Acc. Chem. Res.

2002, 35, 706-716

The Chemistry of Dimethyl Scheme 1. Methylation and Alkoxycarbonylation Using DMS, CH3I,
and COCl2
Carbonate
PIETRO TUNDO* AND MAURIZIO SELVA
Dipartimento di Scienze Ambientali, Università Ca’ Foscari,
Dorsoduro 2137-30123 Venezia, Italy
Received October 30, 2001 Scheme 2. Methylation and Methoxycarbonylation Using DMC

ABSTRACT
Dimethyl carbonate (DMC) is a versatile compound that represents
an attractive eco-friendly alternative to both methyl halides (or
dimethyl sulfate) and phosgene for methylation and carbonylation
processes, respectively. In fact, the reactivity of DMC is tunable: Scheme 3. Enichem Synthesis of DMC
at T ) 90 °C, methoxycarbonylations take place, whereas at higher
reaction temperatures, methylation reactions are observed with a
variety of nucleophiles. In the particular case of substrates sus-
ceptible to multiple alkylations (e.g., CH2-active compounds and processes by the design of innovative and environmentally
primary amines), DMC allows unprecedented selectivity toward
mono-C- and mono-N-methylation reactions. Nowadays produced benign chemical reactions. Green chemistry offers the tools
by a clean process, DMC possesses properties of nontoxicity and for this approach.1
biodegradability which makes it a true green reagent to use in Green organic syntheses must meet, if not all, at least
syntheses that prevent pollution at the source. Moreover, DMC- some of the following requirements: avoid waste,2 be
mediated methylations are catalytic reactions that use safe solids
(alkaline carbonates or zeolites), thereby avoiding the formation
atom-efficient,3 avoid the use and production of toxic and
of undesirable inorganic salts as byproducts. The reactivity of other dangerous chemicals, produce compounds that perform
carbonates is reported as well: higher homologues of DMC (i.e., better as well as existing ones and are biodegradable, avoid
diethyl and dibenzyl carbonate), are excellent mono-C- and mono- auxiliary substances (e.g., solvents) or use eco-compatible
N-alkylating agents, whereas asymmetrical methyl alkyl carbonates
solvents (water or dense CO2), reduce energy require-
(ROCO2Me with R g C3) undergo methylation processes with a
chemoselectivity up to 99%. ments, use renewable materials, and use catalysts rather
than stoichiometric reagents.4
To focus on the more specific area of the replacement
Introduction of harmful and undesirable compounds, a relevant case
In the past decade, the public dialogue has increasingly is exemplified by methyl halides (CH3X, X ) I, Br, Cl),
addressed the environmental impact of the chemical dimethyl sulfate (DMS), and phosgene (COCl2), reagents
substances, an issue fully recognized as a major concern. used for methylation and carbonylation reactions, respec-
As a consequence, this awareness is pushing governments tively. For instance, Scheme 1 shows the methylation of
toward more severe laws for environment safeguards, phenol by CH3X and DMS to give anisole, and the
which although beneficial, are becoming burdensome on alkoxycarbonylation of an alcohol by COCl2. These toxic
industry budgets. To overcome the problem at the source, and waste-producing reagents have a valuable green
the chemical industry must develop cleaner chemical alternative in dimethyl carbonate (DMC).
Since 1980, with the development of gas liquid-phase
transfer catalysis (GL-PTC) as a new continuous-flow
Pietro R. Tundo graduated from the University of Bologna (chemistry, 1969). He
was a professor at the University of Torino (assistant, 1972-1983; associate 1983-
method for organic syntheses,5 our group has had a long-
1986) and at the University of Messina (1986-1989). Since 1989, he has been a standing interest in the use of DMC as an environmentally
Professor of Organic Chemistry at Ca’ Foscari University of Venice. He was a friendly substitute for DMS and CH3X in methylation
Research Associate, Senior Research Associate at the University of College
reactions and for phosgene in methoxycarbonylation
Station (Texas, 1979-1981), Postdam (New York, 1989-1990), and Syracuse (New
York, 1991-1922). He is the founder and president of the interuniversity Consortium reactions (Scheme 2).
Chemistry for the Environment (INCA, 1993). He is chairman of the IUPAC Inter- Among the specific advantages of DMC, and of alkyl
divisional Subcommittee on Green Chemistry and a member of the OECD Issue carbonates in general, is that their building block is CO2,
Team for the Sustainable Chemistry Program. He is the author of ∼150 scientific
papers and 25 patents on synthetic and mechanistic organic chemistry. He is an environmentally benign compound, which does not
the sole author of the book Continuous Flow Methods in Organic Synthesis. cause emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in
the atmosphere.
Maurizio Selva was born in 1962 and earned his doctoral degree (Laurea, cum
laude) in industrial chemistry in 1989 at the University of Venice. In 1992, he was This Account reports on the reactivity of organic
appointed researcher and joined the Department of Environmental Science at carbonates as alkylating agents, with emphasis on the
the University of Venice, where he is currently working. His research interests lightest term of the series, DMC. Under both continuous-
are in the field of organic synthesis, focused in the setting-up of both continuous-
flow and batch methods for the performing of reactions with low environmental flow and batch conditions, DMC can react with a number
impact; in particular, with the use of (i) nontoxic dialkylcarbonates as selective of nucleophilic substrates, such as phenols, primary
mono-alkylating and alkoxycarbonylating agents, and (ii) dense CO2 as a solvent/ amines, sulfones, thiols, and methylene-active derivatives
reagent. He is also involved in the study of new chemical methods for the
degradation of halogenated aromatic pollutants. He is the author and co-author * Phone: (39) 041-234 8642. Fax: (39) 041-234 8620. E-mail: tundop@
of ∼50 scientific papers. unive.it.

