Engineering Properties of Rocks

Contents
1.0 Introduction :
2.0 Physical properties of rocks
3.0 Methods of determining Rock Properties
4.0 Geological characteristics of rocks
5.0 General characteristics of rocks
6.0 Modulus properties or Flexible strength or Elastic properties of rocks
7.0 Engineering uses of rocks
8.0 Conclusion

Objectives :
The aim of this lesson is to understand the important physical properties of rocks and their
determination, geological characteristics, general characteristics, modulus properties of rocks, building
stones and their occurrences. The role of a geotechnical engineer is also highlighted.

1.0 Introduction :
Engineering properties of rocks is a collective nomenclature which includes all such properties of rocks
that are relevant to engineering application after their extraction from natural beds or without extraction
i.e. insitu conditions.The first set include all those properties for which a rock must be tested for
selection as a material for construction such as a building stone, road stone or aggregate for concrete
making.The second set of the properties include the qualities of a natural bed rock as and where it
exists. That would determine its suitability or otherwise as a construction site for aproposed engineering
project.

Obviously, in both cases, the economy and safety of an engineering project are greatly dependent upon
the proper understanding and determination of theengineering properties of rocks.Engineering
properties of rock are controlled by the discontinuities within the rock mass and theinherent properties
of the intact rock. Therefore, engineering properties must account for the properties of the intact rock
and for the properties of the rock mass as a whole.

A combination of laboratory testing of small samples, empirical analysis, and field observations should
be employed to determine the requisite engineering properties. Rock properties can be divided into two
categories: intact rock properties and rock mass properties. Intact rock properties are determined from
laboratory tests on small samples typically obtained from coring, outcrops or exposures along existing
cuts. Common engineering properties typically obtained from laboratory tests include specific gravity,
point load strength, compressive strength, tensile strength, shear strength, modulus, and durability.

Rock mass properties are determined by visual examination and description of discontinuities within the
rock mass. It should follow the suggested methodology of the International Society of Rock Mechanics
(ISRM 1978), and how these discontinuities will affect the behavior of the rock mass when subjected to
the proposed construction.

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2.0 Physical properties of rocks:
In most of the engineering applications, rocks are used as building stones. A building stone may be
defined as a rock that can be safely used as a rough unit or as a properly cut and shaped (dressed) block
or slab or column or sheet in different situation in an engineering construction.The following physical
properties are considered to be important for a rock to be used as a building material.

2.1 Crushing Strength

It is also termed as compressive strength of a stone. It may be defined as maximum force expressed per
unit area which a stone can withstand. Any force beyond the compression strength will cause a failure of
the stone. Mathematically, compressive strength is expressed by simpler method as follows

Where Compressive strength, P= Load at failure, A = Area of cross section of stone under P
The determination of compressive strength of a building stone involves making standard test specimens
(which are either cubes of 5cm side or cylinders of length: diameter ratio of 2 or 2.5). These specimens
are then loaded gradually one at a time after placing on the base plate of a universal testing machine, till
the first crack appears in the specimen. Any further loading will crush the specimen.The compressive
strength determined in this way using the above relationship is called “unconfined or universal
compressive strength”. Because the test specimen has no lateral support or restraint.

When the compressive strength is tested by a method providing a lateral support , as by keeping the
specimen in a special cell filled with a liquid under pressure. The value obtained, then it is called as
confined or triaxial compressive strength.

The crushing strength of a rock depends on a number of factors, such as its

i. Mode of formation
ii. Composition
iii. Texture and structure
iv. Moisture content and
v .extent of weathering it has already suffered
Igneous rocksare crystalline rocks. They are compact and characterized by interlocking in texture and
uniform in structure. These rocks possess very high crushing strengths compared to sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks. In the sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, the presence of planes of weakness
along bedding planes, foliation and schistosity and cleavage, greatly affects the compressive strength,
both in direction and magnitude.

The sand stone may show a very low crushing strength when loaded parallel to bedding planes than
when loaded perpendicular to the same structure.Except for sandstone, quartzite and most other
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks are composed of clays, calcareous and hydrated silicate minerals
which are inherently weak is strength.

