health
Organization (WHO) stipulated requirement of 150 liters per capita per
day (LPCD). Like Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board, water
losses in other cities throughout Karnataka range between 35-40%
indicating the gravity of the situation. With respect to irrigation, poor
water use efficiency is more visible. Distribution and conveyance losses
are huge. The violations in respect of cropping patterns also lead to an
over exploitation of ground water resource (Raju K.V, 2004).

2.1.6. Quality Degradation

Although India has perhaps the best environmental regulations
pollution thrives and environmental degradation continues. Several
reasons have been attributed to the present scenario. The principal
sources of pollution include agricultural activities, industrial effluents,
urban settlements, mining activities and over exploitation of ground
water. It is a well-known fact that nearly 80 per cent of the population
is dependent on agriculture for livelihoods. An increased fertilizer and
pesticide usage has resulted in high levels of water contamination.
Besides, runoffs from agricultural fields have resulted in water logging
and salinization problems affecting irrigated areas and water quality.
Industries are one of the major sources of water pollution. One of the
important indicators of water quality is the impact on fish stock and
other aquatic forms of life. Fish kills are a serious issue resulting from
pollution, particularly industrial pollution. The issue of water quality
and the availability of fish have assumed greater significance as they

46
are directly related to the livelihoods. River quality faces a major threat
by some groups of people who illegally blast dynamite affecting water
quality and species (Raju K.V, 2007). Urban Settlements add to pollution
as Urban Local Bodies are not completely equipped with proper
infrastructure to manage underground drainage system and treatment
facilities for collecting and treating the municipal sewage. The lack of
Sewage Treatment Plants in urban areas pollutes rivers, agricultural fields,
open tanks and low lying areas. Besides, the newer forms of pollution
that have evolved with practices like immersion of idols of Ganesha and
Durga during festivals have added to contamination of water sources.
Traditionally, these idols were made of clay which was not harmful to
the environment. Currently, these idols are replaced by the materials
used by Plaster of Paris and chemical dyes. The impacts on flora, fauna
and health of the people are serious. Heavy metals like lead and chrome
get assimilated in the water and affect the heart, kidneys, liver and the
central nervous system.

Ground water contamination is a matter of serious concern. The

seepage of domestic, industrial sewage, agricultural runoffs and over
exploitation contaminates ground water quality. The Department of Mines
and Geology monitor ground water quality regularly in the state. Based
on the extent of contamination, the areas are classified into four
categories – most critical, critical, less critical and non-critically affected.
In most of the cities, ground water is not tested for its quality or one
time testing is practiced. There have been no regularized processes in
place for testing water quality in urban areas. For instance, in Kolar, the
ground water quality is critical with 97 per cent being non potable while
in Dharwad, 45 per cent is non-potable; similarly in Hubli 42 percent is
non-potable and in Belgaum 22 per cent is non-potable (ISEC Report,
2006). The North of Bangalore indicates high levels of nitrate
contamination.

47
2.1.7. Financial Issues
Financial issues in the form cost and time overruns have become
endemic and chronic while at the same time spill-over costs are increasing
with every plan. Financial returns are negligible because of a highly
subsidized pricing of water and substandard modernization. The returns
are not sufficient to cover costs of operation and maintenance. With an
increased expenditure for maintaining the system with worn out
networks, water management remains a problem. Water is under priced,
added to that a poor collection of charges add on. The funding pattern
for the water supply schemes and also the minimum water tariff levied
are uniform throughout Karnataka, though the amount remitted across
urban local bodies – Town Municipal Council, Taluk Panchayat, City
Municipal Council and Corporations varies. The tariff charges are fixed
between Rs. 40 to Rs. 45 as a flat charge in many towns. In the
Corporations, they charge Rs. 3 per kilolitre while Rs. 2.50 in the City
Municipal Corporations (Varghese and Miglani, 2008). Resistance for
increasing the tariff rates and poor institutional arrangements in cost
recovery are serious issues.

2.1.8. Technical Issues

Urban areas face a poor status of pipeline networks causing
distributional problems and equity issues. Huge investments have been
made to draw surface water from long distances though leakages lead
to huge quantities of wastage. Meters are installed but not maintained
properly; hence, charging is an issue. Rural areas also face operation
and maintenance problems reducing the efficiency of quality service.
Technical interventions are introduced without proper monitoring and
appropriateness which can have negative implications. For instance,
rainwater harvesting is made compulsory in Bangalore without studying
groundwater aquifer mapping with the result that rainwater harvested
and sewage are getting mixed up in some parts of the city. Besides,

48
violations of the process of installing structures have accentuated the
problem. In brief, it is important not to implement a blanket policy
across the issues but have to be studied in depth and appropriate policies
administered.