706 ACCOUNTS OF CHEMICAL RESEARCH / VOL. 35, NO. 9, 2002 10.1021/ar010076f CCC: $22.00  2002 American Chemical Society
Published on Web 06/05/2002
 Dimethyl Carbonate Tundo and Selva

Table 1. Comparison between the Toxicological and Ecotoxicological Properties of DMC, Phosgene, and DMS
property DMC phosgene DMS
oral acute toxicity (rats) LD50 13.8 g/kg LD50 440 mg/kg
acute toxicity per contact (cavy) LD50 > 2.5 g/kg
acute toxicity per inhalation (rats) LC50 140 mg/L; (4 h) LC50 16 mg/m3; (75 min) LC50 1.5 mg/L (4 h)
mutagenic properties none mutagenic
irritating properties (rabbits, eyes, skin) none corrosive
biodegradability (OECD 301 C) > 90% (28 days) rapid hydrolysis rapid hydrolysis
acute toxicity (fish) (OECD 203) NOECa 1000 mg/L LC50 10-100 mg/L (96 h)
acute toxicity on aerobial bacteria EC50 > 1000 mg/L
of wastewaters (OECD 209)
a NOEC ) Concentration which does not produce any effect.

Table 2. Some Physical and Thermodynamic Scheme 4. Nucleophilic Substitution on DMC by BAC2 and BAL2
Properties of DMC Mechanisms
mp (°C) 4.6
bp (°C) 90.3
density (D204) 1.07
viscosity (µ20, cps) 0.625
flashing point (°C, O. C.) 21.7
dielectric constant (25) 3.087
dipole moment (µ, D) 0.91
∆H vap (kcal/kg) 88.2
solubility H2O (g/100 g) 13.9
azeotropical mixtures with water, alcohols,
hydrocarbons

of aryl and aroxy-acetic acids. The mechanistic and

synthetic aspects of these processes will be detailed.

1. Properties of DMC
Many of the properties of DMC make it a genuinely green
reagent, particularly if compared to conventional alkylat-
ing agents, such as methyl halides (CH3X) and dimethyl
sulfate (DMS) or to phosgene used as a methoxycarbo-
nylating reagent (Scheme 1).
1. First of all, DMC is a nontoxic compound.6 Since the
middle 1980s, in fact, it has no longer been produced from product. Under these conditions, DMC can replace phos-
phosgene, but rather by catalytic oxidative carbonylation gene. (ii) at higher temperatures (usually T ) 160 °C),
of methanol with oxygen through a process developed by DMC acts primarily as a methylating agent: a BAL2
Enichem (Italy)7 and UBE.8 In addition to improving (bimolecular, base-catalyzed, alkyl cleavage, nucleophilic
procedural safety, this method of producing DMC avoids substitution) mechanism predominates where the nu-
contamination from phosgene and eliminates the need cleophile attacks the methyl group of DMC.
to dispose of byproduct inorganic salts. Some of the Of the two, only the methylation reaction is irreversible,
toxicological properties of DMC and phosgene and DMS because the CH3OCO2H that is formed decomposes to
are compared in Table 1. methanol and CO2.
2. DMC is classified as a flammable liquid, smells like Since both methylation and methoxycarbonylation
methanol, and does not have irritating or mutagenic generate CH3O-, both reactions can be conducted in the
effects either by contact or inhalation.9 Therefore, it can presence of catalytic amounts of base. This avoids the
be handled safely without the special precautions required formation of unwanted inorganic salts as byproducts and
for the poisonous and mutagenic methyl halides and DMS the related disposal problems. In principle, the methanol
and the extremely toxic phosgene. Some physicochemical produced can be recycled for the production of DMC.11
properties of DMC are listed in Table 2. In contrast, methylation with methyl halides or DMS, and
3. DMC exhibits a versatile and tunable chemical carbonylation with phosgene generate stoichiometric
reactivity that depends on the experimental conditions. amounts of inorganic salts.
In the presence of a nucleophile (Y-), DMC can react
either as a methoxycarbonylating or as a methylating 2. Reaction Conditions
agent (Scheme 4).10 The development of a new eco-friendly process is often
Although there is not always a clear cutoff between the associated with advanced reaction technologies, an aspect
two pathways of Scheme 4, it is generally observed that that sometimes imposes a careful balance between the
(i) at the reflux temperature (T ) 90 °C), DMC acts environmentally benign character and the economic/
primarily as a methoxycarbonylating agent by a BAC2 safety feasibility of the process itself. The use of super-
(bimolecular, base-catalyzed, acyl cleavage, nucleophilic critical CO2 (scCO2) is an example: scCO2 is among the
substitution) mechanism where the nucleophile attacks most attractive green alternatives to replace conventional
the carbonyl carbon of DMC, giving the transesterification solvents, although its handling requires high-pressure
VOL. 35, NO. 9, 2002 / ACCOUNTS OF CHEMICAL RESEARCH 707
 Dimethyl Carbonate Tundo and Selva