Crushing strengths of common types of building stones are generally higher than the loads that they are
supposed to withstand, in ordinary type of building constructions.

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The compressive strengths of some rocks and their range are as follows. They are expressed in Kg/cm2.
Dolerite=1500-3500, Basalt= 1500-3500, Quartzite=1500-300, Granite= 1000-2500, Marbles=700-
2000, Gneisses=500-2500, Sand Stone= 200-2500, Limestone= 200-2000.

During the last few years thousands of tests have been made to classify the rocks on the basis of uniaxial
compressive strength in to grades. The following classification proposed by Deere and Miller has been
found usefull.

Class Description Uniaxial compressive strength(Kg/cm2

A Very high strength More than 2240
B High strength 1120—2240
C Medium strength 500—1120
D Low strength 200—500
E Very low strength less than 200

2.2 Transverse strength:

It is defined as the capacity of the stones to withstand bending loads. Such loads are only rarely involved
in situations where stones are commonly used. But when a stone is intended for use as a beam or a lintel,
its transverse strength is determined as modulus of rupture using the following relationship.

R = Modulus of rupture; W = weight at which sample breaks; l= length of the specimen; b = width of
specimen; d = thickness of the specimen.
This property is determined practically by loading transversely a bar shaped test specimen generallyof
20cmsx8cmx8cm dimension and is supported at ends from below.
It has been found that in stone, the transverse strength is generally 1/20th to 1/10th of their compressive
strengths.

2.3 Shear Strength :

Shear strength is the resistance offered by a stone to shear stresses, which tends to move one part of a
specimen with respect to the other. It is obtained by using the relationship. Shear strength of a stone is
also not commonly determined except when the stone is to be used as a column

Where P = load at failure; A = area of cross section of the specimen.

It has been observed that shear strength of most common building stones ranges from 70 to 140 kg/cm2.
In laboratory testing, a bar shaped specimen is held with grip andis supported at ends below, is loaded
from above. Rupture occurs when the shear strength is exceeded.

2.4 Tensile Strength:

Tensile strength of a rock is related to its ability to withstand breakage. It happens after some level.
That level is its strength.It may be determined directly or indirectly. The tensile (pulling) strength that
has to be applied to a material to break it. It is measured as a force per unit area.The direct method
would require elaborate means to avoid bending while applying tensile forces by gripping the specimens
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at the ends. Since tensile stresses are seldom required accurately, an indirect method is commonly
applied.

The indirect method is calledthe Brazilian test. It consists of loading a test cylinder diametrically in
such a way that the applied loads would develop tensile rupturing along the diametrical plane of the
specimen.

Loads are gradually increased till the cylinder fractures. The load P, at rupture being thus known.
Transverse strength Ts is calculated by using the formula

D = diameter of the specimen; L = length of the specimen

2.5 Porosity :
The shape, size and nature of packing of the grains of a rock give rise to the property of porosity or
development of pore spaces within a rock. Numerically it is expressed as the ratio between the total
volume of pore spaces and the total volume of the rock sample. Porosity is commonly given in
percentage terms. Presence of interlocking crystals, angular grains of various sizes and abundant
cementing materials are responsible for low porosity of stones.
Conversely the rock will be highly porous it composed of spherical or rounded grains, (sandstone) or if
the cementing material is distributed unevenly or is of poor character.

Porosity is an important engineering property of rocks. It accounts for the fluid absorption value of the
stones in most cases and also that a higher porosity signifies a lesser density which generally means a
lesser compressive strength. Porosity values for a few common building stones. Granite-0.1 to 0.5%,
Basalt- 0.1 to 1%, Sandstone- 5 to 25%, Limestone- 5 to 20%, Marble- 0.5 to 2%, Quartzite- 0.1 to
0.5%,

2.6 Absorption Value:

It defines the capacity of a stone to absorb moisture when immersed in water for 72 hours or till it gets
full saturation.It is generally expressed in percentage terms of original dry weight of the mass. . It maybe
obtained from the relationship

Where Ws = weight at saturation; W0 = dry weight of the sample used.