2.1.9. Data Inadequacies and Discrepancies

Accessing relevant State-level data regarding various components
is a major issue. Where some figures are available, they are not properly
disaggregated or classified. Adequate mechanisms for the collection
and compilation of data on a regular basis are not put in place in many
states. Moreover, information related to core functions provided by the
State finance commission and the state government concerned varies
by a wide margin in many States. Similarly, near to accurate data on
irrigation potential created and utilized is not available. Discrepancies
reported are attributed to multiple agencies collecting data with varied
methodologies leading to double counting errors as adequate checks
are not carried out.

Section 3: Future Perspectives

An overview of the water management scenario indicates marked
changes in the contexts and the approaches towards water management
over time and space. The previous sections have detailed out two wide-
ranging scenarios – (i) the ways in which water has been perceived in
ancient scriptures and traditional practices in addition to water
management practices prevalent in the ancient times. The ancient
scriptures and traditional practices and during the reign of various
dynasties provide a good scenario of water resources management.

(ii) Changes in water management in the current context highlighting

several issues that have evolved in due course of time with illustration
from Karnataka. One of the major causes seen is the reversal of

49
environmental quality supply-demand relationships in just a few years.
This is mainly due to economic growth accompanied by population
increases, over-exploitation and mismanagement of natural resources,
and urbanization and its cumulative effects are resulting in decreasing
the available supply of clean water. The current scenario represents a
crisis situation which needs to be addressed on a priority basis.

In the current context, a review of the government’s efforts in

implementing various programmes, policies adopted has shown
inadequate progress in providing sufficient quantity of potable water to
all persons. The available literature indicates that various initiatives/
approaches have shown signs of improvement, but the results have not
been satisfactory. As indicated earlier, it is in this context that a historical
review of ‘water resource management’ has been taken up with a view
to drawing some illustrations from the past and its relevance for future
water management options. Besides, the current options and suggestions
have also been added to this section as a way forward.

Strengthening Community Involvement and Awareness –

Community involvement in water resource management should be further
strengthened for sustainable management of water resources.
Institutional mechanisms for delegating responsibilities and powers to
the various water management bodies like the Water Users Associations,
Village Water Supply and Sanitation Committees would help a proper
management of resources. Water has to be charged for certain uses
and stakeholders so as to ensure conservation and efficiency.

Key lessons can be drawn from the traditional practices where

there are several pointers for involving people in water management. A
blend of traditional approaches with a combination of current
technological means can bring about good results. Awareness Creation

50
through mass media communication on a periodic basis would aid in the
dissemination of water related information. Targeted information
regarding facts and figures on the water situation and its implications
could be highlighted through organizing innovative and effective means
of communication. Religious and educational institutions could be
involved in promoting awareness regarding water use and conservation.
Clues can be taken from water festivals and rituals and altered to suit
present conditions in disseminating the significance of water. Similarly,
the approaches about traditional approaches are detailed out for inclusion.

Instilling Right Behaviour Patterns – There are several indicators

from the past that focused on the behavior patterns of the society during
the ancient times. It can be observed that the admiration and veneration
aided in terms of conservation, use, and protection of water resources
as these practices were infused as behavior patterns in society. The
respect for water through worship, prayers and religious beliefs helped
instill a sense of importance and value to ensure a proper use of water.
This respect for water also worked as a means against pollution.

Capturing the psyche of people to instill change – The masses

were and are ‘god fearing’ in general. This ‘nature’ of people was used
for creating a sense of moral responsibility among the general populace
to protect the environment besides the moral standards of the society
as well. For instance, there are several hymns that point to the fact
that, one should be engaged in good deeds in order to enjoy the benefits
of nature else they would face the wrath of nature in the form of floods
and droughts. An elegant hymn in the “Rudra” (from Yajurveda) says:
Namoe Rudrebhyaha yE Pruthivyaam yE antarikshe, ye Divi Yeshaam
annam vaatoe varsham ishavaha tebhyaha!) which explains thus, There
are some Gods called Rudras. Some of them exist on earth, some in
skies, and some in heavens. All of them punish sinners on earth. The
arrows they use to punish the sinners are food (deprivation of annam

51
causes hunger), air (winds, Vaata+Aavaranam=Vaataavaranam
indicating weather), and rains (low or excess varsham causing droughts
or floods). Ishu means arrow. The verse further states that we salute all
of them in all directions (east, south etc.) with our two hands folded for
protecting us (Rajagopala Aiyar, 1985).