operations (usually at P > 130 bar), which are energy-

consuming and potentially dangerous.12 This approach
becomes a green solution only when real chemical
benefits (higher selectivities, rates, yields) are achievable
in the supercritical fluid.
Also in the case of DMC, reaction conditions are not
apparently green: the methylating ability of DMC can be
exploited at a temperature >160 °C (over the boiling point
of DMC itself, 90 °C), which implies an autogenic pressure
(>3 bar) for batchwise processes. Such conditions, how-
ever, are not prohibitive, especially in industrial practice
where pressures up to 20-30 bar and temperatures up to
250 °C are not a concern.
Moreover, from the environmental standpoint, advan-
tages must be seen on the global balance: the DMC-
mediated alkylation reactions are much more safe than
any other alkylation method known with conventional
reagents. Not only the features of the reaction itself, but FIGURE 1. General mechanism of gas liquid-phase transfer catalysis
also the peculiarity of the reagent(s), the base (truly (GL-PTC).
catalytic) and the absence of wastes are key aspects.
Table 3. Reactions of DMC with Different
Discontinuous (batch) processes are carried out in Nucleophiles under GL-PTC Conditionsa
pressure vessels (autoclaves) where DMC is maintained
as a liquid by autogenous pressure. Instead, continuous-
flow (c.-f.) reactions at atmospheric pressure require that
both DMC and the reagent(s) in the vapor phase come
into contact with a catalytic bed, a constraint that has
spurred the development of new applications and alterna-
tive reaction engineering, namely, GL-PTC (gas-liquid-
phase transfer catalysis) and continuously fed stirred tank
reactor (CSTR).
Accordingly, under different conditions, DMC is used
as a methylating reagent for a variety of substrates:
phenols, thiols, thiophenols, aromatic amines, arylaceto-
a Conditions: GL-PTC; plug-flow reactor; catalyst, K CO coated
nitriles, arylacetoesters, aroxyacetonitriles, aroxyace- 2 3

toesters, alkylaryl sulfones, benzylaryl sulfones, and lac- with 0.5-5 mol % of PEG 6000; T ) 160-180 °C.
tones, either under continuous flow or in batch conditions.
2.1 Continuous Flow (c.-f.): Plug-Flow and CSTR and liquid phases. The methylated product is then con-
Reactors. Under GL-PTC conditions, a gaseous stream of densed and collected at the other end.
reagent and DMC flows over a catalytic bed usually Quantitative conversions are obtained from all the
composed of a porous inorganic material (usually corun- substrates listed in Table 3.4,16,17 Moreover, in the case of
dum in the form of a spherical extrudate of 1-3 mm of CH2-active compounds, the reaction proceeds with a
diameter), which acts as a support for both an inorganic monomethyl selectivity >99% (entries 4-5).
base (an alkaline carbonate) and a phase-transfer (PT) An example reaction is the methylation of phenol under
agent, such as phosphonium salts,13 crown ethers,14 and GL-PTC conditions (Figure 2).
poly(ethylene glycol)s (PEGs). These latter, in particular, In a typical experimental procedure, when a mixture
although less efficient than other PT agents, are desirable, of phenol (94 g, 1 mol) and DMC (2.0 mol) is made to
because they are thermally stable, nontoxic, and inexpen- flow over a 100-g catalytic bed composed of 95 wt % K2-
sive.15 CO3 g and 5 wt % PEG 6000 at 180 °C, pure anisole is
In a typical configuration, the c.-f. methylation reaction recovered with a 100% yield in 1 h (residence time ∼ 10
with DMC takes place in a plug-flow reactor made by a s).17a,b Pyrocatecol and hydroquinone can also be selec-
bed of K2CO3 coated with PEG 6000 (0.5-5% mol equiv) tively mono- or dialkylated under continuous flow condi-
and heated to 160-180 °C.5,16 A mixture of DMC and tions on a pilot plant scale.10
substrate (YH) is fed into the reactor where the base In Table 3, it should be noted, however, that hard
generates the reactive nucleophilic anion (Y-) from the alkoxide anions (RO-) react with DMC via a BAc2 mech-
substrate. The role of the PT agent is to complex the anism to yield exclusively transesterification products
alkaline metal cation, thereby increasing the basic strength (ROCO2Me) with no trace of methyl ethers (entry 3). Such
of the solid carbonate. As shown in the scheme of Figure a peculiar selectivity is presently under investigation.
1, the immobilized PT agent is in the liquid phase An alternative c.-f. methodology for DMC methylations,
throughout the reaction, and it allows the continuous was developed as well by using a continuously fed stirred
transfer of the products and reactants between the gas tank reactor (CSTR, Figure 3).18
708 ACCOUNTS OF CHEMICAL RESEARCH / VOL. 35, NO. 9, 2002
 Dimethyl Carbonate Tundo and Selva

FIGURE 2. C.-f. methylation of phenol in a plug-flow reactor under GL-PTC conditions. R, reagent’s reservoir; P, metering pump; T, thermostat;
C, condenser; P′, product store.
Scheme 5. Mono-C-methylation of Arylacetonitriles