2.7 Permeability:
It is the capacity of a rock to transmit water. Sand stones and limestones may show high values for
absorption or 10% or even more. Selection of such highly porous verities of these stones for use in
building construction, especially in most situations, would be greatly objectionable.
Presence of water within the pores not only decreases the strength of the rock but also makes the stones
very vulnerable to frost action, in cold and humid climatic conditions.

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2.8 Density :
It is defined as weight per unit volume of a substance.But in the case of rock it is not only the solid
mineral matter which wholly accounts for the total volume of a given specimen.A part of the rock may
comprise of pores or open spaces, which may be empty, partly filled or wholly filled with water.
Accordingly, three types of density may be distinguished in rocks. They are a)Dry density, b) bulk
density and c) saturated density.

1.Dry density: It is the weight per unit volume of an absolutely dried rock specimen, it includes the
volume of the pore spaces present in the rock.
2.Bulk density: It is the weight per unit volume of a rock sample with natural moisture content where
pores are only partially filled with water.
3.Saturated density: It is the density of the saturated rocks or weight per unit volume of a rock in which
all the pores are completely filled with water.
The fourth type is also recognized as true density. Itis the weight per unit volume of the mineral
matter(without pores and water) of which a rock s made up. The most engineering calculations, it is the
bulk density which is used frequently.
Bulk density values in gram/cubic cm for some common building stones are granite-2.7, basalt-2.9,
sandstone-2.6, and limestone-2.2 to 2.6.

2.9 Abrasive Resistance :

It is more a qualitative than a quantitative property. It may be broadly defined are the resistance which
a stone offers to rubbing action of one kind or another.Determination of this is of considerable
significance when stones are intended for use in situations where rubbing by natural or artificial causes
is involved as a routine.Example a) stones used in paving along roads, b) Facing stones in buildings of
arid region where strong sand laden winds are blown.These type of situations demand stones that have
not only high abrasive resistance but also of essentially uniform, composition. So that thewear is as
uniform as possible.

Stones composed of more than one mineral like granite may look quite appealing. In such cases, when
freshly used, but within short time, they may get pitted or disfigured because of unequal wear of the
different mineral components.

2.10 Frost and fire resistance

Many building stones show quick disintegration of building stones or rocks when used in situations
involving frost formation (excessive cold) or heating. Frost causes disintegration by expansion of water
on breezing within the rock pores.

In the case of fire, the unequal expansion in different mineral components and also at different depths
from surface inwards may cause disintegration. This effect becomes more pronounced when the rock is
first heated and then suddenly cooled by water by water. Heavy stones including granites crumble to
piecesunder such a treatment. It is easy to understand that rocks which are found porous and weak in
strength are easily deteriorated in cold humid climates by frost action. Limestone and sandstones fall in
this category. They show very poor frost resistance.

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Fire resistance is especially determined when the stone is intended for use around stoves, heating places
and in the wall of furnaces. Only compact and massive sandstones and quartzites suite reasonably well
in fire and heating places.

3.0 Methods of Determining and Rock Properties :

Subsurface rock properties are generally determined using one or more of the following methods:
• In-situ testing during the field exploration programme;
• Laboratory testing, and
• Back-analysis based on site performance data

3.0 In-Situ Field Testing :

The Geotechnical Engineers are expected to determine various soil and rock parameters under natural
in-place conditions. This type of testing is useful for projects, where obtaining representative samples
suitable for laboratory testing is difficult, such as those involving soft clays, loose sands and/or soils
below the water table.

Common in situ tests are performed in conventional drilled borings, whereas specialized tests require a
separate borehole or different insertion equipment. Field in situ borehole tests can be grouped into three
categories:
a)Correlation Tests
 Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
 Dynamic Penetration Test (DPT)

b)Strength and Deformation Tests

 Penetrometers, such as Cone Penetrometer Test (CPT) and Piezocone
 Penetrometer Test (PQS)
 Pressure meters (PMT), such as Menard, Self-Boring, and Dilatometer
 stress or Shear Devices, such as Vane Shear and Borehole Shear Tests

c)Permeability Tests
 Pump Tests and Slug Tests
 Water Pressure Tests
 Hydraulic Conductivity Tests
 Percolation Tests

3.2 Laboratory Testing of Rock :

Rock strength is measured by laboratory testing. Strengths are very different depending on the stress
field applied to the rock. All rocks and soils are very much stronger inpossessing compression strength
than in tensile strength.