Creating Awareness through practice – Rituals and practices were

one important means of communicating to the people the importance
of protecting all water resources. As mentioned earlier, there are several
rituals and practices that highlight the significance of water for purification
of the body and soul. Water festivals acted as mass means of
communicating and connecting to the cosmic forces.

Educating masses through Simple and Localized Practices – Simple

sayings, Proverbs related to water served as powerful means of simple
but effective means of educating the masses. These sayings and proverbs
as words of wisdom passed on through generations acted as informal
checks in protecting water and other natural resources. Community
participation in water management was made part of the system that
helped protect water resources and associated development. Technically
proven methods of water management remain functional even to this
day. Localized practices in the form of ‘shramadan’ where people
contribute in terms of labour to managing natural resources was a popular
way of protecting natural resources and promoting community
participation and a sense of belonging. Local technologies were evolved
in relevance to the context, hence were tailor made to the situation.
Besides these, several other technologies, simple and effective, were
shared with and passed on to the neighbouring communities. This was
widely practiced while managing ‘Tanks’ in rural areas. Similarly, the
medicinal uses of water were popularized through hymns and traditional
informal practices. All these aided in the sustainable management of
water resources. Further, wisdom regarding water management was
made an integral part of their culture and community responsibility.

52
 Recognition and endorsing benevolence – It was a common
practice among the wealthy to construct water bodies and was seen as
a benevolent act that a man could do to society which contributed to
the overall community welfare. These are endorsed in the popular
‘Tirukurals’ that, ‘The wealth of that man of eminent knowledge who
desires to exercise the benevolence approved of by the world, is like the
full waters of a city-tank. The wealth that wise and kind do make is like
water that fills a lake’. There were several such acts which were
popularized and implemented out of good will.

All these indicate a holistic understanding and perspectives in

managing water resources which made implementation simple. Even in
the current context, water resources management need to be addressed
in a holistic perspective and implemented in an integrated way considering
various and differing socio-economic and environmental requirements.
To ensure equity, priorities have to be set with informed decision making.
Given the current challenges, besides drawing lessons from the traditional
methods, there are other approaches which are relevant to address the
issue of sustainable water management.

Integrated Water Resource Management Approach -

Water management should be based on hydrological boundaries
considering river basin as a unit and addressed in an integrated water
resources management perspective. Basin authorities have to be
established for managing and regulating water resources. Preservation
and protection of all water bodies under a basin should be carried out in
a planned and holistic way. Environmental concerns should be given a
high priority including all aquatic species. River basin authorities should
also be responsible for collecting data and information on a regular
basis with respect to the basin from a social, economic and environmental
point of view. Regarding sharing and management of waters of
international rivers should be negotiated in consultative association with

53
riparian States while focusing on national interests besides establishing
adequate institutional arrangements at the Center for implementing
national and international agreements respectively.

Addressing Ground Water Issues - Ground water aquifers

have to be mapped which determine the status and quality of ground
water besides aiding in taking appropriate decisions on water conservation
strategies at appropriate locations. Watershed development and rain
water harvesting initiatives have to be adopted in a comprehensive way.
Inter-basin transfers of flood waters aid in recharging depleting ground
waters in water stressed areas. Legal dimensions of ground water
management need further streamlining for effective implementation.

Land and Water Use Linkages - Land utilization and water

use are interlinked; hence, appropriate measures should be taken to
evolve mechanisms to understand water demands across/within sectors
and ensure sustainable actions in land and water use management.
Loss of land during erosion should be avoided to prevent permanent
loss and damage while supportive studies on geo morphology and nutrient
loss should be taken up. Besides, encroachments should be curtailed
effectively as most of the water bodies are subject to misuse.

Tackling Water Quality - Water quality in both urban and rural

areas is an issue that needs an urgent intervention. Efforts should be
taken to ensure quality through preventing pollution and using
technological interventions at various levels and types to provide quality
water. Water quality is to be protected by penalizing polluters
appropriately. Strengthening of the processes within the existing systems
through accountability and transparency in place is called for. Traditional
methods of tackling the water quality issue can be popularized as they
are proven simple and effective practices that could be cost effective
and sustainable as well.