Scheme 6. Mono-C-methylation of Alkylaryl Sulfones

Batch methylations with DMC can be performed on a

number of different substrates, and under such condi-
tions, the reaction mechanism can be conveniently in-
vestigated. In fact, the sampling of the reaction mixture
at different conversions and the identification of possible
intermediates (later in this Account) is easier with respect
to c.-f. processes. For compounds susceptible to multiple
methylation, the results are of special interest, since
methylation with DMC totally inhibits multiple substitu-
FIGURE 3. Schematic chart of a CSTR reactor for the O-methylation tion in both N- and C-alkylation for primary aromatic
of phenols with DMC. Liquid reagents are vaporized by contact with
amines and for CH2-active compounds, respectively.
the hot slurry (mechanically stirred), and bubbled through it. Reaction
takes place instantaneously and anisoles are picked up from the The most interesting and best-studied reaction, par-
vapor phase. ticularly in view of its selectivity, is the mono-C-methy-
lation of arylacetonitriles (Scheme 5).
In this configuration, the catalyst fills the reactor in the In the presence of a weak base (usually K2CO3), these
form of a liquid slurry of the PT agent (usually PEG 1000) compounds can be effectively mono-C-methylated with
and K2CO3, and it is kept at the desired temperature (160- an unprecedented selectivity of >99% at complete con-
200 °C) under vigorous stirring. The mixture of DMC and versions. For instance, when a mixture of PhCH2CN, DMC,
the reagent is vaporized by coming into contact with the and K2CO3 in a 1:20:2 molar ratio, respectively, was
catalytic bed. When a suitable feeding rate is chosen, the allowed to react at 180 °C for 3.75 h, 2-phenylpropionitrile
apparatus works under gradientless conditions: the com- was obtained in a 95% yield with a purity >99%.19 For
position of the mixture collected at the outlet is equal to comparison, in the same reaction run under PTC condi-
that present inside the reactor, and the reaction takes tions and using CH3I, the mono- to dimethyl derivative
place instantaneously while reagents bubble through the ratio never exceeded 2.4.20 The very high monomethyl
bed. At atmospheric pressure, different phenols are trans- selectivity has turned out to be very interesting for the
formed quantitatively into the corresponding anisoles with synthesis of precursors for antiinflammatory drugs. Some
a WHSV (weight hourly space velocity) up to 9.5 × 10-2 examples are listed in Table 5.
h-1.10 The reaction could run without interruption for at Similarly, in the presence of weak inorganic bases (K2-
least 2 weeks. Some results are listed in Table 4. CO3), the reactions of DMC with sulfones bearing R-me-
2.2 Batch Methylation Reactions with DMC. Under thylenic groups (RCH2SO2R′; R ) alkyl, Aryl; R′ ) aryl)
batch conditions, methylations with DMC must neces- afford the respective mono-C-methylated compounds
sarily be run in sealed autoclaves, given its boiling point [RCH(CH3)SO2R′] with >99% selectivity at complete con-
(90 °C) and the reaction temperature (>160 °C). versions (Scheme 6).21

Table 4. O-Methylation of Different Phenols (ArOH) with DMC in a CSTRa

ArOH, Ar T, °C flow rate, mL/h flow time, h substrate converted, g product, ArOMe, % WHSV × 100, gprod/gbed h
Ph 200 80 2.5 97.5 97 8.4
p-MeC6H4 160 80 4 128.0 98 9.5
a Reactions carried out over a catalytic bed of PEG 1000 (300 g) and K CO (6 g). Molar ratios: 1:1.05 for PhOH/DMC, and 1:1.5 for
2 3
p-MeC6H4OH/DMC. WHSV: grams of ArOMe obtained hourly per gram of catalyst.

VOL. 35, NO. 9, 2002 / ACCOUNTS OF CHEMICAL RESEARCH 709

 Dimethyl Carbonate Tundo and Selva

Table 5. Mono-C-methylation of Arylacetonitrilesa

X Ar conversion % selectivity in mono-C-methylation intermediate for
CN 4-isobutylphenyl 99 99 Ibuprofen
CN 3- carboxymethylphenyl 100 > 99 Ketoprofen
COOCH3 2-(6-methoxynaphthyl) 100 > 99 Naproxen
a Conditions: autoclave; substrate/DMC/K2CO3 ) 1:18:2 molar ratio; T ) 180-220 °C.

Scheme 7. Mono-N-methylation of Aromatic Amines

a Weight quotient between the catalyst and the amine. bThe percent selectivity is calculated using the expression {[ArNHMe] + [ArNMe2])} × 100.
c34% of PhN(Me)CO2Me was a byproduct.

Scheme 8. Mechanism of the Mono-C-methylation of CH2-Active Compounds (X ) CN, CO2CH3) with DMC

It is noteworthy that in the case of methyl sulfones Under the same conditions (batch or GL-PTC) dis-
(ArSO2Me), the reaction proceeds with the homologa- cussed for CH2-acidic compounds, primary aromatic
tion of the methyl to an i-propyl group; that is, the amines also react with DMC. In this case, although the
methylation is still highly selective toward the substitu- reaction selectively yields the mono-N-methylated amines
tion of only two of the methyl protons. Aside from the with no dimethylated byproducts, sizable amounts of
synthetic results, this observation is relevant from the methyl carbamates (ArNHCO2Me) are formed.10,17c Much
mechanistic viewpoint, as will be clarified in the discus- better results can be gathered in the presence of zeolites,
sion of Scheme 8. particularly alkali metal-exchanged Y and X faujasites.
710 ACCOUNTS OF CHEMICAL RESEARCH / VOL. 35, NO. 9, 2002
 Dimethyl Carbonate Tundo and Selva

FIGURE 5. Two adsorption sites for PhND2 in the NaY faujasite.