The two common laboratory tests to determine the compressive strength of rock are:

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a)Uni-axial Unconfined Compression Test –In this method a cylindrical rock core is loaded axially
until it fails.
b)Tri-axial Confined Compression Test – In this method a cylindrical rock core is placed in a cell,
subjected to all around (confining) pressure by hydraulic oil acting through a thin impermeable
membrane, and loaded axially to failure.

There are a variety of testsused to determine the tensile strength of rock:

 Direct Pull Test - A cylindrical rock core sample is anchored at both ends and stretched.
 Brazilian Test - A relatively thin disk is load across the diameter until it splits.
 Beam Flexure Test - A thin slab of rock is loaded vertically when supported at three or four
points along its length.

3.3 Back-analysis based on site performance data:

Back-analysis is a quantitative approach to adjust soil or rock properties to match measureable site
performance. Back-analysis is a method used to determine engineering properties of soil or rock. It is
often used with geotechnical failures. When failures occur, back analysis can be used to model the
conditions, and loads which resulted in failure. Back-analysis can also be used in some situations where
failure has not occurred but the geotechnical performance can be quantified (e.g., deformations). Back-
analysis is a quantitative approach to adjust soil or rock properties to match measureable site
performance.

Most back-analyses in geotechnical engineering are based on methods that utilize field displacement
monitoring data. Following are the methods of back analysis.
 Back-Analysis of Slopes
 Back-Analysis of Soil Settlement Resulting from Changes in Loading
 Back-Analysis of Foundations
 Use of Numerical Modeling for Back-Analysis

4.0 Geological characteristics of rocks

4.1 Mineralogical composition :
Rocks are made up of smaller units of the minerals. Their properties depend upon the nature and
composition of these minerals. It has been observed that rocks composed chiefly of silica (SiO2)
especially in free form, are the strongest in all respects Quartzites are the strongest in all respects.Fresh
Quartzite, Sand Stone and granite are some of the examples.

Carbonate rocks show a wide variation in their properties. A particular deposit of these rocks has to be
tested by taking random representative samples before the stone is recommended for use in engineering
construction of any importance. Presence of some minerals even in small quantites is to be viewed with
caution while using in building stones. These minerals are mica, gypsum, sulphides, tremolite, flint and
chert and clays. These destroy the inherent strength of the rock.

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4.2 Texture and Structure:
Texture defines the size, shape and mutual relationship of the mineral compounds in a rock. Whereas
structure determines the development of large scale features in the rock mass as a whole. Rocks may be
coarse grained, medium grained or fine grained.
The fine grained equigranular textured rocks are better building stones compared to coarse grained and
inequigranular rocks. In the later cases different compounds often tend to behave as separate units under
the imposed loads and thereby reaction offered is of a complexes and certainly weaker character.

Structurally speaking features like bedding planes, foliations, cleavage, joints and flow structures which
might not be fully represented in small sized test specimens, but which may be present in rock masses
on a large scale, have to be given due considerations.

4.3 Resistance to weathering (Durability):

It is essentially a geological character of a stone that is commonly determined by its composition,
texture and structure on the one hand and the climate environment where the stone is ultimately used on
the other hand.

A stone may remain almost fresh and untarnished for 500 years or more when used in the interior of a
building. But the same stone used on the exterior might get pitted and weathered badly within 100
years.Good example is granite. Similarly, limestone used in building construction, in industrial
townships may weather badly and quickly due to reaction with sulphorous acid polluted air. Whereas the
same rock used only a little amount in temples and forts and historical buildings may last for centuries.
An engineer and especially a town planner has to bear in mind this fact that rocks also live and sensitive
to the environment in which they are placed.