54
 Improving Water Use Efficiency – Demand-supply
management approach is replaced by the supply driven management,
but needs further strengthening in the processes adopted to improve
water use efficiency. Water resources need to be assessed and accounted
at periodic intervals for taking appropriate decisions on usage besides
coming up with innovative mechanisms for making an efficient use of
water. Contexts and issues are different in respect of both rural and
urban areas; however, efforts should be taken towards removing
disparities between the stipulations of water supply. Public–Private
partnership of water management may work out to be more feasible
given the vastness of interventions required and several success stories
have proven. Water-energy nexus needs to be addressed with
appropriate measures to avoid misuse and wasteful use of water.

Financing Water Management - Financial management should

be holistic from the view point of recovery of capital and operation and
maintenance costs to ensure proper maintenance and sustainability of
projects. Monitoring should be carried out at varied levels to avoid time
and cost over-runs. Efforts should be taken to ensure that there is no
gap between the potential created and the actual potential utilized. Water
is to be priced appropriately keeping varied needs and contexts in view.
Institutional mechanisms have to be developed for fixing water charges
by involving stakeholders and ensuring that water is not underpriced
but at the same time should meet the requirements of all.

Emphasis on appropriate Technical interventions – There

is large scope for reviving traditional practices in sustaining the simple
technical approaches that were followed. For instance, Reviving Tank
Management and involving communities has been initiated at large;
similar methods can be adopted in other sectors as well. Technical
interventions for water saving and efficient uses across sectors have to
be encouraged. Unaccounted for water should be reduced largely in

55
rural areas and more specifically in urban areas. Encouragement should
be given for taking up innovative practices in conservation, utilization
and management of water so as to make it context specific. Reuse and
recycled water should be appropriately streamlined for users to access
and adopted extensively. Incentives and disincentives should be provided
for appropriately using water and for violations, if any respectively.
Subsidies and incentives should be provided and made feasible for
adopting reuse and recycling mechanisms.

Dealing with Climate Change - Climate change is likely to

create extreme variations affecting livelihoods, health and infrastructure.
Micro level mitigation and coping mechanisms involving community
should be promoted. Identification, resettlement and rehabilitation issues
should be recognised and beneficiaries should be given proper protection
and benefits so as to help them abide by the resettlement and
rehabilitation policy.

Streamlining Data Insufficiencies and Inconsistencies -

It would be important to create a vigorous data collection mechanism
that will ensure accuracy of data. An accurate data base and information
are important for informed decision making. It is important that
Hydrological Data collection and compilation are done by a single agency
with a ready access made available. Common processes, procedures
and formats for establishing a good data base are also important.

Establishing Institutional Mechanisms – A Water Regulatory

Authority should be established at the state level to oversee all aspects
of water management – planning, monitoring, regulating and reviewing
performance. A separate wing for addressing conflicts and conflict
resolution mechanisms at the state and national levels should be
established. Although Water is a state subject, it is important to frame a
policy at the National level with a legal framework which the states
adhere to. A newly formulated National Water Policy 2012 is being

56
debated now at present throughout the country. Research and Training
need to be conducted periodically and in innovative ways for addressing
issues. Appropriate funding to respective states should be provided for
understanding the traditional ways of management and also international
approaches need to be followed for implementing the best of both the
approaches. Regular Training programmes are to be formulated and
promoted across various levels.

Concluding Remarks
It is important to understand that ‘water’ was not a scarce
resource in the ancient times as compared to the scarcity challenges
that we face in the current context. This makes it all the more relevant
to use water prudently and follow a holistic approach towards water
management as stressed by the water experts based on studies that
have captured various water scenarios. Besides other challenges, one
of the crucial challenges has been the ‘implementation’, given the
conflicting interventions and situations. Best practices have strongly
indicated the role of community in its success but up scaling has remained
an issue. In this context, several lessons that are highlighted from the
traditional perspectives on water management could also be used in the
current context. Similarly, practices during the various dynasties also
throw light on simple and popular technologies besides community
participation. In this context, it would be useful to develop an overall
framework for sustainable water management policies, monitoring and
progress tracking initiatives, detecting problems to suit customer
satisfaction and the user demand as well. These could be developed
into various focused frameworks in which water management issues
could be perceived, addressed and implemented in a phased manner.
All through the development of frameworks, it would be useful to
understand the traditional and historical perspectives on water
management and lessons that could be drawn for its appropriate use in

57
the current context. Specific case studies could be taken up which
involve a thorough review of these traditional practices and lessons drawn
thereof. The response to these could be developed by involving a wide
range of stakeholders and establish demands from these various sets of
stakeholders and demonstrate the benefits in respect of an effective
delivery. This would also aid in designing pricing strategies, creating
awareness and dissemination strategies, exploring and understanding
the existing processes and appropriate changes thereof.

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63
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