reaction; see later in this Account) whose identification

in the reaction mixture fails very often. In the case of
Figure 4, it is probably the presence of an o-Me substituent
that affects both the stability and reactivity of compound
c.
The pattern for the reaction mechanism is outlined in
Scheme 8.
Initially, the carbanion [ArCH(-)X] undergoes a meth-
oxycarbonylation reaction by an attack on the acyl carbon
FIGURE 4. The mono-C-methylation of o-tolylacetonitrile with DMC. of DMC (BAc2 mechanism). The resulting intermediate
Gas chromatograms refer to different reaction times: (a) o-CH3C6H4- [ArCH(CO2Me)X, (3)] reacts through its anion [ArC(-)-
CH2CN, (b) o-CH3C6H4CH(CH3)CN, (c) o-CH3C6H4CH(CO2Me)CN, and (CO2Me)X, (3-)] with the alkyl carbon of DMC to yield the
(d) o-CH3C6H4C(Me)(CO2Me)CN. corresponding methyl derivative [ArC(CH3)(CO2Me)X, (4);
These aluminosilicates possess pseudospherical cavities BAl2 mechanism]. Finally, compound 4 is subjected to a
(supercavities) of 11. 8 Å in diameter that can be accessed demethoxycarbonylation reaction to the final product
through channels whose size is 7.4 Å.22 [ArCH(CH3)X].
In the presence of these solid catalysts, different This mechanism also applies to other CH2-active
anilines, even deactivated by both electronic and steric compounds, such as derivatives of aroxyacetic acid and
effects, yield the corresponding mono-N-methyl deriva- benzylic sulfones, whose methylation reactions with DMC
tives [ArNHMe] with selectivities of 93-98% at conversions proceed through the corresponding methoxycarbonylated
up to 95% (Scheme 7). 23 and methyl methoxy carbonylated intermediates [WCH-
In summary, all the nucleophiles indicated up to now (CO2Me)X and WC(Me)(CO2Me)X; W ) ArO, X ) CN, CO2-
are efficiently methylated (and monomethylated where Me; W ) Ar, X ) SO2R].
applicable) with DMC, under both c.-f. and batch condi- In the particular case of methyl sulfones (ArSO2Me),
tions. the pathway of Scheme 8 also accounts for the above-
mentioned homologation of the methyl-to-i-propyl group.
In fact, once the methoxycarbonylated compound ArSO2-
3. Monomethyl Selectivity: The Reaction CH2CO2Me is formed, only two protons remain available
Mechanism for the further methylation step.
CH2-Acidic Compounds. The methylation of arylacetic To investigate in more depth the mechanism of Scheme
acid derivatives is chosen as a model reaction for the 8, a detailed kinetic analysis has been performed by
mechanistic discussion. Experimental evidence of DMC- choosing the methylation of phenylacetonitrile (2a) and
mediated alkylation of ArCH2X (X ) CN, CO2Me) with methyl phenylacetate (2b) with DMC as model reactions.24
DMC supports the hypothesis that the reaction does not Some general considerations are the following.
proceed through a SN2 displacement of the ArCH(-)X In the case of compound 2a, the rate-determining step
nucleophile on DMC (BAl2 mechanism).19a Rather, the of the overall transformation is the methoxycarbonylation
selectivity arises from consecutive reactions involving two reaction (step 2). The similarity of k-2 and k6 reveals that
intermediate species observed during the reaction: ArCH- both the starting reagent 2a and its methyl derivative 1a
(CO2Me)X (3) and ArC(CH3)(CO2Me)X (4). undergo demethoxycarbonylation reactions at comparable
As an example, Figure 4 depicts the outcome of rates, whereas the methylation step of the intermediate
the mono-C-methylation of o-tolylaceto nitrile with 4a is the fastest reaction. In particular, at 140 °C, the
DMC: the two compounds o-CH3C6H4CH(CO2Me)CN and pseudo-first-order rate constants of steps 6, 5, and the
o-CH3C6H4C(Me)(CO2Me)CN (shown as c and d) are the reverse of 2, namely k6, k5, and k-2, of Scheme 8 are 2.9 ×
reaction intermediates. 10-3, 7.9 × 10-3, and 2.7 × 10-3 min-1.25
In general, however, intermediates 3 are very reactive Overall, the comparison of the kinetic behavior of the
moieties (as confirmed by the kinetic investigation of the investigated steps reveals that the nonequilibrium me-
VOL. 35, NO. 9, 2002 / ACCOUNTS OF CHEMICAL RESEARCH 711
 Dimethyl Carbonate Tundo and Selva

Scheme 9. Demethoxycarbonylation (k2) vs Methylation (k5) for Scheme 10. N-Methyl Oxazolinones from Oximes
CH2-Active Compounds