Durability of a stone can be experimentally determined by subjecting the stone sample to disintegrating
action of Sodium sulphate. Test specimens generally of 5cm side cubes, are dried perfectly and weighed.
They are suspended in 14% solution of Sodium sulphate for 4 hours at 27 degree Celsius and then air
dried and oven dried at 105degree Celsius. The stone samples are subjected to 30 such cycles and lots of
weight determined which gives a measure of the durability of the rock. Greater the loss in weight after
these cycles, poorer is the durability of the stone.

5.0 General characteristics of rocks: In addition to these engineering and geological properties of
rocks, there are certain other characteristics that may add value or otherwise to them. They are a) cost, b)
colour.

5.1Cost: It is an important consideration similar to engineering properties or geological character.A

stone may be quite suitable for use in building construction on first two considerations, but still it may
not find use for the simple reason that it is uneconomical.Cost of a building stone depends upon its
availability, accessibility and workability. Good quality building stones are not available elsewhere.
Their transport from one place to another might be a very costly affair.The workability of a stone is
understood the ease in effort and economy with which it can be extracted from its place of occurrence

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and dressed to the desired dimensions and shapes. Harder and stronger rocks become costlieron these
accounts.

5.2 Color: Color is the property of appears and gets involved only where the stone is used in
construction exposed to public view.For stones to be used in foundations is dams or in situations where
they are ultimately to be given covering, color of a rock has no relevance in its selection.
In the case of residential or official building, it becomes a property of major importance. The color of a
rock is a geological character depending upon the type of rock and more precisely upon the composition
of rock. Eg. Granites are light coloured, Basalt are dark, and Sandstone are lighter shades.

6.0 Modulus properties or Flexible strength or Elastic properties of rocks

The elasticity of rocks indicates their deformation under loads. The deformation is recovered when loads
are removed. It is determined in accordance with Hook’s law which states that in elastic substances
stress is directly proportional to strain.

It is expressed by the relationship

Q/E=E
Where Q= stress, E= Strain, E= Modulus of elasticity, It is also termed as young’s modulus.
It is tested for rocks by loading test specimens usually a cylinder of L/D ratio 2, Under uniaxial
compression and sometimes tension.
The axial deformation i.e. change in parallel to stress direction is determined at the application of each
increment of load using strain gauges. This process of loading and determining the strain is continued
till the specimen actually breaks.
That is the ultimate limit up to which the specimen could be deformed. The limit up to which it remains
elastic i.e. recovers the original shape when the load is removed is reached slightly earlier.
Rocks arehighlyanisotropic so far as their elastic constants are concerned. They show all varieties
ranging from perfectly elastic to practically inelastic. This depends on their composition, texture and
structures.It is possible to broadly group the rocks into three categories, based on their Modulus of
elasticity.

6.1 Quasi elastic:

These are rocks in which the stress-strain relationship is expresses by almost a straight-line till the point
of failure. Such rocks include massive, denselypacked uniformly structured verities of igneous
sedimentary and metamorphic groups such as Syenites, Diorites,Dolerites, gabbros, basalts and
quartzites.Quasi elastic rocks show E values ranging from 6x10 to the power of 5 to 11x 10 to the power
of 5 kg/cm2.

6.2 Semi elastic Rocks:

Are coarse, grained slightly open packed with some porosity and very minor in any structure
discontinuities. The semi elastic rock show E value range between 4x10 to the power of 5 to 6x10 to the
power of 5 kg/cm2.

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Coarse grained igneous rocks like granites, some massive compact sediments like Sandstones and
dolomite may often show semi elastic properties. In this group the curve indicating the modulus of
elasticity. Such a characteristic that is slope tends to decrease with increasing loads.

6.3 Non elastic Rocks :

Are those in which stress strain relationship tends to break in two zones.A initial zone of steep slope
followed by a curve of least slope. These are open textured coarse grained and rich in structural
discontinuities.Values of E obtained with such rocks are commonly of the order of less than 4x10 to the
power of 5 kg/cm2.