Scheme 11. Mechanism for the Synthesis of N-Methyl Oxazolinones

from Oximes

thylation reaction is crucial in driving the overall process

to completion. In fact, the higher rate of step 5 allows both
the rapid consumption of 3a and the accumulation of 4a,
which serves as a reactant for step 6. In other words, both
equilibria 2 and 6 are controlled by irreversible reaction
vored by the presence of weakly acidic sites, such as the
5.
metal cations of the zeolites. On the whole, the selectivity
The mechanism shows the key action of the methoxy- in N-methylation reactions comes from a synergistic effect
carbonyl group that, by increasing the acidity of 3, acts of the dual reactivity of DMC and the acid-base properties
as a promoter, significantly accelerating step 5. of the zeolites along with the steric constraints of their
At a high temperature, it is known that the lack of cavities.
solvation may favor a BAl2 mechanism with respect a BAc2
one.26 In the case of DMC-mediated methylations, both
reaction pathways occur in a definite sequence, which 4. DMC as a Methoxycarbonylating Agent
accounts for the high monomethyl selectivity observed in As shown in Scheme 4, selective methoxycarbonylation
these reactions. The reasons for the promoting effect of reactions with DMC are usually performed at relatively
the -CO2Me group as well as the progression of BAc2/BAl2 low temperatures. However, we have reported some
mechanisms are still not completely understood. interesting examples of this reactivity at higher temper-
Finally, it should be noted that esters and nitriles in atures and dependent on the nucleophilicity of the
the demethoxycarbonylating step behave in a manner substrates. These will be discussed in the following
opposite to that in the methylating step. For nitriles, the section.
methylation rate predominates over methoxycarbonyla- 4.1 Oximes. At 180-190 °C and in the presence of a
tion; for esters, demethoxycarbonylation predominates weak base (usually K2CO3), ketoximes bearing an R-me-
(Scheme 9). thylene react with DMC to yield N-methyl oxazolinones
Amines. As for the mono-N-methyl selectivity observed (Scheme 10).28
in the reaction of primary amines with DMC, the experi- This reaction is general for both linear and cyclic
mental investigation supports a mechanism similar to that oximes, and it exemplifies a selective methoxycarbonyla-
reported in Scheme 8, though in this case, the zeolite cages tion reaction at a high temperature. In fact, the first step
assist the reactions.21 is the BAc2 attack of the oxygen atom on the DMC
In particular, it is assumed that the amine is adsorbed carbonyl. Then the reaction proceeds through a N-
in the zeolite pores: as an example, Figure 5 reports the methylation and a final [3,3]-sigmatropic rearrangement,-
adsorption sites described for the case of deuterated as shown in Scheme 11.
aniline.27 Although oximes are ambident nucleophiles, a neat
Two different sites are indicated: the first (Figure 5a) regioselectivity allows the formation of oxazolinones. The
is in the proximity of a cation Na+ which forms a π R effect, which is especially relevant for the substitution
complex with PhND2. The ion is the black dot perfectly of R2CdNO- anions at a carbonyl carbon,29 may offer a
centered in the aromatic ring of the aniline. In the second good explanation for the BAc2/BAl2 sequence (O-methoxy-
(Figure 5b), the amine is held by the interactions with the carbonylation and N-methylation reactions, respectively)
12 oxygen atoms that form the supercavity of the zeolite. in Scheme 11.
During the reaction, the oxygen atoms of the zeolite This reaction is also the first ever reported example of
framework act as basic sites and promote the formation a sigmatropic rearrangement involving DMC. Further
of a methyl carbamate (ArNHCO2Me). Because of its high evidence for this mechanism has been gathered by us
polarity, this compound is retained in the cage, where it from the comparison of the reactivity of C5-C7 cyclic
undergoes N-methylation to ArN(Me)CO2Me and, finally, oximes that is resumed in Scheme 12.
demethoxycarbonylation to the desired product (ArN- As can be seen, cyclohexanone- and cycloheptanone
HMe). In particular, the demethoxycarbonylation is fa- oximes give the cyclic rearranged products, whereas
712 ACCOUNTS OF CHEMICAL RESEARCH / VOL. 35, NO. 9, 2002
 Dimethyl Carbonate Tundo and Selva

Scheme 12. Reactivity of C5-C7 Cyclic Oximes Scheme 15. Reaction of Benzylic Ketones with DMC

Ar and R ) Ph and p-tolyl.

Scheme 16. Carbamation of Amines with DMC

Cat.: strong bases, Pb(II), alumina.

Scheme 17. Carbamation of Amines with DMC in the Presence of

CO2
Scheme 13. Reaction of N-Cyclohexylideneallylimine with DMC

overall process is mechanistically described as a retro-

Claisen condensation.
The reaction is even more general and applicable to
ketones bearing an R-methylene. Yields up to 90% of the
Scheme 14. r,ω-Diesters from Cyclic Aliphatic Ketones corresponding dimethyl esters are obtained in the case
of benzylic substrates (Scheme 15).
4.3 Amines. The carbamation of primary amines with
DMC is a known process, though only catalyzed reactions
proceed with good yields and selectivity (Scheme 16).33
Our group very recently reported that the reaction of
Scheme 17 when operating at 130-140 °C can proceed
efficiently (yields up to 83% in methyl carbamates) without
any catalyst in the presence of supercritical carbon dioxide
(scCO2) and at 90 bar.34 scCO2 plays a double role in this
reaction: (i) it acts as a catalyst in the formation of the
active nucleophiles (Scheme 17) and (ii) at a pressure over
90 bar, it inhibits the formation of N-methylated carbam-
ates [RN(Me)CO2Me], which are possible byproducts.

cyclopentanone oxime yields a complex reaction mixture 5. Other Organic Carbonates

with not even a trace of the corresponding oxazolinone. Higher homologues of dialkyl carbonates exhibit alkylat-
Since sigmatropic rearrangements proceed through a ing/carboxyalkylating reactivity and selectivity similar to
highly ordered transition state,30 the required geometry that of DMC. The main difference concerns the reaction
is perhaps not achieved when a more strained CdC bond rates, which as the alkyl chain of the carbonate increases,
is involved, as occurs in the rigid cyclopentene ring. undergo a neat decrease according to the steric expecta-
In addition, the reaction of allylimines with DMC give tions for nucleophilic displacements. An exception, of
rearranged products. As an example, N-cyclohexylidene- course, is dibenzyl carbonate, owing to the resonance
allylimine undergoes N-methylation by DMC followed by stabilizing effect of the benzyl group in the SN2 transition
an aza-Claisen rearrangement (Scheme 13).28 state. In line with this observation, benzylation, and more
4.2 Ketones. At a high temperature (>200 °C), a very specifically, mono-C- and mono-N-benzylation reactions,
attractive application of DMC as a methoxycarbonylating take place at rates comparable to that of the correspond-
agent is the reaction with alicyclic ketones. In particular, ing methylation processes (see Table 5).
cyclopentanone and cyclohexanone when reacted with 5.1 Dibenzyl Carbonate (DBnC). Because of the higher
DMC (or DEC) and a base (K2CO3) yield adipic and pimelic boiling point, DBnC allows much simpler conditions with
dimethyl (or diethyl) esters, respectively (Scheme 14).31 respect to DMC: reactions can be performed at atmo-
In fact, these diesters are of major industrial interest spheric pressure in normal glass apparatus. This fact,
as building blocks for nylon 6,6 and nylon 7,7 in the along with the peculiar high selectivity observed (at almost
production of polyesters and polyamides.32 However, their complete conversion) facilitates workup and separation
present synthesis raises an environmental concern. For of the mono-C-alkyl product. DBnC can be used to
instance, the oxidation of cyclohexanone by nitric acid (for benzylate phenylacetonitrile, benzyl phenylacetate, and
the preparation of adipic acid) accounts for >10% of the phenol, in refluxing DMF with a K2CO3 catalyst (Scheme
total yearly release of N2O, which is among the main gases 18).35 The mechanism is analogous to the one sketched
responsible for the greenhouse effect. out for DMC (Scheme 8) and involves consecutive car-
The reaction of Scheme 14 represents an eco-friendly boxybenzylation/benzylation steps.
alternative synthesis of R,ω-diesters which uses green 5.2 Mixed Organic Carbonates. Asymmetrical alkyl
reagents and, relevantly, has a 100% atom economy.3 The methyl carbonates of the general formula ROCO2CH3,36
VOL. 35, NO. 9, 2002 / ACCOUNTS OF CHEMICAL RESEARCH 713
 Dimethyl Carbonate Tundo and Selva

Scheme 18. Benzylation of Phenol and CH2-Active Compounds with DBzlC

Scheme 19. Methylation of Phenols with Mixed Organic Carbonates ceeds with a complete methyl chemoselectivity and, most
(ROCO2CH3) importantly, with a mono-N-methyl selectivity (90-97%)
comparable to that achievable with DMC. As for DMC,
selectivity arises from a synergistic effect of the reactivity
Table 6. Reactions of Phenol with Different Alkyl of the carbonate and the amphoteric properties of the
Methyl Carbonatesa zeolite. In this case, however, a preliminary kinetic
products (%) investigation has been performed using alkyl- and alkoxy-
entry R time (h)b PhOCH3 PhOR substituted anilines, and it allows some general conclu-
1 Et 15 90 10 sions.39 This analysis indicates that the reaction selectivity
2 n-Pr 17 95 5 toward methylated anilines (ArNHMe) does not depend
3 n-Bu 15 97 3 on the polarity of the reaction solvent (when used),
4 CH3O(CH2)2O(CH2)2 20 >99
5 Bn 5 84 16 whereas a key role is played by the size of the zeolite
6 allyl 21 83 17 cavities. In fact, as the bulkiness of the substituents grows,
a T ) 120 °C, phenol (3.3 mmol)/K CO ,/3 ) 1:1.1:5. DMF (30
2 3
selectivity drops as well, because the diffusion of bigger
mL). b Time for complete conversion of the substrate. molecules into the cavities is more and more difficult to
Table 7. O-Methylation of Different Phenols by
a point that it becomes forbidden. For instance, from
Methyl 2-(2-Methoxyethoxy)ethyl Carbonatea aniline to p-butylaniline, selectivity decreases from 99 to
entry Ar conversion (%) yield (%) b purity (%) 90%, accompanied by a decreased conversion from 100
1 Ph 100 81 >99
to 9% (at comparable reaction times). Even more impres-
2 p-MePh 100 79 >99 sive is the drop with 3,5-di-tert-butylaniline whose size
3 2-naphthyl 100 83 >99 cannot fit the zeolite pores and yields a 82% selectivity
a T )140 °C, substrate/K CO /MEC ) 1:1.1:5 triglyme (50 mL). with 9% conversion.
2 3
b Isolated yields of O-methylated derivatives.
These results represent the first ever reported evidence
of a strict cooperation between the steric requisites of the
can be conceived as selective methylating agents, since
faujasite catalyst and the peculiar reactivity of an asym-
their reactivity is discriminated by the structure and the
length of the alkyl chain R. In addition, it is the R group metrical carbonate in inducing simultaneously high meth-
that imparts a practical advantage to the synthetic pro- yl chemoselectivity and mono-N-methylselectivity for
cedure: if heavy enough, it raises the boiling point of the primary amines.
carbonate so that methylation reactions are allowed at
ambient pressure. This overcomes one of the major Concluding Remarks: The Green Context and
operative drawbacks of batch methylations with DMC, Future Directions
that is, the need for pressure vessels. This idea was
In 1912, Giacomo Ciamician, the founder of organic
recently developed by our group in the investigation of
photochemistry, wrote: “On arid lands there will spring
the O-methylation of phenols (Scheme 19).37
up industrial colonies without smoke and without smoke-
Some results are reported in Table 6. As can be seen,
stacks; forests of glass tubes will extend over the plains
asymmetrical carbonates afford highly chemoselective
and glass buildings will rise everywhere; inside of these
methylation reactions, providing that R has at least three
will take place the photochemical processes that hitherto
carbon atoms (R g n-C3, entries 2-4). Yet, in the case of
reactive benzyl or allyl termini, the O-alkylation (forming have been the guarded secret of the plants, but that will
PhOR) competes significantly with the formation of ani- have been mastered by human industry which will know
sole (entries 5-6). how to make them bear even more abundant fruit than
Most satisfactory results can be obtained with the use nature, for nature is not in a hurry but mankind is.”40
of 2-(2-methoxyethoxy)ethyl carbonate [CH3O(CH2)2O- These concepts that a century ago were the property
(CH2)2OCOOCH3, MEC, entry 4] which allows O-methyl of fervid imagination and fantasy of enlightened scientists
selectivity up to 99% for different phenols (Table 7). but blurred to most of the people are in the present days
More recently, the use of MEC has been reported by fully recognized and consciously encoded by green chem-
us also in the methylation of primary aromatic amines istry. In fact, this sentence has a striking match with the
(p-XC6H4NH2, X ) H, Cl, NO2).38 In the presence of a NaY principles of green chemistry.1 Particularly, it foreshadows
faujasite and at atmospheric pressure, the reaction pro- the rejection of polluting industry; the use of renewable
714 ACCOUNTS OF CHEMICAL RESEARCH / VOL. 35, NO. 9, 2002
 Dimethyl Carbonate Tundo and Selva