7.0 Important Building stones

Any type of rock that satisfies the above considerations may be used as a building stone. Granites, Sand
stones,Limestones, Marbles and Quartzites and others like Dolerites,Syenites, Basalts and Gneisses etc.
are some of them are not available , because they do not possess all the requisite properties.
Let us see one by one…

7.1 Granites: These are the most commonly used building stones of all the igneous rocks.They
generally possess all the essential qualities of a good building stone showing very high crushing
strength, low absorption values, least porosity, interlocking texture, variety of appealing colors, and
susceptibility to perfect polish.
Indian occurrence: India has got good reserves of granite and granitic rocks. The archean group of
rocks of peninsular India are comprised chiefly of Gneisses and Granites

7.2 Sandstone: Massive sandstones consisting of closely interlocking and angular grains and free from
structural defects find extensive use of building stones. Ferruginous and calcareous varieties should not
be used for exterior work, especially in industrial towns. Argillaceous sandstones are generally weak in
character. Massive varieties with siliceous cement possess sufficient strength and are easily workable.

Indian occurrence: India has got immense reserves of Sandstones fit for construction purposes. The
most important supplies come from two important stratigraphical systems, namely the Vindhyan and
Gondwana systems. Vindhyan sandstones are fine grained in texture and available in abundance in a
variety of colours like white, cream and deep red and grey etc. They are easily quarried and
economically workable.
These stones are available in a large area of the country for over 350,000 sq.kms extending from Bihar
to Aravallis. Many buildings of Delhi, and Agra are built of these stones. No other rock formation of
India posseses such as assemblages of characters rendering it so eminently suitable for building or
architectural work.

The gondawana formations of India have also yielded very good quality of sandstones. The fine grained
sandstones of Cuttack( known as Athgarh sandstones) have been used most widely and famous temples
of Jaganathpuri are built of them.

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7.3 Lime stones: These sedimentary rocks are veryextensively used as building stones. It is not due to
their physical properties. It is due to the crushing strength. They may be weak showing values much
below 300 kg/cm2 or as strong as 1500 kg/cm2 or even more.A similar variation in other property like
absorption, specific gravity and porosity may be observed.

The use of limestones as facing stones even if they are sufficiently hard should be avoided in situations
where
a. The air is polluted with industrial gases
b. The air from sea can approach them easily.

The reason for first precaution is that sulphuric acid vapours contained in the industrial gases react with
calcium carbonate of limestone producing gypsum (calcium sulphate) crystals. This change involves an
increase in the volume and results in disintegration of the surface layer of the rock.Salt crystals, may be
formed from moist air from sea and cause dampness and disintegration of the stone.
Indian occurrence:Lime stones occur in many geological formations of this country. i. The cuddapah
system outcropping in Andhra, Chennai, Delhi and Chattisgarh, ii) The Bijawar, Kondalite and Aravalli
groups iii) TheVindhyan system of Madhya Pradesh, vi)The hill limestone, exposed at many places in
northern India.

7.4 Marbles: These are metamorphic rocks that are used for ordinary structural work as well as for
decorative purposes.
Marbles are varying intheir texture, color and composition. Their absorption value is generally below
1% and normally they possess sufficient crushing strength.
They have been extensively used as decorative stones and this is because of their susceptibility to
brilliant polish and beautiful colors.
Indian occurrence: Most important source of commercial marbles in the crystalline formations of
Rajasthan. i) Makrana in Jodhpur-white and pink, ii) Kharva in Ajmer – green and yellow, iii)
Kishengarh and Jaipur are famous for black and dense marbles.

7.5 Slate: It is another metamorphic rock, characterized by a perfect cleavage and because of this
property it does not find any use in building stones except for paving roofing purposes.

8.0 Conclusion :
 It is a well-known fact that rocks play a vital role in constructing the structures which are destined to
be strong, appealing and economical.
 All the factors which have been considered so far give a clear guideline for an engineer to choose the
right type of naturally occurring rocks or stones to be used to build such structures.
 By choosing all the properties judiciously in conjunction with one another, it is possible to adhere to
the safety regulations prescribed in building standards. A combination of laboratory testing of small
samples, empirical analysis and field observations should be employed to determine the requisite
engineering properties.
 Engineering properties of rocks are very essential properties to be determined in every project of
civil engineering, construction engineering and structural engineering.
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