sources of energy, such as solar energy; and the need for (15) (a) Lee, D.; Chang, V. Oxidation of Hydrocarbons. 8. Use of
Dimethyl Polyethylene Glycol as a Phase-Transfer Agent for the
organic processes to mimic natural transformations. Oxidation of Alkenes by Potassium Permanganate. J. Org. Chem.
In this context, DMC and other dialkyl carbonates offer 1978, 43, 1532-1536. (b) Shirai, M.; Smod, J. Decarboxylation
powerful perspectives for the development of alkylation/ Reactions: Reactivity of a Free Carbonate Anion in Ethereal
Solvents. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1980, 102, 2863-2865.
carboxyalkylation methods having a low environmental (16) Tundo, P.; Selva, M. Simplify Gas-Liquid Phase Transfer Cataly-
impact. Moreover, these reactions are catalytic processes sis. Chemtech 1995, 25 (5), 31-35.
whose high selectivity allows minimization of the produc- (17) (a) Tundo, P.; Trotta, F.; Moraglio, G.; Ligorati, F. Continuous-
Flow Processes under Gas-Liquid Phase-Transfer Catalysis (GL-
tion of both waste and unwanted byproducts. PTC) Conditions: the Reaction of Dialkyl Carbonates with Phenols,
Much more than in any previous period, mankind is Alcohols, and Mercaptans. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 1988, 27, 1565-
living the binomial of “safeguarding the environment” and 1571. (b) Tundo, P.; Trotta, F.; Moraglio, G.; Ligorati, F. Gas-Liquid
Phase-Transfer Catalysis: A New Continuous-Flow Method in
“implementation of the quality of life” where chemistry Organic Synthesis. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 1989, 28, 881-890. (c)
is the key science and, particularly, investigations in the Tundo, P.; Trotta, F.; Moraglio, G. Selective and Continuous-flow
green chemistry area have to be a growing commitment Mono-Methylation of Arylacetonitriles with Dimethyl Carbonate
under Gas-Liquid Phase Transfer Catalysis. J. Chem. Soc., Perkin
for the chemical community. Trans. 1 1989, 1070-1071.
Educational programs in green chemistry that are (18) Bomben, A.; Selva, M.; Tundo, P.; Valli, L. A Continuous-Flow
O-Methylation of Phenols with Dimethylcarbonate in a CSTR
blossoming within IUPAC and other scientific organiza- system. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 1999, 38, 2075-2079.
tions are establishing a new basis for the communication (19) (a) Selva, M.; Marques, C. A.; Tundo, P. Selective Mono-methyl-
between chemical sciences and society. ation of Arylacetonitriles and Methyl Arylacetates by Dimethyl-
carbonate. J. Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans. 1 1994, 1323-1328. (b)
Loosen, P.; Tundo, P.; Selva, M. Process for the Alpha-Monoalkyl-
Murst (Ministry of University and Technological/Scientific ation of Arylacetonitriles, Arylacetoesters and Arylacetic Acids.
Research), INCA (Interuniversity Consortium “Chemistry for the U.S. Patent 5278533, 1994. (c) Tundo, P.; Selva, M. Selective
Environment”), University of Ca’ Foscari, and CNR (National Mono-Methylation of Arylacetonitriles and Methyl Arylacetates
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626; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1996; pp 81-
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